Engineering StudiesKiama High

Civil Structures

Gwilym Price

Teacher: Mr Ferguson

October/November 2012

Abstract

This report is an investigation into a Traffic sign located of the North Kiama Bypass, on the Princess Highway New South Wales. Section one is a detailed materials analysis on the traffic sign and its various components, giving specific detail. Section two consists of a mechanical analysis on the Traffic sign, showing the major forces acting upon the sign and giving worked equations for each force.

Many different sources were used for this investigation including: websites, books, and active Civil Engineers. An excursion was undertaken to the traffic sign site to retrieve measurements. The major conclusion of this investigation is that many materials are suitable for the job and there are many factors that come into play when choosing the material. In the case of the sign investigated in this report, steel support columns and aluminium facing was the most appropriate choice. The conclusion for the mechanical analysis section is that the sign has a huge margin of safety and was constructed correctly and within the safety requirements.

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Acknowledgements

Acknowledgements must firstly go out to my friend Jake Henderson for continually helping with field work without complaint, without his true dedication this project simply would not have been possible. My teacher Mr Ferguson must also be thanked for his helpful insight throughout the duration of this report; his help was greatly appreciated when I needed pointing in the right direction. Also Mr Earls must be thanked for his enthusiastic help when drafting the measurements, his help was sorely needed and given at the right time. William Price, Anwen Price and Sally Carney also deserve a mention for kindly giving up significant amounts of time to proof read and edit. This made the report formally correct and it was essential that it was as grammatically correct as possible, for that I dearly thank them.

My report would not have been possible without the help and cooperation of the above named people and I am very appreciative of their contributions.

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Table of Contents

Page No.

Title Page……………………………………………………….………………1Abstract…………………………………………………………………………2Acknowledgements………………………………………………………..3Table of Contents…………………………………………………………..4Nomenclature……………………………………………….……………….5Introductory Title Page………………………………….………………6Introduction………………………………………………….………………7Drawing……………………………………………………….……………….8Main Objectives (Aim)…………………………………….……………..9Historical Overview……………………………………….…..………..10Main Body: Section 1…………………………………………………12Materials Analysis……………………………………………………….12Sub-Section – 1: Support Columns and Arms………………...13Sub-Section – 2: Sign Facing………………………………………...19Future Materials………………………………………………………….23Main Body: Section 2…………………………………….....….…….24Mechanical Analysis…………………………………….…….………..24Sub-Section – 1: Momentary Forces………………..……………26Sub-Section – 2: Shearing Forces…………………..……………..28Sub-Section – 3: Gravitational Forces…………….….………….30Sub-Section – 4: Forces of Nature……………………….………..31Section Results……………………………………………………………33Conclusion…………………………………………………….…………..34References………………………………………………………….………35Appendices…………………………………………………………………36

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NomenclatureSymbols in order that they appear throughout the report.

kg/m 2 – Kilograms per metre per metre

MPa – Mega Pascals

Ksi – kip/square inch

Psi – pounds/square inch

mm – Millimetres

mm 2 – Square Millimetres

kg – Kilograms

M – Moments

F – Force

d – Distance

N – Newtons

Nm – Newtons per metre

ms -2 - Metres per second per second

m – Metres

km/h – Kilometres per hour

ms -1 – Metres per second.

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Traffic Sign on the Princess Highway section: North Kiama Bypass

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Introduction:This report has been constructed to examine the forces exerted upon a selected traffic sign. A materials analysis has also been undertaken which includes an insight into the metals and polymers used to construct the sign and well as the retro reflective material used on the sign printing. Included within this report are also alternatives and recommendations for improvements. Over the last century there has been a huge change in technology in the manufacturing of materials, which allowed for a large development in traffic signing. These developments have allowed for stronger, lighter and overall cheaper material. These historical developments will also be discussed in this report as knowing these changes are critical to improvements in the future.

This report is split up into two major sections: 1. Materials Analysis (Pages 12 – 22)2. Mechanical Analysis (Pages 23 – 32)

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Main Objectives (Aims)

The aims are to discuss and show research into traffic signs and research into the materials used to construct a selected traffic sign. It also aims to describe the mechanical properties given to the sign to allow it to withstand the forces being exerted upon it. I have gone to secondary resources on the internet and books to find out information about the above mentioned. Correspondence with the local Council and the local Transport Roads and Maritime Services department was undertaken. Hopefully after reading this report the reader will have a deeper understanding into the materials and mechanics that go into making an everyday structure that is usually not thought to be a civil structure from the general public perspective.

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Historical Overview

Street signs date back through history longer than any vehicle we see on the road today and date back to the times of the Roman Empire. Milestones were erected which gave direction or distance to a certain destination. It was not until the Middle Ages that intersections adapted the multidirectional sign, giving details to many cities rather than the capital of the country.

Figure 0.1 Figure 0.2

The modern street signs we see commonly today first came into existence in the late 1870s. These were designed for high or “ordinary” bicycles. These vehicles were powerful and fast, but most of all silent. They were erected by organisations dedicated to the sport of cycling, and they warned of potential hazards, such as sharp corners or unfriendly descents. These signs also included the standard distance and direction attributes. The introduction of automobiles meant that there was a requirement for more detailed signage, symbols, pictures, and colours started to become associated with specific requirements or rules. In Great Britain just after the turn of the 20th Century the Government issued four signs to be used nationally. These were simple shapes used as representations. In 1908 the International Road Congress created a set of four basic symbols which were to be used across Europe. It was not until after both World War I and World War II that traffic signage started to significantly increase. The system became much more advance and intricate and there were two main systems, the European system and the North American system, both interlinked at certain points and manipulated each others symbols to suit what was required.

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Sign materials started of being made of stone and wood, but the Industrial Revolution brought along cast iron. This could be painted and was used throughout the 18th and 19th Centuries. It was not until mid-way through the 20th Century that aluminium began to be popular. This was due to its lightweight and corrosive resistant properties. Most signs since 1945 have been manufactured from aluminium sheeting with adhesive plastic coatings or galvanised steel. At the same time retro-reflective material was starting to be developed. Before this glass reflectors were set into the letters and symbols.

Figure 0.3

The introduction of electronic signing has recently started to begin. These signs can change their message and symbol, depending upon many variables such as weather conditions, influx of traffic and possible road closures due to a collision. Many countries have now started to adapt these electronic signs into their Global Positioning Systems (GPS). This allows drivers to be updated to issues ahead of them and allow them to anticipate and act appropriately to the message displayed. These signals are transferred via FM radio wave, 3G cellular data or satellite digital transfers.

Figure 0.4

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Main Body: Section 1.

Materials Analysis

When choosing the materials needed to construct a traffic sign many factors need to be considered. The main consideration that needs to be looked at is the climate the sign will be placed in. The climate can alter the materials and the amounts of materials needed drastically as different forces will be applied and the weather conditions prevalent in the area such as rain, snow and ice and high temperatures. Another factor is where the materials are being manufactured and their cost. Generally cheaper options are the best but for some environments a more expensive material must be selected, as the conditions require specific properties. The materials used in the construct of street and traffic signs are uniform in most major countries such as Australia and North American Countries.

This section looks at all the different materials that could be used and are used to construct a traffic sign, and then also gives specific detail into the materials used on the traffic sign under investigation. This section should give the reader a good understanding into the materials used and why they are used. It is split into two sub-sections, sub-section – 1 covers the materials analysis for the support column while, sub-section – 2 covers the materials analysis for the sign facing.

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Sub-Section: 1 - Support Column and Arms

Support column and arms are the rods and pipes of metal used to “hold up” or support the object in place. They need to be strong and rigid, and many other specific properties are required. These properties are discussed in this Sub-section.

Support poles and arms have mostly been made from steel in present times. This type of steel is referred to as structural steel; most structural steels are made from carbon and iron as when mixed to the right weight percentage forms extremely strong and rigid material. A commonly used structural steel in traffic signage is carbon steel A53. A53 steel piping and tubing can be split into three different types with two separate grades. Most common types are A53 Type F Grade A, this type is formed through longitudinally furnace butt welded or continuous welding. A53 Type E Grades A and B are welded through the process of electric resistance welding. A53 Type S Grade A and B, do not require welding and is produced by hot working of the steel and often cold finishing. This type is not regularly used anymore and has been replaced with a stronger seamless carbon steel pipe. A53 has a specific gravity of roughly 7.85, which gives the material a density of approximately 7850 kg/m3 . A53 grade A has a minimum tensile yield strength of 205 MPa (30 ksi) and its minimum ultimate tensile strength is 330 MPa (48 ksi). A53 grade B has higher minimums in both of the above-mentioned subjects with a minimum tensile yield strength of 240 MPa (35 ksi) and a minimum Ultimate tensile strength of 415 MPa (60 ksi). Elongation for A-53 A steel is 19 to 25%, which is extremely good for its material class. Both Grade A and Grade B are used in traffic signage for the same type of support poles and arms, choosing between the two is usually determined by the price of each grade and where the steel is being sourced.

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Figure 1.0 sourced from: http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com

Figure 1.1

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Chemical Properties:

The chemical nature of this steel is what makes it such a desirable steel. A-53 A and A-53 B both can have additives mixed in to maximise different properties. In the standard A53 piping the common amounts of the elements are as follows: Carbon - 0.30%, Manganese - 1.20%, Sulphur- 0.045% & Phosphorus - 0.050%, Copper-0.40%, Nickel-0.40%, Chrominum-0.40%, Molybdenum-0.15%, Vanadium-0.08%.

Figure 1.2

Manganese plays an important roll in the production stage of A-53. Manganese has an efficient deoxidizing property, its hardening ability and being easily alloyed. It will also improve the steel’s workability at higher temperatures as it creates a high melting sulfide; this is necessary when sulphur is used in the steel as it prevents a build up of liquid iron sulphide and the grain boundaries. Sulphur alone in a steel alloy is disadvantageous and creates a brittle structure, however when coupled with Manganese creates a hard structure, which increases its machining properties. The inclusion of Phosphorous is mainly for the fluidity of the steel, when being heat moulded, only a very small percentage is needed to create a difference. Other than that purpose Phosphorous is generally left out. Copper is an essential element when making street signs, its corrosive resistance property is greatly import as the street sign is expected to last many years under all sorts of weather conditions. Nickel also helps in improve the corrosion resistance, but it also improves the toughness of the steel and its impact resistance. Impact resistance is an important property when the sign is left on the side of a road with vehicles driving past at high speeds could easily throw rocks and other debris into the sign face. Chromium too has an impact on the corrosion resistance but it also, when combined with the carbon in the steel,

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improves the wear resistance in the steel, a highly important feature for structural steel. Molybdenum’s inclusion is due to its ability to increase its hardness and strength at raised temperatures; a crucial property to have in a street sign experiences prolonged periods of heat. Vanadium improves the elastic strength of the steel with little effect on the signs ductility.

Microstructure

A-53 Structural steel is Pearlitic steel; this is due to its low carbon content and the nature in which it is processed. Pearlite is a microstructure composed of alternating layers of alpha-ferrite (88 wt%) and cementite (12%).

Figure 1.3 Figure 1.4

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Shape of Piping

The shaping of the support piping used is very important in given it strength from the forces acting upon it. Structural steel comes in many shapes and has a common 5, this are displayed in the Figure below. The Traffic sign under investigation has Rectangular Hollow Sections (RHS, which is part of the HSS family) for both its support pole and support rods. This shape allows for a good strength to weight ratio and strength to material ratio.

Figure 1.5

Rectangular Hollow Sections, are ideal for structural support systems such as the one used in the particular traffic sign as it has a large cross sectional area in comparison to the others. This larger cross sectional area results in a greater surface area in contact with the ground and securing system.

Figure above sourced from: Tim Wilkinson’s (BSc BE MA) Report on TESTS OF COLD-FORMED RECTANGULAR HOLLOW SECTION PORTAL FRAMES

This graph shows the relation between a momentary force applied to different sizes of RHS and the curvature it receives from constant momentary force exertion.

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This image shows the shape and size of the support pole of the traffic sign being investigated. Its dimensions are: 140mm by 250mm, giving it a total cross sectional area of 35000mm2 . This will be readdressed later in the mechanical analysis section.

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Sub-Section: 2 - Sign Facing

The sign facing is the part of the traffic sign that displays the message to the public and is used to alert the drivers of up coming conditions and factors on the road. Colour, weight, visibility and size are some of the major issues needing to be addressed when designing and constructing a sign face. These factors will be discussed in this section.

All traffic sign faces generally consist of three main sections: - A blank

- Background sheeting - Sign Copy

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BlanksBlanks are usually made from basic materials such as plywood; aluminium and the alloy steel are also used regularly in the construction. These blanks act as the frame working for the actually signage. Each of these materials mentioned above have different manufacturing properties and service properties. Each has advantages and disadvantages to them, but all are considered an acceptable choice for given circumstances. Plywood is normally selected, as it is comparatively cheap to metals and alloys. It has satisfactory strength properties, but its porous structure makes it susceptible to damage from rain and other extremities the weather throws at it. Aluminium is picked mainly for its lightweight material and its corrosive resistance, which allows for smaller and cheaper bolting and the shearing forces exerted on the bolts would not be as great. (This is all discussed in the Mechanical Analysis section later in the report.) The negative aspect of having this lightweight material is that the structure needs to have further reinforcing. Also aluminium is the most expensive out of the choices given above but will not corrode easily. This issue with corroding is often experienced when using carbon steel; this problem is usually rectified by applying a thick coat of zinc (galvanisation). From an economics point of view steel is a far better choice than the aluminium blanks. Steels strength properties are also the best out of the three and require no reinforcement.

The sign under investigation uses an aluminium blank plate. The grade of aluminium is known as 5052-H38. This has been selected to minimise the weight of the sign face. The corrosive resistant properties of aluminium give it an edge over steel. As Kiama is a coastal region it is essential with the sea breeze that the materials can withstand the conditions. With Dimensions of 2840mm by 4500mm (Area of 12780000mm2 ) the mass of the face is 103.12kgs. This is half the weight of using standard sheet steel, making aluminium a better choice.

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Figure 1.6

This table shows the characteristics of the important physical properties when choosing a material.

Figure 1.7

Annealing and hot-working are the two main ways of manufacturing this aluminium.

Background sheeting and sign copy:Gwilym Price Engineering 2012 Page 21

In modern times the background sheeting and letters and symbols used in the sign copy have been manufactured from retro-reflective sheeting. Retro-reflective material is a combination of small glass bead-like shapes and micro-prisms which are set into a plastic face which has a good degree of flexibility. Retro-reflective sheeting is used for its reflective properties and how it reflects the light shone at it. This image shows why this reflective style is most efficient for traffic.A selection of colours can be chosen for the sign, which will reflect back that colour at the driver. Dyes are used to alter the colour to fit its purpose. Colours are used in street signage because it is easier for the drivers to associate an action with a colour, rather than having to read a sign. Reading the sign would result in drivers not paying attention to the road and it becoming a hazard. For example, every driver recognises that a red sign, is most likely going to be a stop sign and can view that from a greater distance then if reading the sign was necessary. The retro-reflective material used on the sign under investigation is 3M Scotchlite. All retro-reflective properties can be viewed in Appendices.

Future MaterialsGwilym Price Engineering 2012 Page 22

Materials used for structure purposes are constantly in development, by the time this report is completed the future materials discussed will most likely be present day materials.

The most ‘talked about’ and anticipated material being tested heavily on currently is carbon fibre. Carbon-fibre-reinforced polymer is an extremely strong polymer. It is a vey lightweight material, this polymer is mostly epoxy, but also can have additives such as polyester, vinyl ester or nylon. Aluminium and/or glass fibres and added occasionally when used in composite materials. The main reason why this polymer is so popular in the structural industry is due to its lightweight properties and mechanical strength. Very few materials currently have properties as good as these. The main reason why it is not a main material used in construction currently is due to the high cost of manufacturing. In the next decade the price is predicted to drop considerably and a rollout of Carbon Fibre materials will begin. But until that day occurs, materials such as steel and aluminium do a more than satisfactory job.

Figure 1.8 Figure 1.9

A more distant future material is carbon-nano tubing. Carbon Nanotubes are cylindrical in shape and are made up of only arrays of carbon atoms. They have extraordinary thermal conductivity and mechanical and electrical properties. They have an extremely remarkable weight to strength ratio, and this is what makes it such a desirable building product. Although it is still in very early stages of development, I am certain that it will become an essential building material within the next century.

Figure1.10

Main Body: Section 2.Gwilym Price Engineering 2012 Page 23

Mechanical Analysis

Section 2 involves the mechanical analysis of the traffic sign the forces applied will be discussed and calculated throughout this section. This should give the reader a comprehensive understanding into the forces being applied to this particular sign and how they can carry out the same investigation on other similar structures.

Mechanical Analysis is the analysis of the mechanics of a structure, machine, and basically anything being analysed. The mechanics of the structure under analysis involved the forces applied on the structure, both internal and external forces.

Mechanical analysis is necessary for many reasons. When coupled with material analysis it can help decide which materials are most appropriate for the job needed. It also determines what amount of material is needed, what types of support restraints are required and where the structure will be placed. This analysis of forces is crucial when calculating safety factors and margins of safety of the structure. Without mechanical analysis every structure, building and machine would not operate or be able to support its weight.

The forces being applied to the investigated traffic sign consist of many components and are being exerted on multi areas of the sign and from many different angles. For example the sign has Shearing Forces, Momentary Forces, Gravitational Forces and forces of nature (e.g. the wind pressure on the face of the sign). All of these forces can and have been calculated in this report.

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This diagram above shows all the major forces acting upon the Traffic sign, all of these forces are investigated and analyzed within this section.

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Sub-Section: 1 – Momentary Forces acting around the Base of Support Column

Momentary Forces are the forces that cause an object of structure to undergo and circular motion. This force is a direct influence of the acceleration due to gravity (9.81ms/s). We can calculate this force or forces by using this simple formula:

∑ M + = (F x d)

When we calculate these forces we use the fact that the structure is in equilibrium, still means all of the forces being applied and exerted from the sign and equal. We can therefore express this with the formula:

∑ M + = 0

0 = (F1 x d1) – (F2 x d2)

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Sub-Section: 2 – Shearing force of sign face on the Bolts.

A shearing force is a force that involves the application of a force across a material. If the force becomes great enough structural failure will occur at a point along the span. Shear failure gives the material an appearance that looks like it has been cut in two by scissors. Failure of this type can have detrimental affects, and if these forces are not taken into account safety can be at risk. A large margin of safety is used in all force mechanisms especially shearing forces. Calculating the exact force affect is extremely important and we can determine the forces applied with the following simple formula:

(W x T) = Shear Force n

Where: W = LoadT = Spann = Number of support points.

The shearing force being applied to the traffic sign is directly acting upon the bolts of the support arms. This force is due to the weight of the sign face. We can simply calculate the shear force acting upon these bolts by subbing in our data into the formula provided above.

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Sub-Section – 3: Gravitational forces acting upon sign face.

Firstly to understand how the gravitational forces act upon the traffic sign, we need to understand gravity in itself. Gravity is a force of acceleration that acts upon anything with mass. This force is what gives us a true weight of any object. Gravity on average around earth is 9.81m s-2. In engineering terms we use the figure 10.0m s-2, this making addition and calculations easier and also gives us an extra margin of safety. But for the purpose of the experiment acceleration due to gravity will be given as an exact.

Gravity gives us weight, weight is a force. In particular: The weight of an object is the force acting on it due to a gravitational field. We can easily calculate weight forces by using Newton’s 2nd law of gravity. It is as follows:

F = MA = Mg

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Sub-Section – 4: The Forces of Nature (Wind) Acting upon Sign Face.

When considering all the forces acting upon a structure before actually building it, the forces of nature play a major roll, in position, what way it faces, what material is used, how much material is used, what shape the material is and the overall sign of the structure. This consideration is very important in the design process of street signs, as they are subject to abuse from the wind 24 hours a day 365 days a year.

These forces can be easily measured by using the formula stating above in sub-section – 3. We must test these forces with different wind speeds and determine a maximum wind speed threshold. This can easily be done and the maximum force for each bolt at the base of the support column has already been calculated in sub-section – 1.

Data was collected from:

http://wind.willyweather.com.au/nsw/illawarra/kiama.html

This website gave the average speeds of the Kiama region for 2012 including the maximums, this was incorporated into the equations to produce results that were relevant to the traffic sign under investigation. This website is reliable as it received credibility from the Bureau of Meteorology.

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Section Results

The table below shows the results of the Section 2 – Mechanical Analysis.

Type of Force Acting Magnitude of ForceMoments as a whole 33626.57NmMoments per Bolt 8406.64NmShearing Force as a whole 3481.1NShearing Force per Bolt 1790.55NGravitational Force 1011.61NWind Force (Avg. Speed) 426.8NWind Force (Top Speed) 3125.1N

These results conclusively show that the margin of safety is very large and this traffic sign has been built to last.

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Conclusion:

As discussed in the above information the Steel Grade A- 53 A and Aluminum are extremely efficient Structural materials. Using materials such as these are ideal for traffic signs for their safety capacity, and their ability to survive extended periods of time in unfavourable conditions. I believe that these two materials are the most appropriate materials for traffic signing at the present time for the just given reasons, but I am sure that with the way technology is moving it will not be long until we see a new style of materials on the market doing greater things.

As technology is advancing so fast it is hard to conclude what is the best option: as by the time the report on it is finished a new design is being created and developed. Much of my information came from secondary sources and I was disappointed with how little firsthand information I could conclude myself. An experiment would have been ideal, where testing of different materials for their strength, ductility and hardness, but this was not possible and these sorts of investigations and experiments are undergone by professionals who dedicate their life to developing and testing these materials. Most of these tests are also created on software, which is extremely expensive, and large companies fund the experiments. In saying this I was able to collect a wide range of information from many different sources, I was happily impressed with the amount of information on materials and traffic signs that was readily available. The mechanical analysis was given proof of the quality and resilience of the materials used, and was a decent way of proofing that they were a suitable choice, clearly as the structure is still standing. I thoroughly enjoyed creating this report.

End of Report

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References

http://www.kiamahigh.nsw.edu.au/

http://www.curriculumsupport.education.nsw.gov.au/secondary/english/ stages4_5/teachlearn/kiamahs/kiamahs.htm

http://sydney.edu.au/engineering/civil/publications/r783.pdf

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hollow_structural_section

http://serkanakinci.tripod.com/id19.html

http://ad.yieldmanager.com/rw? title=&qs=iframe3%3FYSAAALV2NQDcCRkAAAAAAAEAAAAAAAAAAgAAAAAAAAAAAP8AAAACD1otTAAAAAAAMfAsAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAADoBBYAAAAAAAICAgAAgD8AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAADYBtZk2z7gDG5ss6juKJyxlB4cBJ4OpFfr2eilAAAAAA%3D%3D%2C%2Chttp%253A%252F%252Fserkanakinci%2Etripod%2Ecom%252Fid19%2Ehtml%2CB%253D10%2526Z%253D0x0%2526_salt%253D1122316504%2526r%253D0%2526s%253D3503797%2526y%253D28%2Cb4941af4-2710-11e2-b0c2-73771483dfbc%2C1352096347709

http://www.vikingchainsenvirodivision.com/vc720spmi.html

http://www.sharingzone.net/download_page.php?q=ASTM %20A53%20SCHEDULE%2040%20GRADE%20B.pdf

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASTM_A325

http://spanner-bolt-sizes.blogspot.com.au/

https://www.google.com.au/search?q=5052+h38+aluminum&aq=1&oq=5052- H38&sugexp=chrome,mod=15&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8

http://uk.answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20070308223220AA8THrR

http://www.arasigns.com/view_doc.php?view_doc=10

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traffic_sign#History

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Appendices

Retro-reflective material Properties Table. Sourced from: Transport Roads and Maritime Services

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Figure 0.1

Sourced from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traffic_sign#History

Figure 0.2

Sourced from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traffic_sign#History

Figure 0.3

Sourced from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traffic_sign#History

Figure 0.4

Sourced from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traffic_sign#History

Figure 1.0

Sourced from www.engineeringtoolbox.com. All data was received through their experiments. This is a secondary source.

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Figure 1.1

Sourced from http://www.phione.co.uk/specialised-steel-products/pipes/a-53

Figure 1.2

Sourced from http://www.phione.co.uk/specialised-steel-products/pipes/a-53

Figure 1.3

Sourced from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pearlite

Figure 1.4

Sourced from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pearlite

Figure 1.5

Sourced from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_steel

Figure 1.6

Sourced from http://asm.matweb.com/search/SpecificMaterial.asp?bassnum=MA5052H38

Figure 1.7

Sourced from http://asm.matweb.com/search/SpecificMaterial.asp?bassnum=MA5052H38

Figure 1.8

Sourced from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon-fiber-reinforced_polymer

Figure 1.9

Sourced from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_nanotube

Tim Wilkinson’s (BSc BE MA) Report on TESTS OF COLD-FORMED RECTANGULAR HOLLOW SECTION PORTAL FRAMES

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This report by Wilkinson was undertaken in July 1999. It was taken at The University of Sydney Department of Civil Engineering Centre for Advanced Structural Engineering.

To read this Report in full it can be found at http://sydney.edu.au/engineering/civil/publications/r783.pdf

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