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TRANSCRIPT
Discrimination of pitcb direction: a developmental study.
by Vdirie Descombes
Theory Department, McGiIl University, Montreal
August, 1999
A thesis submitted to the FacuIty of Graduate Studies and Research in partial tùlfilment of the requirements of the degree of Master of Arts.
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Table of contents
... ......................................................................................................................... Abstract III
Sommaire ....................................................................................................................... iv
............................................................................................................ Acknowledgments v
.................................................................................................................. List of Tables vj
... .............................................................................................................. List of Figures W I I
................................................................................................................... Introduction 1
........................................................ Development of cognitive awareness of pitch 2
Direction labehg task ......................................................................................... 4
........................................................................ Measurement of pitch perceptioa 5
Tests using chifdren's invented notations .............................................................. 8
................................................................................................... Purpose ................. ...... 9
Pilot Study ..................................................................................................................... 1 1
Main Study
Experiment 1 : Test 1
...................................................... Subjects ........... .....,. 1 6
...................................................... Stimuli and Experhentai Tape 16
............................................................. .................. Procedure .. -16
.............................................................. ................ Results .... -17
Experiment 2 : Retest 1, Test 2, Test 3
....................................................................................... Purpose -30
.................................................................................... Subjects -30
...................................................... Stimuli and Experimental Tape 30
.................................................................................... Procedure -30
ResuIts @etest I) .......................................................................... 32
............................................................................ ResuIts (Test 2) -38
......................................................................... Results (Test 3) - 3 0
................................................................................................................... Discussion.. -65
. . .............................................................................. ............................ Implications ... -72
............................................................................................. References .......... ... -73
................................................................................................................... Appendices -77
The purpose of this study was to determine whether the ability to perceive pitch
direction across a varie@ of melodic contours d E m across grade levels. In addition,
difkrences between responses to ascending versus descending patterns and between
responses to two- versus three- versus four-note patterns were examined.
The main sîudy involved two experiments; Experhent 1 examined children's
ability to iderit* pitch direction using a visuai aid; Experiment 2 exarnined children's
spontaneous notations of the same melodic contours.
The results showed a subsequent increase in mean scores fiom grades 1 to 6 across
both tests- The clearest increase in ability occurred within the 6rst three grades with a
plateau reached by grade four. Same-pitch patterns received the highest overd1 means.
The ability to idente direction using a visuai aid was easier for children than to write
spontaneous notations. Melodic contours with larger intervals were more &y
perceived.
Sommaire
Le but de cette étude est de vérifier si la perception des directions tonales de
contours mélodiques variés dinere selon les niveam scolaires. De plus, les différences
entre les réponses à diverses mélodies ascendantes par rapport à descendantes et entre des
motifi variés à dew, trois ou quatre notes sont analysés.
Cette étude est divisée en deux sous-études; la sous-étude 1 véritie la capacité des
enfants à identifier la direction tonde en utilisant une aide visuelle; alors que la sous-étude
2 vérifie comment les e n h s notent de manière spontanée ces mêmes contours
mélodiques.
Les résultats de cette étude démontrent que la perception des directions tondes
s'améliore avec les niveaux scoIaires des élèves. La plus forte amélioration est notée des
niveaux 1 à 3, tandis qu'à partir de la quatrième année un plateau est atteint . Dans
l'ensemble. les motifs non directionnels ont présenté Ies scores moyens les plus élevés.
Les contours mélodiques présentant des intervales plus grandes sont ceux les mieux
perçus par les élèves, indépendamment du niveau scolaire. La mesure de la perception des
directions tonales est facilitée par l'aide visueue par rapport à la notation spontanée.
Acknowledgments
1 wish to express my gratitude to Professor Eugenia Costa-Giomi for her guidance
and critical suggestions throughout the d g of this study and most of aii for her
countless patience and support. I would also like to thank Loïs Gagné for her the and
support in letting me test her students during her music classes, and for her amazing
patience when it came to scheduling. A special thank you to the teachers at Holy Cross
Elemenmy, as weii as Lawrence Badow, for acranging time for me with theu students for
the Pilot study. A very warm thank you goes to my father, Michel Descombes, and his
assistant, Gavin Fernandez fbr the recordmg, arranging and rerecording of the test tape
used for the main study. Finally, 1 wish to give specid thanks to Yves Fiion, not oniy for
his technical support, but also for bis wntinuous encouragement.
List of Tables
Table 1
Table 2
Table 3
Table 4
Table 5
Table 6
Table 7
Table 8
Table 9
Table 10
Table 11
Table 12
Table 13
Table 14
Table 15
Table 16
Table 17
Table 18
............. ......... Melodic patterns ushg 2. 3. or 4 notes (Pilot study) ... 13
Mean pitch discrimination scores by grade level across the 15
............................................................................... categories (Test 1) 17
.......................... ANOVA table for a Zfactor repeated measures (Test 1) 18
.......................... ANOVA table for a 3-factor repeated measues (Test 1) 22
Mean pitch d i i o n scores by grade level for nurnber of pitches
................................................ and direction (Test 1) ................. .....,.,. -23
.......................... ANOVA table for a 3-factor repeated measures (Test 1) 24
Mean pitch discrimùiation scores by grade level for 3- and 4- pitches
........................ and d directions (Test 1) ................. ................,.............. 25
Mean pitch discrimination scores by grade level for d 4 5 test items
................. ....*........................*.*......*.............................. (Test 1) ,... -26
Significant T-Tests hund for paired sarnples with similar contours
(Test 1) ................................................................................................... 28
Mean pitch discrimination scores by grade level for both Test 1 and
Retest 1 across the 15 categories ............................................................ 32
ANOVA table for a 2-factor repeated measures (Retest 1) .................... -34
.................... Mean pitch discrimination scores by grade level for Retest 1 35
....................... Mean pitch discrimination scores by grade level for Test 2 38
ANOVA table for a 2-factor repeated masures (Test 2) .......................... 39
Mean pitch discrimuiation scores by grade level for number of pitches
and direction (Test 2) ..................... .... ........................................... -41
Mean pitch discrimination scores by grade IeveI for aU 45 test items
(Test 2) .................................................................................................. -42
......... ANQVA table for a 3-factor repeated measures (Test 1 and Test 2) 44
Mean pitch discrimination scores by grade for both Expechent 1 :
..................... Test 1 and Experhent 2 : Test 2 across the 15 categories 45
Table 19
Table 20
Table 2 1
Table 22
Table 23
Table 24
Table 25
Table 26
Table 27
Table 28
vii ANûVA table for a 3-fàcîor repeated measures (Rets 1 and Test 2) ...... 47
Mean pitch discrimination scores by grade for both Retest 1 and
..................................... Test 2 of Experiment 2 across the 15 categories 48
ANOVA table for a Zfactor repeated masures (Test 3) ...................... ..30 ....................... Mean pitch discrimination scores by grade level for Test 3 5 1
Mean pitch discrimination scores by grade level for number of
pitches and direction (Test 3) ................................................................... 53 ........................ ANOVA table for a 3-factor repeated measures (Test 3) 5 4
Mean pitch discrimination scores by grade for both Experiment 1 : Test 1
and Experiment 2 : Test 3 across the 15 caîegories .................................. 55
ANOVA table for a 3-factor repeated measures (Test 2 and 3) ............... .57
Mean pitch discrimination scores by grade for both Test 2 and 3
across the 15 categories ........................................................................... 58
Mean phch discrimination scores by grade for Experiment I and 2
for the 15 categories, for number of pitches, and for d i i o n .................. 6 1
AU mean pitch discrimination scores by grade for Experunent 1 (Test 1)
............................ and EKperiment 2 (Retest I, Test 2, and Test 3) ,...64
List of Figures
Figure 1
Figure 2
Figure 3
Figure 4
Figure 5
Figure 6
Figure 7
Figure 8
Figure 9
Figure 10
Figure 11
Figure 12
Figure 13
Mean pitch discrimination scores by grade level across the 15
categories (Test 1) ..... . . . .. . . ... .. .. . . . . .. . .-- --. . -. . -. . -. -. . . -. . -. . -.. . -. -. . . -. . . . . -. . .. -- .. . . -. 19
Overall mean pitch discrimination scores across the 15 categories
(Test 1) .............................estest..est..........*....................~....~.~.......~.................. 20
Overd mean pitch discrimination scores for the 3- and Cnote patterns
Pest 1) ................................................................................................... 21
Overall mean pitch discrimination scores across the 15 categories
fiom lowest to highest score (Test 1) ....................................................... 2 1
Total mean pitch discrimination scores across the 15 categories for
Test 1 (Experiment 1) and Retest 1 (Experiment 2) ............ .......... ... . .... .. .33
Mean pitch discrimination scores by grade level across the 15
categories (Retest 1) ................ ....... ............. ..... ................. .-........ . ..... ... . . -36
Overail mean pitch discrimination scores across the 15 categories
fiom lowest to highest score (Experiment 2 2 Retest 1) ............................ 37
Mean pitch discrimination scores by grade level across the 15
categories (Test 2). .... ... ........................................................-............ .. .. ..40
Totai mean pitch discrimuiation scores across the 15 categories
for Experiment 1 : Test 1 and Experiment 2 : Test 2 ................................ 46
Totai mean pitch discrimination scores across the 15 categories for
Retest 1 and Test 2 of Experiment 2. .... . . ... . . . .. .. . -. .. .. .-. -. . . .. . . . . ... . .. . . . . . . . . . . -. -49
Mean pitch discrimination scores by grade level across the 15
categories (Test 3) ...................estest....est..est..est....estest~....~..~~~...........~~~......~..~.......~.. 52
Totai mean pitch discrunination scores across the 15 categories for
Experiment 1 : Test 1 and Experiment 2 : Test 3 ..................-....-.........-..-- 56
Total mean pitch discrimination scores across the 15 categories for
Experiment 2 : Retest 1, Test 2, and Test 3 ...................estestestest.est.est....estest.est.estest.~~~.~~~ 59
Ur Figure 14 Total mean scores across the 15 categories for Experiment 1 and all
Tests of Experiment 2 (N=441) ............. ....... ...--..-........-. ..... ......-.*. 62
Figure 15 Total mean scores for each 2-, 3-, and Cnote patterns dong with
each of the six directions for Experiment 1 and Experiment 2 @=44 1 )... .63
introduction
One of the important mles of music education is to help students becorne
progressively more sensitive to the various elements of music. Through the development
of spontaneous and immediate perception ofthe elements %und in music - the musical
qualities of melody, harmony, rhythm, tone color, textures, form - the student has the
possibility for an aesthetic response to music. m i l e the affective response to the
elements of music may be ineffable, the elements in themselves can be adequately
described, thus likely enhancing the experience. Active listening to details of pitch,
rhythm, intervals, dynamics, and modulations, remembering them and then organizing
them into paaems wiIl hopefirlly yield an affective conquence. By dweloping an
awareness of different musicd stimuli chiIâren will hopefilly enrich not only th&
affective experiences, but cognitive ones as welI.
Many books and series have ben wrïtten for use in elementary schools music
classes. Though materials and objectives vary, the overall objective of the elementary
school music program is probabiy similar. In the curriculum guide of the Ministère de
l'Éducation du Québec (1985) the objective is "to provide the child with a variety of
musical experiences so as to elicit persona1 and meaningful responses to the phenomenon
of sound on both affective and cognitive levels" (p. 1 15). The disciplinary approach
involves perceiving, expressing, and responding. Reference to perception is primarily
made to activities centered on building listening skills. However, practical outwmes of
the application of curriculum objectives in the classroom are not always obvious for
music educators. For example, children shouid be able to distinguish pitch direction by
age seven (MEQ, 1985). Tt is expected that grade 2 children shouId recognize a series of
ascending or descendhg notes played on a bar instrument, as welI as perform such series.
However, the ability for chiIdren to determine pitch direction in a melodic contour does
not always seem obvious.
Music educators in generai agree that cfddren should deveiop an aura1
understanding of the meIodic elements of music before they are engagecl in music reading
activities. it is expected that children will be able to proceed more easiiy to the visual
2
perception of musical symbols required in music reading as a result of growing
ampetence in the aura1 perception of musical sounds. It is, therefore, important to
understand how and at what age children are capable of perceiving and ide-ng pitch
direction.
Development of cognitive awareness of pitch
Findings on the development of auditory perception indicate that perception of
tempo and volume develops first, followed by pitch and rhythm, with perception of
hannony developing last (Zimmerman, 197 1). In a five year study, Petzold (1 966)
studied auditory perception of over five hundred children in grades one through six. He
found that the most significant gains for most of the skills occuned between the ages of
six and seven (first and second grades) with a plateau reached by the age of eight (third-
grade). These results suggest that most significant development occurred between ages
six and eight. However, it would seem that children are ready to l e m musicai skills at
even the earliest ages.
Research has indicated that pitch discrimination develops early in Iife. Bridger
(1961) detemined that infants of only a few days old couid discriminate between tones of
varying pitch. He first played the same tones (400 Hz) d l the baby became accustomed
to them, and then played tones with a fiequency of 1,000 Hz. Fifteen of the fi@ babies
discriminatd between the tones. Chang and Trehub (1977) determined that infants of
five months cm process melodic information. By monitoring changes in the infantsf
heart rates, they found that the infants discriminateci between the transposition ofa
famiiiar meIody and a new melody. Thorpe (1986) found that older infants (aga seven
to ten months) were able to discriminate reliably between ascending and descending two-
tone sequences, even when pitch changes were as smail as one or two semitones. in
another study, i h t s eight to eleven months were shown to use a global strategy to
pmcess melodic information (Trehub, Bull, and Thorpe, 1984). The abiiity of the babies
to use this strategy, indicated that melodic contour is an important feature in melodic
perception fiom early infancy. Trehub, Thorpe, and Morrongiello (1987) suggest that the
perception of contour is elastic enough that infants, at least by the age of nine to eleven
months, can recognize melodic shapes even when cornponent intervals within the patterns
are varied. These studies conclude that pitch information is stored in contour schemes
rather than exact pitches.
Despite the remarkable abilities of infants in aura1 discrimination, such
competence is not as evident among preschool and early elementary children. Seraphine
(1986) States that, "research on children bmeen two and eight years finds them
surprisingly incapable of musical understanding" (p.3 14). Though music educators and
researchers have been left with many unanswered questions concerning children's
abilities in pitch perception, the extent of such incornpetence is questionable.
Research supports the hypothesis îhat young children's cognitive abilities
improve with age. White, Dale and Carlsen (1990) tested children aged between 3.5 and
5 on discrimination and categorization tasks wing 3-note unidirectional pitch pattern.
The results of their study indicated that perceptual focus was age-related. The younger
children focused on abdute features of the stimulus rather than the relationship between
consecutive pitches while the 5-year-olds were able to focus on the duectional
relationship. Other studies involving children aged between four and six also found that
large percentages of the children could not adequately indicate their discrimination of
pitch direction, using either verbal or nonverbal response modes (Hair, 1977; Van Zee,
1976; Webster & Schlentrich, i982). Dowling (1982) found that children's melodic
perception develops fiom a general awareness of the overall melodic contour to a precise
discrimination of tonality and intwval sue. Davidson and Scripp (1988) confirmeci that a
similar development occurs within the dimension of musical representation. Children's
notation of pitch sequenced tiom melodic contour to intervailic boundaries to regulated
pitch. By the age of eight, children's melodic perception operated within an increasingiy
stable tond system.
Direction lobelling rcl~k
Music educaton have demonstrated great interest in understanding how children
discriminate pitch (higMow) and its direction (ascendingldescending) (Andrews & Diehl,
1970; Cooper, 1994; Costa-Giomi, 1998; Costa-Giomi & Descombes, 1996; Costa-Giomi
& Descombes, 1997; Flowers & Costa-Giomi, 1991; Hair, 1977; Hair, 1987a; Webster
& Schlentrich, 1982; White, Dale & Carlsen, 1990; Williams, 1990). These researchers
have found that young children have diniculty in expressing their perception of pitch. A
recurrent problem has been that the use oftraditional musical terminology and concepts
seems to confiise rather than aid chiIdrenls understanding. It has been suggested that
children express their perception of pitch better through nonverbal than verbal responses
(Hair, 198%; Webster & Schlentrich, 1982). Young children have not yet learned to
associate the up and down labels with the aura1 directional phenomena. However, even
when using non-verbal responses children perfonn pwrly on pitch discrimination tasks
(Haiu, 1977; Hair, 1987; Van Zee, 1976; Webster & Schlentrich, 1982). This seems to
occur until children are in the fourth grade level (Forsythe & Kelly, 1989; Geringer,
1983). When using new technology allowing for a duect nonverbal, non-visual-spatial
response, a large percentage of children, aged between 3 and 5, were also unable to
provide evidence of pitch direction discrimination (White, Dale, and Carlsen, 1990).
Children 6 to 1 1 years old were generally more successfiil in detecting a difference in
pitch than in identifjing the direction of the change (Cooper, 1994). Cooper found that
the only signifiant difference on elementary children's performance in the direction task
was between the means of first- and fifkh-grade. These findings suggest that, while pitch
discrimination ability seems to improve with age, differences among grade levels for
identification of duection may be Iess evident to assess.
ChiIdrenYs identification of pitch direction is worth of M e r study. It is
important for music educators to understand the concepts that make pitch duection
meaningful for children. in order to assist them in gaining the necessary tools to
transform the concrete experience of auditory perception into one that cm be represented
in syrnbols,
Gromko & Poonnan (1998) exarnined the reiationship between children's aural
perception of tonal patterns and children's symbol use in drawing and selection tasks.
Subjects were 64 children aged fiom 4.7 to 12.8 years. Aura1 perception of tonai patterns
was measured with the tonal subtests of the Prim~ay/Intemediaîe Measures of Music
Auaïarion (Gordon, 1979, 1982). ChiIdren indicated whether sets of paired phrases were
the same or different. Both the selection and drawing of tonai patterns were measured
with researcher-designed tests derived from the PAdMUZMW aurai perception measure.
For the selection task a melodic pattern was played on a soprano recorder and the
children were instructed to circle one of the two patterns that they thought represented
what they had heard. For the drawing task they were asked to wnnect the dots to show
the direction in which they thought the pitches went. Results showed a developmental
progression within and across perception, selection and drawing tasks. On the aura1
perception task children aged 4.9 to 7.8 differed significantly fiom the ones aged 7.9 to
12.7. On the selection task significant différences were found between the youngest (4.9
- 6.3) and oldest (10.3 - 12.7) children. On the drawing task, the youngest children (4.9 - 6.3) diiered significantly fiom al1 older children (6.4 - 12.7). No significant differences
were found in the scores of children aged 7.9 and older across al1 three tests implying that
a plateau may be reached by age eight. Results of this study also showed that children's
ability to use symbols in the reading and drawing tasks were related to their ability to
aurally perceive the tonal patterns. These findings suggest that spontaneous notations
may be a good indicator of children's musicd understanding.
Pitch perception has been an important element in examining children's musical
abiIity and therefore has been induded in musicaI aptitude tests. Well-known tests that
have been used are reviewed here.
Measurement of pitch perception
Though there are numerous tests of musical aptitude (Lehman 1968, ch.6) six of
the most well-known and published standardid musical aptitude test batteries will be
6
discussed here : the Seashore Meannes ofMus1ca1 Talents (Seashore et ai., 1960), the
Measures of M m d Abiiities (Bentley, 1966a), the Stmdrdised Tests of MusfUSfcd
Intelligences (Wing, 196 l), the Musical Aptituàè Profite (Gordon, 1965), the Primary
Measutes of Music Aurliuiion (Gordon, 1979) and the Intemediate Memres of Music
Audiaton (Gordon, 1982). The Seashore, Wing, and Gordon IU~P tests are basicaily
intended for grades four to twelve and Bentley's test for children as young as seven.
Gordon's PMU4 are for children in kindergarten through third grade and the MiU for
grades 1 to 4, as an advanced version of the P M .
Seashore's battery contains six sections: pitch, loudness, rhythm, time, timbre,
and tonal memory. The pitch test requues the subject ta indicate whether the second of
fi@ paired tones is higher or lower than the first tone. The fiequency difference begins
with a standard of 500 Hz and becomes progressively more dificult with ranges fiom 17
to 2 Hz (2 Hz is about 9 cents; 100 cents = 1 semitone). The tonal memory test
comprises of thirty paired items; ten items for each three-, four-, or five-tone patterns.
Wihin each pair of the sequence, one note is different. The srnailest intervai difference
is one tone. The subjects's task is to identi@ the number of the note that daers. Lehman
(1968, p. 40) reports that these two tests, the pitch and tonal memory tests, have been
generally the most reliable sections in Seashores battery.
Bentley's battery contains four tests : pitch discrimination, tonal memory, chord
analysis, and rhythmic memory. The pitch test is similar to Seashore's except that there is
a "same" option in addition to up and dom. There are twenty pairs of tones representing
intervals, ranging fiom 100 to 2 cents. The tonal memory test also resembles Seashore's
task. Subjects are asked to listen to ten paired organ melodies and indicate which note is
dierent. in comparison to Seashore's tests, Bentley's tests not oniy has audio oscillator
tones but in addition uses real musical instruments, increasing the tests' musical appeal.
According to Lehman (1968, p. 55) Bentley's test is the oniy adequately standardised
aptitude test battery designed exclusively for the elementary grades.
Wing's battery contains seven sections : chord analysis, pitch change test, melodic
alteration, rhythm, harmony, intensity, and phrasing. The pitch change test contains
thirty pairs of chords. In some of the pairs one note in the second chord is either higher
7
or lower than the corresponding note in the first. Some items remain the same. The
subject indicates Wher answer by checking "up", "down", or "same" ("ü", "D", or "Sn)
on the answer sheet. In the melodic alteration test there are dso thirty items but these are
paired melodies instead of chords. These range in length fiom three to ten tones. The
second melody of each pair is like the first, except that one note is altered. The subject
indicates the number of the altered note or is asked to write "s" for same if there are no
changes. However, no unaltered melodies are played and the subject has no blanks for
any "same" responses. There are only dots representing each note. Perhaps the most
serious limitation of Wing's battery, as reported by Lehman (1968, p.48) and Boyle &
Radocy (1987, p. 147) is the technical quality of the tape.
Gordon's MAP battery contains three major divisions : tonal imagery, rhythm
imagery, and musical sensitivity. Melodies are played on string instruments. The tonal
imagery test has subdivisions of melody and harmony, each containhg 40 items. The
melody subtest requires subjects to listen to two meIodies, the second of which contains
embellishing tones, and determine whether the second melody would be the same as the
fvst if the added tones were removed. The hannony subtest contains paired items with a
melody line performed on violin, and a lower harmony line performed on cello. The
upper violin iine aiways remains the sarne. The task is to indicate whether the second
cello melody is the sarne or diierent fiom the tint.
Gordon also created two aura1 discrimination tests for children wing pictographic
scaies and item identification : The Primary Memures of Mm*c Audation ( P M ) and
the Inrennediate Measures of Music Audiution (W). Both the P M and Mihl
include a tond and a rhythm test, each of which has 40 items. For the tonal items
subjects indicate whether sets of paired phrases are the same or different. The task
requires students to &de two smiling faces for pairs of tonal patterns that are the same
and a fiowning and smiling face if the patterns d ier . Sequence length is from two to
five notes. The test contains eIectronical1y synthesized tones of v a 1 duration. The
items in both tests are similar, with onIy increased use of minor mode in the W. The
MM4 content is constructed to be more advanced then the PMU4 but l e s advanced than
that of the W.
Tests wng chiiden 's invented notations
Music research in the Iast decade has shown that children's invented notations are
measures of theu musical understanding (Bamberger, 1995; Gromko, 1994; Upitis,
1990). Cognitive activities such as symbol invention, analysis, problem soiving and
reflection are used in the mental and physical process of inventing notation. Testing
children for musical ability through their invented notations is appropriate because the
musical elements heard need to be intemdized and analyzed in order to be represented.
Upitis (1990) found definite patterns of notational style when children were asked to
notate what they had heard. She found that pitch was conunoniy expressed by vertid
lines indicating the rise and hi1 in a melody. Furthemore, the more the melody was
complex the more the notation was complex.
Studies have also shown that children's invented notations grow richer in musicai
details with maturity and musical experience (Bamberger, 1995; Davidson & Scripp,
1988; Upitis, 1990, 1992). Davidson and Scripp (1988) found that five-yearslds tended
to use pictorid patterns while seven-year-olds tended to use abstract symbols and words
to represent a Song they had heard. Also, children's melodic development moved Erom
perception of contour to perception of pitches. Upitis (1992) found that children's
invented notations for original compositions dso developed fiom descriptions of meIodic
shape to notations resembling traditional musical notation. Gromko (1 994) exarnined
children's invented notations as a rneasure of their musical understanding. Sixty children
aged 4 to 8 years were tested for their perceptual discrimination usintp the tond subtest of
the Primmy Meusures of Music Audation (Gordon, 1979). Children were then asked to
sing, play, and k t e the short song they had heard. Results showed that children's
percephrd discrimination of tonal patterns and their performance skills were significantiy
related to one another, Also, the higher the musid understanding the more likely the
notation reflected awareness of pitch ChiIdren's invented notations show a
developmentai progression fiom the generaI contour of a melody, to discrimination of
diectional leaps and steps within a meIody, to perception of fùnctional pitch
relationships within a melody @orner & Gromko, 1996; Grornko, 1996). Studies
9
indicate that notational development reaches a plateau around the age of seven or eight
(Davidson, Scripp, & Welsh, 1988), coinciding with studies in pitch perception (Gromko
& Poorman, 1998; Petzoid, 1966). Measuring children's musical understanding through
their inventa! notations shows positive attnbutes in understanding how children perceive
pitch direction
The purpose of this study was to determine whether the ability to perceive pitch
direction across a variety of melodic contours differs between grade levels. in addition,
the following questions were posed. Would there be any differences (1) between
responses to ascending versus descending patterns, (2) between responses to two- versus
three- versus four-note patterns?
A pilot study was first carried out to ver* the validity, reliability, and the design
of the test designed by the investigator. The main snidy involved two experiments.
Experirnent 1 examined children's ability to identie pitch direction using a visual aid.
The purpose of Experiment 2 was two-fold; (1) to have the same children take the test
used in Experiment 1 a few months later inorder to examine any changes in their ability
to perceive pitch direction (Retest l), and (2) to examine children's ability to represent
pitch direction through spontaneous notations across grade levels (Test 2 and 3).
The general lay-out of the study is the following :
Pilot Study
- Verification of test materiais and procedures for both Experiment 1 and
Experiment 2.
Main Study
Experiment 1
- Test 1 ; Identification of pitch direction using a visual aid.
10
Experiment 2
- Retest 1 ; Exact same test as in Experiment 1 (Test 1) but administered to
part of the original sample five months later.
- Test 2 ; Spontaneous notation with guided ins~ur;tions.
- Test 3 ; Spontaneous notation without guided instructions.
Pilot study
The abjects were 84 children (35 boys and 49 girls) fiom grades 1 to 5 of an
urban public school in Saint-Laurent, Montreal. There were 15 6rst graders, 1 1 second
graders, 1 1 third graders. 23 fourth graders, and 24 fifth graders. Ail were intact classes
(grades 2 and 3 combined in a mixed 2/3 class), Ail children received a 30-minute weeldy
session taught by a music specialist as part of their regular music program, Typical
activities for al1 grades included singing, listening, playing instruments (barred 0 8
instruments, small percussion instruments, and recorder), and reading music.
Stimuli
The melodic patterns consisted of either two, three, or four pitches taken tiom the
C major chord, ranghg fiom C4 to CS, with the exception of two items which used E5.
Al1 melodic patterns consisting of an ascendiig, descending, or same direction were
extracted. Two ascendiig, two descendmg, and two same-note patterns were selected
across the two-note, three-note, and four-note patterns. AU interval laps chosen for the
ascending patterns were also used for the descendimg patterns. For example : C4, E4, G4
and G4, E4, C4.
For the 2-note section of the test, the six items (two ascendimg, two descending,
and two same) shown in Table 1 were selected.
For the 3-note section of the test, six items (two ascendiig, two descending, and
two same) were selected. Many other combinations of direction are possible for the three-
note items, for example samJdown\or dodsame L. in order to make a selection,
aIi the possible combinations of a melodic contour consisting of either an ascending or
descendhg pattern plus the same direction were extracted. Three of these mixed items
were randomly chosen; dowdsame, samddown, and samdup. Three different sets of
12
pitches were randomly chosen for each of these, &hg a totaI of nine items. These nine
items dong with the six ascending, descending, and same patterns gave a grand total of 15
items for the 3-note section of the test as shown in Table 1.
For the Cnote section of the test, six items for the ascendiig, descending, and
same patterns were selected. Since two possibilities exist for the four-note pattern for the
downisame, samddown, and samdup mixed items (for exampIe : G4, E4, C4, C4 and G4,
C4, C4, C4), six different patterns were randomly chosen for each combination, three
using two repeated pitches and three using three repeated pitches, giving a total of 18
items. Thw, the number of items for the four-note pattern consisted of six up, down, and
same patterns plus the 18 mixed items, givïng a totaI of 24 items. The entire test consisted
of a total of 45 items which are shown in Table 1.
One experimental tape was prepared for the test. It consisted of instructions, three
practice examples, and 45 test items. The pitches were played on a soprano recorder and
recordeci unto a MA (type IV metal) TDK cassette, using a Hitachi tape player (mode1
3D3SHC). Each pitch was played for one second. Each item, which was played only
once, was foilowed by eight seconds of silence. The duration of the emire test session was
15 minutes. The same tape was used for al1 groups, thus each receiving the same order of
stirmili. The test was administered to aü classes using the same equipment.
Table 1.
Meldc patterns usïng 2, 3, or 4 notes.
Triai: 1 CE 2 GEC 3 GCCC
Test : Part I (2 notes) 1 CG 2 GC 3 CE 4 CC 5 EC 6 GG
Part 2 (3 mies) 1 GEC 2 GEE 3 CCE 4 GGC s C'GE 6 GGG 7 EGC' 8 GCC 9 CEG 10 ECC 11 CCG 12 GGE 13 CCC 14 EEG 15 EEC
Part 3 (4 notes) 1 EEGC' 2 C'C'EC 3 EEEG 4 EEEC 5 EGC'E' 6 CCCC 7 ECCC 8 CEGC' 9 C'GEC 10 ccGC1 11 CCEG 12 GEEE
GGEC C'C'C'E E'C'GE C'C'GE GECC GGGC C'ECC CCCE GGGG GCCC CCCG C'GEE
AU pitches shown in Table 1 range h m middle C to an octave higher (CL) with the additionai E above (E').
The pilot study was carried out to ver@ the validity and design of the tests that
would be used in Experiment 1 and 2 of the main study. The pilot study therefore has two
parts, each corresponding to an Experiment in the main study.
The fùst part of the pilot saidy examineci chiidren's ability to i d e n e pitch
direction using a visual aid. ïhe second part examuiecl children's spontaneous notations of
the same melodic contours.
AU testing was administered on the same day in April of the school year. Each
grade level was tested in their classrooms by th& music teacher, thus the students were in
their reguIar environment.
Subjects were asked to tiü in their name and grade level on their a m e r sheets,
and toid that the entire music test would be heard on tape. Each item was represented on
the answer sheet by three boxes, each box consisting of dots (one dot for each pitch)
representing a melodic contour (see Appendk A). Chiidren were instructed to circle the
box that best represented what the recorder played. After the subjects had heard the
instructions and completed three practice examples, they were asked if there were any
questions. There were no questions in any group. The tape was lefi running and the test
begun, No subjects at any time during the testing session raiseci their hand indicating a
problern or a question.
The use of the soprano recorder for the stimuli was initidy used for two reasons.
Fi, because the students were hniüar with this instrument. The test was seen as part of
their usual curriculum, thus creating a more cornfortable atmosphere. Secondly, the use of
an awustic instrument gives each pitch a timbre and rnusicality absent in pure tones,
providing a more naturiil sound, Though the quality of the tape did not seem to pose any
problems when administered in the pilot study, it was decided that it was important to
have upmost controi for the exact duration, volume, and clearness of each pitch, A new
tape was made using the exact same information only with better technology. Pitches
were played on a soprano recorder into an AKG 460-B microphone linked to a New VRP
console. A Software h d i o Workshop audio editor was used to d i t the stimuli. The
audio test was rerecorded unto a MA (type IV metal) TDK cassette, using a Technics M-
85 tapedeck. Ln order to control for the quality of the recorder pitches and the overall
audio test tape of the rerecorded version, an inter-judge retiability form was created and
6iied by five music graduate students in Music Education. The criteria to be rated were:
1) overall recordiig quality. 2) clarity of spoken words; 3) clarity of recorder notes; and 4)
equality of notes, AU five judges considered ail aspects of the quality of the tape to be
higher than four on a 1- to 5-point scale where 1 was poor and 5 nas excelient (means =
4.6,5.0,4.6, and 4.3 respecthliy). The technologicaiiy improved recordiig was used for
aii fbrther testing. Three intact copies were made, with oniy instructions at the beginning
of the tape being aitered and taiIored to each specific test type.
Given that the procedures worked weii in the first part of the piiot study they were
kept intact for Experiment 1.
Part two of the pilot study verified the design of the tests that would be used in
Experiment 2 of the main study. This second part was run with chiidren tiom grades 1
and 2 from the same school who had not taken the melodic test. The stimuli used were
the same as in the melodic test, but the answer sheet was diierent. The answer sheet had
blank spaces beside each number instead of three multiple choice boxes. While without
any guidance chiidren found the task contùsing, with enough prompting they usuaiiy found
a way to notate wh t they had heard. However, the notations were extremely diicult to
interpret and therefore this second part of the pilot study was modified for use in
Experiment 2 of the main study. An answer sheet was created which allowed for certain
tieeness in notation whiie providing guided instructions (see Appendix B). Alsu, initially
the tape was stopped between items in order to give children tirne to think and notate what
they had heard. With the modiied m e r sheet it was decided that for the main study the
tape would be lef€ running and that this was adequate tirne for the chiidren to notate their
answers. The procedures were sirnilar to those of the rnelodic test in the 6rst part of the
pilot study.
in summary, the fkst part of the pilot study was found appropriate for examining
chiidren's ability to iden* pitch direction. The procedures and test materials were kept
intact for Experiment 1 (Test i) of the main study with oniy the tape being technologically
improved. The second part of the pilot study proved diculties in both the procedures
and the answer sheet to properly examine chiidren's spontaneous notations of the same
melodic contours. These were modified for Experiment 2 (Test 2 and 3) of the main
study.
Main Study
The subjects were 506 children (267 boys and 239 girls) fiom grades 1 to 6 of a
city public school in Westmount, Montreal. There were 59 t k t graders, 98 second
graders, 97 third graders, 86 fourth graders, 80 tifth graders, and 86 sixth graders. AU
children received two 30-minute weekly sessions taught by a music specialist. Typical
activities for al1 grades included singing, Listening, playhg instruments (band Orff
instruments, and small percussion), and radmg music.
Stimuli and Expenmental Tape
The same melodic patterns (Table 1) and the same answer sheet (Appendix A)
used in the pilot study were used for Experiment 1 of the main study.
Experiment 1 (Tut 1)
AU testing was adrninistered in the month ofNovember of the school year. Each
grade level was tested in their classrooms by their music tacher and the investigator. The
children were told that the visitor in the class was a fnend that was helping out for the day.
This dowed the students to work in their regular environment without undue 3nxiety.
The test was administered in the sarne manner as in the piIot study. Once the
testing was completed, the answer sheets were coiiected and scored by the investîgator. A
score of one was &en for each correct answer and zero for every incorrect answer, the
maximum possible score behg 45.
Test 1 was readrninistered in Experiment 2 during the Spring term as Retest 1.
The main purpose of the study was to examine whether age had an effect on
children's discrimination of pitch direction. For statistical analysis, the average of each
pattern of the same direction was calcuIated, grouping the 45 test items into 15 categories.
This was done to d o w for cornparison between the dinerent contours, regardless of
intemi size.
Mean scores on each 2-note, 3-note, and ¬e patterns by grade level are
provided in Table 2. There is a clear trend toward higher overall scores at each
subsequent grade level. Tt is aiso clear that the 2; 3; and Csame patterns received the
highest scores.
Table 2. Mean pitch dscrinrinaîion scores by gr& lewl across fite I5 categories.
18 An ANOVA with repeated masures was performed for grade on each of the 15
categories. The resuIts indicaieci signifiant dineremes between the grade levels, the
stimuli, and a signifiant interaction between these f'actors (Table 3).
Table 3. ANOVA îable for O 2-factor repeaîedmeastaes: gr& (I-6) anàstrstrmuIus means (15 caîegories).
Source SumofSquares df Mean Square F P
Subjects 153.40 500 .3 1
Grade 94.42 5 18.88 61.55 <.O01
Category 38.39 14 2.74 60.26 <.O01
Grade by Category 13.21 70 .19 4.15 <.O01
Subjects by Category 3 18.54 7000 .O5
To examine the interaction between stimuli and grade levels a Tukey post hoc test
was conduaed (a=.05). Across aii 15 categoties grade L scored significantiy lower than
other grades. For the patterns 2-dom 2-same, 3-same, 3-down/same, 3-samddown, 4-
up, 4down, rlsame, and Csame/down first grade scored signïfiantiy lower than aii other
grades. For the patterns 2-up, 3-down, 3-samdup, 4-down/same, and Csarndup 6rst
grade scored significantly lower than grades 3,4,5, and 6. For the pattern 3-up first
grade scored significantiy Iower than grades 4,5, and 6. Aiso, second grade scored
significantly lower than subsequent grades on ail patterns except 3-dom in which it
scored significantly lower than grades 3,4 and 6,3-samddown in which it scored
sigdicantiy lower than grades 4, 5, and 6, and kame in which it did not score
si@cantly lower than any other grades. Third grade scored si@cantly lower than
grades 4, 5, and 6 on the pattern 4-samdup, si@cantly lower than grades 5 and 6 on the
19 pattern 3-sandiq1, and scored siMc* Io- than grade 6 on the patterns 4-
downlsame and 4 - d d o w n .
ûmd, grades 1,2, and 3 scored signincantly Iower tbpn their subsequeat grade
Ievels. Tbe graph in Figure 1 shows the clear dematkation of grades t,2, and 3 from the
highcr grades. Noticeably, the 2-, 3-, and Csame pattern aiways received the highest
scores. Also, difxirences among grade means h c r d with item S c u k y ( e.g, the
2- and Mown, 3- and 4-dodsame, and 3- and Csamefup patterns).
15 piMi dindon a ~ g o r i a s
20 In order to examine the di&renccs among the stimuli without taking gracie level
into account, a significance matrix based on Tukey cornparisons set at a=.05 was
conducted. The score for the 3-samdup pattern was sisnificantiy lower fiom ail other
patterns. Children scored significantly lower in the 3-dowdsame pattern than in ali other
patterns except Csamelup, 4-downlsame, 2 4 0 ~ 1 4 and 2-up. n ie Csamehp pattern
score was si@cantly lower than al1 patterns excep 4-dodsame, 2 4 0 ~ 1 4 2-up, and 4-
down The 2-up, 2-down, edown, and 4downlsame patterns were signüicantly lower
than the 3- and Cup, 3down, and the 2-, 3-, and Csarne patterns (Figures 2,3, and 4).
It was mspected that the more notes p m t e d the easier it would be to perceive
the melodic contour. Interestingly, number of notes did not necessady produce this
effect, as seen in Figure 3. W e same 3-note patterns were recognized more accurately
than the rlnote patterns, others were iiadeed recognized less accurately than their 4note
counterparts. It seems important to mention that the fluctuatin~ scores of the patterns
with sinùlar contours cannot be the resuit of order, because the melodic contours were
presented in random order within each 2-, 3-, and Cnote sections of the test (Table 1).
Figure 2. ûverall mean pitch rirsmcnimmîi*on scores acrm the I5 caregories.
Figure 3. Ovemlf mean pitch &scrimrircrlitm scores for the 3- and -te pcinem
Figure 4. Owrall meun pitch dscrimircan'tm scores ay:toss the 15 categories jrom lwest to highest score.
22 To examine whether number of notes and grade affecteci children's perception of
pitch direction, an ANOVA with repeated measures was performed for grade on number
of pitches (2-, 3-, or 4-note pattern) and direction (up, down, and same). The mixed
items of the 3- and +note patterns (dowdsame, samdup, and sarnddown) were not
included in this analysis because there were no mixeci items in the 2-note patterns. The
results indicated signi6cant differences between the grade levels, the number of pitches,
the direction, ail three 2-way interactions (grade by number ofpitches, grade by direction,
and number of pitches by dirdon), and between the 3-way interaction (grade by number
of pitches by direction) (Table 4).
Table 4. ANOVA table for a 3-factor repeated mearcrres: gr&, number of pitches (3 levels), and direction of pattern (3 levels).
Source SumofSquares df Mean Square F P
Grade
Subjects
Number of pitches
Subjects by Pitches
Direction
Subjects by Direction
Grade by Pitches
Grade by Direction
Pitches by Direction
Grade by Pitches by Direction
Subjects by Pitch by Direction
Post-hoc analyses were conducted using Tukey's tasb for multiple cornparisons
(a=.05), Grades 1 and 2 scored signiscantiy lower than aii other subsequent grades
23 across the 2-, 3-, and 4-pitch patterns. Grade 3 scored s ign indy lower tban grades 4,
5, and 6 on the Cpitch patterns and lower tfian grade 6 on the 3-pitch patterns, Grades 1
and 2 scored signrficantly lower than al1 0 t h grades on d3 directions of patterns (up,
down, same). Paired t-tests showed signiscant d8krences for aii pitch and direction
combiions except for the dom and samddown patterns.
Mean scores by grade lm1 for each 2-, 3-, and Cnote patterns, dong with the up,
down, and same directions are provided in Table 5 . The 3- and 4-pitch patterns received
higher overall mean scores than the Zpitch pattern Within the directional patterns the
"same" pattern received the highest overall mean score.
Table 5. Mem pitch ~scritniMfiiMfion scores by pu& levei for mrrnber of pztches tmddrection.
In order to determine any différences between how chiidren discriminate between
the duectionai patterns up, down, dodsame3 samdup, and samefdown, an ANOVA with
repeated masures was perfonned on direction using al1 patterns (up, down, same,
down/same3 samdup, and samddown) and number of pitches using only the 3- and Cnote
patterns. The Znote pattern was not inciuded in this analysis because there were no
mixed items ( e-g., dowdsame, samehp, and samddown) in the 2-note part of the test.
24 The d t s indicated si@cant Herences between grade levels, direction, the three 2-
way interactions of grade by number of pitches, grade by direction, and number of pitches
by direction, and the 3-way interaction of grade by number of pitches by direction. No
significance was found for the main efF'ect of number of pitches (Table 6).
Table 6. ANOVA table for a 3=$acfor repeaied measirres: gr&, nummmiber of pitches (2 levek), and directim of partent (6 levels).
Source Sum of Squares df Mean Square F P
Grade 71.39 5 14.28 53.66 <.O01
Subjects 133.04 500 -27
Number of pitches .13 1 -13 2.98 .OS5
Subjects by Pitches 22.04 500 .O4
Direction 29.15 5 5.83 114.27 <.O01
Subjects by Direction 127.55 2500 .O5
Grade by Pitches 1.46 5 .29 6.63 <.O01
Grade by Direction 6.48 25 .26 5.08 <.O01
Pitches by Direction 3 -64 5 -73 20.94 <.O01
Grade by Pitches by Direction 3.05 25 .12 3.51 <.O01
Subjects by Pitch by Direction 86.84 2500 .O3
Post-hoc analyses were conducted using Tukey's tests for multiple cornparisons
(a = -05). Grade 1 scored signîficantly lower than aU other grades across di stimuli
except in the samehp pattern where the significant merence was reached with grade 3
and up. Grade 2 scored significantly lower than al1 subsequent grades across aii stimuli.
Grade 3 scored significantly lower than grades 4,s. and 6 in aü 4-pitch and the samdup
patterns, and reached a significant ciifference with grade 6 scores on the 3-pitch pattern,
25 and the down/same and samddown patterns.
Mean scores by grade level for each 2; 3; and +note pattern, dong with each of
the six directions are provideci in Table 7. The similar mean scores of the 3- and 4- pitch
patterns can be seen here. In the unidiredional patterns ( i-e., up, down, same) the higtiest
o v d mean score was for the "same" pattern. in the mixed patterns the highest overall
mean score was for the samddown pattern.
Table 7. Mean pitch àiscncnminahon scores by gracie level for 3- d 4- pitches d aii atrectio11~~
26 For cornparisons between the patterns with similar contours but different interval
feaps the means for each of the 45 test items across aü the grades were caiculated (Table
8). Interestingiy, patterns with wider intervals usually received higher scores than simiiar
pattern wiîh smaller intervals. For example, CG versus CE, GCC versw GEE or ECC,
GGC versus GGE, GCCC versus GEEE.
Table 8 Mem pitch discnscnmi'on scores by grade level for al1 45 test items.
Paired t-tests for sirnilar contour patterns were calculated. Only the diffErences
which were sigdïcant are included in Table 9.
Table 9. Sigqtîcant t-tests fotrnd for paired sampIes with similm contours.
2up CE .74 3samdup EEG .7 1
.39 2.49 .O13 3samJup CCE .65 4 =Jup EEGC' .77
.4 1 4.39 <.O0 1 4 samchip EEEG .68 ~ U P CG .87
.5 4.07 c.00 I
2up CE .74 3 samd&wn GGE .83
25 5.27 c.00 1 3 samchip EEG .7 1 4 u ~ EN' E' .86
.2 1 2.77 -006 4 d o ~ n EVGE .81 4 u ~ CE& .88
.46 3.77 <.O0 1 4 dom C'GEC .81 3Qwnlsame GCC .88
.29 4.06 <.O0 1 3down/98m~ GEE .%O 3&wn/same GCC .88
.15 12.50 <.O0 1 3 Qwnlsame ECC .57 3 down/sme GE. .80
.16 8.74 <.O0 1 3downlsamt ECC .57 ~si imeldo~n C~C'C'E .92
.36 5.42 <.a0 1 4 d Q w EEEC .83 4 d Q m GGGC .9 1
.35 4.47 -=.a0 l 4siimJdrnm EEEC .83 4downlsame GCCC .85
.I4 10.37 t O O I 4down/s~mc ECCC .59
29 4dowal- GCCC .85
.26 4.27 <.O0 1 4dowalsame GEEE -76 4down/snmc GEEE .76
.26 6.81 <.O0 1 4dodsame ECCC -59 4 d d o m clc lc l~ .92
27 7.05 ~ . 0 0 1 4samJdom GûEC .78 4slimeldom EEEC .83
.30 4.62 <.O0 1 4 d d o w 1 1 C ~ ~ E C -73 4 W d o m EEEC -83
.26 2.03 .O43 4sameidom MEC -78 4 d d o m C'C'C'E -92
.16 8.9 1 c.00 1 4 samddowu C'C'EC .73 4SBmeldom GGGC .9 1
.27 6.23 t 0 0 l 4samJQm GûEC .78 4 d d o w n GGGC .9 1
.20 8.28 <.O0 1 ~ S ~ ~ J Q W I ~ C'C'EC .73 4 d Q m GGGC .9 1
.34 7.73 <.O0 1 4 ~ 1 1 d d o ~ n C'C'GE -76 4samddown EEEC .83
.3 3 3.41 .O0 1 4~amc/down CVGE -76 4down/~~rne GCCC .85
.28 3.7 1 c.00 1 4 d o W ~ ~ r n e GECC .78 4down/seme GCCC .85
.16 7.0 1 al0 1 4downlsame ECCC 39 4dowalsame C'ECC .80
25 8.47 <.O0 1 4downlsame ECCC .59 4downlsame C'GEE 3 2
2 1 9.30 c.00 1 4down(58me ECCC .59 4 d o w n / ~ ~ 1 ~ ~ C'GEE -82
.24 167 .O08 4down/same GEEE -76
Experiment 2 (Retcst 1, Tm 2, and Tut 3)
The purpose of Experiment 2 was two-fold; (1) to have the same children take the
same test a few months later to examine any changes in their ability to perceive pitch
direction (Retest l), and (2) to study the ab@ to represent pitch direction across grade
levels (Test 2 and 3).
The sarne classes which participated in the Experiment 1 participated in
Experiment 2. Sixty-five childm were absent dwing the second experiment; 11 fht
graders, 6 second graden 14 third graders, 6 fowth graders, 14 fifth graders, and 14 sixth
graden. This left a total of 441 subjects (217 boys and 224 girls); 161 chiidren took
Retest 1, 135 took Test 2, and 145 took Test 3.
Stimuli and Experimentai Tape
The experimental tape used in Experiment 1 wnh the 45 melodic patterns having
2-, 3-, or 4notes was aiso used for this study (Table 1).
AU testing was administered in the Spring term, approdtely 5 months afler the
administration of Test 1 in Experiment 1. The multiple choice answer sheet used in
Experiment 1 was also used for Retest 1 in this experhent (Appendk A). The answer
sheet used for Test 2 and 3, however, was altered in order to aüow children to notate the
stimuli themselves. in the altered anmer sheet each item was presented by one mpty box
3 1 with ody doîted lines dividing the box in either 2,3, or 4 sections. Each section
wrresponded to each pitch of the melodic pattern (see Appendix B). The children were
asked to place a dot in each section of the box, each dot representing one pitch, in the
same way that the notes were played. In Test 2 the instructions guided the chiIdren by
giving hints as to how the notes were movhg; "Are they going up, down, or staying the
same?" Also, fier each triai (one trial for each 2-, 3-, and 4pitch section) the answer as
to where the child should have placed their dots in each of the d~sions of the box were
given. In Test 3 the children were also asked to place a dot in each section of the box but
were not guided as to how to do so and were not given any m e r s &er each trial. The
exact same recordhg was used for both Test 2 and 3 except that parts of the instructions
were omited for Test 3.
Once the testing was completed, the answer sheets were collecteci and scored by
the investigator. A score of one was given for each correct answer and zero for every
incorrect answer, the maximum possible score behg 45. Tests 1,2, and 3 were ail graded
in this manner.
Experiment 2: Retest 1
The purpose of Retest 1 was to have the same children take the same test a few
months later to examine any changes in their abiiity to perceive pitch direction For
statistical analysis, the average of each pattern of the same direction was caiculated,
grouping the 45 test items into 15 categories. As in Experiment 1, this was done to aiiow
for cornparison between the ciiffirent contours, regardlas of interval sUe.
In order to compare mean scores for Test 1 of the Faii term (Experiment 1) and of
the Spring terrn (Experiment 2) the mean scores for each Znote, 3-note, and 4-note
patterns by grade levet for both Test 1 and Retest 1 are provideci in Table 10. T-tests for
paired samples between Test 1 and Retest 1 were calcuIated. Bold scores uidicate a
significant Merence (a=. 05).
Table 10. Mean scores by gr& level for both Test I and Retest 1 acrosr the 15 uttegories.
4up 4 h 4.ramt 4Qwd- 4- 4ssmetdown
Note. Bc
J4 49 .74 .86 .79 .71 .78 .81 .81 .88 .47 .n .43 .43 .67 .75 .62 6 7 .40 3 9 -78 .û4 58 .71 A7 57 .56 .6â 58 A9 I smres indic;
-80 . 811a9 96191 95 Pnences between hperhent 1 : Test i and
OvonO. ail Retest 1 scores exccpt for the 4-up pattern wcre bigha tban Test 1
scores* Furthmore, the mean di&rence between the w tests for each melodic sontour
was very cunsistent as shom in Figure 5. Pattems tht w m difiicuit for the cMdren to
perceive in Test 1 were again for hem in the Retest ( e.g., 3- and C d u p
pattern). Oae siight ciifference ihat is of interest is how II1 2-note patterns were
signüicantly higher in the Retest than in Test 1.
Figure 5. Toial mean pifch dscncnmimiion scores acrm the 15 categories fw Test I (iExpenmmt
An ANOVA with repeaîed masures was performed for grade on the scores in
each of the 15 aitegories. As with the r 4 t s obtained in the Fali, the results of the Spring
test indiateci si@cant cliûkmces between the grade levelq the stimuh, and between the
interaction of both (Table 1 1).
Table 1 1. ANOVA table for a 2-fitor repeated meosrrres: pack armdsrimuZus mem.
Source SumofSqwes df Mean Square F P
Subjects 47.23 155 .30
Grade 22-96 5 4.59 15.07 <.O01
Caîegory 7. 19 14 .5 1 14.14 <.O01
Grade by Category 4.73 70 .O7 1.86 <.O01
Subjects by Category 78.85 2170 .O4
Mean scores on each Znote, 3-note, and 4-note pattems by grade level are
provided in TabIe 12. There is a trend toward higher o v d means with higher grade
levels. hwrestingiy however, grade 3 scores do not follow this trend as cleariy as in
Experiment 1. In the Fali, each grade achiwed higher scores as each level increased. in
the West grade 2 achieved higher scores than grade 3 for eight of the pattems.
3 5 Table 12. Mean pitch dTsmCI?mination scores by perle level for Retesî 1 (Expriment 2).
To d e the interaction between stimuli and grade leveIs a Tukey post hoc test
was conducted (a=.05). As in Experiment 1, bt grade scored signincantiy Iower than aii
other grades across d stimuli. For the pattems 3-sarndup, 4-same , and 4-dom 6rst
grade scored sigriticantly lower than al1 subsequent grades. For the patterns 3-same, 3-
samddown and 4same/down, and Cdowdsame kt grade scorecl si@cantly lower than
. grades 2 , 4 5, and 6. F i i grade scored sigNscantly tower than grades 3,4,S, and 6 on
the 2- same pattern A h , grade 1 scored significantly lower than grades 4 and up oa ail
d e r patterns (2-up, 240- 3-up, 3 4 0 ~ 1 4 3downlsame, 4up, and 4samelup).
36 Second grade scored si@cantly lower 16an grades 4 on the 2down pattern, and lower
than grades 4 and 6 on the two patterns 2-up and 3-samelup. Third grade scored
significantly lower than grades 4,5, and 6 on the pattern 4-samdup, lower than grades 4
and 6 on the pattem rlsa.down, lower than grades 5 and 6 on the pattern 4-
dowdsame, and lower than p i e 6 on the pattern 3-samdup.
Overall, grade 1 scored significantly lower than d other grades, grade 2 scored
significantly lower than grades 4 and 6, and grade 3 scored sigrdicantiy lower than grades
4, S, and 6. As in Test 1 of Experllrient 1 the graph in Figm 6 shows a demarkation of
grades 1.2, and 3 h m the higher grades.
Figure 6. Mean pitch aFscnCtlmMon scores by gr& levd QCTOSS tk 15 degories (Retest 1).
1s pitch dinction cabgorkr
3 7 in order to compare mdodic contours without taking grade level into account
overall mean pitch disahination seores across a l 15 categories were reacfanged fiom
lowest to highest score as shown in Figure 7. Test 1 (Experiment 1) mean scores are
shown alongside each corresponding pattern for testIretest wmparisons. Noticeably, the
3- and 4- downlsame patterns rcceived higher scores in Retest 1. The 4-up pattern was
the only pattern receiving a higher score in Test 1 than in the Retest.
Figure 7. & r d mem pitch discrimination scores fw Retest 1 acrm the 15 cutegoriesfiom ltnvest to highest score @Zrperiment 2 : Retest 1) almg with corre~ponrlrng scoresj?otn Test I .
15 pitch direction cabgories (from lowst to highed score)
Expriment 2: Test 2
The purpose of Test 2 was to examine children's ability to represent pitch
direction across grade levels. This was examined by having the children write
spontaneous notations while being given some guidance (see Appendix B). As in
Experiment 1, the average of each pattern of the same direction was caiculated, grouping
the 45 test items into 15 categories.
Mean scores on each 2-note, 3-note, and ¬e patterns by grade level are
provideci in Table 13. As in Test 1 of Experiment 1 there is a clear trend toward higher
overail means at each subsequent grade level.
Table 13. Mean pitch diseriminrrtion scores &y grade level fur Test 2 @priment 2).
3 9 An ANOVA with repeated measwes was performed for grade on each of the 15
categones. As in Test 1, the results indicated significant difkences between the grade
levels, the stimuli, and between the interaction of both (Table 14).
Table 14. ANOVA table for a 2-foctor ropeated masures: gracie andstimulus mearts.
Source Sum of Squares dÏ Mean Square F P
Subjects 60.02 129 .47
Grade 33.63 5 6.73 14.46 <.O01
Category 1 1.65 14 .83 L9,20 <.O01
Grade by Category 6.25 70 .O9 2.06 <.O01
Subjects by Category 78.25 1806 .O4
To examine the interadon between stimuli and grade levels a Tukey post hoc test
was conducted (a=.05). F i grade scored significantly lower than al1 other grades
across al1 stimuli. For the patterns 2down and 2-same they were significantiy lower than
al1 other grades. For the following patterns grade 1 scored significantly lower than grades
3,4,5, and 6: 3down, 3-down~same, 3- and Csamdup. First grade scored significantly
lower than grades 4,5, and 6 on the patterns 2- and 3-up, 3- and Csamddown, and 4-
dodsame. Also, fùst grade scored lower than grades 4 and 5 on the 4same pattem,
lower than grade 5 on the 3-same pattem, lower than grades 5 and 6 on the Cdown
pattern, and lower than grade 6 on the 4-up pattern. Second grade scored significantiy
lower than grades 3,4, and 5 on the 3-dodsame pattern and lower than grades 4, 5, and
6 on the 3-up, 3-samdup, 3- and 4-sameldown, and 4-downlsame pattems. They scored
significantly lower than grade 4 on the 3down pattern, lower than grade 5 on the 2-up
pattem, lower than grades 5 and 6 on the 4down and the 4-samelup patterns, and lower
than grade 6 on the 4-up pattern.
40 Overali, grade 1 scoreci significantly lower than grades 3,4,5, and 6, and grade
2 lower than grades 4,5, and 6 (Figure 8). As found in Tesî 1, the 2-, 3; and 4-same
patterns consistently teeeived the highest scores. Also, ciifferences among grade means
increased with item diculty as seen in the 3- and 4-up and down patterns.
Figure 8. Meun pitch rh'scnscnminaton scores by gr& level ucrm the 15 categories (Tesî 2).
4 2 In order to examine how children discriminate between the directionai patterns
regardless of the number of pitches and between the number of pitches alone, the mean
scores by grade level for each 2-, 3-, and 4-note patterns dong with each of the six
directions are provided in Table 15.
Table 15. Méan pif ch rii's(:riminuîion scores by gr& Iewl for mcniber of pifches and drection
The scores of the spontaneous notations of the children show larger differences
between the 2-, 3-, and Cpitch patterns than they did in the multiple choice Test (Test 1 )
while keeping the order of accuracy the same. Arnong the d i i o n a l patterns, there are
no clear trends in the results except that the "same" pattern invariably received highest
scores.
42 in order to compare the patterns with similar contours but different interval
leaps, the means for each ofthe 45 test items across al1 the grades were caiculated
(Table 16).
Table 16 Mean pitch discrimination scores by gr& level for al1 45 test items (Test 2).
To determine whether mean scores were dierent between the multiple choice test
(Test 1) and the test whm they had to notate what they heard (Test 2), a repeated
measures ANOVA was performed for grade on the two test types (Experiment 1 : Test 1
and Expen'ment 2 : Test 2). Results showed a significant difference between grades and
test items. Two of the three two-way interactions were significant; grade by test item and
test item by test type. The three-way interaction of grade by test item by test type was
aiso significant. No significant differences were found for test type nor the interaction of
grade by test type (Table 17).
44 Table 17. NOVA ta6le fw u 3-fî tor repeated memures: gracie, sîimhrs meanr, and tesî type (2 levels; Expriment I : Test 1 d&periment 2 : Test 2).
Source - -
Sum of Squares df Mean Square F P
W e
Subjects
Test items
Subjects by Test items
Test l/Test 2
Subjects by Test l/rest 2
Grade by Test item
Grade by Test lrïest 2
Test items by Test 1fTest 2
Grade by Items by T I/T 2
Subjects by Items by Test ln'est 2
45 Mean scores for each 2-note, 3-note and Cnote patterns by grade Ievel for both
Experiment 1 : Test 1 and Experiment 2 : Test 2 are provideci in Table 18. T-tests for
paired sarnples between Test 1 and Test 2 were calculated. Bold scores indicate a
signifiant dierence ( ~ - 0 5 ) .
Table 18. Mean pitch discrimination scores by grade for both Erperiment I : Test 1 and Experiment 2 2 Tesi 2 across the 15 degories.
Nok. Boid mres indicate siguikant Wer~nces between -riment 1 : Test 1 and Experin scores for that paneni (a=.05)
OveralI, Test 2 scores were slightly higher than Test 1 (Experiment 1) except for
the very tow scores of the 3- and 4-up pattern as well as the 3- and 4-down pattern as
shown in Figure 9.
46 Figun 9. Totai mean pitch dscrihinution scwes m s s h 15 caregories for Expen'ment I : Test 1
To determine whether mean scores were different between the multiple choice test
(Retest 1) that the children wrote in Experiment 2 and the test where the other cfddren
were asked to notate what they heard (Test 2 of Experiment 2), an ANOVA with repeated
measures was performed for grade on the two test types. Results showed a significant
difference between grade, test type, and test items. Two of the three two-way interactions
were significant; grade by test items and test type by test items. The three-way
interaction of grade by test item by test type was also sigaificant. No significant
difference was found for the interaction of grade by test type (Table 19).
47 Table 19. ANOVA bble for a 3-factor repeated measures: gr&, siimuhrs means, and test type (2 levels; Experïment 2 : Retest I and Test 2).
-~
Source Sum ofsquares df Mean Square F P
Grade 53.42 5 10.68 28.29 <.O01
Subjecîs 107.25 284 0.38
Test items 15.08 14 1.08 27.25 <.O01
Subjects by Test items 157. IO 3976 0.04
Test type 3.25 1 3.25 8.61 .O04
Grade by Test items 6-77 70 0.10 2.45 <.O01
Grade by Test type 2.99 5 0.60 1.58 .165
Test items by Test type 4.19 14 0.30 7.57 <.O01
Grade by Items by Test type 4.03 70 0.06 1.46 .O08
Mean scores for each 2-note, 3-note and Cnote patterns by grade level for both
Retest 1 and Test 2 of Experiment 2 are provideci in Table 20. T-tests for paired samples
between Retest 1 and Test 2 were calculaied. Bold scores indicate a significant
difference (a=. 05).
48 Table 20. Mean pitch discriminution scores by grade for both Retest I and Test 2 of @eriment 2 mrm the 15 megories.
Note. Bald scores indicate significant différences ktween Rem 1 aod Test 2 of Experimmt 2 for that parti& pattern (p.05).
2-note up and down paaerns, the 3 - d u p patteni, and the Csame pattern Pigure IO).
Figure 10.
ToloI mem pitch &en-rnmation scores across the 15 d e g o r i s fw Retesî I mi Test 2 of Eirperimenf 2.
Resuits
Experiment 2: Test 3
The purpose of Test 3 was to examine children's ability to represent pitch
direction across grade levels. This test resembIed Test 2 except that the children did not
receive guidance as to how to notate the melodic contours.
Al1 subjects participating in this study were involved in two tests; Test 1 in
Experiment 1 and either Test 1,2, or 3 of Experiment 2. The grade 1 students who took
Test 3 had not taken Test 1 of Experiment 1 and were therefore excluded 6om al1 results
in this following section. As in the previous tests the average of each pattern was
caIculated, grouping the 45 test items into 15 categorïes for comparison between the
different contours regardIess of interval size. An ANOVA with repeated measures was
performed for grade on each of the 15 categories. As in al1 previous tests these results
indicated significant ciifferences between grade leveis, the stimuli, and between the
interaction of both (Table 21).
Table 2 1. RN0 VA table for a 2-factor repeared ineanrres:gra& (2-6) anci stimufus m e m .
Source Sum of Squares cf Mean Square F P
Subjects 68-76 140 -49
Grade 10.72 4 2.68 5.46 <.O01
Category 13.78 14 .98 20.50 <.O01
Grade by Category 4.73 56 .O8 1.76 .O01
Subjects by Category 94.14 1960 .O5
Mean scores on each 2-note, 3-note, and Cnote patterns by grade level are
provided in Table 22.
Table 22. Mean pitch discncnmniation scores by grade lm1 for Test 3 (Expmment 2).
To examine the interaction between stimuli and grade levels a Tukcy post hoc test
was conducted (a=.OS). Second grade scored signif~cantly lower than fifth grade on the
2-same pattern and lower than sixth grade on the 3-up, 3-sarndup, 4up, and 4down
patterns. Second grade also scored significantly Iower than grade 4,5, and 6 on the 4-
dodsame, 4-samdup, and the Csarne/down patterns. Third grade scoreci signifîcantly
lower than sixth grade on the patterns Cup, Cdown/same, Csamelup, and Csamddown.
Overall grade 2 scored significantly lower than grades 4,5, and 6, and grade 3
lower than grade 6 (Figure II).
Figure 1 1. Mean pitch dscninikation scores &y gr& lewl acrw the 15 categories (Test 3).
in order to examine how chiIdren discriminate between the directionai patterns
regardless of the number of pitches and vice versa, the mean scores by grade level for
each 2-, 30, and 4-note patterns dong with each ofthe six directions are provided in
Table 23.
53 The mean scores of Test 3 resemble the scores of both Test 1 and Test 2. Here
however the grade 5 scores are weaker overall.
Table 23. Mean pitch discrimination scores by gr& Ievel for mmtber ofpitche and direction (Tesi 3)-
To determine whether mean scores of the test in which children had a choice of
answers (Test 1) and the test in which they had to notate what they had heard (Test 3), a
repeated measures ANOVA was performed for grade on the two test types (Experiment
1; Test 1 Experiment 2; Test 3). Results showed a signifiant difference between grades
and test items as well as test type. Two of the three two-way interactions were
signifiant; grade by test item and test item by test type. No signifiant differences were
found for the interaction of grade by test type nor the three-way interaction of grade by
test item by test type (Table 24).
54 Tabfe 24. AEJOVA table for a 3-factor winqated mwnrtes: gr&, stzariemuius means, and test type (2 ZeveIS; Erpen'menz I : Tesi I and Eicperiment 2 : Test 3).
Source Sum of Squares df Mean Square F P
Grade 24.63 4 6.16 11.15 <.O01
Subjects 77.30 140 0.55
Test items 15.73 14 1.12 25.71 <.O01
Subjects by Test items 85.62 1960 0.04
TestRetest 1.40 1 1.40 8.70 .O04
Subjects by TestRetest 22.5 1 140 0.16
Grade by Test items 6.73 56 0.12 2.75 <.O0 1
Grade by Test/Retest .27 4 0.07 .43 .790
Test items by Test/Retest 6.6 1 14 0.47 12.34 <.O01
Grade by Items by Test/Retest 2.65 56 0.05 1 -24 -114
Subjeas by Items by 75.0 1 1960 0.04 T m e t e s t
Mean scores for each 2-note, 3-note and +note patterns by grade level for bctth
Experiment 1; Test 1 and Experiment 2; Test 3 are provided in Table 25. The t-tests for
paired samples between Test 1 and Test 3 were calculated. Bold scores indicate
signifiant differences (a=.OS).
Table 25. Mean pitch d i s c n ' m ~ o n scores by grade for both Experiment I : Test l rmd Ejcpen'ment 2 : Test 3 ac tw the IS caiegories.
I
Rxences between Experiment 1 : Test I Experbent 2 : Tcst 3 scores for that pattan @=.Of)
Overall, Test 3 scores of Experiment 2 were lower than Test 1 scores of
Experiment I except for the 3-note mixed items and the Csame pattern. The total mean
pitch discrimination scores for the two tests were somewhat similar though scores were
very low for both the 3- and 4note up and down patterns for Test 3 as shown in
Figure 12.
Interestingly, the fact that the scores for these two tests were so similar for the
"easy" items ( e.g., 2-note patterns and all same-note patterns) it seems safe to say that
when children can perceive pitch direction they can use either spontaneous or multiple
choice responses.
56 Figure 12. Total mean pitch dscrimintttion =ores clcth~s the 15 categories for Ekpiment 1 : Tm 1 and Experiment 2 : Test 3.
To determine whether mean scores were different between the test where children
were given some guidance as to how to notate the pitches they heard (Test 2) and the test
where they were given no hints (Test 3) an ANOVA with repeated measures was
performed for grade and test type on the 15 melodic contours. Results showed a
significant difference between grade levels, test items, and the 2-way interaction of grade
by test items. No significant difference was found for the main effect of test type, the 2-
way interactions of grade by test type and test type by test items, nor the 3-way
interaction of grade by test type by test items (Table 26).
57 Table 26. N O V A table for a 3-fcrctor repeaed measures; gr& (2-6). strstrmuItis nteanr, mi test &yp (Erperirnen~ 2; Test 2 and 3).
Source Sum of Squares df Mean Square F P
Grade 24.79 4 6.20 14.71 <.O01
Subjects 105.73 25 1 0.42
Test items 21.30 14 1.52 34.32 <.O01
Subjects by Test items 155.77 3514 0.04
Test type 1.53 I 1-53 3 -64 .O57
Grade by Test items 6.13 56 0.11 2.47 <.O01
Grade by Test type .29 4 0.07 .17 .95 1
Test items by Test type -50 14 0.04 .8 1 ,662
Grade by Items by Test type 2.3 8 56 0.04 .96 ,560
Mean scores for each 2-note, 3-note and Cnote patterns by grade level for both
Test 2 and 3 are provided in Table 27. The t-tests for paired samples between Test 2 and
Test 3 were dculated. Bold scores indicate significant differences (a=.05).
Aithough overall scores were higher in Test 2 than in Test 3, it would seem that
giving some guidance or none at al1 makes Lile difference in the performance of
children's ability to represent pitch direction as only three of the 15 categories elicited
significant differences.
5 8 Table 27. Mean pitch discrimination scores by gr& for both Test 2 and 3 of Expriment 2 acrosr
Note. BoId seores iadicate significant differences betwee Test 2 for
In order to examine trends betwan the scores for ail three tests in Expcriment 2
(Retest 1, n=l6 1 ; Test 2,n=135 ; Test 3, ~ 1 4 5 ) the total mean pitch discrimination
scores were graphed across the 15 categories (Figwe 13).
Figure 13. Total mean pitch &mcnmination scores across the 15 categones for Ejlpenmenî 2; Retest 1, T& 2, and Test 3.
The multiple choice test Pest 1) generdly received higher scores, especially for
the following patterns : 3- and 4-up, 3- and qdown, 3- and 440wn/same, and the 4-
samddown patterns. As for the two spontaneous notation tests Pest 2 and Test 3) there
was a strong consistency between the overall scores.
60 Mean seores of the 15 categories for al1 grades across all test types, both
Experiment I and 2, are shown in Table 28. Alsa included are the means for each 2; 3;
and Cnote patterns dong with each of the six directions. The means were ody
caladateci for the subjects b t took part in both expefiments. Thou* grade 1 means for
Test 3 were not caIculated b r any statistical tests involving Test 3, al1 other grade 1
scores that were used in above calculaiions are included h m .
6 1 Table 28.
Mean pitch discrimination s c m s by gr& for Er;periment 1 I 2 fw the 15 categories, for mmrber of pitches, dandfiK direction.
62 For overall cornparisons between grade levels for ExpMment 1 subjects
(N=441) and the same subjects for Experiment 2 pst-hoc anaiysis w m perforrned using
Tukey's test. In Experiment 1, grade 1 scores were significantly lower than al1 other
grades, grade 2 2 m were signifïcandy lower îhan p d s r 3,4,5, and 6, and grade 3
scores were significantly lower than grades 4,s. and 6. In Experiment 2, grade 1 scores
were significantly Iowa than ail other grades, and grade 2 and 3 scores were significaatly
lower than grades 4, 5, and 6.
The total mean pitch discrimination scores across the 15 categories for
Expenment 1 and Expriment 2 (N=441) were overail similar as shown in Figure 14.
The clearest differences were in the 3- and 4-up and the 3- and 4-down patterns, as weil
as, the 3-samdup pattern
Figure 14. Total means scores across the 15 caiegories for Ex,penment 1 and ail Tests of Eqxriment 2 (N=441).
Total mean pitch discrimination scores h r each 2-, 3-, and Cnote patterns
dong with each of the six directions for Expairnent 1 and Experiment 2 (N=441) also
had overail similar means with the exception of the up pattern as shown in Figure 15.
Figure 15. Total mean scores for each 2-, 3-, and 4mte potrems dong with each of tk six directions for Erperiment 1 I E q d m i m e n t 2 (N=44l).
Al1 mean pitch discrimination scores for Experiment 1 (Test 1) and Experiment 2
(Retest 1, Test 2, and Test 3) for the 15 categories, number of pitches, and direction are
presented in Table 29.
Discussion
The mlts of this study support previous findings that as children get oldw their
a b ' i at auditory tasks in-. The tasks ustd in this study were based on the
identification of pitch direction of 2-, 3-, and Cpitch patterns using both a multiple-choice
and a spontaneous notation test format. The developmental process seems to have an
e W on how children perceive and represent pitch direction since the means showed a
trend of increasing scores with each subsequent grade level in all four tests of the siudy.
Grade 1 achieved the lowest mean scores in al1 the melodic patterns, and grade 2 and 3
achieved significantiy lower mean scores than the older children on most melodic patterns.
No signifiant differences were found in the mean scores of children in grades 4 and older
implying that a plateau might be reached around the age of nine. Aiâhough one sixth-
grader achieved a very low overall score of 39%, most achieved scores higher than 90%.
The resuks of subsequent increases in means fiom grades 1 to 6 are present across
aiI the tests t h the chiidren took. This trend was found in the muitiple-choice test in both
Experiment 1 and 2 (Test 1 and Retest 1), which were administered 5 months apart. This
trend was again found in both spontaneous notation tests (Test 2 and 3). interestingly,
when examining the scores between the categories within each grade level the difference
between the mean scores for each melodic contour is much larger within the scores of the
younger children than the oIder ones.
The scores of the younger students are not oniy generdy Iower than the older
shidents but they also clearIy show larger fierences in scores berneen the melodic
patterns (Figure I,6,8, 11). The dierence among grade means for each meIoclic pattern
inmeases with the difliculty ofthe item. The mean scores for the pattern Csamdup
inmeases more drash'dy for each grade than, for example, the "same" patterns which
eiicited many accurate responses : 4-sarndup pattern : grade 1 = -49, grade 2 = 58,
grade 3 = -73, grade 4 = -86, grade 5 = -90, and grade 6 = -92; Csarne pattern : grade 1 =
-74, grade 2 = -90, grade 3 = -95, grade 4 = -97, gmde 5 = -97, grade 6 = -98 (Tabk 2)-
When the meiodic pattem is casier, the younger chiidren di have more dÏfEcuity in
66 perceiving pitch direction than the older chiidren, but the différence is lesser than with a
difliicult item, as seen with the Csame pattern.
lnitially, it was thought that the chüdren in grade one would have a disadvanrage
over the older chiidren in writing the pitch discrimination test because at the beginning of
the school year they were still not tiiily at ease with reading and writinp; skills. They did
not yet have the instilled reaction to read or mite 6om left to right and would in turn
commit an error when reaiiy the error could have been due to the direction the pattern was
read. By the t h e the îirst-graders took the test again in Mwch this should have no longer
been a problern. in îàct, the results did show an increase in their scores. However, since
the mean scores increased across al1 grades, it is diicuit to determine ifthe improvement
was the result of properly reading the pattern fiom left to right or, like the other chiidren,
an increase in the ability to perceive the pitch d i i o n .
As rnentioned above, Ers-graders are d l getting acquainted with the left to right
spatial concept used in reading and wciting. In the present study this concept was
important since it involveci both reading and writing the iconic representations of the
melodic pattern. In the multiple choice test (Test 1) ofken errors came fiom choosing the
contour which was the reversed pattern. For example, Uistead of choosing 2-up they
chose 2-down. in the fiee notation tests (Test 2 and 3) this also occured. ifthe melodic
pattern was 2-up, they wrote for an answer Z-down . Interestingly, chiidren up
to grade 5 made this type of reversal error suggesting that lack of fiuniliarity with readiig
6om left to right is not the only reason for the [ower grade one scores.
Possible reasons for the o v d higher mean scores in Retest 1 than in Test 1 could
be due to development or fidiarity with the test. in examining the possibility of a
developrnentai trend the foiiowùig data is of interest. Retest 1 mean scores for a particular
grade generally resemble the Test 1 mean scores of the grade above. For example, the
mean score for the 3-same pattern for grade 1 in Retest 1 is .88. For this same pattern in
Test 1 grade 2 children scored -91 and performed vecy closely to the grade 3 means in
their Retest; -97 versus .98 (Table 10). By grade 4 a plateau is reached for this item where
di higher levels achieved a perfect score of 1.00. However, ail grades achieved generally
higher mean scores in the Retest. It is likeiy that both development and fimiiiarity are
67 involved. in lwking at the mean scores in grades 1 to 4 for the 2down pattern there is
clear evidence of impmvement for the Retest scores. In this case though, the Retest
scores exceed the Test 1 scores of the next grade up: grade 1 = O .34, (R) -69; grade 2 =
Cr) .63, (R) -79; grade 3 = (J') -74, (R) -86; grade 4 (T) -8 5, (R) .98 (Table 10).
In Test 2 of E x p h e n t 2, the children's task was more di£Ecuit t h in Test 1
since they no bnger had a choice of answers but rather had to produce their own
representation of what they had heard. The mean scores, however, foUowed the same
rising trend fiorn grade 1 to 6 as in Test 1 of Experiment 1. Furthemore, no significant
cîiEerences were found ketween the two tests across any ofthe grades, showing very
simiiar mean scores between the two tests. When cornparhg Test 2 to Retest 1 in
Experiment 2 the trend of increasing scores fiom grade 1 to 6 is still apparent (Table 20).
It would seem that chiidren are able to perceive and represent pitch direction with similar
ease and that the developmental process for both tasks is comparable.
As in Tests 1 and 2, in Test 3, in which children were asked to spontaneously
notate what they had heard but without guideci instructions, there is agah a trend in
Uicreasing scores m s s grade ievels, with a plateau reached by grade 4. Given that in the
pilot test the task of representing the melodic contours without any specitic instructions
was veiy dif6cult for the chiidren it was expected that Test 3 scores would be lower than
Test 2 scores. Althou@ this was found to be tme, only three significant digerences were
found between the two tests across any of the grades (Table 27). in fact, mean scores of
the two tests were quite similar (Table 27 and 28). In this study, giving children some
guidance as to how to notate the pitches, as in Test 2, or giving them none at ail, as in
Test 3, made tittle Merence in their performance. However, al1 chiidren had been
exposed to the same initial test procedures when taking the multiple-choice test (Test 1) in
November, Surprisingly, not ail children remembered the tkst test they had written (Test J I) for rorne represented the pitchep by drawing quarter-note kons ( J ) instead of dots.
From the spontaneous notation tests (Test 2 and 3) it is easy to determine which melodic
contours were most di8ticult for the children to perceive. Lowest overail mean scores in
Test 2 and 3 alike were the 3- and 4-up, 3- and edown, 4-down/same, and 4-samdup
patterns. (Figure 13).
68 in examining the melodic patterns used in this study, general similarities were
found regardless of test type. Of interest was the decrease in scores across ail the grades
for the 3-note samdup pattem as shown in Figure 4 and 7. These low scores also o w e d
in the Cnote samdup pattem with the younger grades (Figure 1,6,8). Researchen have
found that children tend ta have more difiïculty singing in tune ascendiig patterns than
descending ones (Ramsey, 1983). Perhaps this is due ta chiidrenls dicuity in perceiving
ascendiig pitch direction. This is dicult to justifl however, because the 2-, 3-, and 4-up
patterns in this study were not necessarily found to be more dicul t to perceive than the
dom patterns. Though the same stimuli were used for d tests in this study, the items
were randomly ordered deleting the possible cause of order effect. Further research is
recommended to determine whether these hdimgs are unique to the present study and
why they occurred.
in comparing the mean scores between the six directions (up, down, same,
downhne, samdup, sameldown), regardless of number of notes, the "same" pattem was
always the one which was identifieci and represented more easily. The average scores
across grade Ieveis for the "same" pattem were as follows : Test 1 = 93% (Table 5) ;
Retest 1 = 96% (Figure 7) ; Test 2 = 96% (Table 15) ; Test 3 = 96% (ïable 23). ûther
than the "samel' pattem the other contours do not offer any clear trends. In examining the
mean scores in Table 29 it generally seems like the same-up, up, and dom-same pattem
are more dicul t for the children to perceive than the down and same-down pattern.
From the comparisons of the mean scores between the 2-, 3-, and Cnote pattem
it is unclear whether number of notes has any effect on childrensl ability to perceive pitch
direction. In examining the overall means for both Experiment 1 and 2 it wouid seem that
the 2-pitch items were slightly easier (Figure 15). Significance was found in the multipie-
choice test (Test 1) when comparing ail three kinds of patterns. Overall mean scores for
the 2-, 3-, and Cpitch patterns were -85, -90, and .87 respectively. These means included
oniy the scores for the "up", "down", and "same" patterns (Table 5)- suggesting that for
unidireciional patterns the 2-pitch pattern is the most dficult. No diierence wa. found
when comparing the 3- and Cnote patterns, which included mixed patterns (Table 7),
suggesting that giving chiidren more information does not necessarily yield better
69 responses. However, in the spontaneous notation tests (Test 2 and 3), the 2-pitch pattern
eiicited higher scores than the 3- then Cpitch patterns (Table 16 and 24), regardless of
whether the mixed items of 3 and 4 pitches were included in the comparisons. One reason
that no definite speculations regardmg the effect of number of notes can be made is due to
a problem in the initiai design of the study. AU children received the same order of test
items. Part 1 of the test began with aü the 2-note patterns, Part 2 continued with the 3-
note patterns, and Part 3 with the Cnote patterns. Furthemore, the order of the items
within each section never changed. Even if children did 6nd the 2-note patterns easier,
getting accustomed to the test itself may have caused them to make errors which they
wouid not have made if they were M e r dong in the test. Without a random order given
to each class within each grade of the three sections of the test and a random order of the
stimuli within each section, the effect of order of stimulus cannot be verifïed.
The meiodic patterns chosen for this study consisted of two, three, or four notes
taken h m the C major chord. The six contours chosen were up, down, same,
domisame, samdup, samddown. AU items were derived from these contours, each
having different intervais. For example, the intervals used for the pattern 2-up were a
major 3* (CE) and a p e r f i 5* (CG). When examinhg imervd sizu between patterns
with sirnilar contours a few trends were observed. The most recuning trend was found in
melodic patterns with large interval sizes. Many of these items elicited higher scores than
melodic patterns with Small intervals. This supports previous hâings that children's
ability to perceive the direction of a melody is a fiinction of the size of the rnelodic intervai
(Bentley, 1966; Dueii & Anderson, 1967; Wtlliarns, 1990). This large interval trend was
found in the overail mean scores of the 2-note patterns. For example, CG = .87 versus CE
= .74 and GC = .90 versus EC = -86 (Tables 8 and 16). Aiso, when comparing 3-note
items which incIuded the perfect 5' with items having srnaiier intemis, it was found that
larger intervai contours elicited higher mean scores. For example, GCC = -88 versus GEE
= -80; and GCC = .88 versus ECC = -57. In the Cnote items the foiiowhg examples 1 1 1 reinforces this trend : C C C E = -92 versus EEEC = -83; GGGC = -91 versus EEEC =
-83; GCCC = -85 versus GEEE = -76 (Table 9). in the samddown contour what
seemed to help perceive direction more eady was the initial stableness of the pattern. The
70 fact that the note was repeated either 2 or 3 times before movhg down seemed to have
helped the children. For example, GGC = -86 versus GC = -8 1 and EEC = -88 versus EC
= -80 (Table 8). When the repeated (Le., same) note was presented at the end of the
pattern, as in the down/sarne pattern, the stability factor no longer seemed effechve. For
exampfe, GGE = .83 versus GEE = ..80; EEC = .88 versus ECC = -57; EEEC = .83
versus ECCC = -59; GGGC = -91 versus GCCC = -85 (Table 8). Further examination of
the data regarding interval size revealed spurious relationships.
Many things that the chiidren did whiie writing the stimuli during the testing
sessions are worth desmiing, such as notation placement, notation procedure, and vocal
reproductions. In the spontaneous notation test (Test 2 and 3), some of the older chiidren
were concemed about how precisely the dots had to be placed in the box in respect to the
i n t e d sizes. For example, EEG and CCG both have the samdup contour but diEerent
interval sites (m3" and ~53. For each item on the test only one melodic pattern was
played for the ciddren. This meant that the chiidren were remembering previous stimuli
and realizing that some contours were sirnilar yet had different pitches. Though none of
the younger students asked about this, quite a number of children, even in grade one
(3û%), were meticulously placing the dots in the boxes accordmg to wider or smder
interval leaps. In the 4-note patterns some even placed their dot above or below the box
in order to keep the appropriate distance in relation to the interval size. Encouragingly,
this preciseness in the spontaneous notations suggests that chiidren are able to perceive
melodic contours quite accurately.
Some chiidren foiiowed each dot with their pencil (Test 1) or wrote each dot
(Test 2) whiie they listened to the stimulus. Others listened to the entire example before
writing their answers. Since development of melodic information processing seems to k t
involve awareness of rnelodic contour and then precision of interval size (Dowling, 1982),
perhaps the procedure in which the children notated their answers is in fiuiction to this
squence of development.
A few children were asked to stop whistling or humming after having heard the
stimulus. Research has show that chiidren's perceptual d i s c ~ t i o n abiities and their
performance skiils are significantly related to one another (Gromko, 1994). It would be of
71 value to conduct a simiiar study to the present one, in which subjects were asked to sing
back the pitches heard prior to cirding the appropriate box. The relationship between
performance and perception couId then be firther analyzed.
Summry
From results of this study it appears that:
1. The ability to perceive pitch direction across a variety of rnelodic contours dEers
across grade levels. Grade 1 acheived the lowest mean scores in aii the
melodic patterns regardless of test type. Grade 2 and 3 achieved si@cantly
lower mean scores than grades 4, 5, and 6 on most melodic patterns. A plateau
seerns to be reached around the age of nine (grade 4).
2. The results of subsequent increases in means fiom grades 1 to 6 are present across
ali the tests that the children twk suggesting that age is related to discrimination
of pitch direction.
3. Using a vimal aid is easier for chiidren to iden* pitch direction than to write
spontaneous notations. However, spontaneous notations give clearer
information to the researcher on which melodic contours children have more or
l e s îàcility.
4. The easiest melodic contour was very clearly the pattern with the same direction.
No clear trends were found for 0 t h contours. However, it was exarnined that the
me-up, up, and dom-same patterns were generally more diicult for the
chikiren to perceive than the down and same-down pattern.
5. Number of notes did not significantIy affect children's ability to perceive pitch
direction. However, there seems to be a tendency for contours with larger
intervals to be more eady perceived than contours with smaiier intervals.
Implications
There are implications fiom this study on children's ability to perceive pitch
direction and the use of visuai aids and spontaneous notations in the music classroom. in
this study, chiidren in grades one to six were able to perceive and represent a variety of
melodic contours. There was a clear increase in ability occurring within the 6rst three
grades with a plateau reached by grade four, indicaihg that most significant development
occurs between ages six and eight. These findhgs support the objectives of the Ministère
de l'Éducation du Québec that by age eight children should be able to recognize and use
movement pattern of melodies. Pitch discrimination experiences should be used
extensively with chiidren before the age nine to heIp with the naturai progress made in
these cruciai years of musical development.
in teaching the directionai concept, (ascending and descendmg), visual cues can be
associated with meiodic patterns as the proper terms higher and lower are presented.
Unidirectional patterns, such as the "same" patterns used in this shidy, need not be overiy
emphasized since they are easily perceived by chiidren as young as six. in generai the
wider intervals were easim to perceive. Wide intervals should be used in eariy experiences
in pitch discrimination with smaller intervais being gradually introduced. Short melodies
with simple contours and wide intervals should be introduced first.
Children have the abiity to represent short melodies through spontaneous notation
with guidance and should be provided with opportunity to do so. Students need to be
given ideas on how to represent what they hear. Music educators can aid in the
development of auditory perception through activities involving pitch perception.
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Appendix A and B
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