“Herminia Ibarra’s insightfulnewbook isan inspirational read foreveryonewhohasapassion for leadinganddevelopingpeople. In timesof rapidchange,herprofound research and hands-on approach of ‘transforming by doing’ isbroadeninghorizons.”

—JOEKAESER,CEO,SiemensAG

“In this provocative newbook,Herminia Ibarra challenges conventional thinkingonleadership.Shetakesintoaccountthehigh-velocity,shape-shiftingcontextthatwe all live in and offers an action-oriented, practical playbook on leadership,identity,andchange.Itisamust-readforthecontemporaryleader.”

—SUSANP.PETERS,SeniorVicePresident,HumanResources,GE

“HerminiaIbarrahascreatedavaluableandsuccessfulmodelforhelpingforward-thinkingprofessionalsmoveupthecorporateladder.Shehascreatedavividroadmapforachievingcareergrowthbasedon‘learnwhiledoing.’I’dencourageeveryprofessionallookingtogettothenextleveltoreadthisbook!”

—MARSHALLGOLDSMITH,author,NewYorkTimesandglobalbestsellerWhatGotYouHereWon’tGetYouThere

“Based on Herminia Ibarra’s extensive research and experience working withexecutives, Act Like a Leader, Think Like a Leader provides insightful andpracticaladviceabouthow todo thehardest thingofall—changeourselves.Byacting,asopposedtothinking,wecanallbecomebetterleaders.”

—LINDAA.HILL,WallaceBrettDonhamProfessorofBusinessAdministration,HarvardBusinessSchool;coauthor,BeingtheBoss:The3ImperativesforBecomingaGreatLeader

“Inordertobeabetterleader,youneedto‘actfirst,thenthink.’Readthisbooktofindoutwhatamostoriginalthinker,HerminiaIbarra,hasinmind.”

—CHARLOTTEBEERS,formerCEO,Ogilvy&Mather;formerUnderSecretaryforPublicDiplomacyandPublicAffairs,USDepartmentofState

“Intoday’sincreasinglyvolatileanduncertainworld,leadershipismoreimportantthanever.Butnewskillsarerequired.Thisintelligentandthought-provokingbookis for thosewhoreallywant tomakeadifference—thosewilling toact theirwayintoleadershipsituationstheymightpreviouslyhavethoughtthemselvesoutof.”

—PAULPOLMAN,CEO,Unilever

“Herminia Ibarraclears themythsabout leadershipwithher fresh,profound,yetdown-to-earthbookabout the importanceofactionover introspection.She’s theperfectcoach,showingaspiringleadershowtogetoverthemselvesandseetheworldaroundthem.Herstoriesandtoolsmakethisamust-readforblossomingasaleader.”

—ROSABETHMOSSKANTER,HarvardBusinessSchoolProfessor;best-sellingauthor,ConfidenceandSuperCorp

“Act Like a Leader, Think Like a Leader turns the leadership developmentparadigm on its head and makes a compelling argument that one becomes abetterleaderthrough‘outsight’asopposedtoinsight.”

—BETHAXELROD,SeniorVicePresident,HumanResources,eBayInc.

“Modernbusinessrequiresus to leaddifferently,yetconventionalapproachestogainingnewleadershipskillshaveproven less thaneffective.Fortunately, inActLike a Leader, Think Like a Leader, Herminia Ibarra provides us with awonderfullypracticalwayoftakingcontrolofourownleadershiptransformation.”

—TIMBROWN,CEO,IDEO;author,ChangebyDesign

“Herminia Ibarra reverses the polarity of how we understand and practiceleadership.Theresult isapowerful,compelling,andpracticalcall toarmsforallleaders. Leaders and would-be leaders alike should read this book and takeaction.”

—STUARTCRAINER,cofounder,Thinkers50

“An unprecedented combination of globalization, demographics, and depletedpipelines is generating a dramatic shortage of qualified leaders. This will be auniquechance for thosewho rise to theoccasionby redefining theirwork, theirnetworks,andtheiridentity.Ibarra’sextraordinarybookisthebestresourceIcanrecommendtocapturethisopportunityforanyprofessionalwhowantstobecomealeader,surviveassuch,andgrowintoamuchgreaterone.”

—CLAUDIOFERNÁNDEZ-ARÁOZ,SeniorAdviser,EgonZehnder;author,It’sNottheHowortheWhatbuttheWho

“Fromtheworld’sforemostauthorityonidentityatworkcomesthismust-readcalltoactionthatwillaccelerateyourleadershipdevelopmentinallpartsofyourlife.Ibarra powerfully demonstrates how ‘outsight’ trumps insight for producingsustainablepersonalgrowthandprovidespractical,easy-to-followlessonsonhowtouseit.”

—STEWARTD.FRIEDMAN,best-sellingauthor,LeadingtheLifeYouWantandTotalLeadership

“Withvividexamplesandthought-provokingresearch,Ibarratakesfutureleadersbeyondthenormalplatitudestoadeeperandricherunderstandingofwhatitistobecomeabetter leader.Heraction-orientatedapproach,profoundunderstandingofnetworks,andwisdomaboutidentitydeliverabookthatwillchangethewaywethinkaboutthetransitiontoleadership.”

—LYNDAGRATTON,ProfessorofManagementPractice,LondonBusinessSchool

“Leadershipisthemostelusiveanddifficultattributetopinpoint,butIbarranailsitwithapragmatic ‘Do’attitude.Her research-basedapproach is refreshingandamust-readfornewlymintedaswellaslong-in-the-toothleaders.”

—JEFFREYA.JOERRES,ExecutiveChairman,ManpowerGroup

“Ibarrawillhelp leadersdevelop theiractionsbefore their thoughts,which is thebestwaytolearn.Herreal-worldapproachisrefreshingandvaluable.”

—DAVIDKENNY,CEO,TheWeatherCompany

“Anyone—quite possibly everyone—can be a leader in the #SocialEra. Notbecause youhave the right title or look thepart but because you knowhow to

leadideas—anddowhatisinthisbook.ActLikeaLeader,ThinkLikeaLeaderisa smart, counter-intuitive guide to steppingup to leadership throughaction, notintrospection.”

—NILOFERMERCHANT,best-sellingauthor,TheNewHowand11RulesforCreatingValueinthe#SocialEra

“Ilovethisbook.Itfocusesonthe‘work’thebestleadersdotogetalittlebitbetterevery day. Act Like a Leader, Think Like a Leader is a practical and usefulcollectionofideasforbecomingmoreeffectiveasaleader.”

—SANDYOGG,OperatingPartner,Blackstone

“Haveyouhaditwithnavel-gazing?Inthisterrificbook,HerminiaIbarraofferstheantidote.Shereframestheleader’squestasaprocessoflookingoutward,ratherthan inward, for direction, development, and opportunity. Her conclusions—her‘outsights’—come from careful observation and current research and includesmart,practicalsuggestionsforexpandingyourleadershipopportunities.”

—DANIELH.PINK,best-sellingauthor,ToSellIsHumanandDrive:TheSurprisingTruthAboutWhatMotivatesUs

“The world is changing fast, and with it the expectations about howmany andwhatkindofpeopleneedtotransitionintoleadership.HerminiaIbarra’snewbookhelpstheseindividualsexpandtheirjobs,maketheircontributionsmorestrategic,diversifytheirnetworkstoconnectwithallstakeholders,andbecomeplayfulwithasenseofpurpose.”

—GILBERTPROBST,ManagingDirector,LeadershipOfficeandAcademicAffairs,WorldEconomicForum

“Defying conventional wisdom, Herminia Ibarra moves beyond the mantra ofmerely building on one’s traditional strengths and demonstrates the need forpersonal transformation and growth based on real-life experiences. Given themagnitudeoftoday’schallengesandthehugeimpactofleadershiponthefutureofoureconomiesandsocieties, this ‘call toaction’ for leadersshouldbewidelyheardandwillgreatlyenhancethepracticeofleadership.”

—RICHARDSTRAUB,President,PeterDruckerSocietyEurope

ACTLIKEALEADER,THINKLIKEALEADER

ACTLIKEALEADER,THINKLIKEALEADER

HERMINIAIBARRAHarvardBusinessReviewPress

Boston,Massachusetts

HBRPressQuantitySalesDiscounts

HarvardBusinessReviewPresstitlesareavailableatsignificantquantitydiscountswhenpurchasedinbulkfor client gifts, sales promotions, and premiums.Special editions, including bookswith corporate logos,customizedcovers,andlettersfromthecompanyorCEOprintedinthefrontmatter,aswellasexcerptsofexistingbooks,canalsobecreatedinlargequantitiesforspecialneeds.

Fordetailsanddiscountinformationforbothprintand

ebookformats,contactbooksales@harvardbusiness.org,

tel.800-988-0886,orwww.hbr.org/bulksales.

Copyright2015HerminiaIbarra

Allrightsreserved

PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica

Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedinorintroducedintoaretrievalsystem,ortransmitted,inanyform,orbyanymeans(electronic,mechanical,photocopying,recording,orotherwise),withoutthepriorpermissionofthepublisher.Requestsforpermissionshouldbedirectedtopermissions@hbsp.harvard.edu,ormailedtoPermissions,HarvardBusinessSchoolPublishing,60HarvardWay,Boston,Massachusetts02163.

Thewebaddressesreferencedinthisbookwereliveandcorrectatthetimeofthebook’spublicationbutmaybesubjecttochange.

LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData

Ibarra,Herminia,1961–

Actlikealeader,thinklikealeader/HerminiaIbarra.

pagescm

ISBN978-1-4221-8412-7(hardback)

1.Leadership.2.Executiveability.3.Organizationalchange.I.Title.

HD57.7.1352015

658.4’092–dc23

2014033424

ISBN:9781422184127

eISBN:9781422184134

ForHectorandmyparents

ContentsCHAPTER1

The“Outsight”Principle:HowtoActandThinkLikeaLeader

CHAPTER2RedefineYourJob

CHAPTER3NetworkAcrossandOut

CHAPTER4BeMorePlayfulwithYourSelf

CHAPTER5ManagetheStepping-UpProcess

CONCLUSIONActnow

Notes

Index

Acknowledgments

AbouttheAuthor

Thinkingisfordoing.

—S.T.Fiske

HowcanIknowwhatIthinkuntilIseewhatIdo?

—adaptedfromKarlWeick

CHAPTER1

The“Outsight”Principle:HowtoActandThinkLikeaLeader

“I’MLIKETHEFIREPATROL,”saysJacob,athirty-five-year-oldproductionmanagerforamidsizedEuropeanfoodmanufacturer.“Irunfromonecornertotheothertofixthings, just to keep producing.”1 To step up to a bigger leadership role in hisorganization, Jacob knows he needs to get out from under all the operationaldetailsthatarekeepinghimfromthinkingaboutimportantstrategicissueshisunitfaces.Heshouldbefocusedon issuessuchashowbest tocontinuetoexpandthe business, how to increase cross-enterprise collaboration, and how toanticipatethefast-changingmarket.Hissolution?Hetriestosetasidetwohoursof uninterrupted thinking time every day. As you might expect, this tactic isn’tworking.

Perhapsyou,likeJacob,arefeelingthefrustrationofhavingtoomuchonyourplateandnotenoughtimetoreflectonhowyourbusinessischangingandhowtobecome a better leader. It’s all too easy to fall hostage to the urgent over theimportant. But you face an even bigger challenge in stepping up to play aleadership role: you can only learnwhat you need to knowabout your job andaboutyourselfbydoingit—notbyjustthinkingaboutit.

WhytheConventionalWisdomWon’tGetYouVeryFarMosttraditionalleadershiptrainingorcoachingaimstochangethewayyouthink,asking you to reflect on who you are and who you’d like to become. Indeed,introspection and self-reflection have become the holy grail of leadershipdevelopment.Increaseyourselfawarenessfirst.Knowwhoyouare.Defineyourleadership purpose and authentic self, and these insights will guide yourleadership journey.There isanentire leadership cottage industrybasedon thisidea,withthousandsofbooks,programs,andcoursesdesignedtohelpyoufindyour leadership style, be an authentic leader, and play from your leadershipstrengthswhileworkingonyourweaknesses.2

Ifyou’vetriedthesesortsofmethods,thenyouknowjusthowlimitedtheyare.Theycangreatlyhelpyouidentifyyourcurrentstrengthsandleadershipstyle.Butaswe’ll see,yourcurrentwayof thinkingaboutyour jobandyourself isexactlywhat’skeepingyou fromsteppingup.You’ll need tochangeyourmind-set,andthere’sonlyonewaytodothat:byactingdifferently.

Aristotle observed that people become virtuous by acting virtuous: if you dogood, you’ll be good.3 His insight has been confirmed in a wealth of socialpsychology research showing that people change their minds by first changingtheir behavior.4 Simply put, change happens from the outside in, not from the

insideout(figure1-1).AsmanagementguruRichardPascaleputsit,“Adultsaremorelikelytoacttheirwayintoanewwayofthinkingthantothinktheirwayintoanewwayofacting.”5

Soit iswith leadership.Researchonhowadults learnshowsthat the logicalsequence—think, then act—is actually reversed in personal change processessuch as those involved in becoming a better leader. Paradoxically, we onlyincreaseourself-knowledgeintheprocessofmakingchanges.6Wetrysomethingnewandthenobservetheresults—howitfeelstous,howothersaroundusreact—andonlylaterreflectonandperhapsinternalizewhatourexperiencetaughtus.Inotherwords,weact likea leaderandthenthink likea leader(thusthetitleofthebook).FIGURE1-1

Becomingaleader:thetraditionalsequence(think,thenact)versusthewayitreallyworks(act,thenthink)

HowLeadersReallyBecomeLeadersThroughout my entire career as a researcher, an author, an educator, and anadviser, I have examined how people navigate important transitions at work. Ihave written numerous Harvard Business Review articles on leadership andcareer transitions (along with Working Identity, a book on the same topic).Interestingly, most of what I’ve learned about transitions goes againstconventionalwisdom.

The fallacy of changing from the inside out persists because of the wayleadership is traditionally studied. Researchers all too often identify high-performing leaders, innovative leaders, or authentic leadersand thenset out tostudywhotheseleadersareorwhattheydo.Inevitably,theresearchersdiscoverthat effective leaders are highly self-aware, purpose-driven, and authentic. Butwithlittleinsightonhowtheleadersbecamethatway,theresearchfallsshortofprovidingrealisticguidanceforourownpersonaljourneys.

Myresearch focuses insteadon thedevelopmentofa leader’s identity—howpeoplecometoseeanddefinethemselvesasleaders.7Ihavefoundthatpeoplebecome leaders by doing leadership work. Doing leadership work sparks twoimportant, interrelated processes, one external and one internal. The externalprocessisaboutdevelopingareputationforleadershippotentialorcompetency;itcan dramatically change howwe see ourselves. The internal process concernstheevolutionofourowninternalmotivationsandself-definition;itdoesn’thappen

inavacuumbutratherinourrelationshipswithothers.

When we act like a leader by proposing new ideas, making contributionsoutsideourareaofexpertise,orconnectingpeopleandresourcestoaworthwhilegoal(tocitejustafewexamples),peopleseeusbehavingasleadersandconfirmasmuch. The social recognition and the reputation that develop over timewithrepeated demonstrations of leadership create conditions for what psychologistscall internalizing a leadership identity—coming to see oneself as a leader andseizing more and more opportunities to behave accordingly. As a person’scapacityforleadershipgrows,sotoodoesthelikelihoodofreceivingendorsementfromallcornersoftheorganizationby,forexample,beinggivenabiggerjob.Andthecyclecontinues.

This cycleof acting likea leaderand then thinking likea leader—of changefromtheoutsidein—createswhatIcalloutsight.

TheOutsightPrincipleFor Jacob andmany of the other people whose stories form the basis for thisbook, deep-seated ways of thinking keep us from making—or sticking to—thebehavioraladjustmentsnecessaryforleadership.Howwethink—whatwenotice,believetobethetruth,prioritize,andvalue—directlyaffectswhatwedo. In fact,inside-outthinkingcanactuallyimpedechange.

Our mind-sets are very difficult to change because changing requiresexperience inwhatwe are least apt to do.Without the benefit of an outside-inapproach tochange,our self-conceptionsand thereforeourhabitualpatternsofthoughtandactionarerigidlyfencedinbythepast.Noonepigeonholesusbetterthanweourselvesdo.Theparadoxofchangeisthattheonlywaytoalterthewaywethinkisbydoingtheverythingsourhabitualthinkingkeepsusfromdoing.

Thisoutsightprincipleisthecoreideaofthisbook.Theprincipleholdsthattheonlywaytothink likea leader istofirstact: toplungeyourself intonewprojectsand activities, interact with very different kinds of people, and experiment withunfamiliarwaysofgettingthingsdone.Thosefreshlychallengingexperiencesandtheir outcomes will transform the habitual actions and thoughts that currentlydefineyourlimits.Intimesoftransitionanduncertainty,thinkingandintrospectionshould follow action andexperimentation—not vice versa.Newexperiences notonly change how you think—your perspective on what is important and worthdoing—butalsochangewhoyoubecome.Theyhelpyouletgoofoldsourcesofself-esteem,oldgoals,andoldhabits,notjustbecausetheoldwaysnolongerfitthesituationathandbutbecauseyouhavediscoverednewpurposesandmorerelevantandvaluablethingstodo.

Outsight,muchmorethanreflection,letsyoureshapeyourimageofwhatyoucandoandwhatisworthdoing.Whoyouareasaleaderisnotthestartingpointonyourdevelopment journey,but rather theoutcomeof learningaboutyourself.

Thisknowledgecanonlycomeaboutwhenyoudonewthingsandworkwithnewanddifferentpeople.Youdon’tunearthyour trueself; itemerges fromwhatyoudo.

Butwegetstuckwhenwetrytoapproachchangetheotherwayaround,fromtheinsideout.Contrarytopopularopinion,toomuchintrospectionanchorsusinthepastandamplifiesourblinders,shieldingusfromdiscoveringour leadershippotentialandleavingusunpreparedforfundamentalshiftsinthesituationsaroundus (table 1-1). This is akin to looking for the lost watch under the proverbialstreetlamp when the answers to new problems demand greater outsight—thefresh,externalperspectivewegetwhenwedodifferent things.ThegreatsocialpsychologistKarlWeickput itverysuccinctly: “Howcan Iknowwho Iamuntil IseewhatIdo?”8

TABLE1-1

Thedifferencebetweeninsightandoutsight

Insight Outsight•Internalknowledge •Externalknowledge•Pastexperience •Newexperience•Thinking •Acting

LostinTransitionTo help put this idea of outsight into perspective, let’s return to Jacob, theproductionmanagerofafoodmanufacturer.Afteraprivateinvestorboughtouthiscompany,Jacob’sfirstprioritywastoguideoneofhisoperationsthroughamajorupgrade of the manufacturing process. But with the constant firefighting andcross-functionalconflictsatthefactories,hehadlittletimetothinkaboutimportantstrategicissueslikehowtobestcontinueexpandingthebusiness.

Jacob attributed his thus-far stellar results to his hands-on and demandingstyle. But after a devastating 360-degree feedback report, he became painfullyaware that his direct reports were tired of his constantmicromanagement (andbadtemper)and thathisbossexpectedhimtocollaboratemore,and fight less,with his peers in the other disciplines, and that he was often the last to knowaboutthefutureinitiativeshiscompanywasconsidering.

Although Jacob’s job title hadnot changed since thebuyout,whatwasnowexpectedofhimhadchangedbyquiteabit.Jacobhadcomeintotherolewithanestablished track recordof turningaround factories,oneata time.Nowhewasmanagingtwo,andthesecondplantwasnotonly twiceas largeasanyhehadevermanaged,butalsoinadifferentlocationfromthefirst.Andalthoughhehadenjoyed a strong intracompany network and staff groups with whom to tossaroundnewideasandkeepabreastofnewdevelopments,henowfoundhimselfonhisown.Adistantbossandfewpeersinhisgeographicregionmeanthehad

no one with whom to exchange ideas about increasing cost efficiencies andmodernizingtheplants.

Despite the scathing evaluation from his team, an escalating fight with hiscounterpart in sales, and being obviously out of the loop at leadership teammeetings,Jacobjustworkedharderdoingmoreofthesame.Hewasproudofhisrigorandhands-onapproachtofactorymanagement.

Jacob’spredicamentsaretypical.Hewastiredofputtingoutfiresandhavingtoapproveand followuponnearlyeverymovehispeoplemade,andheknewthat they wanted more space. He wanted instead to concentrate on the morestrategicissuesfacinghim,butitseemedthateverytimehesatdowntothink,hewasinterruptedbyanewproblemtheteamwantedhimtosolve.Jacobattributedtheirpassivitytothetop-downcultureinstilledbyhispredecessor,butfailedtoseethathehimselfwasnotsteppinguptoado-it-yourselfleadershiptransition.

TheDo-It-YourselfTransition:WhyOutsightIsMoreImportantThanEverA promotion or new job assignment used to mean that the time had come toadjustorevenreinventyour leadership.Todaymorethanever,major transitionsdonotcomeneatly labeledwithanewjobtitleorformalmove.Subtle(andnot-so-subtle) shifts in your business environments create new—but not alwaysclearly articulated—expectations for what and how you deliver. This kind ofambiguityabout the timingof the transitionwas thecase for Jacob.Figure 1-2,prepared from a 2013 survey of my executive program alumni, shows howmanagerialjobshavechangedbetween2011and2013.FIGURE1-2

Howmanagers’jobsarechanging,from2011to2013

Thepercentageof respondents saying theseare the responsibilities that have changedover thepast twoyears

Source:Author’ssurveyof173INSEADexecutiveprogramalumni,conductedinOctober2013.

The changes in managerial responsibilities are not trivial and requirecommensurateadjustment.Yetamongthepeoplewhoreportedmajorchangesinwhatwasexpectedofthem,only47percenthadbeenpromotedinthetwoyearspreceding the survey. The rest were nevertheless expected to step up to asignificantlybigger leadershiprolewhilestillsitting inthesamejobsandholdingthesame titles, likeJacob.Thisneed tostepup to leadershipwith littlespecificoutsiderecognitionorguidanceiswhatIcallthedo-it-yourselftransition.

Nomatter how long youhavebeendoing your current job andhow far youmight be from a next formal role or assignment, this do-it-yourself environmentmeans that today,more thanever,whatmadeyousuccessful so far caneasilykeepyou fromsucceeding in the future.Thepaceofchange isever faster,andagility isatapremium.Mostpeopleunderstand the importanceofagility: in thesamesurveyofexecutiveprogramalumni,fully79percentagreedthat“whatgotyouherewon’tgetyouthere.”9Butpeoplestillfindithardtoreinventthemselves,becausewhattheyarebeingaskedtodoclasheswithhowtheythinkabouttheirjobsandhowtheythinkaboutthemselves.

Themoreyour current situation tilts towardado-it-yourself environment, themoreoutsightyouneedtomakethetransition(seethesidebar“Self-Assessment:Is YourWork Environment Telling You It’s Time toChange?” at the end of thischapter). If you don’t create new opportunities within the confines of your “dayjob,”theymaynevercomeyourway.

HowThisBookEvolvedThisbookdescribeswhatoutsightisandhowtoobtainitanduseittostepuptoabiggerleadershiprole,nomatterwhatyou’redoingtoday.Theideasinthisbookarethesameones inTheLeadershipTransition,anexecutiveeducationcoursethat I developedand taught for over ten years at INSEAD.Nearly five hundredparticipantsfromoverthirtycountrieshavegonethroughtheprogram.Ihavereadtheir sponsors’ evaluations, analyzed the participants’ 360-degree feedback,listened to their challenges, and watched the evolution of their personal goals,fromthetimetheleadersfirstarrivetowhentheyreturnforasecondroundthreemonths later. From theearliest daysof teachingTheLeadershipTransition,myINSEAD colleagues and I have used the outsight ideas to guide participantssuccessfullythroughtheirtransitions.

Boththisbookandmycoursearebasedonmydecadesofresearchonworktransitions. The notion of outsight that is central here originated in someofmyearlierworkonhowprofessionalssteppedupfromprojectmanagementtoclientadvisoryservicesandonhowpeoplechangecareers.10 Inbothareasofstudy,Ifound that introspection didn’t help people figure out how to do a completelydifferentjobormoveintoacompletelydifferentcareer—orevenfigureoutiftheywantedto.Thisfindingalsoheldforpeoplesteppinguptoleadership.

Manyoftheideasabouthowtoincreaseoutsightalsocameoutofmyoriginal

research.Forexample,myPhDthesisonwhysomepeople’sideasforinnovativeproducts and processesmeet fertile ground, and why other ideas don’t, led tosomeleadership-networkingconceptsdiscussedhere.11

Asmy leadership course evolved, I zoomed in on two cohorts for more in-depth interviews.Aresearchassistantand I interviewed the thirtyparticipants inoneyear’sprogram—alltheparticipantsfromdifferentcompaniesandindustries.We also wrote case studies about a few participants; the case studies are thebasisforsomeofthestoriesyouwillreadinthisbook.Yearslater,weinterviewedasecondcohort,agroupof fortyhigh-potentialmanagersstrivingtomoveuptothe next level in a large consumer-goods company; we hoped to flesh out thepitfallsandsuccessfulstrategiesinvolvedinsteppingup.

Ialso tookadvantageofmanyopportunities tovalidateoradaptmy theoriesaboutwhatittakestostepuptobiggerleadershiproles.IsharedmyfindingswithdozensofcompaniesandmanyalumniandHRandtalentmanagementgroups.Ispokewithheadhuntersabout thealarminglyhighfailureratesof theexecutivesthey placed, and I met with leadership development specialists trying to put inplacebetterpracticesintheircompanies.Iadaptedmycourseaccordingly,inlightofalltheseinputs.In2013,Iconductedasurveyofmyalumnitolearnmoreabouthowtheirjobswerechanging,whatleadershipcompetenciestheleadersthoughtwerenecessary,whatwashelpingthemtostepup,andwhattheystillfoundhard.The result is thisbookabout outsight andhowwecan increaseouroutsight tobecomebetterleaders.FIGURE1-3

Theoutsightprinciple:becomingaleader,fromtheoutsidein

HowOutsightWorksThe stepping-up guidelines detailed in this book are based on three critical

sources of outsight. First is the kind of work you do. Second, new roles andactivities put you in contact with new and different people who see the worlddifferentlythanyoudo.Rethinkingyourselfcomeslastinthisframework,becauseyoucanonlydosoproductivelywhenyouarechallengedbynewsituationsandinformedbynewinputs.Developingoutsightisnotaone-shotdealbutaniterativeprocessoftestingoldassumptionsandexperimentingwithnewpossibilities.

Sothebestplacetobeginisbymakingchangesinhowyoudoyourjob,whatkindsofrelationshipsyouform,andhowyoudowhatyoudo(figure1-3).Theseoutsightsourcesformatripod,workingtogethertodefineandshapeyouridentityasaleader(ortoholdyouback).Ignoreanyoneofthelegs,andthefoundationisnot stable. That’s why no amount of self-reflection can create change withoutimportantchangestowhatyoudoandwithwhomyoudoit.

How,specifically,dotheseoutsightprincipleswork?Let’sexamineeachofthethreeessentialsourcesofleadershipoutsight,usingJacobasanexample,toseesomeconcreteactions.

RedefineYourJobAsJacob’sintuitiontoldhim,steppinguptoleadershipimplies,firstandforemost,shiftinghowhespendshistime.Buttwohoursofquiettimeinhisofficeisn’ttherightinvestment.Infact,mostoftherequiredshiftsinwhatJacobdoesmusttakehimoffthefactoryfloor,wherehisofficeislocated.

In today’s fast-paced business world, value is created much morecollaboratively, outside the lines of self-contained groups and organizationalboundaries.12 People who can not only spot but also mobilize others aroundtrendsinarapidlychangingenvironmentreapthegreatestrewards—recognition,impact,andmobility.Tobesuccessful,Jacobmust first redefinehis job,shiftingfroma focuson improvingcurrent factoryoperations tounderstanding the firm’snew environment and creating a shared strategic vision among his functionalpeers so that hismanufacturing operation is better aligned with organizational-level priorities. Thework involved in understanding how his industry is shifting,howhisorganizationcreatesvalue,howvaluecreationmaychangeinthefuture,andhowhecaninfluencethepeoplewhoarecriticaltocreatingvalue—whetherornottheyareinsidehisgrouporfirm—isverydifferentfromthemanyfunctionalactivitiesthatcurrentlyoccupyhistime.

Asmentionedearlier,Jacobwantedtoconcentrateonthecapitalinvestmentshiscompanywould requireover thenext twoyears,buthehadno time for thissort of introspection. He complained about “the fire patrol” of overseeing hispeopleandhis production facilities.But he knew that his bossexpectedhim tocraft a strategy based on a view of the overall business as opposed to theperspectiveofasuper–factorydirectorandtoactivelyworktobringonboardtherelevantstakeholders.

Jacob’sfocussofarhadbeensuccessfulandistypicalofmanymanagersat

hisstageofdevelopment.Early inourcareers,weaccomplish thingswithin theconfinesofourspecialtygroups.Wemakethetransitiontomanagingtheworkofothers,usuallywithinourownfunctionalortechnicalareas,typicallyindomainsinwhichwe are expert. But aswe start tomove into bigger leadership roles, thepicture starts to change radically.13When I asked the participants inmy surveywhatcompetenciesweremostcriticaltotheirleadershipeffectiveness,theylistedcompetencies that required a great deal of outsight focus (figure 1-4). But notsurprisingly,57percentofthesamemanagersalsoresponded“somewhatorverytrue” to the statement “I let the routine and operational aspects of my workconsumetoomuchofmytime.”

As psychologists remind us, knowingwhatwe should be doing and actuallydoing it are twoverydifferent things.14Shifting fromdriving results ourselves toproviding strategic direction for others is no easy task. It requires collaboratingacross organizational units or functions instead of mostly working within theconfinesofourowngroupsor functions. Itmeans refocusingourattention fromhaving good technical ideas to getting buy-in for those ideas froman extendedand diverse set of stakeholders. Ultimately, we are moving away fromimplementing directives that are handed down from above tomaking decisionsunderconditionsofuncertaintyorambiguityabouthowthebusinesswillevolve.Alloftheseshiftsdependonustochangeourprioritiesandpointsofviewaboutwhatmattersmost.Onlythendoweactuallystartchangingthewayweallocateourtime.Theonlyplacetobeginisbymovingawayfromthecomfortandurgencyoftheolddailyroutine.FIGURE1-4

ThemostimportantleadershipcompetenciesThepercentageofrespondentssayingtheseleadershipabilitiesareimportantorextremelyimportanttobeingeffectivetoday

Source:Author’ssurveyof173INSEADexecutiveprogramalumni,conductedinOctober2013.

Chapter2 furtherdevelopsthe ideaof redefiningyour jobas thefirststeptoincreasingyouroutsight.Itarguesthattheplacetostartsteppinguptoleadershipischangingthescopeofyour“day job”awayfromthetechnicalandoperational

demands that currently consume you in favor of more strategic concerns.Prioritizingactivitiesthatmakeyoumoreattunedtoyourenvironmentoutsideyourgroupandfirm,grabbingopportunitiestoworkonprojectsoutsideyourmainareaof expertise, expanding your professional contributions from the outside in, andmaintainingslackinarelentlessdailyschedulewillgiveyoutheoutsightyouneedtothinkmorelikealeader.

NetworkAcrossandOutIt’shardtodevelopstrategicforesightonthefactoryfloor.Aswesaw,tostepupto leadership, Jacob needed to see the big picture, to spend less time “on thedance floor” and more time “up on the balcony,” as Harvard professor RonaldHeifetz describes it.15 Jacob would thus also have to change the web ofrelationshipswithinwhichheoperatestospendmoretimeoutside.

Ultimately,heneededtounderstandthatthemostvaluablerolehecouldplaywouldbeabridgeorlinchpinbetweentheproductionenvironmentandtherestoftheorganization.Likemanysuccessfulmanagers,hehadgrownaccustomedtogettingthingsdonethroughareliableandextensivesetofmostlyinternalworkingrelationships; these had paid off handsomely over the years. For Jacob, theseoperational networks were very useful for exchanging job-related information,solvingproblemswithinhisfunctionalrole,andfindinggoodpeopletostaffteams.Buttheystoppedshortofpreparinghimforthefuture,becausetheydidnotreachoutsidethewallsofhiscurrentmind-set.

When challenged to think beyond their functional specialty and to concernthemselveswithstrategicissuestosupporttheoverallbusiness,manymanagersdonotimmediatelygraspthatthesearealsorelational—andnotjustanalytical—tasks. Nor do they easily understand that exchanges and interactions with adiversearrayofcurrentandpotentialstakeholdersarenotdistractions fromrealwork,butareactuallyattheheartofthemanagers’newroles.

Buthowdowecometothinkmorecross-functionallyandstrategically?Wheredowegettheinsightandconfidenceweneedtomakeimportantdecisionsunderconditionsofuncertainty?Asexperiencedleadersunderstand,lateralandverticalrelationshipswithotherfunctionalandbusinessunitmanagers—allpeopleoutsideourimmediatecontrol—areacriticallifelineforfiguringouthowourcontributionsfit into theoverallpictureandhowtosellour ideas, learnabout relevant trends,andcompete for resources.Only in relation topeopledoing these thingsdowecometounderstandandvaluewhattheydoandwhy.Theseoutsightshelpustofigure out what our own focus should be—and therefore, which tasks we candelegate, which ones we can ignore and, which ones deserve our personalattention.

Ournetworksarecritical forour leadershipdevelopment foranother reason,too. When it comes to learning how to do new things, we also need advice,feedback,andcoachingfrompeoplewhohavebeenthereandcanhelpusgrow,

learn,andadvance.Weneedpeople torecognizeourefforts, toencourageandguide early steps, and tomodel theway. It helps a lot to have some points ofreferencewhenwearenotsurewherewearegoing.

But the sad state of affairs, however, is thatmost of the executives I teachhave networks composed of contacts primarily within their functions, units, andorganizations—networksthathelpthemdotoday’s(oryesterday’s)jobbutfailtohelpthemstepupto leadership. InJacob’scase,hewasonhisowntofigure itout.Similarly,manyofthepeoplewhocometomycoursesalsoreportthattheyarenotgettingthehelptheyneedfrominsidetheirdepartmentsandcompanies.Mysurveyshowsthatthebiggestsourcesofhelpwereexternal.Themanagers’bosses or predecessors came in fourth place as bases of support, putting themanagerssquarelyinaclassicdo-it-yourselftransition(figure1-5).

Infact,only10percentoftheparticipantsanswered“verytrue”whenaskedifthey had amentor or sponsor who looked out for their career. Stepping up toleadership, therefore,meansnotonly learning tododifferent thingsand to thinkdifferentlyaboutwhatneeds tobedonebutalso learning indifferent,moreself-guided, peer-driven, and external ways. In brief, it means actively creating anetworkfromwhichyoucanlearnasmuchas,ifnotmorethan,youcanfromyourboss.FIGURE1-5

Expandyournetworkoutandacross:helpforbecomingamoreeffectiveleaderLookingoutside: thepercentageof respondents ratingeachof the followinghelpful toextremelyhelpful inbecomingamoreeffectiveleader

Source:Author’ssurveyof173INSEADexecutiveprogramalumni,conductedinOctober2013.

Chapter 3 shows how much good leadership depends on having the rightnetworkofprofessionalrelationships.Itdiscusseshowtobranchoutbeyondthestrongandcomfortingtiesoffriendsandcolleaguestoconnecttopeoplewhocanhelpyouseeyourworkandyourselfinadifferentlight.Evenifyoudon’tyetvaluenetworking activities, are swamped with more immediate job demands, andsuspectanyhowthatnetworkingismostlyself-servingmanipulation,afewsimplestepswilldemonstratewhyyoucan’taffordnottobuildconnectiveadvantage.

BeMorePlayfulwithYourSelf

Toreallychangewhathedoesandthenetworkhereliesontodoit,Jacobwouldhavetoplayaroundabitwithhisownideasabouthimself.Boththescopeofhisjobandthenatureofhisworkingrelationshipswereaproductofhisself-concept—his likes and dislikes, strengths and weaknesses, stylistic preferences andcomfort zone.Nowheneeded toshift fromhis familiar,hands-on,anddirectiveleadershipstyletoastyleinwhichhewoulddelegatemoreoftheday-to-dayworktohisteamandbegintocollaboratemoreextensivelywiththeotherdivisions.Theimproved empowerment and communication he had been trying so hard toimplementdidn’tstick,becausetheyclashedwithhissenseofauthenticself.

Toanevengreaterextentthandoingadifferentjobandestablishingadifferentnetworkofworkrelationships,peopleintransitiontobiggerleadershiprolesmustreinventtheirownidentities.Theymusttransformhowtheyseethemselves,howothersseethem,andwhatworkvaluesandpersonalgoalsdrivetheiractions.

Whilethepersonaltransformationtypicallyinvolvesashiftinleadershipstyle,it ismuchmore than that.Consider the following:50percentof themanagers Isurveyed responded “somewhat or very true” to the statement “My leadershipstylesometimesgetsinthewayofmysuccess.”InJacob’scase,headmittedthatif results lagged behind his expectations, hewould often leap into the situationwithout allowing the team members the time and space to arrive at their ownsolution.WhenmanagerslikeJacobareaskedtoconsiderwhat isholdingthemback from broadening their stylistic repertory,many almost invariably reveal anunflinching results orientation and commitment to delivering at all costs. Thisorientation not only hasmade them successful but also constitutes the core oftheirprofessionalidentities.Themanagerswanttochange,butthechangeisnotwhotheytrulyare.

For example, among the competencies rated as most critical for effectiveleaders,mysurvey respondents listed “motivatingand inspiring”as thesecond-mostimportant.Jacobalsolistedthesame,althoughhewasnotratedveryhighlybyhisteamonthiscapacity.Motivationandinspiration,however,aren’ttoolsyoucanselectoutofatoolboxby,say,increasingyourcommunicationtokeeppeoplebetterinformed.Instead,thecapacitytomotivateandinspiredependsmuchmoreon your ability to infuse the work with meaning and purpose for everyoneinvolved.16When thiscapabilitydoesn’tcomenaturally,you tend tosee itasanexercise inmanipulation. Likewise, coming to gripswith the political realities oforganizationallifeandmanagingthemeffectivelyandauthenticallyareamongthebiggesthurdlesoftransitioningtoabiggerleadershiprole.17Althoughmanyoftheaspiring leaderswhom I teachcite theability to influencewithoutauthorityasacritical competence, many leaders are not as effective as they might be at it,becausetheyviewtheexerciseofinfluenceasplayingpolitics.

Things like stretching outside your stylistic comfort zone and reconcilingyourself to the inherently political nature of organizational life, in turn, require amore playful approach thanwhat youmight adopt if you see it as “working on

yourself.”Whenyou’replayingwithvariousself-concepts,you favorexploration,withholding commitment until you knowmore about where you are going. Youfocuslessonachievementthanonlearning.Ifitdoesn’tworkforyou,thenyoutrysomethingelseinstead.

Chapter4explainswhytryingtoadapt tomanyof thechallenges involved ingreaterleadershiprolescanmakeyoufeellikeanimpostor.Noonewantstoloseherselfintheprocessofchange,yettheonlywaytostartthinkinglikealeaderistoactlikeone,evenwhenitfeelsinauthenticatfirst.Thischaptershowshowyoucanstopstraitjacketingyouridentityintheguiseofauthenticity.Theout-sightyougain from trying to be someone you’re not (yet) helps you more than anyintrospectionabouttheleaderyoumightbecome.

SteppingUpSteppinguptoplayabiggerleadershiproleisnotaneventoranoutcome.It’saprocessthatyouneedtounderstandtomakeitpayoff.

Self-Assessment:IsYourWorkEnvironmentTellingYouIt’sTimetoChange?

YES NO

1.Myindustryhaschangedalotoverthepastfewyears. ______ ______2.Mycompany’stopleadershiphaschanged. ______ ______3.Mycompanyhasgrownorreducedsignificantlyinsizerecently. ______ ______4.Weareundergoingamajorchangeeffort. ______ ______5.Wehavenewcompetitorswedidnothaveafewyearsago. ______ ______6.Technologyischanginghowwedobusiness. ______ ______7.Ineedtointeractwithmorestakeholderstodomyjob. ______ ______8.Ihavebeeninthesamejobformorethantwoyears. ______ ______9.Ihavebeensentforleadershiptraining. ______ ______10.Ourbusinessisbecomingmuchmoreinternational. ______ ______

TotalScoreAssesswhetheryourworkenvironment is tellingyou it’s timetochangeby totaling thenumberof“yes”responses:

8–10 Yourenvironmentischangingdramatically,andyourleadershipmustchangeaccordingly.

4–7 Yourenvironmentischanginginimportantways,andwithit,theexpectationsforyoutostepuptoleadershiparegrowing.

3orbelow Yourenvironmentisexperiencingmoderateshifts;prepareforchangingexpectationsofyou.

Between realizing that you’re in a do-it-yourself transition and actuallyexperiencingtheaccumulatedbenefitsofthenewout-sightsyou’regettingliesastepping-upprocessthatislesslinearthanwhatyouwouldexpect.Thetransitioninvolvedisrarelytheupwardandonwardprogressionyou’dlike;nordoesittendtounfoldaccordingtoanytheoreticallogic.Thetransitionmovesforwardandthenfallsbackwardrepeatedly,butatsomepoint, ifyoulearnenoughalongtheway,thetransitionsustainsitsmomentum.

Mostof the leadershipbookswritten forpeoplewhowant toget fromA toBsimplytellyouwhatBis:whatgreatleadershiplookslike.Or,theytellyouhowtoidentifyagoodBforyouandthenhowtomeasurethegapbetweenyourcurrentAand thatB.Then theygiveyoua fewsimple tactics thatsupposedlywillhelpyoufillthegap.Fewofthebooksguideyouthroughthecomplicationsinbetween.

The complex step-up process is the subject of chapter 5. Describing thepredictablesequenceofstagesthatchangethewayyouthinkaboutAandB,thechapterpreparesyouforthecomplicationsthatwillinevitablyariseinbetween.Ithelpsyougetunstuckwhenproblemsarise(theywill)andbuildsafoundationthatsustains more enduring changes. You’ve succeeded in stepping up when thebiggerchangesthatensuearedrivenbyanewclarityofselfthat is informedbyyourdirectleadershipexperience.

HowmuchareyoulikeJacob?Howmuchhasthewayyouworkevolvedoverthepast couple of years? How about your network—is it growing and extendingbeyondtheusualsuspects?Andhowmuchareyouwillingtochallengethewayyouseeyourself?Theactionand thinking shifts that all of us, like Jacob,mustmakeaswe step up to bigger leadership roles are the subject of the next fourchapters.

JackWelchfamouslysaid,“Whentherateofchangeoutsideexceedstherateofchangeinside,theendisinsight.”18Beforeyoureadahead,takeamomenttoevaluate the extent to which changes in your work environment signal that thetimehascomeforado-it-yourselftransition(seethesidebar“Self-Assessment:IsYourWorkEnvironmentTellingYouIt’sTimetoChange?”).

CHAPTER1SUMMARY

✓Tostepuptoleadership,youhavetolearntothinklikealeader.✓Thewayyouthinkisaproductofyourpastexperience.✓Theonlywaytochangehowyouthink,therefore,istododifferentthings.✓Doingthings—ratherthansimplythinkingaboutthem—willincreaseyouroutsightonwhatleadershipisallabout.

✓Outsightcomesfroma“tripod”ofsources:newwaysofdoingyourwork

(yourjob),newrelationships(yournetwork),andnewwaysofconnectingtoandengagingpeople(yourself).

✓Sustainablechangeinyourleadershipcapacityrequiresshiftsonallthreelegsofthetripod.

CHAPTER2

RedefineYourJobWHEN I ASK THE MANAGERS and other professionals who attend my classes howmanyofthemareinvolvedincreatingchangeofsomesortintheirorganizations,closeto90percentraisetheirhands.WhenIaskthesamemanagersabouttheresults of their efforts, most admit that the results leave much to be desired.Inertia, resistance, habitual routines, and entrenched cultures slow theparticipants’progressateveryturn.

There isnodoubt that thecapacity to leadchange isat the topof the listofleadership competencies. But in today’s fast-paced and resource-constrainedenvironment,manyof usaredelivering100percenton thecurrentdemandsofour jobs.Notonly is there little time to thinkabout thecurrentbusiness,butwecannoteasilycarveoutthetimetosensenewtrendscomingdownthelineortodevelopourselvesfurtherforafuturemove.That’swhyamajorityofthemangersI surveyed said that routine and operational aspects of theirwork consume toomuchoftheirtime.

One ofmy executiveMBA students recently toldme, “I know that I have tocarveoutmore time to think strategicallyaboutmycompany’sbusiness,butallmypeersareexecuting to thehilt and I don’twant to fall behind.”Prompted todescribeherpredicament,shewasatalosstoexplainwhatsheshouldbedoingincreasing your outsight by redefining your job instead. She just knew that shewas limiting her contribution bymerely responding to themany client requestsgettingpusheddowntoherlevelwithoutstoppingtoconsiderhowthepiecesfelltogetherorhowtoprioritizedirectivescomingdowntheline.Butshedidn’tdarestop, because everyone around her was continuing to push on the operationalfront.

Whatdoesitmeantotakeamorestrategicapproachtoourjobs?Boileddownto its essence, strategy entails knowing what to do among the many thingscompeting forourattention,howtoget itdone,andwhy.Unfortunately, thewaymostofusdoourworkleaveslittleroomforthiskindofstrategicthinking.

Consideryourtypicalworkroutine.FormostofthemanagersImeet,thedayusuallybeginswithaquickcheckofthemosturgentemails,followedbyaroundoflong,routine,andoftenboringmeetingsandconferencecallswiththeteamorkeycustomers.Incessanttravelanddealingwiththechronictalentshortagesandhigh turnover of the emergingmarkets or the retrenchment of themorematureones adds an unprecedented burden of overwork. With a multiplication ofcorporate initiatives, compliance procedures, and urgent requests from allcorners,theresponsibilitiespileon.Attheendofalongday,theinboxisfullagainandtherequestedreports(orbudgetsoranalyses)haveyettobefinished.Thereis little time to think about why you do what you do, about the meaning and

purposeofyourworkbeyond the immediatedeliverables. It’snowonder routinecrowdsoutstrategy.

This chapter is about how to apply the outsight principle to adopt a morestrategicapproachtoyourwork,whetheryouaretakingchargeinanewroleorsimplysteppinguptoleadershipwithintheconfinesofyourcurrentposition.Itwillshow you how to reallocate your time to prioritize unfamiliar and nonroutineactivitiesthatwillincreaseyourcapacitytoactmorestrategicallythroughawiderview of your business, your group’s place in the larger organization, and yourwork’scontributiontooutcomesthatmatter(figure2-1).FIGURE2-1

Increasingyouroutsightbyredefiningyourjob

DoingtheWrongThingsWellSophie,a risingstar inher firm’ssupply-chainoperation,wasstupefied to learnthat a radical reorganization of the procurement function was being discussedwithout her input. Rewarded to date for steady annual improvements, she hadconsistentlydeliveredonherkeyperformance indicatorsbut failed tonotice thecompetitive shifts in her firm’s markets. These shifts were making her firm’shistoricalapproachtopurchasingandwarehousingexpensiveandineffective.Norwas she aware of the resulting internal shuffle for resources and power at thehigher levelsof her companyand theextent towhichherhigher-upswerenowpressured to increasecostefficiencies.Shewas the last tohearaboutanynewimperatives,letaloneanticipatethem.

Although she had built a loyal, high-performing team, Sophie had fewrelationshipsoutsidehergroupandevenfeweratherboss’slevel.Puttinginlonghourstocontinuouslyimproveheroperationleftherlittletimetokeepupwiththelatest trends in supply-chainmanagement.Her function area, the supply chain,

was also in the midst of a radical transformation as manufacturers expandedinternationally, pursued strategic sourcing, and built more collaborative andsustainable relationships with suppliers. Lacking outsight on innovations in herfield,shewasblindsidedbyaproposalfromhercounterpartinmanufacturing.

Her first reactionwasdefensive.Thesupplychainwasherpurview,andherresultswereimpeccable;ifastrategicreviewwasinorder,sheshouldbetheoneincharge,sheargued.Butwithoutthebenefitofthebroader,cross-functional,andexternalperspectivethatherbossexpectedofsomeonethreeyearsintothejob,her ideas were discounted as parochial. Lacking greater strategic insight, shecould not form a sellable plan for the future—one that took into account newindustryrealitiesandtheshiftingprioritiesofherfirm.

Atfirst,Sophiethoughthardaboutquittingandmovingtoa“lesspolitical”firm.Afterall,shewasonlytryingtodotherightthing.Itseemedtoherthattheonlywaytobeheardwastospendtimeschmoozingwithseniormanagementinsteadofgettingthejobdone.Onlyaftersomepatientcoachingfromaseniormanagerdid shestart to ventureoutsideher cocoonand talk toabroader setof peopleinsideandoutsidethecompany.Reluctantly,sheconductedastudytolearnwhatothercompaniesweredoing.Next,shebroughtinaconsultanttohelphernarrowdownheroptions.Thisprojectbroughtherincontactwitharangeofpeopleatherboss’slevel,acrossthedifferentdivisionsofthecompany.Shelearnedabouthowthey saw thebusinessevolving.Eventually, after a180-degree turn in howshedefinedandwentaboutherjob,shecametoseethataverydifferentsupply-chainstrategywasindeedrequired,onethatmadeirrelevantmostofwhatshehadbuilt.

Sophie learnedthehardwaythatshewasveryefficient—atthewrongthing.She was not much different from many successful managers who continue todevotethebulkoftheirtimetodoingwhattheyhavelearnedtoowell.Theydefinetheir jobs narrowly, in terms of their own areas of expertise, and confine theiractivitiestowheretheyhavehistoricallycontributedthemostvalueandconsistentresults. At first, this narrow role is what’s expected of them. But over time,expectationsshift.ToavoidthekindofcompetencytrapSophiefellinto,youneedto understand howonce-usefulmind-sets andoperating habits can persist longaftertheyhaveoutlivedtheirusefulness.

AvoidtheCompetencyTrapWeall like to dowhatwe already dowell. Sports coaches tell us that amateurgolfersspendtoomuchoftheirtimepracticingtheirbestswings,attheexpenseof theaspectsof theirgamethatneedmorework.Likewise,everyyear,weseethe downfall of yet another company thatwas once the undisputed leader in agiven product, service, or technology, but that missed the boat when a new,disruptivetechnologycamealong.1

That ispreciselywhathappenswhenwe let theoperational “day job” crowdoutourengagementinmorestrategic,higher-value-addedactivities.Likeathletes

andcompanies,managersandprofessionalsoverinvest in theirstrengthsunderthe false assumption that what produced their past successes will necessarilyleadtofuturewins.Eventuallywebecometrappedinwell-honedroutinesthatnolongercorrespondtotherequirementsofanewenvironment.

ConsiderJeff,ageneralmanager forabeveragecompanysubsidiary.Astarsalesman before he became a star sales manager, Jeff also succeeded ascountryheadintwosuccessiveassignments,bothpositionsinwhichthegeneralmanager’s job was actually amega–salesmanager position, and the businessrequiredaturnaround.Histhirdassignment,inIndonesia,lookedlikemoreofthesame,albeit at a larger scaleandscope.After twoyearsof implementingwhateveryone regarded as a successful turnaround strategy, Jeff was sure that hisresultshadputhimsquarely in therunning forseniormanagement.Butnonewassignmentwasinsight,andapoorperformancereviewhintedthatJeff’sbosseswerestartingtoexpectsomethingelsefromhim.

Whatwas going on?Although Jeffwas still delivering results as before, hisbossesnowwantedtoknowmoreabouthiscapacitytoleadatahigherlevel.Alltheindicatorsleftthemdoubtful.

Forstarters, itwasbecomingobvious thathewason thevergeof losinghisheadofsalesandmarketing.Rajivwastheonlypersonintheoperationwiththetechnological expertise required to develop and implement the company’s newdigitalstrategy in its localmarket.Theextrovertedand relationship-orientedJeffhadlittlepatiencewiththeITanddataissuesthatconsumedhishighlyanalyticalIndian marketing chief, and the cultural differences between the two men onlymade their communication harder.Rajiv saw his job as aligning newmarketingtechnologies with business goals, serving as a liaison to the centralized brandgroups, evaluating and choosing technology providers, and helping craft newdigital business models. Jeff wanted Rajiv to devote more time to managingrelationshipswiththegroup’sdistributors,thecornerstoneofhisstrategy,andfeltthat Rajiv was neglecting his sales responsibilities. Every time they spoke, theconversationendedinastalemate.Unbeknownsttohim,Jeff’smanagersworriedthathewas ill equipped tomanage thediverse teamshewouldencounter inahigher-levelassignment.

Jeff’sbosseswerealsodispleasedbythewayheroutinelyignoredcorporateinitiativesandfailedtokeepthebrandandstafffunctionsinformedandinvolved.Earlier, Jeff’s superiors had shown more patience with his lone-ranger tactics,because the turnarounds he had been asked to pull off called for speedy anddecisiveaction.Nowhisbosseswerecurioustoseeifhecouldadapttochangingcircumstances.TheIndonesianoperationwasintheblackagain,thankstoJeff’stried-and-true approach. E-commerce initiativeswere forcing leaders to grapplewith someof the responsibilities that typically fell tomarketing, such as how todeliverbrandmessagesdirectlyviatheweb.ButJeffcontinuedtodefinethelocalstrategyprettymuch in termsofsales,neglecting theviewsandprioritiesofhis

peersinthecompany’scorporatestaff.

Notsurprisingly,theleadershipbenchinIndonesiaremainedunderdeveloped.Jeff routinelystifledhis team’sdevelopmentby intervening in thedetailsof theirwork, “adding toomuchvalue,”as leadershipcoachMarshallGoldsmith jokinglydescribes this sort of micromanagement.2 Jeff was starting to itch for a newchallenge,butunfortunately,hehadmadehimselfsoindispensablethattherewasnoone ready to succeedhim. Let’s analyzehow Jeff hadgotten himself into acompetencytrap.

Weenjoywhatwedowell,sowedomoreof itandgetstillbetterat it. Themorewedosomething,themoreexpertwebecomeatitandthemoreweenjoydoing it.Sucha feedback loopmotivates us to get evenmoreexperience.Themasterywe feel is likeadrug,deepeningbothourenjoymentandoursenseofself-efficacy.3Italsobiasesustobelievethatthethingswedowellarethemostvaluableand important, justifying the timewedevote to them.Asoneunusuallyfrank,high-potentialmanagertoldme,itcanbehardtodootherwise:“Iannoyalot of people by not being sympathetic to their priorities. It’s feedback I’ve hadthroughoutmycareer:youworkonthingsyoulikeandthinkareimportant.Itisaproblem.Itcanseemdisrespectful.DoIwanttoworkonit?Ishouldbutprobablyneverwill.”

It was much the same for Jeff, who found himself solving other people’sproblemsover and over again.Whenhismanagers failed to build relationshipswithkeyclients,Jeffsteppedin.Whenaccountswerenotsettled,herushedtotherescue.Insteadofworkingthroughhisteam,hewasworkingforthem.“Ican’tsitstill if I see a problem that could have real financial consequences,” Jeffwouldsay.“Ineedtohammerawayatituntilthingsgetdonecorrectly.”

His direct reports teased him for this: they made him a “Jeff’s hierarchy ofneeds” diagram, based on Abraham Maslow’s famous pyramid (figure 2-2).4Below the bottom rung (physiological needs), they had drawn another, titled“Solvingproblems.”Jefflikedthediagram;itreflectedhowhelikedtoseehimself.Whenhewassolvingproblems,hismostbasicneedsweremet:hefeltvaluable,decisive,competent,andincontroloftheultimateoutcome.FIGURE2-2

Jeff’s“hierarchyofneeds”pyramid

When we allocate more time to what we do best, we devote less time tolearningother thingsthatarealso important.Theproblem isn’t justwhatwearedoing; it’swhatwe’reneglectingtodo(andnot learningtodo) instead.Becauseexperienceandcompetencework together inavirtuous(orvicious)cycle,whenthatcompetenceisindemand,asitoftenis,itinvitesfurtherutilization.Sosomeleadershipmusclesgetverystrongwhileothersremainunderdeveloped.

Jeff,likemanysuccessfulmanagers,wasfocusingtoomuchonthedetails—particularly inhisdomainof functionalexpertise—andmicromanaginghis teamssothathesingle-handedlydroveperformance.Whatwashefailingtodo?A lot.He wasn’t strategizing for the more stable medium termmade possible by hissuccessful turnaround.Hewasn’t taking intoaccount theviewsandprioritiesofhiscorporatesupportfunctions.Hewasn’thavingdifficultconversationswithkeymembersofhisteamorcoachingthemthroughtheissuesthatgottheminovertheirheads.Hewasn’tkeepinghisfar-offbossadequately informed.It’snotthatJeffwasunabletodoanyofthesethings;hejustdidn’tknowhowtodotheminawaythatdidn’tseemlikeahugetimesink.

Overtime,itgetsmorecostlytoinvestinlearningtodonewthings.Thebetterwe are at something, the higher the opportunity cost of spending time doingsomething else. The returns from exploiting what we already dowell aremorecertainandcloserintimeandspacethanthereturnsfromexploringpotentialnewareasinwhichwewillnecessarilyfeelweakatfirst.5Thisself-reinforcingpropertyoflearningmakespeoplesustaintheircurrentfocusintheshortterm.

HowDoYouSpendYourTime?AteamofHarvardBusinessSchoolresearcherssetouttodiscoverhowbossesspendtheirtime.a

Theyaskedtheadministrativeassistantsofthechiefexecutivesofninety-fourItalianfirmstorecordtheiractivities foraweek.Whatdid theexecutivesspend themost timeon?Youguessed it: theyspent60percentoftheirtimeinmeetings.

Yearsearlier,aclassicstudycomparedmanagerswhowereratedhighlyeffectivebytheirownteamswithmanagerswhoweresuccessfulinmovinguptohigherpositions.bThebiggestdifferencebetweenthetwogroupsofmanagerswashowtheyspenttheirtime.Theeffectivemanagersspentmost of their time working with their direct reports inside their teams. The successful managersspentmuchmoretimeonnetworkingactivitieswithpeersinotherunitsandhigher-upsthroughouttheorganization.

Evenifyoudon’thavetheluxuryofanassistant,inthisageofapps,it’seasytotrackwhatyouspendyourtimeon,atworkandathome.Startbysimplyobservingwhatyoudoinatypicalweek.Youmight, for example, track howmuch time you spend alone in your office and inside versusoutsideyourdepartment.Youcanusetoolslikethesetokeeptabsonyourtime:c

TogglandATracker:Theseappsletyoutrackanythingyoudo;yousimplytaponyourphonetostartorstopeachactivity.ATracker’sreportsshowhowmuchtimeyouarespendingonroutinetasksandformalactivitieslikemeetings.

TIMEPlanner:Thisappcombinesschedulingandtimetrackingfeatures.Youcanschedulesomereflectiontimeat1p.m.,forexample,thenberemindedtodoit,andthenregisterwhetheryou’veactuallydoneit.

MyMinutes:Thisapphelpsyoumeetyourtimemanagementgoals.Ifyouresolvetospendatmostforty-fiveminutesonapresentation,forexample,theapptellsyouwhenyou’reoutoftimeandwhenyou’vehityourgoal.

a.OrianaBandiera,LuigiGuiso,AndreaPrat,andRaffaellaSadun,“WhatDoCEOsDo?”workingpaper11-081(Boston:HarvardBusinessSchool,2011).

b.FredLuthans,“Successfulvs.EffectiveRealManagers,”AcademyofManagementExecutive 2,no.2(1988):127–132.

c.AdaptedfromLauraVanderkam,“10Time-TrackingAppsThatWillMakeYouMoreProductivein2014,”FastCompany,January6,2014,www.fastcompany.com/3024249/10-time-tracking-apps-that-will-make-you-moreproductive-in-2014.

Perversely, the trap is sprung precisely because we are delivering on ourresults.Whenwearereachingandexceedingthegoalsourbosseshavesetforus,manywillconspiretokeepuswherewearebecausewecanbereliedupontoperform. And they will justify their self-serving decision by pointing out that wehavenotshownenoughleadershippotential.

Jeffwassobusysolvingproblemsastheyarosethatheneverstoppedtoputinplaceclearoperatingguidelinesandperformanceobjectivestoguidehisteam.Hefailedtonoticethathissuccessfulmarketstrategyhadrunitscourseandthattheoperationneededanewpost-turnarounddirection.Hisconstant interventionunderminedthedevelopmentofhiskeytalentstwoorthreelayersbelow.Insteadofworking throughhis team, hewasworking for them.All this cameat a cost:althoughhewasworking24-7,neitherhisteamnorhissuperiorswerehappy.

Becausemostofuscometodefineourjobsintermsofourcorestrengthsandskills,similarversionsofthisstoryplayoutwheneverweareaskedtomovefromthe familiar to theunfamiliar.Wehavedifficultymaking the transition fromworkfirmly rooted inourown functionalknowledgeorexpertise towork thatdependsonguidingdiverseparties,manyoutsideourdirectcontrol,toasharedgoal—thatis,theworkofleadership.Thesidebar“HowDoYouSpendYourTime?”illustrates

theimportanceofmakingthistransition.

UnderstandWhatLeadersReallyDoWhatmusclesshouldJeffbestrengtheninginstead?Toanswerthisquestion,firstconsider the age-old distinction between management and leadership.6 At itsessence,managemententailsdoing today’sworkasefficientlyandcompetentlyas possiblewithin established goals, procedures, and organizational structures.Leadership,incontrast,isaimedatcreatingchangeinwhatwedoandhowwedoit, which is why leadership requires working outside established goals,procedures,andstructuresandexplainingtootherswhyit’simportanttochange—evenwhenthereasonsmaybeblatantlyobvioustous.

Whendoingour routinework,we’reasking, “Howcanwedo theworkbetter(i.e.,faster,inalesscostlyway,withhigherquality)?”Wespendourtimewithourteams and current customers, or on our individual contributions, executing onplansandgoalstowhichwehavecommitted.Weusuallyknowwhatwe’llgetforthetime,effort,andresourcesweinvest.Wehavefaiththatwe’llmeetourgoalsbecauseweareusing the skills andprocedures that haveworked for us in thepast.

When doing leadership work, we’re asking, “What should we be doinginstead?”Wespendourtimeonthingsthatmightnothaveanyimmediatepayoffandmaynotevenpayoff atall.Forexample,wemightbe lookingbeyondournormal functionstoenvisionadifferent future.Becausetransformation isalwaysmoreuncertainthanincrementalprogress(ordecline),beliefintherightnessofanewdirectionrequiresaleapoffaith.Wearemoreinclinedtotaketheleapwhenthechangeengagesusandwhenwebuyintonotonlywhattheleadersdobut,moreimportantly,whotheyareandwhattheystandfor.Inotherwords,toactlikeleaders,wewillhavetodevotemuchofourtimetothefollowingpractices:

•Bridgingacrossdiversepeopleandgroups

•Envisioningnewpossibilities

•Engagingpeopleinthechangeprocess

•Embodyingthechange

BecomeaBridgeConsidertheconventionalwisdomabouthowtoleadateameffectively:setcleargoals;assigncleartaskstomembers;managetheteam’sinternaldynamicsandnorms;communicateregularly;payattentiontohowmembersfeel,andgivethemrecognition;andsoon.Theseareimportantthingstodo,buttheymaynotmakemuchofadifferencetoyourresults.

In study after study over more than twenty years, MIT professor DeborahAncona and her colleagues have consistently debunked this widespread beliefabouteffectiveteamleadership.7Theyfoundthattheteamleaderswhodelivered

thebest resultsdidnotspend thebulkof their timeplaying these internal roles.Instead, the best leadersworked as bridges between the teamand its externalenvironment. They spentmuch of their time outside, not inside the team. Theywentoutonreconnaissance,madesuretherightinformationandresourcesweregettingtotheteam,broadcastedaccomplishmentsselectively,andsecuredbuy-infrom higher up when things got controversial. Moreover, successful leadersmonitoredwhat other teams—potential competitors, potential teams fromwhomtheycouldlearnandnotreinventthewheel—weredoing.

Take,forexample,aformerBPmanagernamedVivienneCox.Whenshetookcharge of a newly formed Gas, Power & Renewables group, she inherited anumber of small, “futuristic” but peripheral businesses, including solar andwindenergyandhydrogengas.Aneophyteonalternativeenergy,Coxgatheredinputsfrom a broad group of outsiders to her group and company to analyze thebusiness environment and to brainstorm ideas. These conversations brought tolighttheurgencyofmovingawayfromapurelypetroleum-basedbusinessmodel.8

Coxisaclassicexampleoftheleaderasabridgebetweenherteamandtherelevant parties outside the team. She chose a “number two,” who wascomplementarytoherinhisfocusoninternalandcompanyprocesses,whilesheherselfmaintainedastrategic,external,andinspirationalrole.Shespentmuchofhertimeoftalkingtokeypeopleacrossandoutsidethefirmtodevelopastrategicperspective on the nature of the threats and opportunities facing her nascentgroup and to sell the emerging notion of low-carbon power to then CEO JohnBrowneandherpeers.Hernetworkincludedthoughtleadersinarangeofsectors(moreonthisinchapter3).Sheplacedoutsiderslikeherstrategicadviserinkeyroles to transcend a parochial view. AndCox brought in key BP peers like theheads of technology and China to make sure her team was also informed bythosewhosawtheworldwithadifferentlens.

Onceshehadastrategicdirectioninmindforheralternative-energybusiness,Cox activated her network to spread “soundbites” about the alternative energyindustry across the company. She explained: “It can be so helpful to make acomment here, have a conversation there—it’s the socialisation of facts andideas, creating a buzz. It’smuchmore important than presentations. If it workswell, you create a demand for the information—they come to you to ask formore.”9

AnothergoodexampleisJackKlues,formerCEOofVivaki,themedia-buyingarm of Publicis Groupe. Publicis had consolidated many separate mediaoperations to increase itspurchasingpowerwith the likesofGoogleandYahooand to consolidate expertise in digital advertising. The job entailed weavingtogetherdisparatetalentstoexploittheneweconomiesofscale.Kluesdescribedhis role: “I’ve always thought my job was to be a ‘connector.’ I see myself asconnecting interestingandsmartpieces innewanddifferentways… Iwas theonepersonaboutwhomtheothertwentymediadirectorscouldsay: ‘Yeah,we’ll

work for him.’ And I think they all thought they were smarter than me in theirparticularareas,andtheywereprobablyright.Butthejobwasaboutbringingtheparts together. I didn’t get the job, because I knewsomething theydidn’t know,andthatsomethingbecametheHolyGrail.”10

Table2-1outlines twocontrasting roles team leadersplay.Whenyouplayahubrole,yourteamandcustomersareatthecenterofyourwork;whenyouplayabridge role,asCoxdid,youwork to linkyour team to the restof the relevantworld.Bothrolesarecritical.What rolewasJeffplaying?Hewasclearlyahub.Butwhenpeopleratetheeffectivenessofleaders,guesswhichonescomeoutontop? The bridges. Leaderswho focus on the right-hand column outperform theleadersontheleftatnearlyeveryturn.TABLE2-1

Areyouahuborabridge?

Hubroles Bridgeroles•Setgoalsfortheteam

•Assignrolestoyourpeople

•Assigntasks

•Monitorprogresstowardgoals

•Manageteammemberperformance;conductperformanceevaluations

•Holdmeetingstocoordinatework

•Createagoodclimateinsidetheteam

•Alignteamgoalswithorganizationalpriorities

•Funnelcriticalinformationandresourcesintotheteamtoensureprogresstowardgoals

•Getthesupportofkeyalliesoutsidetheteam

•Enhancetheexternalvisibilityandreputationoftheteam

•Getrecognitionforgoodperformersandplacethemingreatnextassignments

Nomatterwhatkindoforganizationyouworkin,teamleaderswhoscoutideasfrom outside the group, seek feedback from and coordinate with a range ofoutsiders,monitor the shiftingwindswithin theorganization, andobtain supportandresourcesfromtopmanagersareabletobuildmoreinnovativeproductsandservicesfasterthanthosewhodedicatethemselvessolelytomanaginginsidetheteam.Partofthesecretoftheirsuccessisthatalltheirbridgingactivitygivesthemtheoutsight theyneed todevelopapointofviewon theirbusiness,see thebigpictureorganizationally,andsetdirectionaccordingly.

Dothe“VisionThing”Of course, a leader can form a bridge across boundaries but still focus on thewrong things.Evenso, theexternalperspectivegainedby redefiningyourworkmorebroadly isakeydeterminantofwhetheryou,asthe leader,willhavegoodstrategicideas.Moreimportantly,anexternalperspectivehelpsyoutranslateyourideasintoanattractivevisionofthefutureforyourteamandorganization.

Broad vision is not an obvious job requirement for many people, includingformer US president George H. W. Bush. When asked to look away from the

short-term,specificgoalsofhiscampaignandstartfocusingonafuturetowhichhisvotersmightaspire,hefamouslyreplied,“Oh—youmeanthevisionthing?”

Although Bush derided the idea of broad vision and although execution-focusedmanagersunderplayitsimportance,theabilitytoenvisionpossibilitiesforthe future and to share that vision with others distinguishes leaders fromnonleaders.Large-scalesurveysby the likesof leadershipgurusJamesKouzesand Barry Posner bear out this observation.11 Most people can easily describewhatisinadequate,unsatisfactory,ormeaninglessaboutwhattheyaredoing.Buttheystaystuckintheirjobsforlackofvisionofabetterway.

WhatDoesItMeantoHaveVision?Acrossstudiesandresearchtraditions,visionhasbeenfoundtobeadefiningfeatureofleadership.Butwhatdoesit looklike inaction?Thefollowingcapabilitiesorpracticesaresomespecificwaysgoodleadersdevelopvision.a

SensingOpportunitiesandThreatsintheEnvironment•Simplifyingcomplexsituations

•Seeingpatternsinseeminglyunconnectedphenomena

•Foreseeingeventsthatmayaffecttheorganization’sbottomline

SettingStrategicDirection•Encouragingnewbusiness

•Definingnewstrategies

•Makingdecisionswithaneyetowardthebigpicture

InspiringOtherstoLookbeyondCurrentPractice•Askingquestionsthatchallengethestatusquo

•Beingopentonewwaysofdoingthings

•Bringinganexternalperspective

a.ManfredF.R.KetsdeVries,PierreVrignaud,ElizabethFlorent-Treacy,andKonstantinKorotov,“360-degreefeedbackinstrument:Anoverview,”INSEADWorkingPaper,2007.

Just what does it mean to be visionary? Most everyone agrees thatenvisioninginvolvescreatingacompellingimageofthefuture:whatcouldbeand,moreimportantly,whatyou,asaleader,wouldlikethefuturetobe.12Butthekindofvisionthattakesanorganizationforwarddoesn’tcomefromasolitaryprocessof inspired thought.Nor is itaboutMosescomingdown from themountainwiththe tablets. It’s certainly not the mind-numbing vision statement crafted by thetypical organization. The sidebar “What Does It Mean to Have Vision?” listsnumerousimportantcapabilitiesthatcontributetotruestrategicvision.

Let’sexaminehowVivienneCoxacquiredhervision.Herpriorrolehadbeento run BP’s oil and gas trading operation according to clear-cut, BP-specifiedperformance indicators and planning processes. In her new role, she had todecidewhattodoaboutallthebitsandpiecesofalternative-energybusinessthat

had sprouted around the edges of the organization and see if they might fittogether. After much bridging to external sources of insight—and this includedaskingherselfandkeystakeholderswhetherBPshould,asabigoilcompany,beinthealternative-energybusiness—sheandherteamstartedtocoalescearoundalow-carbonfuturethatmadesenseatBP.Coxnextasked,“Whatshouldbeourambition?”TheconversationsthatensuedfocusedonwheretocompeteandonwhatbasistheAlternativeEnergygroupmightexpecttowin.Onlymuchlaterdidher group develop business plans specifying targets such as deal volume andmarketshare.

AsCox’sexampleshows,craftingavisionentailsdevelopingandarticulatingan aspiration. Strategy involves using that aspiration to guide a set of choicesabout how to best invest timeand resources to produce the result youactuallywant.Botharea far cry fromparticipating in theorganization’sannualplanningprocess, as Roger Martin, former dean of the University of Toronto’s RotmanSchoolofManagement,hasrepeatedlyexplained.13Inannualplanning,thereisaclear process for producing and presenting a document consisting of a list ofinitiativeswith theirassociated time framesandassignedresources.Atbest,anannualplanproduces incrementalgains.Envisioning the future isamuchmoredynamic,creative,andcollaborativeprocessofimaginingatransformationinwhatanorganizationdoesandhowitdoesit.

Manysuccessfulandcompetentmanagersarewhat Icallvision-impaired. Inthe 360-degree assessments of the managers who come to my programs,envisioning the future direction of the company is one of the dimension ofleadershipcompetencyonwhichmostparticipantsinvariablyfallshort,comparedwith other skills such as team building and providing rewards and feedback.14Figure 2-3, taken from a summary of feedback from 427 executives and 3,626observers,showsthenotablegapbetweenhowthesemanagersseethemselvesand how the people they work with—juniors, peers, and seniors—view themanagerswithrespecttovision.Thegapbetweenthemanagers’self-perceptionsoftheirenvisioningskillsandtheviewsoftheirsuperiorsisevenbigger.FIGURE2-3

Mindthegap:360-degreeassessmentofleadershipcompetencies

Note: Table based on a sample of 427 executive education participants and their 3,626 observers.“EnvisioningtheFuture,”oneofthetwocompetencies(alongwith“Empowering”)withthelowestscoresandlargestgapbetweentheself-assessmentandobserverscores,ascomparedwithothercompetenciessuchas“DesigningandAligning”and“OutsideOrientation.”

Asked toexplain thegap,manymanagerssay that their job is to implementwhat comes down from the top. They believe that strategy and vision are thepurviewofseniormanagersandoutsideconsultantswho formulategrandplansandthenhandthemoffforexecutiontotherestoftheorganization.

Historically, strategyand visionwere indeedhandeddown from the top.Buttechnologyhasprofoundlyalteredthatneatdivisionoflabor,eliminatingmanyofthe tasks—performance monitoring, instant feedback, and reports andpresentations—that were staples of managerial work even five years ago.Increasingly, executives are required to shift their emphasis from improvingcurrent operations and performance indicators to shaping a commonunderstanding of the organization’s present environment and its desired futuredirection.When an empowered front line is in constant contact with customersandsuppliers,andthesesamecustomersandsuppliersincreasinglyparticipateintheinnovationprocess,visionandstrategyarenolongertheexclusivepurviewofthe CEO. Fast-cycle response and coordination depends on the layers ofstrategistsbeneaththeC-suite.Butwe’llneverfigureoutvisionandstrategyifweremainshutupinouroffices,asJacobtriedtodo.

Engage,ThenLeadNomatterhowmuchstrategicforesightyoumighthaveandhowcompellingyourideas, if no one else buys in, not much happens. Nor do people buy in forabstract,theoreticalreasons;theybuyinbecauseyouhavesomehowconnectedwiththempersonally.15

Kent,adivisionmanagerforatechcompanythatwashavingtroubleadaptingtonewmarketplacerealities,learnedthislessonthehardway.Hehaddevelopedaclearandstrongpointofviewaboutwhathiscompanyneededtodotoprovidemore integrated solutions for its customers and to better serve some

underexploitedmarkets.Andhewas determined to push his vision through theorganization,damnthetorpedoes.Buthefailed tobringpeoplealong.Oneday,he invited a consultant he knew well to sit in the audience as he gave hisPowerPoint pitch to a cross-functional team. Kent drove through a long andcomplicatedsetofslidesandwasvisiblysurprisedwhenhisaudiencealternatedbetweenindifferenceandpushingbackonhisideas.

“You heard me say some important things,” Kent told the consultant, “buteveryonewenttosleep.Whathappened?”

Admitting that the points Kent made were important, the consultantneverthelesstoldhimwhypeopletunedout:“Youdidn’tbuildanybridgestothosewhodidn’timmediatelyagreewithyou.”

Years later, Kent understood what had gone wrong. “I had a vision,” herecalled,“andIwaswaitingforeveryoneelsetoagree.Iwasnotgoingtoputmyvisionoutforrevision—itwouldflyasitwas,ornot.”

Kent hadn’t realized that the quality of a leader’s idea is not the only thingpeopleconsiderwhenmakingup theirmindsaboutwhether toengagewith theleader. Naive leaders act as if the idea itself is the ultimate selling point.Experienced leaders, on the other hand, understand that the process is just asimportant,ifnotmoreso.Howtheydevelopandimplementtheirideas,andhowleaders interact with others in this process, determine whether people becomeengagedintheleaders’efforts.

A simple formula summarizes what I have concluded are the three keycomponentsforsuccessinleadingchange:

Theidea+theprocess+you=successinleadingchange

Icametothisformulaafternoticinganinterestingpatterninmyclasseswhenweanalyzeawrittencasestudyandtheeffectivenessof the leader-protagonist.Mystudentsrarelydiscusswhattheprotagonist isactuallyadvocating,andtheytalkevenlessabouttheoutcomeshisideahasproduced.

Processishugelyimportantnotbecauseresultsareunimportantbutbecausemost change efforts have long-term horizons and because results take time.Peoplemakeuptheirmindaboutwhethertheywanttobuyinmuchearlier,whilethe initiative is still in progress and the jury is still out on its ultimate success.Consciously or unconsciously, they are looking for clues about whether theinitiativewillsucceedandwhatsuccessmeansforthem,andtheyusethosecluestoplacetheirbets.

So,thebulkofpeople’sattentionisdevotedtotheprocesstheleaderusestocome up with and implement the idea: Was the leader inclusive or exclusive,participative or directive?Did heor she involve the right people andenoughofthem?What levers is the leader using, and are they the right ones? Table 2-2shows how all the classic steps involved in leading change involve personal

choicesthatarebasedontheleader’sstylisticpreferences.TABLE2-2

Stepsandstylesinleadingchange

KeystepsinleadingchangeaStylisticchoicesthatinfluencethechangeprocess

•Createurgency

•Formaguidingcoalition

•Craftavision

•Communicatethevision

•Empowerotherstoactonit

•Secureshort-termwins

•Embedthechangeintheorganization’ssystemsandprocesses

•WheredoIgetmyinformation?

•HowmuchdoIinvolveothers?

•WhatpeopledoIinvolve?

•Howmany?

•HowwillIsellmyideas?

•Whatshouldmyrolebe?

•Howfastshouldwego?

a.SeeJohnKotter,“WhyTransformationEffortsFail,”HarvardBusinessReview73,no.2(1995):59–67,foraclassictreatmentofkeystepsinleadingchange.

Allofthese“how”facetsoftheleader’sbehaviorincrease(orerode)people’swillingnesstogivetheleaderthebenefitofthedoubtandincrease(orerode)theirfaith that eventually the resultswill follow. In otherwords, people create a self-fulfilling prophecy: if they have faith in the leader, then theywill cooperate andcommit,therebyincreasingthelikelihoodofsuccess.Inexperiencedleadersdon’tjustoverlyfocusontheidea;theyoftentrytojumpdirectlyfromtheideatoanewstructure to support itwithout passing through thenecessary phaseof showingwhat their initiative looks like and what its desirable results may be. Thesidebar “A Tale of Two Chief Diversity Officers” shows the drastically differentoutcomesthatcanresultwhenleaderseitherengagetheirpeopleorfailtodoso.

ATaleofTwoChiefDiversityOfficersProbably one of the hardest leadership transitions is themove from a line job with a clear timehorizonandfinancialresultstoasupportroleinwhichthejobistoinfluencethosewithbottom-lineresponsibility. It’sevenharder if thesupport job involvessomething thatmanymanagersespousebutthatisactuallyatthebottomoftheir listofpriorities,likediversity.That’sthesituationfacedbynewdiversityofficers—thepeoplechargedwithputting inplaceasystem tohelp theorganizationbecomemorediverseandinclusive—andthesituationisoftenmadeworseiftheyarenovicestothesubject. That’s also why many companies have implemented diversity initiatives without seeingmuchbywayofresults.

Recently I observed twopeople take chargeas diversity chiefs.Both peoplewere in financialservicesfirms,bothmovingintotherolefromthebusinessside,andbothwithoutexperienceinthisarea.

Thefirst,NiaJoynson-Romanzina,theheadofglobaldiversityandinclusionatSwissRe,soughtfirst to findoutwhat thecompany thoughtaboutdiversityandhow itcould thinkdifferently.17Shestarted by knocking on doors and talking to executive committee members and group boardmembers.“Itbecameveryclearthatweweredividedintotwocamps,”shetoldmeinaninterview.

“Onewanted to getmorewomen in leadership; the other camp said, ‘If this is all aboutwomen,countmeout.’Irealizedveryquicklythatthisisaverypolarizingtopic.”

Butherconversations revealed thatacommitment todiversityof thoughtandopinionwas theone thing thatbroughteveryone together.Sheexplained: “Thatgavemeanunderstandingof theextent to which gender diversity can be polarizing, while the notion of diversity of thought andopinionwassomethingthateverybodycouldbuyinto.Itevolvednaturallyintoadiscussionaroundinclusion.”

Asshewentaboutherinternaldiscussions,Joynson-Romanzinaalsoidentifiedthekeyexternalconferences,workinggroups,and thought leaders thatmight informherapproach.Sheconcludedthat although Swiss Re was already a diverse company, unconscious biases were discouragingemployeesfromgrabbingthenextrungsontheladderorincludingothersintheirteams.

Achance toshowwhatwaspossiblecameherwaywhenachange-minded,newlyappointedCEOofaSwissRebusinessdecided thatalthoughbusinesswasgoingwell, thecompanycouldbenefitfromtheinfusionofnew,morediversetalent.Heopenedupallthemostseniormanagementpositions,encouragingeveryonetoapply.Successwouldmeanbeingmoreclient-centric;adiversityofviewpoints,genders,culture,education,skills,andsoonwasakeyfactorinachievingthis.

Shortlybeforeapplicationsclosed,theCEOnoticedthelackofdiversityinthelistofcandidates;virtually no women were applying for the roles. While scratching his head, he consulted withJoynson-Romanzina,who toldhim to lookbeyondhisexistingnetwork. “Womenare less likely tofeelqualified,evenwhentheyare,”sheexplained.“Youneedtogooutandtellwomen,andmen,veryspecifically that theyshouldbeapplying.There isnoguaranteethat theywillget the job,buttheyshouldatleastapply.”

Hedid just that,extending theapplicationdeadline toallow theeffort to takeeffect.Adiversehiringteamwasbroughtonboardandputthroughtrainingaboutunconsciousbias.Also,Joynson-Romanzina was invited into the room to join the decision making to challenge any unconsciousbiasesandtoensureanequalplayingfieldforall.

The CEO ended up with an executive group with much greater cross-functionality andgenerationalbalanceandafemalerepresentationofover40percent,upfrom17percentbeforetheexercise.Ineachposition,thebestpersonwonthejob,andtherewasconsensusonthat.

Thisveryvisiblewin formed thebasisofJoynson-Romanzina’svisionandstrategy toaddressdiversityshortfallsandenhancetheinclusionofemployees.Whilemanycompaniesbeginbysettingnumerical targets, she concluded that starting with a numbers focus would raise resistance anddistract from the fundamental and long-term change that had to happen. “This is about changingmind-sets,”shesaid.“Includefirst,andthenumberswillfollow.”

Theseconddiversityofficertookaverydifferenttack.Shewantedtogetthevisionrightfirst.Forher,thismeanttakinginventoryofwhatwascurrentlyinplaceacrossthewidespreadnichesoftheorganizationandhowthatmappedontowhattheresearchwassaying.Ofcourse,shefoundmanyinconsistentpracticesandagreatlackofcoherenceinwhatthefirmwasdoing.

So, her first priority was to create a model to integrate the different pieces into a holisticframework.She assembled a project group to do just that. The resultwas a five-partmodel thatincludedthefulldiversitylandscape,fromthebusinesscasetoasetofcornerstoneprinciples,toalltheHRprocesses inwhich theprinciplesneeded tobeembedded.Onceshehadabest-in-classmodel, she started to present it to different stakeholders. While many of them applauded thethoroughnessofhereffort,theyweren’tquitesurewhatthegoalwasorwhattheirpartshouldbe.

a.HerminiaIbarraandNanavonBernuth,“InclusiveLeadership:UnlockingDiverseTalent,”INSEADKnowledge,January15,2014.

EmbodytheChangeOfcourse, there isabigdifferencebetweenreadingaboutwhat leadersdoandactually observing them in person. Our classroom conversation changesdramatically when we watch a video of the leader in action; the discussionbecomesmorepersonal,visceral,andemotional.Often,theparticipantsareata

lossforwordstoexplaintheirreactionsobjectively.Judgmentsnowhingeonourpersonal connection to the leader: “Did I like him? Was he approachable ordistant? Did he seem genuine, authentic? Was he listening to the audience,engaging them? Would I want to work with him? Does he speak to me?” Ofcourse,theahamomentiswhentheyrealizethatothersreacttothemasleadersinthesamevisceralway.

A big part of stepping up to leadership is recognizing that of the threecomponentsofmy formula (the idea+ theprocess+ you), theyoupartalwaystrumpstheideaandisthefilterthroughwhichpeopleevaluatetheprocess.Yoursubordinates,peers,andbosseswilldecidewhetheryourprocessisfair,whetheryou have the best interests of the organization in mind (as opposed to simplyworkingtofurtheryourcareer),andwhetheryouactuallywalkthetalk.

Whatgoesintothatcriticallyimportantyou?Mostpeoplehavebeentaughttothinkthatit’sallaboutyourmanagementstyle.Butstyleisonlyonemanifestationofwhoyouare,andmanystylescanbeeffectivewithinthesamesortofsituation.What people are gauging instead has to do with your passion, conviction, andcoherence—in other words, your charisma, the magic, indefinable word oftenusedtodescribegreatleaders.

Yearsago,managementprofessorJayCongersetouttounveilthemysteriesofcharismabygettingpeople toname leaders they foundcharismaticand thenobservingwhatthesecharismaticleadersdid.16Theleaderswereahighlydiverselot in appearance, personality, and leadership style. Some of the charismaticleaders were authoritarian types; others much more collaborative. Some werepersonable;others, likeSteveJobs,werenot.As it turnsout,Congerandotherresearcherswhohavebuiltonhisworkfoundthatcharismaislessaqualityofapersonthanaqualityofaperson’srelationshipswithothers.17

Peoplewere seenas charismatic,Congerandothers found,when theyhadcompelling ideas thatwere somehow “right for the times.” Because charismaticleaders tend to bridge across organizational groups and external constituents,theyareexcellentatsensingtrends,threats,andopportunitiesintheenvironmentand therefore able to generate sounder,more appealing ideas. But aswe sawabove,theideaisonlyonepartoftheequationandoftentheleastimportant.Theotherattributesofcharismaticleaders,Congerandotherslearned,wereallabouttheprocessandtheleadersthemselves.Theseattributeshadtodowithhowandwhycharismatic leadersengagedfollowersandwhat the leadersfoundinspiringaboutwhotheywereaspeople.Specifically,charismaticleadershavethreeotherthingsincommon:

•Strongconvictionsbasedontheirpersonalexperience

•Goodandfrequentcommunication,mostlythroughpersonalstories

•Astrongcoherencebetweenwhattheybelieve,whattheyactuallydo,andwhotheyare

Take Margaret Thatcher, for example. She is still controversial today, andmanypeoplecertainlydislikedher.18ButshechangedthecourseofBritishhistorybyespousingaclearandsimplemessagethatshebelievedinpassionatelyandthatwasentirelycoherentwithherformativeexperiencesandpersonalstory.

Thatcher’ssignaturewasher legendaryskill in theartofpoliticaldebate.Noonecouldmarshal the factsand figures likeshedid.Butallherknowledgeandanalyticalmasterywasn’tenoughtoexplainhowshemanagedfirst tostandoutfromthepacktobreak intothehighest levelsofgovernmentandthen,asprimeminister,toleadhernationthroughadramaticturnaround.

Whatdistinguishedherfromalltheothergiftedpoliticiansaroundherwashowsheusedherpersonalexperiencetocrystallizeapowerfulpoliticalmessagethatshepersonallyembodied.Howdidsheinspirepeopletoact?Howdidsheconveywhat really mattered to her? She told stories about herself. About how shelearnedtobethriftyandsticktoabudget.Abouthowshewastaughtnottofollowthe crowd, but rather to stick to her guns.And she, a grocer’s daughter, andawoman at that, attracted a large following of people who believed what shebelieved.

Didyouknowthatshegrewupinahomethathadno indoorplumbing?Herfatherbelieved inausterityandmadenoconcessionsforanythingnotessential.ThisandmanyotherformativeexperiencesprofoundlyshapedThatcher’sbeliefsasapolitician.Sheusedherselfasametaphor forwhatshefeltwasmissing intheUnitedKingdom:asenseofself-determinationandredemptionthroughhardworkanddelayedgratification.Shemademeaningofherlifeinawaythatalignedwithwhatshewanted theBritishpeople tounderstandandbuy into,and itwasthemeaningshe infused intoherpolicies,andnot thepolicies themselves, thatgotthemthrough.

SimonSinek,whoseTEDtalkon leadership isoneof themostviewed,callsthisbehavior“workingthegoldencircle.”Asheexplainsit,mostofusattempttopersuadebytalkingaboutwhatneedstobedoneandhowtodoit.Wethinkthesecret of persuasion lies in presenting great arguments. Through our logic andmastery, we push our ideas. This doesn’t work very well, because we followpeoplewho inspire us, not peoplewho aremerely competent. Instead, leaderswho inspireactionalwaysstartwith thewhy—their deepestbeliefs, convictions,andpurpose.Inthatway,theytouchpeoplemoredeeply.Thus,thewhyliesinthecenterofthegoldencircleofinspiration.

MakeYourJobaPlatformHowdoyoudevelop thecapacities tobridgedifferentgroups,envisiona future,engageothers,andembodythechange?Howdoyoustartlearningtobecomeamoreeffectivechangeleader,rightnowwhereyouare?Youstartbymakingyourjobaplatformfordoingandlearningnewthings.

Amongleaderswhohavemanagedtostepup,thislearningprocessisnothinglike the simpler skill-building process you might employ, say, to improve yournegotiationorlisteningskills.It’samorecomplexprocessthatinvolveschangingyourperspectiveonwhatisimportantandworthdoing.So,thebestplacetobeginisbyincreasingyouroutsightontheworldoutsideyourimmediateworkandunitbybroadeningthescopeofyourjoband,therefore,yourownhorizonsaboutwhatyoumightbedoinginstead.

Nomatterwhat your current situation is, thereare five thingsyoucando tobegintomakeyourjobaplatformforexpandingyourleadership:

•Developyoursituationsensors

•Getinvolvedinprojectsoutsideyourarea

•Participateinextracurricularactivities

•Communicateyourpersonalwhy

•Createslackinyourschedule

DevelopYourSensorsLeaders are constantly trying to understand the bigger context in which theyoperate. How will new technologies reshape the industry? How will changingcultural expectations shift the role of business in society? How does theglobalizationoflabormarketsaffecttheorganization’srecruitmentandexpansionplans?Whileagoodmanagerexecutesflawlessly,leadersdeveloptheiroutsightinto bigger questions such as these. This attention to context requires a well-developedsetofsensorsthatorientyoutowhatispotentiallyimportantinavastseaofinformation.

Let’s return to Sophie, whom we met earlier in this chapter. She got intotrouble becauseher nosewas so close to the grindstone that shehadno ideawhat was going on in her company or its markets. Nor was she privy to thepolitical fights being played out above her, the discussions about integratingmanufacturingandsupply,andthefactionsthat formedarounddifferentwaysofproceeding.

Themoresenioryoubecomeorthemorewidespreadyourresponsibilities,themoreyourjobrequiresyoutosensetheworldaroundyou.ConsiderthepointofviewexpressedbyDavidKenny,currentlytheCEOofTheWeatherChannel:

Aleaderhastounderstandtheworld.Youhavetobefarmoreexternal,morecosmopolitan, have a more global view than ever before, to define yourcompany’splaceinthat,itspurposeandvalue…Ispendmytimewithmediaownerstalkingabouthowtheythinkaboutdigital,Facebook,…[and]whatcanwe do to invent new pricingmodels. I spend timewith tech companies thatsupportnewmedia.Withclients, Iam interested in things like:Whatdid theG20meanto[them]?Howwillallthatdebtchangefuturegenerations?Ialso

spendtimewithgovernments…Icyclebacktoclients,IreportbackonwhatIhave heard, to help them understand that their networks will move in thatdirectiontoo.19

Howdoesamore junior leaderdevelopsensors?Salim,whohadworkedasanassistanttothepresidentofalargedivisionofamultinationalconsumer-goodscompany before his current assignment as the general manager of a smallcountry in an emerging economy, attributed his success to his capacity tounderstandthebigpicture:

Youneedtohaveaverybroadunderstandingofthebusiness.Otherwiseyouget completely lostwhen the supply chainguycalls you, speaking to you in“supply-chain-ese,”orwhenthefinancepersonexpectsyoutounderstandhislanguage.Thisdemandsacertaincapacity forsynthesis,because there isahugevolumeofstuffthatisgoingtobehittingyoufromallover.Ifyouarenotabletoveryquicklydistillandunderstandthebigthemes,youaregoingtobecompletelyoverwhelmedwhenyourbosssuddenlycallsandpullsaquestionyouweren’texpectingoutofthehat.

When IaskedSalimhowheapproacheshis job,he talkedabout “developinganoseforthetrends”thatallowedhimtotakeinitiative:

Youcan’twaitandreactallthetime.SotherearetimeswhenIwillgotomybossandsay,“DoyourealizeA,BandC?”Andhesays,“Howdidyouknowthat?”Isay,“Iwaslookingatthisreportandthatreportandthinkingaboutthatdiscussion we had the last time, and this is what I have picked up in myconversations.” It is a certain capacity to manage information. You have tohaveyour informationsystemwellordered,so thatwhen [myboss]callsmeandsays,“Ineedaninputintothisorthat,”Iamabletoconvertmyknowledgeintovalue-addingstuff.

Ofcourse,Salimhad thebenefitofastintasassistant to theCEO,aperchfromwhichhecouldobservehowallthedotsconnected.20Forthoseofuswhosepastexperiencehasbeenlimitedtoonefunctionorbusinessunit,thenextorderofpriorityistofindaprojectthatbroadensourvisionandincreasesourcapacitytoconnectthedots.Anothermethod,aswe’llseeinchapter3,istostartworkingonexpandingournetworks.

FindaProjectOutsideYourAreaInmysurveyaboutwhatmosthelpedpeoplestepuptoleadership,oneofthetopitemswas“experienceinaninternalprojectoutsidemyusualresponsibilities.”Allcompanieshaveprojectsthatcutacrosslinesofbusiness,hierarchicallevels,andfunctionalspecialties.Forexample,aglobalproductlaunchcanprovideexposureto senior leadership, and a cross-functional project can open doors to newopportunities.Yourjobistofindoutwhattheseprojectsare,who’sinvolved,andhowtosignup.

François,forexample,workedinsalesforamultinationalpharmaceuticalfirm.

Althoughhefoundhisjobexciting,itwasnotsodifferentfromhispreviousjobinanothercompany,andhelookedforwardtoapromotionasbusinessunitdirectorin sales and marketing management. Because there were no such positionsavailable in his company, François crafted for himself three small projects thatincreasedbothhis leadershipskillsandhis reputationwithhisbosses.First,heorganizedabusinessmeeting forpeers inFrance,wherehewasbased,and inBelgium.Asaresult,hegainedtheattentionoftheareavicepresident.Next,hecreatedandledacompetitiveintelligencegroupfortheFrenchaffiliate,increasinghis visibility at the European level. His work on these two projects raised hisprofile. Finally, the European medical director named him to a cross-functionalgroup tasked with creating a handbook on how to identify and manage keyopinion leaders.His country, France, becamea pilot site, andFrançois ran theproject.

Manypeoplehesitate to takeonextrawork.Afterall,weallstruggle toclawbacktimeforourpersonallives,andprojectworkalmostalwayscomesontopofourdayjobs.Butwhenitcomestosteppinguptoleadership,gettingexperienceacross business lines is a better choice than further deepening your skill basewithin a functional or business silo. One of my students had a great piece ofadviceforherclassmates:“WeallmanagedtomaketimeforourexecutiveMBAswhile still doing our day jobs. When the program ends, don’t let the day jobreabsorbthelearningtime.Keepthattimeaside,anduseittoevolveyourwork.”

Thenewskills, thebig-pictureperspective, theextra-groupconnections,andthe ideas about future opportunities that you gain from temporary assignmentslike these are well worth the investment. One of my students signed up for aproject to rethink best leadership practices at his company, part of an effort toincreaseengagementandreduceturnoverofkeyemployees.Workingacrossthelines showed him how to have influence without formal authority and how hisformerworkhabitshadstymied talentdevelopment.Theexperiencehelpedhimdiscover an interest in consulting, and hemoved into an advisory position twoyearslater.

Indeed,inaworldinwhichhierarchicalascensionisbeingreplacedby“jungle-gym careers” consisting of lateral moves, people will progress and developthroughtheirinvolvementin“hotprojects.”21Suchprojectsinvolveyouindifferentfacetsofthebusinessandinnewproblemsthatneedsolvingand,ideally,exposeyoutopeoplewhoseetheworlddifferentlythanyoudo.

ParticipateinExtracurricularActivitiesWhenaninternalprojectissimplynotavailable(orevenwhenitis),professionalrolesoutsideyourorganizationcanbeinvaluableforlearningandpracticingnewwaysofoperating,raisingyourprofile,and,maybemoreimportantly,revisingyourownlimitedviewofyourselfandimprovingyourcareerprospects.Let’sconsideranexample.

Robert, a senior policy expert, passionately wanted to run one of hiscompany’sbusinessesandtobeheldaccountableforitsP&L.Buthewasn’tsurehewasready,andhefixatedonhisownlackofcross-functionalexperienceandlimitedfinanceexpertise.Whilehisboss,Steve,agreedinprincipletofindRobertabiggerassignment,Stevesharedthesamedoubts.HehadmentoredRobertforyears,andlikemanywell-intentionedbosses,StevemaintainedanoutdatedviewofRobertasthe“juniorguy.”

To prove his merit, Robert only worked harder. It was a busy time for hisfunctionasthecompanypreparedtolaunchanimportantnewproduct.Thebirthofhissecondchildhadalreadyputabigdent inhisexternalactivities,and thenew push virtually eliminated any discretionary time for things like the industryconferenceshehadreliedonearliertostaycurrent.Butashebecamemoreandmore frustratedabouthisprospects,he finallychanged tack.Hedecided togetactiveagaintolearnaboutandcreatealternativestoaninternalpromotion.

AtfirstRobertwasn’tsurewheretobegin,asmanyoftheexternalactivitieshehadinvestedinbeforewouldonlyleadhim,atbest,toabiggerstaffjob.Onethinghehitonwasanindustrygroupfocusedoninnovationsinaproductnichethathiscompanywasalsoexploring.Leveragingwhatheknewaboutwhathis firmwasdoing,Robert volunteered toorganizeapanel.Oneof thepeoplesuggested tohimforthepanelwasanentrepreneurnamedThomas,whoheldthepatentsforarapidlygrowingnewproduct linebutwho lacked thebig-companyexperience inwhichRobertwassowellversed.Theystruckupafriendship,andovertime,theentrepreneurcametorelymoreandmoreonRobertasasoundingboardforhisorganizationaldilemmas.

As their relationship developed,Robert came to a newfound appreciation ofthe extent to which his own knowledge and experience extended beyond theconfinesofhisdailyfunctionalresponsibilities.Thisnewawarenessalsohadabigeffect,indirectly,onhowRobertdidhisjob.Hebecamemorecuriousaboutwhatother groups in his company were doing, started to ask different questions,becamemore confident aboutmaking suggestions, and reallocated theway hewas spending his time to make room for the increasing scope of his externalinterests. The shift was noticeable to everyone around him, and with time, hisbossandpeersalsocametovalueRobert’sperspective.

No amount of introspection about his strengths and preferences could havegiven Robert the outsight he gained, thanks to his relationships with Thomas.Ultimately, the self-image that Robert saw reflected in the entrepreneur’s eyeshelped Robert build the confidence he needed to go after a line role moreaggressivelyandmoreconvincingly.

David,whomadethetransition fromhis jobasaspecialist inproject financeand leveraged finance to a leadership position as country manager for aEuropean commercial bank, is another good example of how extracurricularactivitiescanhelpyougrow.Hismanagementwashappywiththestatusquofor

the foreseeable future, and the recessionary environment in Europe limited hispossibilities.Fearingacareerplateau,hetooktwosteps.First,hevolunteeredforalargeprojectattheheadofficeinFrankfurt.Theprojectrequiredhimtospendoneortwodaysaweekawayfromhisdailywork(forcinghimtodelegatesomeofthemoreroutineaspectsofhisjobtohisteam)andconnectedhimwithahandfulof senior managers he hadn’t known before. Second, he joined the YoungPresidents’Organization (YPO), where hemade some connections that helpedhim think more creatively about possible next moves. Like Robert, David wasignorant about what kind of curriculum vitae he needed to shift in a differentdirection,asmostof thepeople inhiscompanyhad followedamore traditionalpath.Thatwasn’tthecaseattheYPO,wherehealsolearnedhowtoframeandsellhisexpertiseinawaythatexpandedratherthanlimitedhisoptions.

Ifyouarefeelingstuckorstale,raiseyouroutsightbyparticipatinginindustryconferences or other professional gatherings that bring together people fromdifferent companies and walks of life. Build from your interests, not just yourexperience.Oneofmystudents,forexample,routinelylooksforopportunitiestospeakatconferencesontopicsrelatedtohisexperience.Herecentlygaveatalkathis companyon life inNigeria,wherehehadworked foranumberof years,showing a movie about daily life in Lagos, followed by a question-and-answersessionwithpotentialcandidatesforexpatriation.Theseactivitieshavebeenevenmoreworthwhile thanheanticipated: “I found that building your personal brandincreasesyourchancesofgettingproposals to joinstrategic initiativesandstepoutofyourday-to-dayjobforawhile.”

Teach, speak, or blog on topics that you know something about, or aboutwhich youwant to learn.And if there isn’t somethingout there thatmeets yourneeds,createyourown.Asectormanagerforaninternetcommerceorganization,for example, created her own community of marketing experts from differentorganizations by starting a monthly breakfast group. These extracurricularactivitiescanhelpyouseemorepossibilities, increaseyourvisibilitywithpeoplewhocanlaterhelpyoulandthenextroleorproject,and,intheprocess,asRobertfound, motivate you to shed some of the time-consuming tasks andresponsibilitiesthatnolongermeritsomuchofyourattention.Thesidebar“SherylSandberg’s Side Project” describes another good example of a fruitfulextracurricularactivity.

SherylSandberg’sSideProjectMostofusknowSherylSandbergasFacebook’subiquitouschiefoperatingofficer.ButwhatreallygaveherthevisibilitysheenjoystodayoriginatedwithaTEDtalkthathadnothingtodowithherdayjob.

Sandbergwas a keen observer of her environment.Noticing the scarcity ofwomen inSiliconValley,she identifiedseveral issues thatshebelievedwereholdingwomenback inbusiness.Shestartedtoshareherobservations,informallyandinsmallgatheringsatfirst.Asherideasresonated,shewasencouragedtotakethempublic.WhenanopportunitytospeakatTEDcameup,shetookit.

TheTED talkwent viral and led toother invitations, first at aBarnardCollegegraduationandthenatHarvardBusinessSchool.Justthosethreetalkshavebeenviewedoveronemilliontimes,alevelof impactthat fewcorporateCEOs,apart fromSteveJobs,canboast.Herbest-sellingbook,LeanIn,followed,andtherestishistory.

Nooneelsebeforehadcreatedthatlevelofinterestin,anddiscussionabout,issuesofwomenintheworkplace.WhatdoesthishavetodowithSandberg’swork leadingFacebook?Thecredibilitythe book gave her not only helped her recruit more women to Facebook but also landed her apositiononFacebook’sboardandexpandedthereachofhernetwork.

Communicate“Why”Theoverwhelmingsuccessof theTEDconferencesandvideoshasproducedacottageindustryofbooksandworkshopsthatteachpeoplehowtodoaTED-typetalk.22Peoplearesigningupindrovestolearnbecausecommunicationskillsareatapremium today,nomatterwhatwedo.Aswestepup tobigger leadershiproles, we find ourselves having to present our ideas more often and to moreaudiences who don’t necessarily share the same assumptions or bases ofexpertiseasourown.So,wehave to relyon the leastcommondenominator togetourmessageacross.Thatisusuallyagoodstory.

TEDtalkshavearecipethatanyonecanfollow.Itoftenstartswithastoryfromthe speaker’s personal experience; the story illustrates andmotivates themainpoint thepersonwants tomake.Once theaudience ishookedby thestory, themainpoints—thetechnicalorscientificbits—areeasier to followandretain.Thetalkusuallyendswiththemoralofthepersonalstory,remindingtheaudiencethatthemessage,nomatterhowarcane,ispersonal.It’sembodied.

For example, author Elizabeth Gilbert begins her talk about the nature ofcreativegeniusbytalkingaboutthepredicamentinwhichshefoundherselfaftertheunexpectedsuccessofherbook,Eat,Pray,Love.Everyonetoldher,andsheherselfbelieved, thatshehad reached thepinnacleofsuccess inher thirties. Itwouldonlybedownhillfromthere.Howwouldshemotivateherselftodoherjobas a writer for the decades to come? She set out to answer that question forherself by researching the creative process. She learned that beliefs aboutcreativity have changed over the centuries, from an archaic view of genius assomethingthatvisitedaperson, to today’sviewofgeniusasan innatepersonaltrait.Theresearchhelpedherunderstandthatwecan’tsetout toproducegreatcreativeworkdirectly,becausewedon’talwayshavecontroloverourinspiration.Allwecando isourownpart,and that’s toworkdailyandmethodicallyso thatwe’reinplacewheninspirationcomes.

ElementsofaGoodStoryAllgreatstories, fromAntigone toCasablanca toStarWars, derive their power fromabeginning-middle-endstorystructureandtheseotherbasiccharacteristics:a

Aprotagonist:Thelistenerneedssomeonetocareabout.Thestorymustbeaboutapersonorgroupwhosestruggleswecanrelateto.

Acatalyst:Inthebeginning,acatalystiswhatcompelstheprotagonisttotakeaction.Somehow,

theworldhaschangedsothatsomethingimportantisatstake.It’suptotheprotagonisttoputthingsrightagain.

Trialsandtribulations:Inthemiddleofthestory,obstaclesproducefrustration,conflict,anddramaandoftenleadtheprotagonisttochangeinanessentialway.AsinTheOdyssey,thetrialsreveal,test,andshapetheprotagonist’scharacter.Timeisspentwanderinginthewilderness,farfromhome.

Aturningpointandresolution:Neartheendofthestory,therecomesapointofnoreturn,afterwhichtheprotagonistcannolongerseeordothingsthesamewayasbefore.Theprotagonisteithersucceedsmagnificently(orfailstragically).

a.AdaptedfromHerminiaIbarraandKentLineback,“What’sYourStory?”HarvardBusinessReview83,no.1(2005):64–71.

According to psychologist Jerome Bruner, a message is twenty timesmorelikelytoberememberedaccuratelyandlongerwhenitisconveyedthroughawell-constructedstorythanwhenit isbasedonfactsor figures. IamnotsurewhatIwouldhaverememberedfromGilbert’stalkhadshesimplycitedthestudiesandpresentedamodelaboutconditionsunderwhichcreativegeniusismanifest.ButIrememberwellherstoryaboutherdailystruggle towriteafter the literaryworlddeclaredheraninternationalhit.Seldomisagoodstorysoneededaswhenwewantothers tobelievewhatwebelievesothat theywillactaswewant themtoact. From ancient times the world over, good stories like Gilbert’s relate thechallenges that test,shape,and reveal the leader’scharacterorpurpose.23Thesidebar “Elements of a Good Story” lays out the very basics that help thestorytellerengagetheaudience.

Whatdoyoubelieve,andhowdidyoucometobelieveit?Theanswerliesinyour personal story: how you grew up, the experiences that shaped you, thechallengingmomentswhenyouhadtorisetotheoccasion,thepersonalfailuresthat taught you important lessons.24 When we want someone to know us, wesharestoriesofourchildhood,our families,ourschoolyears,our first loves, thedevelopmentof ourpolitical views,andsoon.Whydowebuy famous leaders’biographiesandautobiographies?Wewanttoknowmoreabouttheirlifegrowingup, about their exploits, triumphs, traumas, and foibles—not the five-point plantheyputinplacetoincreasemargins.Atwork,though,itdoesn’toccurtomanyofustorevealourpersonalsides,andthatisalostopportunity.

Youprobablyalreadyknowwhichstoriesareyourbestones.Whatyouneedtolearnnowishowandwhentotellthemintheserviceofyourleadership.Onewaytolearnistopayattentiontopeoplewhoaregoodattellingstories.Whatdothesestorytellersdo?Ithelpsevenmoretopractice.Onegreatadvantageofthedifferent job-expandingmethodsoutlinedabove is that theyalsoprovide ready-made,liveaudiencesforpracticingtellingyourstory.

Anycontextwilldo inwhichyou’re likely tobeasked,“Whatcanyoutellmeaboutyourself?”or“Whatdoyoudo?”or“Wherearewegoing?”25Startwithyourclubsandassociations:volunteertospeakateveryoccasionthatcomesup.Or,ifthis is too radical a step, join an organization like Toastmasters, or take astorytelling seminar that will have you practicing in front of a safe audience of

strangers. As you get better, seize opportunities inside your organization: afarewell party or the annual off-site. One of mymanagers happened to take astorytelling class, by serendipity, the week he was scheduled to give a bigpresentation tohisorganization.He threwout thePowerPointpresentationhe’dassembled and told three stories instead. He told me he had never had suchpositivefeedbackonhisspeaking.

Tellandretellyourstories.Reworkthemasyouwouldworkondraftafterdraftofanepicnoveluntilyou’vegottherightversionofyourfavorites,theonethat’smostcompellingandfeelsmosttruetoyou.

GetSomeSlackManyyearsago,astill-unknownmanagementscholarnamedJohnKottertookahandheldcameraandfollowedabunchofgeneralmanagersaroundtoseewhattheyactuallydid(asopposedtowhateveryoneassumedtheyweredoing).Thebiggestthingthatsurprisedhimwashowinefficientthemostsuccessfulmanagersseemedtobe.26

Muchoftheirworkdidn’ttakeplaceinplannedmeetingsoreveninsideofficesor conference rooms. Often, the work didn’t even look like work. Instead theywalkedaround,bumpingintopeopleserendipitously,wanderingintotheiroffices,hashing out deals in the airport lounge with key customers, and so on. Thesechance“meetings”wereusuallyveryshortandoftenseemedrandom.Buteachmanager made good use of these impromptu encounters to get information,mentionorreinforceanimportantpriority,orfurtherdevelophis(theywereallmenatthetime)relationshipswiththepeoplewhosepathshecrossed.Thisseeminglyunsystematic approach, rather than filling out reports or giving formalpresentations,wasthesuccessfulmanager’sdayjob.

Kotteralso filmedthemanagers’agendas.Asyoumightexpect, thecontrastbetweenthediariesofthemoreeffectivemanagersandthoseofthelesseffectiveonesisstriking.Butit’snotwhatyoumightexpect.Themosteffectivemanagershadplentyofslackintheirschedule:lotsofunscheduledtime.Thelesseffectivemanagers had diaries overflowing with meetings, travel, conference calls, andformalpresentations.

The new ways of thinking and acting involved in stepping up to leadershiprequireapreciousandscarceresource—time.Ifyou’relikemostofthemanagersandprofessionalsIteach,routineandimmediatedemandscrowdoutthetimeyouneedforthemoreunstructuredworkofleadership.Whenyouarestretchedtothehilt,it’shardtoaskyourself,“AmIfocusingontherightthings?”Wefailtobuildinthenecessaryslack,preciselybecausetimeisshortandthereissomuchtodo.

In a recent book titledScarcity, economists Sendhil Mullainathan and EldarShafir make an interesting parallel between poverty of money and poverty oftime.27Both,theyshow,produce“tunneling,”anarrowfocusontheshorttermanda seeming incapacity to delay short-term gratification for the sake of future

rewards.

Tomakethepoint,MullainathanandShafirtellastoryaboutanoverstretchedacute-carehospitalthatwasalwaysfullybooked.Withtheoperatingroomsat100percent capacity, when emergency cases arose—and they always did—thehospital was forced to bump long-scheduled but less urgent surgeries: “As aresult, hospital staff sometimes performed surgery at 2 a.m.; physicians oftenwaited several hours to perform two-hour procedures; and staff membersregularly worked unplanned overtime.” Because the hospital was constantlybehind, itwasconstantly reshuffling thework,an inefficientandstressfulwayofoperating.

Asmostorganizations in troubleareapt todo, thehospitalhiredanexternalconsultant who came up with a surprising solution: leave one operating roomunused,setasideforunanticipatedcases.Thehospitaladministratorsrespondedasmostofuswould:“Wearealreadytoobusy,andtheywanttotakesomethingawayfromus.Thisiscrazy.”

Much like the overcommitted person who cannot imagine taking on theadditionaland time-consuming taskofsteppingbackandreorganizing, letalonegiving up a precious resource for something thatmight ormight not occur, thehospital’s managers were skeptical. But the operating-room gambit worked.Having an empty room allowed the hospital staff to react to unforeseenemergencies much more efficiently, without having to reschedule everything. Itreducedoverwork,andthequalityofoperationsimproved.

Soitisfortheoverextendedmanager.It’swhenweareatourbusiestthatwemost need to free up time so that we can use it for the nonroutine and theunexpected. In thisway,we increase our capacity to lead, asKotter’s effectivegeneralmanagersdid.

AddBeforeYouSubtractTherearetwoverydifferentkindsofproblemsinallocatingyourtimetoleadershipwork. The first, a difficult but tractable problem, ismaking yourself spendmoretimeon the thingsyouknowarereally important,butnoturgent.This ishard todo, but there are tried-and-true techniques for doing so.28 The second, harderproblemischangingyourviewsaboutwhatisimportant.

Theonlywaytotacklethissecondproblemistogetinvolvedinactivitiesthatwill make you think differently about what you should be doing and why:boundary-spanningrolesthatmakeyoumoreattunedtotheenvironmentoutsideyour team, projects outside your main area of expertise, and activities outsideyour firm.Thesearemedium-term investmentswithout immediatepayoff, soasyouaddthem,youwon’tbeabletosubtractmuchofwhatyouusedtodo-justyet.The sidebar “Getting Started: Experiments with Your Job” offers ways foroverextendedmanagerstostepoutoftheirunproductiveroutines.Onlywhenthe

newrolesstarttopayoffwillyoubemotivatedandabletostartlettinggooftheoldones.

GETTINGSTARTED

ExperimentswithYourJob

>Inthenextthreedays,startobservingsomeonewhomyouconsiderastrategicthinkerorvisionaryleader.

Learnhowhethinksandcommunicates.

>Over the next three weeks, find a project (inside or outside your organization) outside your area of

expertise,andsignupforit.

>Overthenextthreemonths,watchsomeTEDtalks.Payspecificattentiontohowpeopletelltheirstoryto

underscorethepointtheywanttomake.Inyourdomain,findleaderswhoarealsogoodattellingstoriestomakeapoint,andlistentohowtheydoit.Signupforacourseinstorytelling.

CHAPTER2SUMMARY

✓Successcreatescompetencytraps.Wefallintoacompetencytrapwhenthesethreethingsoccur:

–Youenjoywhatyoudowell,soyoudomoreofitandgetyetbetteratit.

–Whenyouallocatemoretimetowhatyoudobest,youdevotelesstimetolearningotherthingsthatarealsoimportant.

–Overtime,itgetsmorecostlytoinvestinlearningtodonewthings.

✓Toactlikealeader,youmustdevotetimetofourtasksyouwon’tlearntodoifyouareinacompetencytrap:

–Bridgingacrossdiversepeopleandgroups.

–Envisioningnewpossibilities.

–Engagingpeopleinthechangeprocess.

–Embodyingthechange.

✓It’shardtolearnthesethingsdirectlyandespeciallywithoutthebenefitofanewassignment.So,nomatterwhatyourcurrentsituationis,therearefivethingsyoucandotobegintomakeyourjobaplatformforexpandingyourleadership:

–Developyoursituationsensors.

–Getinvolvedinprojectsoutsideyourarea.

–Participateinextracurricularactivities.

–Communicateyourpersonal“why.”

–Createslackinyourschedule.

CHAPTER3

NetworkAcrossandOutONASCALEOFONETOFIVE,howimportantishavingagoodnetworktoyourabilitytoaccomplishyourgoals?WhenIaskmyexecutivestudentsthisquestion,mostofthemanswerinthefoursandfives.Eventhemostnaiveofthemagreethat,likeitornot,relationshipsholdthekeytoboththeircurrentcapacityandfuturesuccess.

What can a network do for you? It can keep you informed. Teach you newthings.Makeyoumore innovative.Giveyouasoundingboard to fleshoutyourideas.Helpyouget thingsdonewhenyouare inahurryandyouneeda favor.Thelistgoeson.1

When it comes to stepping up to leadership, your network is a tool foridentifyingnewstrategicopportunitiesandattractingthebestpeopletothem.It’sthechannelthroughwhichyousellyourinitiativestothepeopleyoudependonforcooperationandsupport.It’swhatyourelyontowinovertheskeptics.Itprotectsyoufrombeingcluelessaboutthepoliticaldynamicsthatsooftenkillgoodideas.Your relationships are also the best way to changewith your environment andindustry,evenifyourformalroleorassignmenthasnotchanged.Withoutagoodnetwork,youwillalsolimityourownimaginationaboutyourowncareerprospects.Yournetworkisalsowhatputsyouontheradarscreenofpeoplewhocontrolyournextjoborassignmentandwhoformtheiropinionofyourpotentialpartlyonwhoknowsyouandwhattheysayaboutyou.Inshort,yournetworkisacrucialsourceofoutsightonyourjob—andeverythingelsetowhichyouaspire(figure3-1).FIGURE3-1

Increasingyouroutsightbynetworkingacrossandout

Butjustbecauseapersonknowsthatanetworkisimportanttohersuccess,itdoesn’tmeanshe isdevotingsufficient timeandenergy tomaking itusefuland

strong.Infact,fewofusdo.IknowbecauseIaskasecondquestion:Onascaleofonetofive,howwouldyouratethequalityofyourcurrentnetwork?

Myguessisthatyoursecondnumberislowerthanyourfirst.Onaverage,myexecutivestudentsanswer thisquestion in the twosand threes.Mostadmit thateven by their own standards, their networks of connections leave much to bedesired.

Thischapter isabouthow tochange that.We’ll startby lookingathowyourattitudetowardnetworkinglimitsyourpotentialtobuildimportantrelationshipsandhowyourcurrentnetworktrapsyouinoldmind-sets.Next,we’llexaminehowthethreekeypropertiesofnetworkseitherpropelyouforwardorholdyouback.Then,we’ll map out the steps you need to increase your capacity to lead through abroadanddiversenetworkofrelationships.

We’llstartbyassessingthenetworkyouhavetoday.Thesidebar“ANetworkAudit” lets you conduct a quick-and-dirty audit of your present network. ThequestionsrepresentashortversionofthesurveyIusewithmystudents.2

We’reAllNarcissisticandLazyIndulgeme inanswering the followingquizquestion:Of the following,whichdoyou think is the primary determinant of chemistry in a professional relationship,accordingtosocialscienceresearch?Pickoneamongthefollowing:

1.Intelligence

2.Attractiveness(includingbothphysicalbeautyandpersonalcharisma)

3.Similarity

4.Physicalproximity

5.Highstatus

MostpeopleIhavepolledchooseeithersimilarity,whichisthecorrectanswer,orattractiveness—whichisanotherwayofsayingsimilarity,sincetheresearchalsoshows that we are more likely to be attracted to people with whom we haveimportant things in common—and who therefore remind us of ourselves. Ofcourse,wemaybedrawntoqualities like intelligenceorstatus,butbecausewearetalkingaboutmutualattractionhere,qualitieslikestatusandintelligenceonlycreatechemistrywhenbothpeoplearesimilarwithrespecttothequalities.

ANetworkAuditThinkofuptotenpeoplewithwhomyouhavediscussedimportantworkmattersoverthepastfewmonths(youarenotrequiredtocomeupwithten).Youmighthavesoughtthemoutforadvice,tobounceideasoffthem,tohelpyouevaluateopportunities,ortohelpyoustrategizeimportantmoves.Don’tworryaboutwhotheyshouldbe.Onlynamepeopletowhomyouhaveactuallyturnedforthishelprecently.

Listtheirnamesorinitialsbelow,withoutreadingfurther.

1.________________________________________________

2.________________________________________________

3.________________________________________________

4.________________________________________________

5.________________________________________________

6.________________________________________________

7.________________________________________________

8.________________________________________________

9.________________________________________________

10.______________________________________________

Take a moment to examine the names you listed. List up to three strengths and threeweaknessesofhavingthissetofconnectionsatthecoreofyournetwork:

Themainstrengthsofmynetworkasitexiststodayare:1.________________________________________________

2.________________________________________________

3.________________________________________________

Themainweaknessesofmynetworkasitexiststodayare:1._______________________________________________

2._______________________________________________

3._______________________________________________

We’llreturntoyouranswerslater.

I call this tendency to prefer interacting with people who are similar toourselvesthenarcissisticprincipleofrelationshipformation,anditisaveryrobustfindingacrossdecadesofsocialscienceresearch.3Wearedrawnspontaneouslyto peoplewho are like us inways that are important to us, andwe give thosepeople the benefit of the doubt, creating conditions that increase the likelihoodthatarelationshipwilldevelop.Thenarcissisticprincipleisespeciallystrongunderconditionsofthreatorambiguity,whenweseeksafetyandcertainty.Evolutionarypsychologists explain this primitive instinct in terms of our prehistoric need todeterminequicklywhetherastranger isapotential friendor foe.4 In thosedays,mistakeswereverycostlyforoursurvival.

Somescholarsarguethatourtendencytouse“likeme” indicatorstosizeupnewcomers is hardwired and therefore still difficult to override today, even in abusinessworld that thrivesondiversity.A famoussetofstudiesestablished, forexample,thatthesuccessofanemploymentinterviewhingesonwhattranspiresinthefirstfewminutesoftheencounter.5Ifbothpartiessomehowestablishsomeimportant common ground early on by noting, for example, that they share ahometown, an alma mater, or a common acquaintance, the chances that theinterviewwillgowellgoupexponentially.

Withoutcommonground,it’shardertorelatetopeople.IseethiseverydayatINSEAD,where I teach.Despiteour rich internationaldiversity in theclassroom

(and theobvious fact that just being there createsa lot of commonground), atlunchordinner,people inevitablysitwiththeircompatriots. Inorganizational life,we are likewise divided into our various “tribes”—people who share the sametechnical expertise, professional jargon, generational norms, national culture,educational background, career prospects, and so on. It takes more time andeffort to get to knowmembers of different tribes,which leads us to the secondprincipleofrelationshipformation:thelazyprinciple.

After similarity, the second-most important determinant of chemistry in arelationship, according to the studies, is physical proximity.6 Not only are wenarcissistic,butwe’realsolazy.Wegettoknowandlikepeoplewhoareeasytoget to know and like because we bump into them with minimal effort. Justconsideranyorganizationthatisspreadacrossmorethanonebuilding.Typically,fewrelationshipssurvivethewalktotheadjacentoffices.Worse,peoplejusthangout with others who occupy the same floor, most likely members of the samedepartmentorteam.Thesametendencyexistsoutsidework.Onelandmarkstudyfoundthatthelikelihoodoffriendshipamongneighborsinanapartmentblockwassignificantly higher than the likelihood of friendship across blocks.7 Mostfriendshipswereformedamongpeoplelivingonthesamefloor.

Youcan’tpossiblystaycurrentwithnew trends in theworld,much less leadthe way, if your network is a product of the narcissistic and lazy bias. Unlikedelivery-drivenexecutiveswhonetworktodotoday’sjob,effectiveleaderscreateand use networks to tap new ideas, connect to people in different worlds, andaccessradicallydifferentperspectives.Aswe’llsee,effectiveleadershavemanypeople they can turn to who can help them think through difficult problems orsupport them in their initiatives. These leaders understand that the time spentbuilding and maintaining their connections is an investment in their leadershipskills.Becausenoonepersoncanpossiblyhavealltheanswersor,indeed,knowalltherightquestionstoask,it’scrucialthatleadersbeabletotapintoanetworkofpeoplewhocanfillinthegaps.

Acting like a leader, then, is not just aboutwhat you do, but also about thecompanyyoukeep,asthesidebar“HowLeadersUseNetworksasanEssentialLeadership Tool” summarizes. Stepping up to leadership, as we’ll see below,requiresthatyoucultivateadiverse,widespread,dynamic,andcross-cuttingsetofrelationshipstohelpyoutoleadchange,moveintoassignmentsinwhichyoucan play a bigger leadership role, and take charge of your professionaldevelopment.

HowLeadersUseNetworksasanEssentialLeadershipTool•Sensingtrendsandseeingopportunities

•Buildingtiestoopinionleadersandtalentindiverseareas

•Workingcollaborativelyacrossboundariestocreatemorevalue

•Avoidinggroupthink

•Generatingbreakthroughideas

•Obtainingcareeropportunities

Mind-setsThatCreateNetworkTrapsManymanagers likeRobert (seechapter2) limitboth theircapacity to leadandtheircareerprospectsbecause theyendupsticking to thesameoldplayers forinsight, perspective, and advice. As described earlier, Robert languished in thesamestaffrolehehadheldforyears.Hefeltincreasinglyboredandfrustratedinajobhecouldhavedone“inhissleep.”Hewasloyaltohiscompanyandtoabosswho had given him opportunities in the past, but the boss didn’t see Robert’sleadershippotential.Robert tried tobreak the impassebyenlistingother seniorleaders inhis firm tomentorhim.Theseeffortswerenotgettinghimanywhere.Washejusttooimpatient,hewondered?

The introverted Robert didn’t need more mentors. He sorely needed tobroadenhishorizonssothathecouldenvisionhimselfinadifferentcapacityandshow his superiors that their view of himwas outdated. So against his naturalinclinations,heeventuallyforcedhimselftostartbuildingrelationships“outsidethehouse.”

Hebeganbysettingupluncheswithformerpeerswhohadleft thecompanyfor competitors or start-ups. He talked to headhunters and even began to chatwith people at his health club to learn about their career trajectories. Robert’sgrowing external network helped him get a bird’s-eye view of his business andindustry. Italsogavehim informationonhowotherpeoplehadmadetransitionsliketheonehewantedtomake.Robert’snewrelationshipsgavehimanewfoundappreciation of his own strengths andexperience—an improved self-image thatultimatelyhelpedbuildhisconfidence.

Oncehesawforhimselfthevalueofnetworking,Roberthadnoqualmsaboutallocatingtimetoit.Unfortunately,wedon’tinvestinnetworkingwhenwehavealimitedviewofwhatitisreallyabout,whatitcandoforus,andwhatwecandoforothersby virtueof thenetworkswe’vecultivated.Foreverymanagerwhoseesthevalueofmaintainingafar-reachinganddiversesetofconnections,manymorestruggletoovercomeinnateresistanceto,ifnotdistastefor,networking.

Many of the managers I teach say that they find networking essentiallyinsincere or manipulative—a way to obtain favors from strangers, with stringsattached as obligations to return the favors. Carlos, a product manager for aconsumer-goods firm, dismissed networking as “using people.” For him,networking—thecreationofacircleofpersonalcontactswhocanprovidesupport,insight,information,andotherresources—amountedto“liningpeopleupforwhenImightneedthem.”Itwasinsincereandmanipulative—atbest,asanctionedway

ofusingpeople.Asthesidebar“WhenNetworkingMakesYouFeelDirty”shows,he is not alone: many people report that networking for instrumental purposesliterallymakesthemfeelunclean.

WhenNetworkingMakesYouFeelDirtya

Three business school professors, Tiziana Casciaro, Francesca Gino, and Maryam Kouchaki,decidedtostudysomethingtheyhadexperiencedpersonallyandheardaboutoftenfromtheirMBAstudents:people’sstrongdistastefor“instrumentalnetworking,”whichtheydefinedastryingtomakeconnections to advance one’s career (as opposed to “personal networking,” which is morespontaneousandaimstobuildfriendly,collegialconnections).

Intwooftheirstudies,evenjustthinkingaboutinstrumentalnetworkingmadestudysubjectsfeeldirty,tothepointthattheythoughtunconsciouslyabouttakingashowerorbrushingtheirteeth,orrated products associatedwith cleansing, such asWindex,Dove soap, andCrest toothpaste, asmoredesirablethanneutralproducts,suchasPost-itNotesandNantucketNectarsjuice.

To show they were onto something relevant outside the lab, Casciaro, Gino, and Kouchakidesigned a third study, in which they surveyed lawyers at a large North American law firm. Theauthors found that the more power people have, the less likely they are to have qualms aboutinstrumental networking. They asked the lawyers to fill out forms about the frequency of theirnetworkingactivities,andthenaquestionnaireinwhichtheyhadtocompletethesentence,“WhenIengage in professional networking, I usually feel… ,” followed by a choice of adjectives: “dirty,”“ashamed,”“inauthentic,”“uncomfortable,”or“happy,”“excited,”“anxious,”“satisfied.”Thehigheruptheywereinthefirm,thelesslikelythelawyersweretoselectthenegativeadjectives.

In order to better tease out the effects of having power from the feelings associated withinstrumental versus personal networking, the authors devised a fourth study in which theymanipulatedboththestudysubjects’levelofpowerandthetypeofnetworkingtheywereaskedtodo.Someparticipantswere told theyhada low-levelposition in theircompany,whileothersweretold they had positions of power. Next, some participants were instructed to send a LinkedInmessage aimed at building a professional relationship, while the others were asked to send amessagethroughFacebookinordertodevelopapersonalrelationship.Theauthorsthenassessedthe feelings of the participants and found that, overall, those who sent personal messages onFacebookfeltalotlessdirtythanthosewhosentprofessionalmessagesonLinkedIn.However,thepeoplewhoweretoldtheyheldlow-levelpositionschosemorecleansingproductswhentheysentthe Linked-In messages than those who were assigned power positions. The “higher-ups” didn’tdiffer all that much in their product choice, whether they were sending Facebook or LinkedInmessages.

What did the authors conclude, knowing (from their own research and that of others) howimportant instrumentalnetworksareforcareersuccess?Theylearnedthatconfidencehasalottodo with an individual’s comfort level with this kind of networking: the senior lawyers didn’t feelconflictedaboutprofessionalnetworkingbecausetheybelievedtheyhadsomethingofvaluetooffer.Thepeople in low-level positions,on theotherhand,weremore likely todoubt theworthof theircontributions;theyfeltmorelikesupplicantsthanpeersinareciprocal,mutuallybeneficialexchange.

a.TizianaCasciaro,FrancescaGino,andMaryamKouchaki,“TheContaminatingEffectsofBuildingInstrumental Ties: How Networking CanMake Us Feel Dirty.” Harvard Business SchoolWorkingPaper,No.14-108,April2014.

Becauseworking thenetwork felt like a threat to his integrity,Carlos stayedinside his comfort zone, which was defined by his long-standing relationshipswithinhisregion’soperations.Hehadexcellentlocalnetworks;anaturalextrovert,Carlosalsotookadvantageofextracurricularactivitieslikegolfoutingsathisclubto strengthen his relationships with customers, team members, and evencolleagues outside his group. But having spent the totality of his career in his

homecountryofBrazil,he lacked thestrategic ties thathishighlymobile,oftenexpatriatedpeersenjoyed.Whathemostneedednowwasvisibilitywithdecisionmakers,thepeoplewhosatatthetableforpromotiondecisions.“IknowtherearepeopleIneedtostayintouchwith,strategically,”hesaid.“ButIhavealwaysbeeninBrazil,soIstruggletokeepcontactwithpeoplewhoaren’tbasedhere.WhatamIsupposedtodo,sendanemailsaying,‘How’sitgoing?’?Thatseemsfaketome.Ifeelmorecomfortablesaying,‘Let’stalkaboutthebusiness.’IknowIhavetoworkonthis,butit’snoteasy.”

LikeCarlos,manypeoplewhofailtoengageinnetworkingjustifytheirchoiceasamatterofpersonalvalues.Jacob,whomwesaw inchapter1 struggling tocarve out quiet time for strategizing about his business, also told me that hisdistaste for instrumental behavior was holding him back from building therelationships he needed: “Relationships should develop in a natural way.”Furthermore,hiscareerpathwithina large,well-organizedmultinationalhadnotprepared him for networking across boundaries: “My firm was like a cocoon:Everything was organized—it’s a world in which you don’t need an externalnetwork. Even the management courses were internal—bringing togethercompany people from all around the world.” His limited interactions made itdifficult for him to fully appreciate the demands on sales, finance, and otherfunctionalareas,sohecouldhardlyblendthesediverseperspectivesintoaviablebusinessstrategy,nomatterhowmuchtimehespentshutupinhisoffice.

Aspeople stepup to leadership, someaccept their growingdependenceonothersandseektotransformitintomutualinfluence.Othersdismisssuchworkaspoliticaland,asaresult,underminetheirabilitytoadvancetheirgoals.Aswesawin chapter 2, recruiting stakeholders, lining up allies and sympathizers, andsensing the political landscapeare all part of the leader’s job.Whenwedefinenetworking as intrinsically self-interested, even somewhat sleazy—and whoamong us wants to define ourselves in those terms?—wewill always prioritizeimmediate tasks and personal relationships over longer-term strategic networkinvestmentsthatmayormaynotpayoffinthefuture.Theonlywaytoconceiveofnetworking in nobler, more appealing ways is to do it, and experience forourselves its value, not only for ourselves but also for our teams andorganizations.

Alackofexperiencewithnetworkingalsoleadspeopletoquestionwhetherit’sa legitimateuseof their time,especiallywhentherelationshipsbeingdevelopedare not immediately related to the task at hand. When we don’t considernetworking an integral part of our job and professional responsibilities, weunderstandably find this activity hard to squeeze in. Why widen our circle ofacquaintancesspeculatively,whenthereishardlyenoughtimefortherealwork?Thesidebar“TrapsThatKeepYou fromExpandingYourNetworks”summarizestheobjectionsthatmanyofushaveaboutnetworks.

Traps like these create powerful network blinders. They make you more

vulnerable to thenarcissisticand lazysyndrome thatnarrowsyour thinkingandlimitsyourcapacitytolead.Youremaininsideacozybutclosedcirclethatleavesyouandyourteamvulnerabletoshiftingwindsandunpreparedtoanticipatethem.Worse, you reduce your utility to the people who rely on you as a contact,because you have little to offer that they don’t know already (or can’t getelsewhere).Moving past these traps takes knowledge of how different kinds ofnetworkswork.

TrapsThatKeepYoufromExpandingYourNetworks•Youthinknetworkingisnotrealwork.

•Youthinkitisusingpeopleanditfeelsinauthentic.

•Thepayoffislongterm,andyouhavemoreurgentthingstodo.

•Youthinkthatrelationshipsshouldformspontaneously.

Operational,Personal,andStrategicNetworksOfcourse,youalreadyhaveanetwork.Thequestioniswhatkind.

At least three different networks—operational, personal, and strategic—canplayavitalroleinhelpingyoustepuptolead.Thefirsthelpsyoumanagecurrentinternal responsibilities, the second boosts personal development, and the thirdfocusesonnewbusinessdirectionsandthestakeholdersyoumustgetonboardtopursuethesedirections.Whilepeopledifferalotinhowwelltheybuildanduseoperational and personal networks, I discovered that nearly everyoneunderutilizes strategic networking. Letmebriefly describe each type of network(table3-1).

Most of the people I come across have good operational networks. Thesenetworksincludethepeopleonwhomyoudependinordertogetyourworkdone.Thepeopleincludeyourdirectreports,yoursuperiors,peopleinotherunits,andkeyoutsiderssuchassuppliers,distributors,andcustomers.Thecompositionofyour networks is largely determined by your immediate job needs and routine,short-termdemands.Ofcourse,it isuptoyoutodeepen,develop,andprioritizetherelationshipsthataremostimportantforyou.Butyouhavelittlediscretioninthecompositionofoperationalnetworks,becausethesetendtobeprescribedbythe job and organizational structure. A good operational network gives youreliability. But it’s unlikely to deliver value beyond helping you accomplishfunctional objectives and assigned tasks. The network won’t help you ask thestrategicandfuture-focusedquestion“Whatshouldwebedoinginstead?”

Most people also have personal networks of varying diversity and breadth.Here you have lots of discretion about who’s in. Personal networks includerelationshipswiththepeoplethatyoufeelclosestto—friends,family,andtrusted

advisers—andthepeopleyoumeetthroughthingslikeprofessionalassociations,alumnigroups,clubs,hobbies,charities,andotherpersonal-interestcommunities.You decide who belongs in this network according to your personal goals andaffinities.Agoodpersonalnetworkgivesyoukindredspirits. It canalsoprovideimportant referrals, widen your professional involvement and horizons outsidework, and, in the best cases, offer developmental support such as coaching ormentoring.Whenyouarelookingforanewjoborcareeradvice,youtypicallystartwiththisnetwork.TABLE3-1

Differencebetweenoperational,personal,andstrategicnetworks

Butpersonalnetworkingabsorbsasignificantamountoftimeandenergy.Thisisonereasonthatmanypeoplestopnetworking,preciselywhentheyneeditmost—whentheyarebusydeliveringonroutinework(andpick itbackupwhentheydesperatelyneedanewjob).Theyseetheirpersonalcircleassomethingtotallydivorced from their day-to-day work, instead of looking for potential synergiesbetweentheiroperationalandpersonalcontactssothateachcircleenrichesandstrengthenstheother.

Thethirdkindofnetwork—yourstrategicnetwork—ismadeupofrelationshipsthathelpyoutoenvisionthefuture,sellyour ideas,andget the informationandresources you need to exploit these ideas. It requires both time and attentionoutside operational demands and strategic investment in outside activities thatcangiveyououtsightonwhatelseyoumightbedoing.Youhavemorediscretionabout thecompositionofyourstrategicnetwork thanyoudo inyouroperationalnetwork,butnotasmuchas inyourpersonalnetwork.Bydefinition,astrategicnetworkhastoincludepeopleandgroupsthatcanhelpyoucompeteinthefuture.Partof the trick is that it isnotalwayssoobviouswhoshouldbeapartof thisnetwork.Agoodstrategicnetworkgivesyouconnectiveadvantage: theability tomarshal information, support, or other resources from one of your networks toobtainresultsinanother.It’snotsomuchabouttheone-on-onerelationshipsyouhave,butitismoreabouthowtheyintersect.

Aswe’llsee,therearethreebasicsourcesofconnectiveadvantagethatyouwillneedtobuildintoyournetwork.Asyoureadthenextsection,youmaywanttoreturntothenetworkauditthatyoutookatthebeginningofthischapter,toasses

ifthesepropertiesofnetworksareworkingforyouoragainstyou.

TheBCDs(Breadth,Connectivity,andDynamism)ofNetworkingAdvantageYournetwork’sstrategicadvantageand,therefore,theextenttowhichithelpsyoustepuptoleadership,dependsonthreequalities:

•Breadth:Strongrelationshipswithadiverserangeofcontacts•Connectivity:Thecapacitytolinkorbridgeacrosspeopleandgroupsthat

wouldn’totherwiseconnect

•Dynamism:Adynamicsetofextendedtiesthatevolvesasyouevolve)IcallthesethreequalitiestheBCDsofnetworkadvantage,orA=B+C+D.

Breadth:HowDiverseIsYourNetwork?Oneof the first things thatmystudentsnoticewhen theyaudit theirnetworks isthatthenetworkformedbythepeopletheytalktoaboutimportantworkmattersismuch more internally focused than it should be. As these managers start toconcern themselves with broad strategic issues and organizational changeprocesses,lateralrelationshipswithpeopleoutsidetheirimmediateareabecomeevenmorecriticaltothemanagers’abilitytogetthingsdone.Andinaconnectedworld,buildingstrongerexternalnetworks to tap into thebestsourcesof insightintoenvironmentaltrendsisalsopartandparceloftheleadershiprole.

DatacompiledfromthenetworksurveysIgivemyparticipantsshowsthatweare still not using networks to our best advantage.We build networks that areheavilyskewed towardourown functional,business,orgeographicalgroupandfailtoelicitorvaluetheinputandperspectivesofpeersfromdifferentfunctionalorsupportgroups.Moreover,wearestillrelyingonnetworksthataremostlyinternaltoourcompany,inaworldwheretherateofchangeoutsideisconsiderable.

As the descriptive statistics in figure 3-2 show, themajority of my students’contactsareinsidetheirspecialty,unit,andfirm.Onaverage,lessthan43percentofthepeopletheexecutivestudentswerediscussingkeyissueswithwerelocatedoutside their unit or specialty; even fewer, only a quarter,wereexternal to theircompany.Butaveragescanbedeceiving:therangeofvaluesshowsthatsomeofthemanagers in thesurveyhavenooutsightatall from theirnetworks,withnocontactsatalloutsidetheirspecialty,unit,orfirm.

You can also overdo diversity: the ranges also show that some of theexecutives have heavily external networks: up to 100 percent and 95 percentoutside their specialties and units, respectively, and 88 percent outside theircompanies.That’sfineifanexecutiveis lookingtomoveelsewhere,assomeofmyparticipantswere.Butanexclusivelyoutsidenetworkisnotasusefulifyouaretrying to bring an outside approach into your own company. As we learned in

chapter 2, you can’t bridge the outside to the inside if you haven’t establishedstrongrelationshipsontheinside.FIGURE3-2

Networkdiversity:externalfocus

Source:Author’s2011–14surveyof156alumnifromINSEADexecutiveprograms.

Another common network blind spot consists of undervaluing the potentialcontributions of junior people. Managers striving to make their way up theleadership pipeline tend to manage up, forgetting that their connection to thelayersbelowisoftenwhatmakestheminvaluabletoseniorswhosesponsorshiptheyhopetoattract.Onemanagerexplainedittomethisway:“IwouldperhapshavebeenabletoaddevenmorevaluetomysuperiorsifIhadretainedmylinkswithmore juniorpeople.Forexample,recentlywewere inameetingdiscussingtheresultsofaglobalpeoplesurvey.Iwaslisteningtoall theircomments,andIsaid,‘Youguysarelookingatthisfromtheperspectiveofveryseniorpeople;becareful about howyouare interpreting the results. [Peopleat a lower level] aresayingsomethingcompletelydifferent.’IknewthatbecauseIhadbeenspendingtimewiththem.”Givenachoicebetweenanetworkheavilyskewedtothepowerplayersinyourfirmandagoodmixofdiversecontacts,whichwouldyouchoose?Researchshowsthatyouarebetteroffwiththe latter.This isbecausenetworksrunontheprincipleofreciprocity.Thevalueofdiverserelationshipsliesnotonlyinwhatyourcontactscandoforyou,butalsoonwhatyoucandoforthem.Yoursenior leaders don’t need you to connect themwith other seniors; they alreadyknow each other. Top management needs you to bring them the fresh ideas,insights,andbestpracticesthatyoucanonlygetelsewhere,outside,across,andbelow.Asfigure3-3shows,toomanymanagerslackthe360-degreeperspectiveyou canonly get fromcultivating relationshipswith amix of peers, juniors, andseniors. Although the averages suggest that people focus their networking onapproximately one-third of each group, the range of the scores shows that toomanymanagers systematically excludeoneof thesegroups.The sidebar “WhyWeNeedFreshBlood” explains how diversity on any team often produces thebestresults.FIGURE3-3

Networkdiversity:acrosslevels

Source:Author’s2011–14surveyof156alumnifromINSEADexecutiveprograms.

WhyWeNeedFreshBloodStefanWuchty,BenjaminJones,andBrianUzzi,amultidisciplinaryteamofresearchers,decidedtousebigdatatolearnwhatdistinguishedideasthathadimpactfromthosethatdidn’t.Inamassivestudyofthetwentymillionacademicarticlesandtwomillionpatentscitedoverthepastfiftyyears,whichWuchtyandhiscolleaguespublished in theprestigious journalScience, they found that thedifferenceliesinthekindsofnetworksthatproducetheideas.a

Thestudyshowedthatthedaysofthesolitarygeniusorloneinventor—thinkNewtonorEinstein—are over. Creative and scientific work has migrated to teams and, more recently, to large,distributedteamslikethehundredsofscientiststhatworkedonthehumangenomeproject.

But being part of a team wasn’t enough for high impact, as measured by article and patentcitations. The really great ideas were much more likely to come from cross-institutionalcollaborations rather than from teams from the same university, lab, or research center.Not onlythat,butthemostsuccessfulteamsmixedthingsup.Theyavoidedthetrapofalwaysworkingwiththesamepeople,andsuccessfulgroupsbroughttotheteambothnewcomersandpeoplewhohadnevercollaboratedbefore.

Uzziandanothercolleague,JarrettSpiro,alsodiscoveredthatthispatternheldacrosssectorsasdisparate as the Broadway musical industry and biotechnology.b Between 1920 and 1930, forexample,87percentofBroadwayshowsfloppeddespitebeingattachedtobignameslikeRogersandHammerstein,orGilbertandSullivan.Whenwell-knowncomposerslikethesecontinuedtoworktogetherwithoutthebenefitoffreshblood,theircreationssuffered,criticallyandfinancially.Themostsuccessfulplays,instead,resultedfromcollaborationsamongdiverseplayers.LeonardBernstein’sWestSideStory, for example,whichwent on to becomeamegahit, featurednewcomerStephenSondheimandothernewcollaborators.

a. Stefan Wuchty, Benjamin F. Jones, and Brian Uzzi, “The Increasing Dominance of Teams inProductionofKnowledge,”Science316,no.5827(2007):1036–1039.

b.BrianUzziandJarrettSpiro,“CollaborationandCreativity:TheSmallWorldProblem,”AmericanJournalofSociology111,no.2(2005):447–504.

Onmaking a list of their relationships, even highly experienced leaders findthat they’ve been narcissistic and lazy, failing to network with people who aredifferent from them or to build bridges across and outside their organization’slines.Checkthediversityofyournetworkbyreturningtothelistyoumadeatthebeginningofthischapter.Towhatextentareyourrelationshipsexternallyfacing?Haveyouincludedagoodmixofpeopleoccupyingdifferentlevelsandfunctions?

HowConnectiveIsYourNetwork?So far we’ve looked at who the people are in your network and how you areconnected to these people.Nowwe’ll turn to how your contacts are connectedandwhatthatmeansforyou.

The connectivity of your network is the basis for the famous six degrees ofseparationprinciple—theideathatwearerarelyevermorethansixlinksremovedfrom anyone else in world through the friends of our friends—discovered byHarvardpsychologistStanleyMilgraminthe1960s.8AsanyLinkedInuserknows,thefewerdegreesofseparationbetweenanytwopeopleinanetwork,theeasieritistoaccesstheresourcesyouneed.

In the original study, Milgram gave a bunch of people in Nebraska a letterdestined forastockbroker inMassachusetts—aman theydidn’tknow.Their jobwas toget the letter tohimbysending it tosomeone theydidknow,whomightthensendittosomeoneelse,ultimatelyreachingthestockbroker.Milgramfoundthatitnevertookmorethansixlinks(thusthesix-degreesconcept)toreachthestockbroker, for those letters thatactuallyarrived.Butmanyof the lettersnevergotthere,becausethefirstdegree—thepeoplehisparticipantsknewdirectlyandcontactedfirst—didn’thavenetworksthatreachedoutsidetheirlocalenvironment.So,manyofthelettersnevergotoutofNebraska.Theyonlycirculatedinsidethesamecircleofpeoplewhoallkneweachother.

Somethingsimilarhappenswhenyoufallpreytothenarcissisticandlazytrapinyournetworking:everyoneyouknowknowsthesamepeopleyoudo,andtheflowofinformationgetsstuckinthesameoffice,inthesameindustry,inthesameneighborhood. Sociologists use the term density to describe this property ofnetworks: it quantifies the percentage of people who know each other in anetwork. Density is an imperfect measure, but it is a quick way to check howmuchsix-degreepotentialyouhave inyournetwork.See thesidebar “CalculateYourNetwork’sDensity.”

CalculateYourNetwork’sDensityGobacktothelistofuptotencontactsyoumadeatthestartofthischapter,andputtheirnamesinthegridprovidedhere.

Usingonlytheunshadedportionofthegrid,placeacheckmarktoindicatewhichpairsofpeopleknoweachother.Ifyouarenotsurewhethertwopeopleknoweachother,assumetheydon’t.

Startwithperson1,andrunalongthetoprowcheckingifperson1knowspersons2,3,4,andsoon.Thengotoperson2,anddothesameuntilyouhaveconsideredallthepeopleonyourlist.

Now,computethedensityofyournetworkfollowingthesesteps:

1.Countthetotalnumberofpeopleonyourlist(themaximumis10),andwriteitdownhere:

_____________

2.Takethatnumber,andmultiplyitbythenumberminus1.Thendividetheresultby2,andwriteitdownhere:__________

3.Countthetotalnumberofcheckmarksonyourgrid(i.e.,thenumberoflinksthatexistbetweenthevariouspeopleonyourlist),andwritethatnumberhere:__________

4.Takethenumberyouobtainedinstep3,anddivideitbythenumberyougotinstep2.Thisisthedensityofyournetwork.Writeithere:__________

The lower your network’s density score, the less inbred your network (note that lower isn’t

necessarilybetterbecausetoolowadensity,asIexplainbelow,canbeproblematictoo).

IfyouarelikemanyofthesuccessfulexecutivesIteach,chancesarethatyourdensityscore ishigher than itshouldbe.When Iconduct thisexercise inclass,theaveragedensityhoversabove50percent,althoughitissignificantlylowerforprofessionals who work mostly with outside clients such as consultants,investment bankers, lawyers, headhunters, andauditors and for peoplewhogoback to school to orchestrate a career change. The range of scores alwaysextendsto100percent:whennearlyeveryonewithwhomyoudiscussimportantworkissuesknowseachother,youhaveaninbrednetwork.There’snootherwaytoputit.

To understand the problems of having an inbred network, let’s look at theeffectsofnetworkdensity inacompletelydifferentcontext: theso-calledobesityepidemic.Twopreviouslyunknownuniversityprofessors,NicholasChristakisandJames Fowler, became overnight celebrities when they showed that beingoverweightcanbecontagious.9

ChristakisandFowleranalyzedthehealthrecordsandsocialrelationshipsoftwelve thousand Framingham, Massachusetts, residents from 1948 to thepresent.Usingadvancedvisualizationtechniquesandcarefulstatisticalcontrols,they showed that overweight people tend to hang together socially, while thinpeopletendtobefriendswithotherthinpeople.Butthisisnotamerecorrelationshowingthatbirdsofafeatherflocktogether:beingconnectedsociallytopeoplewho are overweight, even indirectly, seems tomake a person overweight. Theresearchers concluded that thin and overweight people tend to live their liveswithindifferentandunconnectedsocialclusters—“microclimates,”so tospeak—within which different social norms about what is normal and desirable havedeveloped. Political views also hang by cluster. Tightly connected membersapparently had no external perspective on the world beyond their immediategroup.

Atwork,whenwesurroundourselveswithpeoplelikeusandwithwhomwe’veworkedbefore,thenetworkcreatesanechochamberinwhichnonewinformationcirculatesbecauseeveryonehas thesamesources.That’showgroupsbecomemiredinconsensus,andafterawhile,everyonethinksandactsalike.Thesidebar“TheInnovator’sNetworkDilemma”presentsconvincingdata thatbearsout this

observation.

TheInnovator’sNetworkDilemmaAstudybyUniversityofChicagosociologistRonBurtdemonstratesthecostofinbrednetworks.

WhenBurtstudiedmanagersinthesupplychainofRaytheon,thelargeelectronicscompanyandmilitary contractor based in Waltham, Massachusetts, he discovered that the company had notroublecomingupwithgoodideasbutconsiderabledifficultyturningtheseideasintoreality.

Burt asked the managers to write down their best ideas about how to improve businessoperations,andthenheaskedtwoexecutivesatthecompanytoratethequalityoftheseideas.Hethen mapped out the network of who consulted with whom. Burt was looking for what he calls“structural holes,” gaps between cohesive groups of people with dense patterns of informalcommunicationamongthemandfewtiesoutsidetheircircle.

Hismanyyearsofresearchhaveshownthatpeoplewhosenetworksspantheseholesreapthegreatestnetworkbenefits.Thesepeopleseemoreandknowmore.Theyhavemorepowerbecauseotherpeoplehavetogothroughthemtoconnectoutsidetheirgroup.

Notsurprisingly, thehighest-rankedideascamefrommanagerswhohadcontactsoutsidetheirimmediateworkgroup.Mostmanagers,however,overwhelminglyturnedtocolleaguesalreadyclosein their informaldiscussionnetwork tobounce ideasoff (think “inbredcircle”).The resultwas thattheirideaswerenotdeveloped.a

a.RonaldS.Burt,StructuralHoles:TheSocialStructureofCompetition(Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress, 1995);RonaldS.Burt, “StructuralHoles andGood Ideas,”American Journal ofSociology110,no.2(2004):349–399.SeealsoGautamAhuja,“CollaborationNetworks,StructuralHoles, and Innovation: A Longitudinal Study,”Administrative ScienceQuarterly 45, no. 3 (2000):425–455.

This state of affairs also limits significantly how valuable you are to yournetwork, since you bring nothing unique that the network members can’t getelsewhere. Your comparative advantage—how you differentiate yourself fromotherswhoare as smart, hardworking, or expert as you are—depends on yourcapacitytoconnectpeople,ideas,andresourcesthatwouldn’tnormallybumpintooneanother.

Some research suggests that there’s an optimum level of density, about 40percent.10Butofcourse,thatdependsalotonwhataperson’sjobis.Whenyournetwork gets too sparse, you lose connectivity. You are a “visitor” to manynetworksbuta“citizen”ofnone.Youmayhaveaccesstolotsofideasandpeople,but you can’t put them to use inside your organization (or any other group towhichyoubelong),becauseyou lack inside informationabouthowtopitchyourideas,whomight be opposed to them, and how towin people over—all criticalpartsofleadingchange(asdiscussedinchapter2).11

Too sparse a network, and youmight also lack credibility and visibility withimportantgatekeepers,whomightnotknowyouwellbutwho implicitlyevaluateyou on the basis ofwho you know that they also know (the principle onwhichprofessionalnetworks likeLinkedInwork).This isoftenaproblemwhenyouaretheminority in a group. As described earlier, the narcissistic and lazy principleholdsthatpeopleareapttohaverelationshipswithpeoplelikethem,sominoritiesand majorities and professional men and women are unlikely to have highly

overlapping networks.12 In a study of boards of directors, for example, JamesWestphal found that minority directors tend to be more influential if they havedirect or indirect social network ties to majority directors through commonmembershipsonotherboards.13Theseoverlappingnetworksserveasa formofsocial verification and increase the likelihood that the minority’s ideas will beheard.

In sum, as Malcolm Gladwell illustrated in his book The Tipping Point,networksrunon“connectors,”peoplewhoarelinkedtoalmosteveryoneelseinafewstepsandwhoconnect the restofus to theworld.14Connectorscanseeaneedinoneplaceandasolutioninanother,avacancyinoneareaandatalentedperson inanother,adiscovery fromadifferentdisciplineandaproblem in theirown,andsoon,because they’re justoneor two “chain lengths”away from theissues.Thatis,youcanreachconnectorsthroughsomeoneyoualreadyknoworthroughsomeonewhoknowssomeonewhomyoualreadyknow.

HowDynamicIsYourNetwork?Oneofthebiggestdrawbacksofanarcissisticandlazynetworkisthat itquicklybecomesahistoricalartifact, theresidueofmanager’spastrather thanatool tomoveintothefuture.Wechangejobs,firms,andevencountries,butournetworkslagbehindournew responsibilitiesandaspirationsand thereforepigeonholeusjustwhenweneedafreshperspectiveorseektomoveintosomethingdifferent.JoelPodolny,formerheadofApple’shumanresources,callsthistendencyofournetworkstoevolvemoreslowlythanourjobs“networklag.”15We’reexceptionallyslowtobuildrelationshipsthatallowustoperforminanewpositionorprepareusforfutureroles.

Whenaskedaboutthestrengthsoftheirnetwork,mostpeoplethinkfirstaboutthequalityoftheirrelationships.Theyvaluemosttheirstrongties,becausetrustisessentialwhenitcomestogettingthingsdone,andwetrustmostthepeopleweknowbest.Butaswehaveseen, thepeopleweknowbestarenotnecessarilythosewhocanprepareusforsteppingup.Tomakeyournetworksfuturefacing,you’llneedtobuildandvalueyourweakties—thatis,thepeopleandgroupsthatarecurrentlyontheperipheryofyournetwork,thoseyoudon’tseeveryoftenordon’tknowsowell(seethesidebar“MakingaNetworkFutureFacing”).16What’simportant about these contacts is not the quality of your relationshipwith them(just yet), but the fact that they come from outside your current world. Thesecontacts tend to be several levels removed from you or circulate in differentcircles.

Thatmakesreachingoutharder.Gettingtoknowyourweaktiesorgettingtoknow them better usually requires an explicit plan and strategy—theserelationshipswillneverevolvenaturally,becauseyouhavenocommoncontextinwhichtodevelopthem.Nevertheless,thesearethetiesfromwhichyoustandtogainthegreatestoutsight.

Anotherproblemwith relyingexclusivelyon your strong-tie network is that itlimits your capacity to rethink yourself (the topic of chapter 4). In my study ofthirty-nine midcareer managers and professionals considering major careerchanges, I observed directly howmuch their old networks can “bind and blind”them.Allofthemweretoldbyafriend,familymember,orclosecoworkerthattheymust be out of theirminds for thinking about quitting their jobs or leaving theirorganizations. The people close to youmaymean well, but they are often nothelpfulwhenyouaretryingtostretchyourself.Despitetheirgoodintentions,theyhold restrictive views of who you are and what you can do. So, they are thepeople most likely to reinforce—or even desperately try to preserve—the oldidentityyouaretryingtoshed.

MakingaNetworkFutureFacingA financial services firmexecutive,Pam, realized thatshewasunpreparedwhenher jobbecamemoreexternallyfacing.“Iwasfairlywellnetworkedinternallyandwithinmyregion,”shetoldme,“butIhadnoexternalnetworkorexternalpointsofconnectivity,andIdon’tthinkIunderstoodthevalueofthoseexternalpoints.”Neveronetogivemuchthoughttowhomsheknew,sherealizedthetimehadcometobuildanewnetworksystematically.Herearethestepsshefollowed:

•Identifytwentytotwenty-fivekeystakeholdersyouwishtostayconnectedtoinameaningfulway.

•Assignthesecontactsintokeycategories:

–Most-seniorclients

–Most-seniorpeopleinyourcompany

–Most-seniorhedgefundpeopleandcompetitors

–Most-seniorserviceproviders(e.g.,lawyers,accountants)

–Most-seniorwomeninfinancialservices•Foreachcategory,selectthethreetofivepeopleyouwanttostayconnectedto.

•Decidehowfrequentlyyouwillreachouttoeachcontact.

DoyourememberRobert’sstory?Recallthathisgoalofmovingintoageneralmanagementroleinhiscompanyremainedapipedreamaslongashismentorswithinthecompanyheldontoanoutdatedimageofhiscapacity.Hehadaccessto thepower centerof his firm,butwasunsureabouthimself—whetherhehadsufficientexpertisetoseizethehelmofabusinessunitsuccessfully.Thepeoplearoundhim,whoalsodoubted thathewasready to take the leap,amplifiedhislackofself-confidence.Thesamemightalsoholdforyou:itcanbedifficulttogetsupportforchangefromoldmentors,bosses,ortrustedcolleagueswhoseviewsonyouarebasedonthepastandnotthefuture.That’syetonemorereasontorefreshyournetwork,sothatitalsogrowswithyou.

What’sWrongwithYourNetwork?Returntothenetworkauditthatyoucompletedatthebeginningofthischapter,andcheckwhatyou

listedasthestrengthsandweaknessesofyourcurrentnetwork.Whichofthefollowingweaknessesthatwediscussedabovearetrueforyou?

•Birdsofafeather:Yourcontactsaretoohomogeneous,alllikeyou.•Networklag:Yournetworkisaboutyourpast,notyourfuture.

•Echochamber:Yourcontactsareallinternal;theyallknoweachother.•Pigeonholing:Yourcontactscan’tseeyoudoingsomethingdifferent.

These three sources of network advantage—the diversity of your contacts,your connectivity within the network, and your network’s dynamism—areobviouslyinterrelated.Withouttheseadvantages,younevermeetnewpeopleandthe circle closes; over time, you lose outsight and relevance. The rest of thischapter explains some simple steps for breaking out of these blinders, which Isummarizeinthesidebar“What’sWrongwithYourNetwork?”

HowtoNetworkOutandAcrossThinkinglikealeaderstartsbyactingonyournetwork.Startontheperipheryofyour current network, and build outward by getting involved in new activities,asking the people you already know to connect you with others, doing somemaintenance,andfindingkindredspiritswhoarealsoworkingtostepup.

ShowUpWoodyAllen’sfamousquipthat“80percentofsuccessisshowingup”isagreatguide to expanding your network. (Of course, he also added, “Sometimes it’seasiertohidehomeinbed.I’vedoneboth.”)

Aswesawinchapter2,managerscanstartexpandingtheir jobsbybuildingon their interests or domains of expertise through professional associations,industrygroups,alumninetworks,and the like.Allof these importantsourcesofoutsight also provide ready-made networks to which you can easily connect toshareandmultiplyyourknowledge.Communitiesofpracticeexist (orcaneasilybe created on the internet) in almost every area of business you might beinterested in, frombrandmanagement toprivateequity toproduct innovation, tocitejustafewexamples.17Signupandshowup.

But that is only the first step. If you stop there, you are only building yourpersonal network. To make these connections strategic, savvy managers usewhat theyaregleaningoutsidetheboundariesof their jobsandcompaniesasahookformakingvaluableinternalconnectionstopreviouslyuntappedpeopleandgroups,settingthestageforaddressingstrategicconcerns.

ManyofthesuccessfulnetworkersI’vemetleveragetheirpersonalintereststocreate their own communities. For example, an investment banker whospecializedinthetechsectorstartedinvitingkeyclientstothetheater(apassionof hers) several times a year as away ofmaking sure she saw the plays shewanted tosee.Shehadherassistantbuyablockof ticketsandorganizea fastbuffetdinnerbeforetheplayatahotelnearthetheaterdistrict.Overtime,sheand

herclientsstartedbringingothermembersofthelocalhigh-techcommunitytoherevents.Becausea lotofbusinesswasdoneat thedinners, theyattractedevenmoreoftherelevantpeopletofutureevents.Thegroupeventuallybecametoobigforherbudget,butnoneoftheattendeesmindedpayingtheirownway,becausethey got so much out of it. Through these events, the investment bankerdeveloped her own business, and the knowledge she gained about her clients’companiesgeneratedbusinessandideasforotherdivisionsinherfirm.

The investmentbanker’sexperienceclearly illustrateshowourownpersonalinterests can expand our networks. The sidebar “Invest in Activities That WillGrowYourNetwork”listsseveralpossibleroutesdownthispath.

Asyougetused toshowingup,youshould thenconsider the importanceofspeakingup.This isacorollary that I learned frommyownexperience. I foundthat Iwasn’tgettingasmuchas I’d likeoutof themanyconferencesandothereventsIwasattending.So,Icameupwithaprinciple:Today,Iwon’tattendunlessI am speaking or at least introducing the speakers or moderating a panel (ofcourse,Imakeexceptionstothisrule).

InvestinActivitiesThatWillGrowYourNetwork•Useprojectsandassignmentsstrategically.

•Investinextracurricularactivities.

•Createyourowncommunitiesofinterest.

•Uselunchesandbusinesstripstoconnecttopeopleyoudon’tseeoften.

•Favoractiveratherthanpassivenetworkingopportunities(forexample,don’tjustshowupforevents—organize,orspeakatthem).

•Usesocialmediatobroadcastyourinterestsandcastawidernettopeoplewhosharethem.

Irealizethatthisiseasyenoughadviceformetogiveaftertwenty-fiveyearsof public speaking. But when you speak up in front of a group, people learnenough about you to decide if they want to learnmore. In the networking thatfollows, they already know who you are. All this interaction increases thelikelihoodthatyourtimeinvestmentwillbeworthwhile.Inmycase,whenI’mnotactivelyinvolved,Itendtoarrivetoolateforthepre-networking,Imultitaskonmyphoneduringthetalk(becauseI’mbusyandthereisalwayssomethingurgenttohandleathomeoratwork),and Iquicklyexitafter the formalpartof theevent,forgoing the real reason everyone is there—to connect informally. It’s notsurprisingthatIwasn’tgettingmuchoutoftheseevents.

Anyonecanstartbyorganizingapanel,presentingaspeaker,ormoderatingthe question-and-answer session. You can even start by just posing a well-formulatedquestiontothepanelorspeaker,providedyoustateclearlyyournameandwhat you do.After you’ve followed these suggestions a few times, itwon’ttake you much longer to be more involved than it would just to attend theconference.But the payoff in your networkingwill be huge in comparison.One

young woman I spoke to, a digital strategy expert who had built her ownconsulting and speaking business, explained that she never tries to networkbefore shespeaksata conference.Mostpeopleassume thather youthmakesherirrelevanttothem.Afterthetalk,shetoldme,theyarenotpayingattentiontoherageanymore—theyknowshehasrelevantinformationforthem.Sodon’tjustshowup;takewhateverchanceyoucantospeakup.

UseYourTwoDegreesofSeparationLikesomanyofMilgram’sparticipantsinthesix-degreesexperiment,manyofusstill have trouble getting outside Nebraska. But the world has become muchsmaller since Milgram’s day. More recent findings show that in today’shyperconnectedworld,wecanlinktoalmostanyoneelseinjustslightlyoverfourdegrees.18

Within anygivenprofessional domain, our connectionsare rarelymore thantwo,atmostthree,degreesawayasthe“OracleofBacon”shows.19Type in thenameofanyactoryoucanthinkof,fromanygenreorcountry,fromBollywoodtothe new wave of Iranian films, and the Oracle will tell you howmany degreesawaythatactor isfromKevinBacon.Forexample, ifyoutypeinFrenchactressIsabelleAdjani,yougetaBaconfactoroftwo,becausesheactedinafilmwithBillBaileyII,whointurnactedwithKevinBaconinthe1995filmBalto.It’shardtogetto three degrees, even when you put in an actor from the very early days ofcinema, like Charlie Chaplin (two degrees away). That’s why Reid Hoffman,LinkedIn’sfounder,findsthatwhenitcomestomeetingpeoplewhocanhelpyouprofessionally,threedegreesofseparationisasfarasyoucango.Butwedon’tmakegooduseofthisconnectivity,becausemostofusdon’trealizejusthowbigandpowerfulournetworksreallyare.20

I realized this point when I was asked to organize a strategic networkingseminarthatwasofferedasanelectiveforanyoneinthetoptwohundredofaUSFortune100companythatwantedtoencourageitsmanagerstodevelopamoreexternalorientation.Aspartoftheseminar,whichwasheldinParis,Iorganizeda“six-degrees-of-separation dinner.” I asked managers to use their networks toinvitesomeone theyhadnevermet to thedinner.Mostof theparticipantsdidn’treachpastthefirstdegreeofseparation,askingafriendoracolleagueinFrancetosuggestapossibleguest.

It was a diverse group, but it wasn’t very relevant. The next day’s sessionincluded a discussion of disruptive trends in their businesses. I asked mymanagershowmanyofthemhadtakentheirownstrategicconcernsintoaccountindecidingwhomtoinvite.Noneofthemhad.

Goodnetworkersareawareofandusetheirdegreesofseparation,reachingout regularly to their contacts’ contacts and even to their third degree. Greatnetworkers decrease the degrees of separation between their contacts andpeople they don’t know but who might be useful to them. They add value by

enlargingothers’networks.FormerSiliconValleyventurecapitalistHeidiRoizenisagoodexampleofoneway todo this.Leveragingher loveofentertaining,shemade her San Francisco home a networking hub with her famous spaghettidinners. The rule for these events was that half the people invited should notalreadyknowtheotherhalf.Inashorttime,herdinnersbecamethehotticketintown,atechniquethatFacebook’sSherylSandberghasbecomeknownformorerecently.21 The sidebar “Use Your Existing Connections to Branch Out” offersfurthersuggestionsforbroadeningyourstrategicnetwork.

DoSomeMaintenanceAshis stint running theTaiwanesemarket for theSwiss foodgroupNestléwascoming to an end, Chris Johnson was put in charge of overseeing the globalimplementationofanewenterprisesoftwaresystem.22Alinemanagerformostofhiscareer,Chrishadzeroexperience in IT.Fromhisownexperience runningaprofit-and-loss operation, he knew howmuch resistance he would get from hisown peers, who would have to bear the cost of the new system while waitingpatientlyforittopayoffyearslater(inmanycasesaftertheirownstintswouldbelongover).Apreviousefforthadfailed.Thenewplanwasambitious in termsoftimeandbudget.

UseYourExistingConnectionstoBranchOut•Askforreferralsandintroductions;makethemforothers.

•Askforsimplefavorstoinitiatearelationship.

•Doyourhomeworkbeforeyoureachouttosomeonenew.

•Dothetritestuff—writethankyounotes;forwardlinkstoarticles;followupusingsocialmedia.

•Helpyourcontactsdeveloptheirnetworks.

Chris’sboss,thecompany’schieffinancialofficer,helpfullysuggestedaboutadozennamesofpeople tostartup theeffort.Chrishadno ideahowtostaffhisteam,becauseeverythingabouttheassignmentwasnewtohim.So,hereachedouttohisextensivenetworkinsidethecompanytogetsomehelpevaluatinghisboss’stalentsuggestions.Chris’scontactsusedtheirownnetworkstocheckoutthepeopletheythemselvesdidn’tknow.TheverdictthatcamebackwasnotwhatChriswanted tohear:mostof thenames thebosshadsuggesteddidnothavecredibilitywiththemarketheads,thepeoplewhosebuy-inChrismostneededtosucceed.Confidentintheknowledgethattheboss’ssuggestionswerethewrongpeoplefor the job,Chrisstoodfirmagainsthisboss’swishesandbethiscareeron choosing his own people. Chris’s stand was one of a few key decisions towhich he attributed his ultimate success. Of course, he mobilized the samenetworktofindtherighttalenttostaffuptheproject.

HavinganetworkthatcanturnonadimeasChris’sgroupdid(hisaggressivetimelinegavehimonlyacoupleofweekstostaffup)requiressomeworkonyourparttokeepitalive.Don’twaituntilyoureallyneedsomethingbadlytoreachout.

Instead,takeeveryopportunitytonurtureyournetwork,whetheryouneeditnowornot.

Pam, the aforementioned financial services executive, reminded herselfregularly to followupwithkeypeople inhernetwork. “I amexpendingeffortonkeepingmy network alive,” she said. “You can so easily get consumed in yourday-to-dayworkthatyouforgetthathavinglunchwithcertainpeopleatleastthreetimesayearisreallyimportant.Ifyoudon’t,youloseconnectivity,andifyouloseconnectivity, you lose the relationship. I sort of said to myself, ‘OK, so howfrequentlyshouldIbetappingintothesepeople?’Idecidedthatsomeweretwiceayear;othersmightrequiremonthlycontact.Iliterallywroteemailstomyselfonaquarterlybasis,asking,‘HowamIdoing?’”

FindKindredSpiritsThefastestwaytochangeyourselfistospendtimewithpeoplewhoarealreadythewayyouwanttobe.23Aswesawfromtheobesitystudy,thepeopleyouhangout with shape who you are and who you become. Behavior and the beliefsbehinditarecontagious:youcaneasilycatchthem,forbetterorforworse.Ifyouspendyour timewithother leaders,chancesare thatyouwillbecomea leader,too.

BillWilson, the founderofAlcoholicsAnonymous (AA),builthisorganizationon this insight. He realized that successful change does not take as muchwillpower as it takes fellowship.24 The key to success at AA is the daily groupmeeting in which old-timers who have managed to remain sober share theirstories andmentor newcomers. Themore time thatmembers spendwith othermembers, themore likely they all will remain sober. That’s because recoveringalcoholicsdon’tjustchangetheirdrinkingbehavior.Theychangethereferencebywhichtheyjudgewhatispossibleanddesirable.

Wilson’s insight is supported by research in psychology on the power ofreference groups.25 It shows that whether we realize it or not, answers to thequestion“HowwellamIdoing?”or“AmIontrack?”are inherentlycomparative.Webelieveourselves toberichorpoor, talentedoraverage,strongorweakbycomparisonwithothersaroundus.Witnesspeople’sreactionstohowmuchtheyarepaidrelativetotheirpeergroups,orthebondingthathappensingroupsthat,liketheYoungPresidentsOrganization,bringtogetherpeoplewhosharecommonconcerns.Thedanger,ofcourse, is thatwecancontinue tocompareourselvesagainstbenchmarks thathave lost their relevance,asRobertdid,whenheonlycomparedhiscurriculumvitaetothatoftheotherpeoplewhohadchosentostayinhiscompany.

Reference groups composed of kindred spirits take on even greaterimportanceintimesofuncertaintysuchaswhenwearesteppinguptoleadership.Whenaskedtodothingsthatdon’tcomenaturally—workingmorecollaboratively,forexample—we implicitlyaskourselves, “AmI thesortofpersonwhobehaves

this way?” and “Do I want to be that sort of person?” Stepping up to a biggerleadership role, just like becoming a nondrinker, thus requires a new point ofreference.

New peer groups might consist of people who are experiencing similarchallenges and doubts. Dieter, a new general manager, for example, struggledwithalltheusualtransitionhurdles—notdelegatingenough,notsolicitinginputbutrather imposinghis views impatiently onothers.He knew, intellectually, that hisnew role required a shift away from the routinework he had done successfullybefore. “Butat thesame time,”hesaid, “Iworriedaboutbeingseenas theonewhodoesnothinghimself.”Butwhowouldactuallyseehimthatway?Theotherpeople in his company who were still stuck doing instead of leading. Theconversations he had in a coaching groupwith othermanagers also striving tostepuptoleadershipnotonlyshowedhimthathisconcernwasnormalbutalsostartedtoshifthisreferencegroupfromhiscoworkerstopeoplewithgoalssimilartohis.

Alternatively,peoplewhohavealreadymadethekindoftransitionthatyouarecontemplating can also serve as important guideposts. Take, for example,Andrew, a molecular biologist who worked on the faculty of a major researchuniversity. The academic peer group against which he had always measuredhimself disdainedcommercial activity.ButAndrewhadbecome intriguedby thepossibility of leading teams in an effort to commercialize scientific discoveries.Whenoneofhiscollaboratorsleftacademia,Andrewstayedintouchand,throughthisperson,gottoknowanewcircleofscientistswhohadmorepositiveviewsofcommercialwork.Overtime,Andrewcametofeelgreaterkinshipwiththiscircleofcolleagues thanwithhisoldcircleat theuniversity.Whenhewasoffered thepossibility of directing a major new center to foster partnerships betweenacademiaandcommercialscience,Andrewaccepted.

Sustainingregularsocialcontactwithpeoplewhoareinthesameboatorhavealreadyarrivedontheotherside isessential forenduringchange,becausetheycan endorse andmodel your own transition to leadership. As you attain seniorlevels and broader responsibilities, you are easily isolated from these kinds ofcollegialandpeerrelationships.Forthisreason,youusuallyneedtobuildtheserelationshipsoutsidethescopeofyourjobandcompany.

CultivateaConnectedMindRiffing on Pasteur’s famous dictum that “chance favors the prepared mind,”Steven Johnson, innovation historian and author ofWhere Good Ideas ComeFrom, concludes that “chance favors the connected mind.”26 Examining thecreative process of legendary innovators like Benjamin Franklin and CharlesDarwin, Johnson found that behind every great thinker, there is a diverse,connected,anddynamicnetwork.“Thisisnotthewisdomofthecrowd,”hesays,“butthewisdomofsomeoneinthecrowd.It’snotthatthenetworkitselfissmart;

it’sthatindividualsgetsmarterbecausethey’reconnectedtothenetwork.”

Aswehaveseen,whenaspiringleadersfailtorecognizenetworkingasoneofthemost important requirements of their new job, theywill not allocate enoughtimeandefforttonetworkingtoseeitpayoff.Buttheonlywaytounderstandthatnetworkingisakeysourceofoutsightforyourleadershiptransitionistotryitandthusdiscoveritforyourself.Foraquickstartonthisstep,seethesidebar“GettingStarted:ExperimentswithYourNetwork.”

GETTINGSTARTED

ExperimentswithYourNetwork

>Inthenextthreedays,talktothreepeopleoutsideyourbusinessunitorcompany;learnwhattheydo,how

ithelpsthecompany,andhowitmayapplytoyourwork.

>Inthenextthreeweeks,reconnectwithpeopleoutsidethecompanywhomaysheduseful lightonyour

work,industry,orcareer.Havelunch.

>Make a list of five senior people you need to get to know better. Figure out ways to strengthen your

relationshipoverthenextthreemonths.

Youcanstartworkingnowtoconnectdifferently.Developrelationshipsoutsideyour group, sector, and even industry. Seek outside expertise. Work onunderstandingtheofficepoliticsofmovingintotheseniorranks.Findwaystogettoknowpeopleat leasttwolevelsaboveand,often, inadifferentunitorarea—evenwhen doing so feels instrumental. Get involved in, and contribute to, keyinitiatives that provide excuses tomeet people above and below you.Work onraising yourprofile.Cultivate relationshipsoutside your company,andusewhatyoulearnoutsidetoconnecttodifferentpeoplewithinyourfirmandtoaddvaluebeyond operational delivery. Understand that what is important to those withcontrol over your fate is probably different from what you might be delivering.Figureoutyourmarketvalue.Findkindredspirits.Thesidebar“PracticalStepstoExpandYourNetwork”offersavarietyofwaysyoucancultivatenewconnections.

PracticalStepstoExpandYourNetwork•Spendtimeatastart-upwithinyourbusinesssector.Considerwhyincumbentsrarelyleadthe

wayinnewproductsandservices.

•Attendaconferenceyouhaveneverbeforeattended.Meetatleastthreenewpeople.Followupwiththemafterward.

•StartaLinkedInorFacebookgroup.Betheconnectorforthisgroupofpeople.

•Spendadaywithamillennialinyourcompany.Learnmoreabouthowsheusessocialmedia.

•Getintouchwithaventurecapitalist.Findouthowhethinksaboutleadershipandinnovation.

•Teachacourseatauniversityorlocalcollege.Learnfromyourstudents.

•Beaguestspeakeratalocalornationalevent.Useittobuildorstrengthenyourbrandaroundaparticularareaofexpertise.

•Gotolunchwithapeerfromacompetingcompany.Learnmoreaboutyourmarketvalue.

•Startablog.Findoutwhoreadsit.

•Takeadvantageofyournextbusinesstriptoconnectwithsomeoneyou’velosttrackof.Havethispersonhelpyouconnectwithsomeonenew.

CHAPTER3SUMMARY

✓Asyouembarkonthetransitiontoleadership,networkingoutsideyourorganization,team,andcloseconnectionsbecomesavitallifelinetowhoandwhatyoumightbecome.

✓Theonlywaytorealizethatnetworkingisoneofthemostimportantrequirementsofaleadershiproleistoact.

✓Ifyouleavethingstochanceandnaturalchemistry,thenyournetworkwillbenarcissisticandlazy.

✓Youneedoperational,personal,andstrategicnetworkstogetthingsdone,todeveloppersonallyandprofessionally,andtostepuptoleadership.Althoughmostgoodmanagershavegoodoperationalnetworks,theirpersonalnetworksaredisconnectedfromtheirleadershipwork,andtheirstrategicnetworksarenonexistentorunderutilized.

✓NetworkadvantageisafunctionofyourBCDs:thebreadthofyourcontacts,theconnectivityofyournetworks,andyournetwork’sdynamism.

✓Enhanceorrebuildyourstrategicnetworkfromtheperipheryofyourcurrentnetworkoutwardasafirststeptowardincreasingyouroutsightonyourself:

–Seekoutsideexpertise.

–Elicitinputandperspectivesofpeersfromdifferentfunctionalorsupportgroups.

CHAPTER4

BeMorePlayfulwithYourSelfINMYTWENTY-FIVEYEARSOFteachingonleadership,Ihavefoundthatonethinghasremained unchanged: people’s strong and unflinching desire to be true tothemselves,andtheirequallystrongaversiontodoingthingsthatmakethemfeellikefakes.Oneofthemostimportantmotivatorsofanybehavioristhebeliefthatitis a fundamental expression of ourselves. That is exactly what gets us intotrouble.Evenwhenitcomestothemostbasicof leadershipskills—listening,forexample—peoplewhoarenotverygoodataskillwillsaythatwhenpushcomestoshove,theydon’tpracticemoreoftheskill,becausetheydon’tfeelgenuineiftheyhavetoforcethemselvestodoit.

Authenticityhasbecomeatopicofendlessdebateandfascination.1Youcanbuy many books on how to be more authentic at work and can sign up forcountlesscoursesonhowtobeamoreauthenticleader.2Clearly,manyofusarefindingitproblematictojustbeourselves.

One reason we’re having trouble with authenticity is that we make morefrequent and more do-it-yourself transitions today.3 When we are working atimprovingourgame,ourauthenticsenseofselfisacompass.Ithelpsusnavigatechoicesandworktowardourgoals.Butwhenwearelookingtochangeourgame,authenticityisananchorthateasilykeepsusfromsailingforth.FIGURE4-1

Increasingyouroutsightbyrediscoveringyourself

This chapter shows how authenticity is misunderstood and highly overratedwhen it comes to making the transition to new and unfamiliar roles. Becausedoing things that don’t come naturally can make you feel like an impostor,authenticityeasilybecomesanexcuseforstayinginyourcomfortzone.Thetrick

istoworktowardafutureversionofyourauthenticselfbydoingjusttheopposite:stretching way outside the boundaries of who you are today (figure 4-1). Thischaptershowsyouhow.

TooMuchMyselfWhen I first started teachingMBAstudentsatHarvard, Iwasadismal failure. Iwas young and had no business experience. Although I was a reasonablepresenter, I hadn’t yet learned the craft of leading a highly interactive yetstructureddiscussionthatultimatelyconcludedwithasetofpracticalandconcretetakeaways.Mycourseratingswereatthebottomofthedistribution;Iwasrapidlylosingconfidenceinmyabilitytoestablishmyauthorityintheclassroom.Iwasn’tcredible.

Manyseniorcolleaguestriedtohelp.Mostofferedwell-meaningbutrelativelyuselessadvice,allaversionof this: “Youhave tobeyourself in theclassroom.”Theproblem,however,wasthatIwasbeingtoomuchmyself:tooacademic,toonervous,toodull,toodistant.Iinvestedalotoftimeinwatchingskilledinstructorsconduct their classes, but everything they did was highly personal: theiranecdotes,theirlifelessons,theirjokes,eventhewaystheywalkedandtalkedtocreateasenseoftheater.Iwasn’tsurewhatIcouldlearnfromthem,andnoneofitseemedveryserious—Iwasn’tsureIwantedtoteachinthesamestyletheydid,either.

Oneday,astarprofessorcametowatchmeteachandofferedsomeadvicethat I’ll never forget.Now,youneed topicturewhatour teachingamphitheaterslooklike—ahuge,crescent-shapedroomwithascendingrows,andapit,withtheprofessor’sdeskatthebottom.

Thelessconfidentprofessors,likeme,hunchedneartheirdeskatthebottomofthepit,closetotheirnotesandfarfromthestudents.Theexperiencedteachersmarchedupanddowntheaisles,takingupallthespaceandkeepingallninetyofthestudentsontheirtoes.

Mycolleaguegavemeveryspecificadvice:

Your problem is that you think this is all about the content of what you areteaching.Thathas little todowith it. Itultimatelycomesdown topowerandturf.Whenyouwalkintothisroom,youshouldhaveoneandonlyonemission:tomake it crystal clear toeverysingleoneofyourstudents that this isyourroomandnottheirroom.Andthere’sonlyonewayyoucandothat,sincetheyoccupythespacealldaylongforthewholeoftheyear.Youhavetobeadogandmarkyour territory ineachof thefourcorners.Takeeverysingle inchofthespace.Startwiththetop,wheretheythinktheyaresafefromyourglance.SeewhoisreadingtheWallStreetJournal,whohasunderlinedthecaseandwhohas left itblank,whatkindofnotestheyhave,andwhether thosenoteshaveanythingtodowiththeclass.Getupcloseandpersonalwhenyoutalkto

them,whisperintheirear,putyourarmaroundthem,patthemontheirbacks.Touch them.Show them that not even the person in themiddle seat of themiddlerowissafe—squirmyourwayin.Whileyou’reat it, if they’vegotfoodand you’re hungry, help yourself, take a bite. Then and only then will theyknow that it’s your roomand not their room.Once you’ve got that, you canthinkaboutthecontentthatyouwantthemtolearn.

Iwashorrifiedbythisadvice.Ipreferredmyownineffectiveapproachbyfar—spending long nights over-preparingmy cases andmaking sure I knew all thefacts and figures so there would be no question I couldn’t answer. But I wasdesperate enough by then to try it. One day I just started doing what hesuggested.

Theresultsweremixedatfirst.Itfeltuncomfortable,contrived,contrarytomyvaluesasaseriousresearcher.Thestudents,byandlarge,didn’tlikemygettingintheirfaces.ButIbegantogetmoreoftheirattention,andafterawhile,mynewwayofbehavingintheclassroomstartedtofeellikefun.Itloosenedmeup,andIbegan toknowmystudentsbetter—I learnedhow they thoughtabout theworldandwhattheywantedtolearn.

Myobjectivesfortheclassshiftedfromdeliveringcontenttoorchestratinganimpactful learning experience. What I first dismissed as silly theatrics andemotional manipulation, I later came to value as a necessary approach topedagogy that made the learning stick. I started to see different things in theanticsofmymoresuccessfulcolleaguesandbecamemorewillingtotakerisks.Istoppedworryingaboutlookingfoolish.Ofcourse,mylearningaccelerated.Overtime,myratingsimproved.Ihadactedmywayintoanewwayofthinking.

ChameleonsandTrue-to-SelfersWheredowedrawthefine linebetweenauthenticityandself-protection?Ioncestudiedagroupofprofessionalswhoweresteppingupfromanalyticalandprojectworktoadvisingclientsandsellingnewbusiness.Theshift toclientworkwasaclassic do-it-yourself transition. In many cases, the investment bankers andconsultantswereexpectedtostepuptothenewrole longbeforetheyearnedanewtitle; inothercases,theywerepromotedwithoutmuchchangeinformaljobresponsibilities,and theamountof clientwork they tookonwas leftup to them(withmajorpaycheckconsequences,ofcourse).

Intheprocess,Istumbleduponaninterestingcontrastinhowpeoplemakingwork transitions approach the problemof authenticity and some counterintuitivefindingsaboutthefastestpathtoanauthenticyetdifferentself.MostofthepeopleIstudiedfelt incompetentandinsecureinthisnewcapacity,andtheadvicetheyreceivedwasrarelyhelpful.Theywerefrequently told tobemoreaggressive, toactwithmoreconfidence,ortodeveloptheirpresence.Asoneinvestmentbankertoldme,“Attheendofmyfirstyearasavicepresident,thefeedbacktomewas,‘Yourtechnicalskillsaregreat.Now,thinkmoreinnovatively,seizetheball,andbe

moreaggressiveinyourclientmeetings.’I thinkwhattheyreallywantedwasforme to start thinking like a partner, to be the senior guy, not the adjunct tosomebodyelse—tosortoftrytobeabiggerpresence.”

One group, which I called the true-to-selfers, tried to be themselves byfocusingonwhattheyknewhowtodoandfeltcomfortabledoing.Theothers,thechameleons,experimentedwithradicallynewanddifferentwaysofbehavingandbeing,muchasIdidwhenIwastryingtoimprovemyteachingstyle.

BarackObamaasaChameleonInhisbiographyaboutBarackObamabeforeObamabecamepresident,DavidRemnickcallshima“shape-shifter,”because“Obamacouldchangestyleswithoutrelinquishinghisgenuineness.”aAlecMacGillis,whoreviewedRemnick’sbook,explainsObama’simprobableriseintermsofthisquality:“Itisapaththatrequiredextremeagility—somethingmorethanthechameleon-likeexpediencethatObama’sdetractorssawinhim.”b

Anotherreviewer,GaryWillis,summarizesRemnick’sexplanationofObama’sfluidity:“Accusedofnotbeingblackenough,hecouldshowthathehasmoredirect tiestoAfricathanmostAfricanAmericanshave.SuspectedofnotbeingAmericanenough,heappealed tohismother’sMidwestoriginsandaccent.TouringconservativelittletownsinsouthernIllinois,hecouldspeakthelanguageoftheKansangrandparentswhoraisedhim.Heisabitofachameleonorshape-shifter,buthedoesnotcomeacrossasinsincere—thatistheimportanceofhisfamous‘cool.’Hedoesnothavethehoteagernessof theconman.Thoughhisownbackground isoutof theordinary,hehas theskill tosubmergeitinotherpeople’snarratives,eventhosethatseemdistantfromhisown.”c

Obamaworkedhard to develop his broad stylistic repertory, saysRemnick: “He subtly shiftedaccent and cadences depending on the audience: a more straight-up delivery for a luncheon ofbusinesspeople in the Loop [in downtownChicago]; a folksier approachat a downstateV.F.W. [aveteransorganization];echoesof thepastorsof theblackchurchwhenhewas inone.Obama ismultilingual,ashape-shifter…Likethechildofimmigrantswhocanspeakonelanguageathome,anotheratschool,andanotherwithhisfriends—andstillbehimself—Obamacraftedhisspeechtofitthemoment.Itwasaskillthathadtakenyearstodevelop.”d

a. David Remnick,The Bridge: The Life and Rise of BarackObama (New York: Vintage Books,2010).

b.AlecMacGillis,“Review:TheBridge:TheLifeandRiseofBarackObama,”NewStatesman,May12,2010,www.newstatesman.com/books/2010/05/barackobama-remnick-black.

c.GarryWills,“BehindObama’sCool,”NewYorkTimes,April7,2010.

d.Remnick,TheBridge.

Thechameleonsborrowedliberallyfromadiversesetoftheirmoresuccessfulcolleagues. They imitated their colleagues’ demeanor—how they walked andtalked,thejokestheymade,theirstylesforestablishingcredibility.Asonepersonput it, “You’re trying on different personas as you might try on different suits.”Often, they didn’t get it right at first. Frequently, they felt foolish. The newbehaviors felt unnatural, but the chameleons changed their suits anyway. Theywere trying to figure out who they might be in these dramatically differentcircumstances.

This kind of identity stretching comes more naturally to some people thanothers. Psychologist Mark Snyder identified the profile and psychology of

chameleons (or “shape-shifters,” as one of Barack Obama’s biographersdescribes him) as people who are naturally able and willing to adapt to thedemandsofasituationwithoutfeelinglikeafake.4Chameleonshavecoreselvesdefinedby their valuesandgoalsandhavenoqualmsaboutshiftingshapes inpursuitoftheirconvictions(seethesidebar“BarackObamaasaChameleon”).

True-to-selfers, in contrast, view situational demands that push them awayfrom their natural stylesas threats to their authenticity.Their self-definitionsaremoreall-encompassing, includingnot only their innermost values, but also theirleadership styles, speech, dress, and demeanor. The sidebar “Are You aChameleonoraTrue-to-Selfer(oraHybrid)?”presentsexamplesofSnyder’sself-evaluation questions that can help you determine to what extent you are achameleon.

AreYouaChameleonoraTrue-to-Selfer(oraHybrid)?HerearesomesampleitemsfrompsychologistMarkSnyder’s“self-monitoring”questionnaire:a

1.Ifindithardtoimitatethebehaviorofotherpeople.

2.Mybehaviorisusuallyanexpressionofmytrueinnerfeelings,attitudes,andbeliefs.

3.Atpartiesandsocialgatherings,Idonotattempttodoorsaythingsthatotherswilllike.

4.IcanonlyargueforideasIalreadybelieve.

5.IcanmakeimpromptuspeechesevenontopicsaboutwhichIhavealmostnoinformation.

6.IguessIputonashowtoimpressorentertainpeople.

7.WhenIamuncertainhowtoactinasocialsituation,Ilooktothebehaviorofothersforcues.

“Yes”answerstoitems5,6,and7areassociatedwithachameleonprofile,while“yes”answerstoitems1–4aretypicalof“true-to-selfers.”

a. Mark Snyder, “Monitoring Scale,” University of Washington, 1974,http://faculty.washington.edu/janegf/selfmonitoring.htm.

Chameleons often advancemore rapidly in the early years of their careersbecause they are relatively flexible and others are more likely to see them asleaders.5Thesidebar“TheQuintessentialChameleon”retellsthefamousstoryofMichael Lewis at Salomon Brothers. As I observed in my study, acting like achameleon or a true-to-selfer produces different outcomes—in how othersperceive you, howmuch help you get, and how fast you learn aboutwork andaboutyourself.

Like Lewis’s approach, the efforts of the chameleon professionals I wastraining got the attention of senior mentors, who saw that these professionalsweretryingtostepuptothenewrole.Theeffortsmadetheseniorsmoreapttocoach and mentor the new professionals, to share why and how they, thementors, did what they did—one senior partner called this type of coaching“unveiling the mysteries.” The senior executives shared their tacit knowledgeaboutnuancesthatmadeallthedifference—howtoframeameeting,howtobuild

peer relationships with clients, how to diagnose the politics, how to notice thesubtle positioning around controversial ideas, and so on.6 They also sharedsomething that is even more important: a point of view about what it takes tobecome a trusted adviser. Their endorsement and perspective also helped thechameleonstocrystalizeasharperimageofwhatandwhotheywantedtobelike.Knowinghowharditcanbetolearnthesekindsofthingsfromsomeonewhoisverydifferentstylistically,somementorssuggestedmoreappropriaterolemodels.

Thechameleonsalsolearnedagreatdealfromtheirownemotionalreactionsas theyexperimentedwithalienbehavior.Sometimes they confirmedwhat theyalways suspected about themselves; other times they were surprised by whatthey learned. Their outsight stuck because it was grounded in their directexperiences instead of introspective speculation. One consultant told me, forexample, that he realized that the “witty possible self” with which he hadexperimentedwas never going to be him: “I am not going to get up there andentertaintheclientwithgreatwit.Isthataweakness?Ineedtodevelopsomeofthoseskills,but it’snotgoingtobeamainstayofmyrepertoire. I’mconfident inthepersonI’vebecomeandthatmybehaviorwillplayreasonablywell.”Anotherchameleontoldmehowmuchhelearnedfromdeviatingfromhissenseofselftoadegree that “depressed”him: “Ihadanaiveviewofwhat itmeant tobemoreforceful. I was not open to exploring what the client believed; nor did I show Icaredabouttheirresponse.Irealizeditwasbettertosticktomynormalstyle,buttomodifyitslightly.Myperceptionofmyselfischanging.It’sscaryandpainful,butI’mlearningalot.”

TheQuintessentialChameleonInhisbest-sellingbookLiar’sPoker,MichaelLewisdescribeshowherosefromnew,callowtraineefreshoutofPrincetonand theLondonSchoolofEconomics tobecomeahighly successful bondsalesmanatSalomonBrothers,whichwasthenoneofWallStreet’spremierinvestmentfirms.Ashetellsit,hischameleonpersonalityprovedtobeagreatstrengthinhiscareer:

Thinking,asyet,wasafeatbeyondmyreach.Ihadnobase,nogrounding.MyonlyhopewastowatchthesalesmenaroundmeandgatherwhatIadviceIcould.

Ihadtheabilitytoimitate.Itenabledmetogetinsidethebrainofanotherperson.Tolearnhowtomakesmartnoisesaboutmoney,IstudiedthetwobestSalomonsalesmenIknew…Mytrainingamountedtoabsorbingandsynthesizingtheirattitudesandskills.

Myjobwasamatteroflearningtothinkandsoundlikeamoneyspinner.ThinkingandsoundinglikeAlexanderwasthenextbestthingtobeinggenuinelytalentedwhichIwasn’t.SoIlistenedtothemasterandrepeatedwhatIheard,asinkungfu.Itremindedmeoflearningaforeignlanguage.Itallseemedstrangeatfirst.Thenoneday,youcatchyourselfthinkinginthelanguage.Suddenlywordsyouneverrealizedyouknewareatyourdisposal.Finallyyoudreaminthelanguage.

EachdayAlexandercalledandexplainedsomethingnew.Afterseveralmonthsofstruggling,Ibegantocatchon…IwouldcallthreeorfourinvestorsandsimplyparrotwhatAlexanderhadjustsaid.Theywouldthinkme,ifnotagenius,thenatleastastute…Beforelongtheywouldn’tspeaktoanyoneelsebutme.a

a.MichaelM.Lewis, “FromGeek toMan,” inLiar’sPoker:RisingThrough theWreckageonWallStreet(NewYork:W.W.Norton&Company,1989).

Thetrue-to-selfers,bycontrast,stucktobehaviorsandstylesthatworkedforthem in the past. They sought to prove their competence by demonstratingtechnicalmastery,citingtheirrelianceon“substanceratherthanform.”Often,theyconcludedthatsomeoftheirsuccessfulseniorswere“alltalkandlittlecontent”—anunappealingaspirationforpeoplewhoseprofessionalidentitywasfoundedontheiranalyticwizardry.Theybelievedthattechnicalmasterywasamoreauthenticstrategy than that of their chameleon counterparts andwas thus it a source ofpride.Buttheclientswantedmorethanagreatanalysisorthe“rightanswer”;theysoughtapersonalconnectionandapointofviewontheirbusiness.Afterawhile,thetrue-to-selfers’seniorsconcludedthatthetrue-to-selferswerejustnotgettingit, and so the mentors invested less time in helping this group learn. Notsurprisingly,thetrue-to-selfers’learningcurvewasslower.

While true-to-selfers often succeed with strong expertise and operationalexcellence inmany jobs, theycanhitawallas theyenter thetransition tomoresenior leadership roles. In these roles, how leaders are perceived becomes asimportantaswhattheyknow,andsuccessrequiresinternalizingawholenewwayof being. Ironically, the true-to-selfers’ attempts to remain authentic underminedtheir ability to grow into the kind of leader they aspired to become. Thechameleonswho “faked it until they became it” arrivedmuchmore quickly at atruebutdifferent,moreskillfulself:theyactedtheirwayintoanewbutauthenticidentity.

The biggest problem with the true-to-self approach is that it definesauthenticityaccordingtothepastand,byconsequence,defineschangeasaloss.Oneconsultantputitthisway:“Intermsofmydevelopment,Ihaveahugehurdleintransitioningfromseeingmyselfas‘theonewhoknowsallthefacts’tobeinganadvisertotheclient.It’slikemywholebasisforexistenceiscutawayifIcan’trelyonhaving readmore thaneveryoneelse, having lookedat all the analysis andunderstoodallthepointsofview.”

ThisquoteillustrateswhatColumbiaUniversitypsychologistToryHigginscallsa“prevention”orientation,asopposedtoa“promotion”orientation.7Whenyouareinpromotionmode,youpursueyouraspirationsandfocusonwhatyoumightgainfrom your efforts. In preventionmode, youwork toward off potential threats toyourcurrentsenseofselfandpayattentiontowhatyoumightlose.Aswe’llseeinthis chapter, steppingup to leadership requiresapromotion focus,butmanyofthechallengesofsteppingupevokepreventionreflexes.

Despitethevaluetheyseemedtoplaceonbeingauthentic,manyofthetrue-to-selfers inmy studyweren’t fully being true to themselves; theywere holdingbackoutoffearofgettingitwrong.OneoftheconsultantsIinterviewedtoldme,“Mystyleiscreative,argumentative,anddemanding.Butwithclients,Iammorecareful,andmeasured;Ijokearoundless,andI’mlessspeculative.”InthesamewaythatIhungontomyfactsandfiguresforfearofwhatmighthappenifIreallyengagedwithmystudents, thehesitantfacethatthisconsultantwasshowingto

her clients was no closer to her true self than the chameleons’ impression-managementefforts.

TheTroublewithAuthenticityLet’slookmorecloselyatwhatauthenticitymeansbeforewenextconsiderhowitbecomesproblematicwhenwe’retryingtostepuptoabiggerleadershiprole.Theclassic definition of authenticity is “being true to oneself.” This seems simpleenough,butitraisesanall-importantquestionaboutidentity:whichself?Wearemanyselves.AsWilliamJamesputit,“Amanhasasmanyselvesastheroleshetakes on.”8 Roles are the different hats a person wears: the hats vary, but thepersonwearingthemisthesame;sheisalwaystrue.Butwhichselfistruewhenyoustepintoanunfamiliarrole?Mostofusareusedtomanagingdifferenthats.Itgetsmorecomplicatedwhenonehatistheold,well-wornfavoriteandtheotherisadifferentstyleandcolorfromwhatwetypicallywear.Asoneoftheconsultantsthat I cited above put it, “Where on the continuum between my joke-cracking,beer-guzzling, speculative party-animal, argumentative, stubborn, do-things-my-own-way, at-the-extreme,anarchic self that I amwithmycolleaguesat the firmandtherigid,careful,calculatedpersonaIshowtomyclientsistherightplacetobe?”

Another conundrum about being true to yourself concerns the age-old gapbetweenwhoyouarenowandwhoyou’dliketobecome.Whichisyourtrueself:yesterday’s version, today’s, or tomorrow’s? In a career’s worth of studies,Stanford psychologist Hazel Markus showed that people’s identities are basedjustasmuchon the futurepossibilities theyenvision for themselvesas theyareontheirformativepastandpresentstates.Possibleselvesareimportantaspectsofwhoyouaretodaybecausetheyguideandmotivateyourcurrentbehaviorasyoustrivetobecomemorelikeadesiredoridealself.9

A second, equally problematic definition of authenticity is “sincerity,” orcoherencebetweenwhatyoufeelandwhatyousayordo.Interestingly,thewordsincereliterallymeans“withoutwax,”fromtheLatinrootssine(without)andcera(wax).10 Columns or statues that were “without wax” weremore authentic, andtheir beauty was based on substance, not just a veneer. Taken too far, thisdefinitionofauthenticityisunproductive.Yes,weallwantleaderswhoarehumanandcanadmittheirweaknesses.Butthatdoesnotmeanthattheyshouldexpresseachdoubtorthoughtthatcomesintotheirhead.Thedefinitionofauthenticityascoherenceisespeciallytrickywhenyouassumeanewrole,withallthediscomfortanduncertaintythatcomeswithit.Asanovice,youmighttrytoplaytherolethatyou think is expected, but youwon’t get it right or feel authentic from the start.Similarly,whenyoustartspeakingasecondlanguageorarelearningtocook,youfollowwhatyouknowoftherulesorrecipe,butyoudon’tdeviateorimprovise.Itdoesn’tfeelnatural.

A third popular definition of authenticity is “being true to one’s values and

purpose.”11When leaders pursue purposes that are aligned with their personalvalues, they experience themselves—and are experienced by others—asauthentic.12 This definition gives youmore degrees of freedom; peoplewhoactwiththisdefinitioninmindmightfeelnoqualmsaboutusingdramaticallydifferentbehavioraltacticsandself-presentationstrategiesindifferentsituations.Theyseethemselvesnotasimpostorsbutasadaptiveandflexiblepeoplewhoaretryingtoachievesomethingimportant.13

Consider,forexample,oneofthemoststablepersonalitytraits:introversionorextroversion. Extroverts are gregarious; they love human interaction. They gettheirenergyfrombeingwithpeople.Introvertsarequiet;theyneedtimealoneorthey are easily depleted. But research shows that even consummate introvertsarecapableofacting likeextroverts for thesakeofachievingagoal theyvaluehighly.14That’swhytheshyRobertwascapableofactinglikeaveterannetworkerintheserviceofhisgoaltobecomealinemanager.Thetroublecomeswhenwedon’tknowwhatourdesiredendstateactuallylookslike.Intransitions,wemust,paradoxically,moveawayfromourformerselvesbeforewebecomeclearonwhowewanttobecome(we’lllookatthisinmoredetailinchapter5).Andaswehaveseen,ourworkvaluesareoftenfirmlyanchoredintherequirementsofourformerrolesandpastexperiences.Sowewillinevitablyfeelinauthenticwhentakingthefirststeps,asmyconsultantsandbankersdid.

Afourthauthenticitydilemmaliesinourlackoffullcontroloverouridentities.Wearesocialbeings.15Ouridentitiesdependnotonlyonhowweseeourselvesbutalsoonhowothersseeusandwhattheyexpecttoseebeforetheyconsiderus part of any category, like “leader.” We don’t have to be slaves to popularopinion,but thepeoplearoundusmust recognize,encourage,andendorseourleadershipeffortsiftheeffortsaretotakehold.Withoutthem,it’shardtosustainaviewofourselvesas leaders,andwithoutacollectiveconsensus—that’swhatareputation is—it’s hard to get the next jobs, projects, and assignments thatwillhelp us continue to grow our leadership capacity. The problem here is that wedon’t lookorwalkortalkthepartyet,preciselybecauseweareintransition.Sowe have to find a way to “fake it till we become it,” as my Harvard BusinessSchoolcolleagueAmyCuddyputsit.16

TABLE4-1

Howvariousdefinitionsofauthenticitycanpresenthurdlestoleadership

Definitionofauthenticity TheproblemthedefinitionposesBeingtruetooneself Weactandthinkdifferentlywhenweplaydifferent

roles;wedon’tknowhowtothinkandactwhenwetakeonanewrole.

Behaviorthatexpresses“whooneis”;thesincerityandtransparencyofanactanditsabilitytocomeoffasnaturalandeffortless

Welosecredibilityifwediscloseeverythingwethinkandfeel,especiallywhenweareunproven.

Actingwithintegrity;makingmoral,value-basedchoicesconcerningone’sactionsratherthan

Peopledon’tnecessarilyknoworshareourvalues,andourcurrentvaluesareanchoredinwhatwehavedone

acceptingsociallyimposedvaluesandactions inthepast.

Beingtruetoaprototypeofanestablishedcategory,e.g.,lookingandtalkinglikealeader

Thepeoplearounduswon’tgiveusthebenefitofthedoubtifwedon’tlookthetype,but“fakeittillyoumakeit”makesusfeeljustlikethat:afake.

Whicheverof these fourwayswedefineauthenticity, chancesare that itwillget in ourwayaswe stepup to leadership (table4-1). Aswe’ll see below, thestepping-up process demands that we stretch way outside our identity comfortzoneatthesametimethatitevokesstrongidentityself-protectionreflexes:whenwefeelunderthreatbecausewearenotsureifwewillmeasureup,canperform,orbeevaluatedpositivelyorevenifalltheeffortisworthit,that’swhenwemostwanttostaytruetoourfamiliarselves.17

WhenLeadingMakesYouFeelLikeaFakeThesituationsinwhichwemoststandtolearnarealsothosethatmostchallengeoursenseofself.That’swhysteppinguptoleadershipmakessomanyofusfeelasifwe’refacedwithachoicebetweenbeingafailureorafake.

I have observed three common situations in which people are especiallyvulnerabletoauthenticitytrapsinsteppinguptobiggerleadershiproles.First,asthey take charge in a new role, some people have trouble managing acomfortabledistancefromtheirtroops,eitherremainingtoocloseor,alternatively,hidingbehind titlesandprops tomask theirdiscomfort.Second,otherswriteofftheneedtoselltheirideasandtoinspireonapersonallevelasmanipulation;theydismiss the hard and necessarywork of building relationshipswith people theyhavelittleincommonwithas“usingpeople,”becausetheyareafraidoftheirownpower. Third, some people filter negative feedback through the lens of theirauthentic sense of self; they convince themselves that the more dysfunctionalaspectoftheir“natural”leadershipstyleisthecrucialflipsideofwhatmakesthemeffective.And,ineachofthesesituations,weareevenmorepronethanusualtogetcaughtinabindbetweenthebehavioralnormsofournationalcultureandourcompany’snormsforleaderbehavior.Theseareexactlythesortsofsituationsinwhich increasing outsight on yourself becomes critically important. Thesidebar “Leadership Challenges That CanMake You Feel Inauthentic” lists thesituationsthatmostoftenleadtotheseauthenticitytraps.

LeadershipChallengesThatCanMakeYouFeelInauthentic•Takingcharge

•Sellingyourideas(andyourself)

•Integratingnegativefeedback

Leadinginaculturethatisunfamiliartoyoucanexacerbateeachofthesechallenges.

TooCloseforComfortWhenCynthia,ageneralmanagerinahealthcareorganization,tookchargeinanew,muchbiggerjob,shetoldheremployees,“Iwanttodothisjob,butit’sscaryand Ineedyourhelp.”18 Inherprevious role,headingupanultrasound imagingbusiness,shehad feltveryclose tohersmallernumberofemployees.Astrongbeliever in collaborative leadership, she had been personally involved in mostdecisions,fromproductdevelopmenttosalesandadvertising.

The transition upped the number of people reporting to her tenfold andmultipliedtherangeofherbusinesses.“IwasinshockthatIwasputintosuchabigrole,”shesaid.“Ididn’tfeelreadysomyreactionwastocommunicate‘Iwantto hear everything you have to say.’” She spent her firstmonths scrambling tolearnaspectsof thebusiness thatwerenew toher,while trying tomaintainherusualstyleasahands-on,involved-with-peopleboss.Withtheirbossloathtoletgoofherpersonalinvolvementinallthedetails,herdirectreportswerehappytolethershouldertheresponsibility.

“I was so tired,” she recalled, “I had always been entirely approachable. Ithought itwouldwork inabigger jobbut I couldn’t impact five thousandpeopledirectly, as I hadbefore.”Reflecting onher transition someyears later,Cynthiaconcluded:“Beingauthenticdoesn’tmeanthatyoucanbehelduptothelightandpeoplecanseerightthroughyou.Youdon’tneedtospillyourbeans.”

Particularlywhenitcomestotakingchargeinrolesthatarebiggerinscaleandscope,thepersonaltouchanddisclosurethatcanworksowellonasmallerscaleneed to be replaced with a different way of leading. Delegating andcommunicatingappropriatelyisonlypartoftheproblem.Adeeper-seatedissueisgetting the balance of distance and closeness from the front lines right.19 ForCynthia, the question of closeness versus distance presented an acuteauthenticity dilemma, one sheeventually overcame: “I realized that as a leaderyouneedsomemysteryandsomeunpredictability;youhavetobeveryhumanattimes,very“CEO-like”atothers.Peopleneedtoseeyouasoneofthembuttheydon’twanttheirleadertobejustoneofthem.”

Stanford psychologist Deborah Gruenfeld describes this dilemma as findingtherightbalancebetweenbeingauthoritativeand incommandon theonehandand being approachable and human on the other.20 When you aim to beauthoritative, you privilege your knowledge, experience, and expertise over theteam’ssamequalities,maintainingameasureofdistance to takecharge.Whenyouaimtobeapproachable,youprivilegeyourrelationshipswithpeopleandtheirinputandperspective,andyouleadfromyourempathyandwarmth.Leadershiptransitions challenge you to find the right balance. Cynthia played it tooapproachableat first,and itdrainedher.Somepeopleplay it tooclosebecausetheyaredeeplyconflictedaboutexercisingthepoweroftheirformalposition,asCynthia did. Others play it too distant, hiding their private insecurities behindcarefullyconstructedformalpersonae.

PlayingwithTheirReptilianBrainAlotofpeoplewonderaboutthelinebetweenmotivatingpeopletogetonboardandmanipulating them into something theydon’twant to do.When it feels likemanipulation,itprovokesanauthenticitycrisis.

Aseniormanagerata transportationcompany,Annehadexperiencedgreatoperationalsuccessandhadthenumberstoproveit.Shehaddoubledrevenuesand operating margins, given the company a new strategic direction, andundertakena fundamental reorganization of the company’s core processes andstructures.Yetherbossdidn’tfindherinspirationalasaleader,andsheknewshewasnotcommunicatingeffectivelyinherroleonherparentcompany’sboard.

Theboard’schairmanwasabroad-brush,big-picturethinkerwhooftenbalkedatwhatheperceivedasherexcessivedetail orientation.Thestylisticmismatchbetween themwas large, and his feedback to her was “step up, do the visionthing.”Annefoundherselfreluctanttofavorwhatsheperceivedasaninauthenticfocus on form over substance: “I alwayswonderwhat peoplemeanwhen theysay, ‘He’snotmuchofamanagerbuthe’sagood leader.’Leaderofwhat?Youhavetodothingstobealeader.Weareindangertodayofbeingmesmerizedbypeoplewhoplaywithourreptilianbrains.Forme,that’smanipulation.Icantellapoignantpersonalstorytoo,butIrefusetoplayonpeople’semotions.Ifthestringis too obvious, I can’t make myself do it.” A typical true-to-selfer, Anne saw“envisioning”behaviorsasunnecessaryorevenself-promotingshowmanship:thefactsshouldspeakforthemselves.Spendingtimecraftinganemotionalmessageor slogan felt inauthentic; she just couldn’t bring herself to do it. But, was shebeingauthenticorsimplystayinginsidehercomfortzone?

Manyaspiring leaders share this common reticence to influence and inspireusing a full arsenal of rhetorical strategies and emotional tactics. In part, thehesitationisbasedonourself-conceptionasrational,factualbusinesspeople.Butasshowninchapter2,whoweare—andnotthefactsandfigures—iswhattrulypersuades.FormerOgilvy&MatherCEOCharlotteBeersmakesthispointnicelyinher recentbook I’dRatherBe inCharge.21Asanup-and-coming leader, shesays,youneedtounderstandthat“youarenotthework.”Inaspeechbasedonthebook,sheputitthisway:“Youhavetolearntostepoutinfrontofthework.It’syouwhointerprets,analysesanddeliverstheworkthatmatters.Ifyouarenotthework, what are you?You are the fuel, the energy, the system that delivers theworkandgetsitseenandrecognized.Itisyouruniquedeliverysystem.It’smadeupofwhoyouare,whatyoubelieve,whatyoufeel,andwhatyouthink.”22

When you scratch the surface of your discomfort, you find squeamishnessaboutwielding power and influence. If Cynthiawas having problems coming togrips with her vulnerability, Anne was having trouble coming to grips with herpower.Oneof thebiggestquestions thatmanagersandotherprofessionalsarefaced with is, “How do I get people to do stuff?” This age-old question is thesubject ofmany volumes devoted to the various tactics and tips for influencing

other people.23 People don’t get better at it, mainly because they feeluncomfortable wielding power and influence. But in fact, the only thing thatdifferentiates leading from just using power is that leading is usingmutual andreciprocalinfluence—power—intheserviceofaccomplishingacollectivegoal.24

Ifyou,asaleader,understandthatgettingpeopletodo“stuff”isallaboutthehighergoalofachievingtheorganization’sgoals,thenanyworryyoumighthaveabout being perceived as inauthentic ormanipulative falls away.When you areworkingintheserviceofhighergoals,thenit’snotaboutyouoryouregooryourowncareeranymore.It’saboutachievingthegoalofacollectivewin.

Ifit’shardforsomepeopletoselltheirideas,thenit’sevenharderforthemtosell themselves toseniormanagement.Althoughyoucanconvinceyourself thatit’s for the commongoodwhen you are selling your ideas, you can feel selfishwhenyoutrytogettoknowpeopletoadvanceyourcareer.Butdeepdown,youknowthatifyoudon’tdoit,yourgoodideasandstrongpotentialwon’tbenoticed.Here’showonemanagerIintervieweddescribedhisreluctancetosellhimself:“Ipersonally believe in beingprofessional, but I slowly realized that networking ismore important in this organization than elsewhere. So I try to build a networkbasedonprofessionalismandwhatIcandeliverforthebusiness,notwhoIknow.Maybe that’s not smart from a career point of view. But I can’t go against mybeliefs.Ibelieveinbuildingaprofessionalnetwork.So,Ihavebeenmorelimitedinnetworkingup.”

Manybooksandworkshopsextolthevirtuesofself-promotion,andmyaimisnottorepeattheirmessagehere.Ifyou’reworkingtogetoutofsomeauthenticitytraps, it’s not about learning the tactics. It’s about changing yourmind-set.Wehave the most trouble networking up when we’re not sure that our individualcareer aims will add value to the company—that’s when they seem the mostselfish. As you increase outsight on your capacity—by actually spending moretimegettingtoknowseniorleaders(using,forexample,thetwo-degreeprincipleoutlinedinchapter3)—youarealsomorelikelytoseeyourownadvancementasextendingyourimpact.

ShatteringYourPositiveIllusionsAnyone who has ever done a 360-degree assessment is familiar with theinfamousself-observergap, or the discrepancy between howwe see ourselvesand how others see us. Closing the gap is even harder when we suffer frompositiveillusions, therobusttendencytoseeourselvesinthebest lightpossible,whichblindsustohowothersseeus.25

Aswesaw,Jacob,thefoodcompanyproductionmanager,wasshockedwhenhereceivedhis360-degreefeedbackreport.Thebiggestsurprisecamefromhisdirect reports, who rated him near the bottom of the scale on emotionalintelligence,rewardingandfeedback,teambuilding,andempowering.Oneteammemberwrote that Jacob toooftenneglected theexperienceofhis colleagues;

anotheropinedthatitwashardforJacobtoacceptcriticism.Athirdremarkedthatafter an angry outburst, Jacob could suddenly make a joke, as if nothing hadhappened,notrealizingthedestabilizingeffectofhismoodchange.Forsomeonewho genuinely believed that he had tried to generate trust among his people,Jacobfoundhissubordinates’beliefthathelackedself-controlhardtoswallow.

Aftertheinitialshocksubsided,Jacobacknowledgedthatthiswasnotthefirsttime he received such feedback: someof his colleagues and subordinates hadmade similar criticisms a few years back. “I thought that I’d changed myapproach,”hereflected,“butIhaven’treallychangedsomuchsincethelasttime.”Deepinside,herationalizedthefeedbackasanexampleofatypicalpredicamentthatleadersface:“Sometimesyouhavetobetoughinordertodeliverresults,andpeople don’t like it. You have to accept that as part of the job description.” Ofcourse,hewasmissingthepoint.

All of us have positive illusions about ourselves and our impact on others.Psychologistshaveconcluded that these illusionsaremostlyagood thing; theyboostour confidenceandprotect us fromdepression.We tend to think thatweknowmorethanwedoandthatwearebetterthanweare,asinthefictionalLakeWobegon,where“allthewomenarestrong,allthemenaregood-looking,andallthechildrenareaboveaverage.”26ACollegeBoardsurveyofnearlyamillionhighschool seniors, for example, shows that this Wobegon effect sets in early: 70percent claimed “aboveaverage” leadership skills; only 2 percent believed theywere“belowaverage.”27

Positive illusions become especially problematic when we use the termleadership style as a euphemism for dysfunctional behavior like arrogance,bossiness,disdain,andlackofcontroloverourtemper.Mostofusarenotjerksallthe time or with everybody. We give our best to certain team members andreserveilltreatmentforothers.28Ourfatalflawscangouncheckedforalongtimenotonlybecausewe’redeliveringresultsandgettingpositivefeedbackfromthosewe did not mistreat (usually our bosses), but also because the bad behaviorhappensinfrequently.

AspsychologistRoyBaumeisterhasshown,wefail torecognizethathumannatureissuchthatwerememberbestwhattroubledusmost,whathurtus,whatwentwrong.29Hecallsthisthe“badisstrongerthangood”effect,anditexplainshowandwhywecanmakehugeeffortstochangeanditallgoesdownthedrainwhen we “misbehave” occasionally in a moment of high stress or pressure.People’sobservationsaboutusarebiasedtowarddetectingproblems.Nooneissystematically counting good and bad behaviors and taking the average—weretainwhatwedon’tlikeaboutothers,andwelabelthosepeopleaccordingly.

Positiveillusionsalsogetusintotroublewhenweassumethattheproblematicfacetsofour“naturalstyles”areinextricablyboundupwithourgreateststrengths.Evenwhenwerecognizepersonalweakness,weoftenseeitasanecessaryflipsideofastrengthweconsideressential tooursuccess.This isaverycommon

reactiontonegativefeedback,especiallyin360-degreeassessmentsinwhichwereceiveawealthofoftencontradictory feedback fromthedifferentparties inourentourage.LikeJacob,manypeoplerationalizethecriticismbysaying,“Yes,butIamasdemandingofmyself,andtheylearnsomuch!”(And,“That’sthedilemmaofbeingaleader.”)

Just as we make biased inferences about other people, we maintain verybiased inferencesaboutourselves.ForJacob,as formanyofus, thebadgoeswiththegood.Yes,hecanbeexplosive.Butfromhispointofview,it’sallpartofthe package that has allowed him to deliver results year after year, and theseresults are reconfirmedall the time.A positive illusion about himself as results-drivenletshimrecasthisfatalflawasanecessaryandacceptabledownsideofasuccessfulapproachthathasbeenprovenbyexperience(sofar)andtowhichheis unflinchingly committed. He does not realize that he succeeds despite hisbehavior,not(ashebelieves)becauseofit.

A great example of this phenomenon isMargaret Thatcher,whose visionaryleadershipwasdiscussedpreviously.Thosewhoworkedwithherknewshecouldbemerciless ifsomeone failed toprepareacaseas thoroughlyasshedid, thatshe was capable of humiliating a staff member in public, that she was a badlistener, and that she believed compromise was cowardice. As she becameknown to the world as the “Iron Lady,” Thatcher became more and moreconvincedoftherightnessofherideasandthenecessityofhercoercivemethodstogetthejobdone.Shecouldbeatanyoneintosubmissionwiththepowerofherrhetoricandconviction,andsheonlygotbetterat it.Eventually,shewasoustedbyherowncabinet.

I’ve often tried to imagine how Thatcher saw herself and how she mightrespond to360-degree feedbackonher leadershipstyle.Oneofher throwawaylinesinafamousBBCinterviewgivesmeagoodidea:“WhenI’moutofpolitics,”shesaid,“I’mgoingtorunabusiness,it’llbecalled‘rent-a-spine.’”Havingmadehernameonhersteelyandsingle-mindedtoughness,shecametobelieveitwasthe onlyway to get things done. Just like Jacob, she told herself, “Withoutmytenacity,wherewouldwebe?”evenasallyafterallydefectedfromhercause.

Constructivecriticism ideallyhelpsus reviseourself-conceptions,but, sadly,mostnegativefeedbackwillblocklearningbycreatingadefensiveresponse(see,forexample,thesidebar“Self-Assessment:WhatAreYourAuthenticityTraps?”).30AsMITprofessorEdScheinnotes,we just ignore the information,dismiss itasirrelevant, blame the undesired outcome on others or the nature of the job, or,mostcommonly,simplydenyitsvalidity—unlesswegetitfromsomeonewhowebelievehasourbestinterestatheart.31That’swhyit’ssoimportanttomaintainanetwork that can give us just the kind of feedback we don’t want to hear—somethingthatThatchersorelylacked.

TheLoudestDuck

Paris-based cosmetics firm L’Oréal is a very international workplace, so thecompany spends lots of effort sensitizing employees to the different behavioralnormsthattheircoworkersbringfromtheircountriesoforigin.Atthesametime,L’Oréalhasaverydistinctcorporateculture.Itvaluesdebateandbelievesthatthebestideasemergefromcreativeconflict.Thisisatallorderforpeoplewhocomefromplaces likeChina,where theywere taught fromchildhood that “the loudestduckgetsshot.” It’shard forpeoplewith thisculturalbackground tobeseenasleaderswhentheyareworkingwithpeoplewholearnedinsteadthatthesqueakywheelgetsthegrease.32

Findingauthenticwaysofbeingeffective isevenharderwhenyouwork inamultinationalenvironment.Whatdemonstratesthatapersonisincommand,howone sells ideas, and even how one conveys feedback can be very culturallyspecific.Forexample,asmyINSEADcolleagueErinMeyer finds, thewaysyouseektopersuadeothersandthekindsofargumentsthatyoufindpersuasivearefarfromuniversal;theyaredeeplyrootedinyourculture’sphilosophical,religiousandeducationalassumptions.33But,thecommon“template”forexpressingone’sauthentic leadership—telling a very personal story about hardship one hasovercome—isdeeplyAmerican,culturally.Forleadersfrommanyothercountries,thisisnotonlyanunnaturalactbutalsoanexampleofanAmericantendencytoover-discloseand fail tokeepanappropriatedistance inbusiness relationships.Thesidebar“CultureandConfrontationatL’Oréal”showssomeof the reactionspeoplefromdifferentcultureshadwhenaskedtoengageinconfrontation.

Organizationalcultureisadouble-edgedsword.Whenit’sstrong,it’sthegluethatbindspeopletogether intoarecognizablewe.Butstrongculturesalsohaveimplicitprescriptionsaboutwhatleadersaresupposedtolookandsoundlike,andthose prescriptions are rarely as diverse as the talent pool of aspiring leaders.L’Oréal employees from cultures where direct confrontation is anathemaunderstandthattheyareexpectedtochallengeothers ideasvigorouslyandwhythisbehaviorisprized.Butitdoesn’tfeelauthentictothem.

CultureandConfrontationatL’OréalThefollowingquotationsillustratetherangeofreactionsthatpeopleofdifferentcultureshadwhentheywereexpectedtotakepartin,andlead,debatesatL’Oréal.a

•“L’Oréalculture,aseverybodyknows,isaboutallowingdebate,beingpartoftheprocessofdebatingabusinessidea,becauseifanideacannotsurvivethroughthisdebatingprocess,itisnotagoodidea,itisnotsomethingthatcaneasilysurviveinthemarket.ButconfrontationtoaChineseisextremelynegative.He’sinawaysayingno,andmakingtheotherpartylosehisface.Soit’ssomethingthatwetrytoavoid.”(Chinesemanager)

•“InaJapaneseculturalcontext,confrontationissomethingthatisrude,thatistooaggressive,andthatisjustveryimpoliteanddisrespectful.There’sasalesmeeting,orameetingwithalotofJapanesesalesmanagerswhodon’tspeakEnglish,plustheFrenchmanagement,plusthemarketingteam,wheretheFrenchmanagementwouldhaveatranslatoraskingeachJapanesesalesrep,‘Sowhatdoyouthinkaboutthis?’‘Whatdoyouthinkaboutthis?’‘Whydoyouthinkthis?’…Atfirsttheywerejustshockedthattheywouldbeputonthespotinameeting,withalotofpeople.Thatisjustaninsult.”(Japanesemanager)

•“IthinkthatinItaly,wetrytoavoidconfrontation.Wedoexpressourdisagreements,butinaverydelicate—inamorediplomaticwaycomparedtoothercountries.Afteraconfrontation,whenpeopletoldme,‘Pleasedon’ttakeitpersonal/neleprendspasperso,’Ijustfeltaggressed,andIdo,Ican’thelpit,Idotakeitpersonal.”(Italianmanager)

a.Source:From“L’OréalCultureinaMulti-CulturalWorld:ConfrontorAvoidConfrontation?”trainingvideo,L’Oréal,February2012.

Althoughmanyofushavebecomesensitive toculturaldifferences thanks tointernationalassignmentsandtheglobalteamsinwhichwework,westillexpectleaderstotakethelead:toadvancetheirideasassertively,toclaimcreditfortheirideas,toargueaclearpointofview,andtodosowithpresence.34Inoneglobalcompany of Anglo-Dutch origin, high-potential individuals who did not hail fromthoseculturestoldmethatsuccessrequiredimpeccableEnglishandafacilitywithwordplay—skillsthattheylackedandthatplacedthematahugedisadvantage.Thekindsofpresentationsthatmadethesemanagersvisibletotopmanagement(asrecommendedinchapter2)weremomentsofconsiderablestressforthem.

Youdon’tevenneedinternationaldiversitytogetcompetingnormsforhowtobehave.Acrosstheglobe,menandwomenaretaughtverydifferentstandardsforhowtoconductthemselves;malestandardsinvariablycomeclosertowhatmostpeople code as leadership. So in the workplace, women face the infamousdouble-bind, whereby if they “act like a leader,” they are too manly andaggressive,butifthey“act likeawoman,”their leadershipcangounrecognized,especiallyas theyposition themselves tomoveup to thehighest levels.35Asianwomen in particular strugglewith this catch-22 and are often seen as both tooaggressiveandnotassertiveenough,dependingonthecontext.Here’swhatoneofthemtoldme:“InAsia,IwastoldIwastoobossy.InEurope,theytellmeIamnotbossyenough,thatIneedtohavemoreleadership,standupandpresentmyideas, have a stronger voice…My personal feeling is that to be seen as highpotential,youhavetobealmostaman,sowhatisthepointofbeingawoman?TheseniorwomenIknowarenotdifferentfrommen.Itisachallenge.Idonotfittheprototype; Icannotchangemypersonality to fit this.Mypersonal leadershipstyle isnotauthoritarian.Howcan Ibemoreauthoritativeand lookandbehavelikeaseniorleader?”

Researchshowsthatyourdrivetoimproveandadvancegrowshandinhandwith recognition from people who are valued by your organization and whoseopinionyouyourselfvalue.36Whentheidentityyoudevelopinoneculturalcontextmanifests itselfdifferently inacompanyoranothergroupcontext,youmightbeshortchanged of leadership recognition, one of the key components of leaderidentity development. Without recognition and endorsement, you become evenquieter.Soonyourmotivationtoleadisdiminished.

The answer to this ubiquitous authenticity dilemma isn’t obvious, becausegoingnative is rarely theanswer.Striking the rightbalance,aswe’ll seebelow,oftendependsonfindingrolemodelswhoarebothsuccessfulandsimilartoyoueitherintermsofcultureorintermsofstylisticpreferences.

StretchBeyondYourCurrentSelf-ConceptLinkedIn’sReidHoffmanandcoauthorBenCasnochafamouslysaidthatalotofpeoplefeelaboutnetworkingthesamewaytheyfeelaboutflossing:it’sgoodforyou,butnofuntodo.37I’vefoundthesamewhenitcomestoworkingonyourself.Toooftenitfeelslikealotofwork.Infact,researchersinmyfield,organizationalbehavior, use the term identity work to describe all the things we do to form,repair,maintain,orreviseourunitarysenseofwhoweare.38Thisisthestuffoftheself-helpsectionofyour favoritebookstore. It’snot fun,andneitherdoes itworkwhenyou’reintransitiontosomethingnew.39

What’s thealternative?Becomingmoreplayfulwith yourown identity.Doingidentityplayinsteadofidentitywork.40

WhatdoImeanbyplayingaroundwithyouridentity?Letmeexplainfirstwhatresearchsaysaboutthedifferencebetweenworkandplay.It’sactuallynotabouttheactivityitself—youcanplayatworkandworkatplay—it’saboutthemind-setwithwhichyouapproachanyactivity.41

Self-Assessment:WhatAreYourAuthenticityTraps?Consideranareainwhichyouhavereceivednegativeorconstructivefeedbackmorethanonceorfrom more than one person, and on which you’d like to make progress. You might have beenencouraged,forexample,todelegatemore,ortoadaptyourleadershipstyle,ortoofferyourpointofviewinsteadofananalysisofthefactsanddata.Below,writedownwhatthesuggestionwas:

Now,considerwhatmightbeholdingyoubackfrommakingprogressinthisarea.Which,ifany,ofthefollowingstatementsdoyouagreewith?

YES NO

1.Ibelieveagoodleaderissomeonewhostaysclosetothetroops. ____________2.Thebestwaytoinfluencepeopleistosticktothefacts.Playingon

people’semotionsismanipulation. ____________3.It’sonethingtonetworktogetbuy-inforabusinessgoal,butIwon’t

networktoadvancemycareer. ____________4.Iwastaughtnottoattracttoomuchattentiontomyselfortomyideas.

SoItendtobequieterinmeetingsthanmostpeoplearoundme. ____________5.MyproblematicbehaviorshaveapositivesidethatIvalue(e.g.,Ihave

lowemotionalintelligence,butthathelpsmedeliveronthetask). ____________Each“yes”responsesuggestsasignificantvulnerabilitytooneoftheauthenticitytrapsdiscussed

inthischapter.

When you are working, you’re serious. You set goals and objectives, aremindfulofyourtime,andtrytogetprogressiveimprovements.You’renotgoingtodeviate from the straight andnarrow.Whenyou’replaying, you’re,well, playful.

Youlosetrackoftime.Youmeander.There’snorealutilitytowhatyouaredoing;youdon’thave to follow therules.Youenjoyyourself,arecurious,anddiscovernew things.42 The great benefit of a playful approach to anything is that itincreasesyourcreativity.43

The same goes when you are playing with who you might become. Youexplorepossibilitieswithoutcommitting toanyof them.You’re inessence flirtingwithyourfuturepossibleselvesratherthanconstantlyevaluatingtoday’sversionofyourselfagainstanonexistentideal,testingitfora“committedrelationship,”ortrying to get approval from others in light of a limited and not-yet-personalizedviewoftheirrequirements.44So,you’remoreopentowhatyoumightlearnaboutyourself.

In three important ways that I will discuss, identity play frees you from theauthenticitytrapsdescribedearlier.First,whenyouareplayingaroundwithyourself-identity,it’sOKtoborrowliberallyfromdifferentsources.Second,playfulnesschangesyourmind-setfromaperformancefocustoalearningorientation.You’renolongertryingtoprotectanddefendyouroldidentityfromthethreatthatchangebrings.You’re just exploring.Third, yourgoal isactually tobe inconsistent fromoneday to thenext, to iterate—andeven to revise—yourownstory.You’renotbeingafake;you’rejustexperimentingwithdiversepossibilitiesbeforesettlingonanewdirection.Belowareafewguidelinesforhowtodoit.

StealLikeanArtistIfthereisoneoccupationthatprizesauthenticity,it’sart.Atthesametime,noonebesidesanartistknowsbetterthatnothingisoriginal.

Artist andwriterAustinKleon talks about the feedback he gotwhenhe firststarteddoinghissignaturenewspaper-blackoutpoetry.Hecreatestheseworksbycirclingnewspaperwordsandphrasesthatinteresthimandblackingouttherestwith amarker.When told about someonewhohad been doing similarwork forsometime,Kleonlookedthatartistupandultimatelyuncoveredasequentiallineofartistswhotooktheirinspirationfromoneanotherovertheyears.

Through this “genealogical” research that took him back to the 1700s andvarious “genealogical branches,” Kleon realized that the end product, his ownwork,wastheuniqueresultofmanyandvariedinfluences.Ashereflectedonhiscreativeprocess,hedistilledafewbasicprinciples,whichheparlayedintoaNewYorkTimesbestseller,StealLikeanArtist.45Hereareafewofhisinsights:

•Nothingisoriginal.

•You’reonlygoingtobeasgoodasthestuff(orthepeople)yousurroundyourselfwith.

•Don’twaituntilyouknowwhoyouaretogetstarted.

•Copyyourheroes.

Toomanypeoplegethungupworryingthattheyareanimpostororaphony,Kleonsays:“IfI’dwaitedtoknowwhoIwasorwhatIwasaboutbeforeIstarted‘beingcreative,’well,I’dstillbesittingaroundtryingtofiguremyselfoutinsteadofmaking things. Inmyexperience, it’s in theact ofmaking thingsanddoingourworkthatwefigureoutwhoweare”(seefigure4-2).

But there is a trick here, too. There is a big difference between imitatingsomeonewholesaleandimitatingaspectsofwhatthepersondoes,borrowingthebestbitsandpieces fromdifferentpeople tocomposeyourownuniquecollage,which you then modify and improve. Some of my investment bankers andconsultants did this naturally, consciously borrowing different styles and tacticsfromtheirmoresuccessfulseniors.Myexecutiveswhobelievedtheyhadtofindtheperfectrolemodel,inturn,hadahardertimeandfeltmoreinauthenticwhentheytriedtoimitatesupposedperfection.AsthewriterWilsonMiznersays,ifyoucopy fromoneauthor, it’splagiarism,but if youcopy frommany, it’s research.46That’swhatCynthiadid,andtodaysheadvisespeopletoidentifyleaderswhodowell what they are trying to learn and watch them carefully. For Kleon, what’sreallyimportantisnottojuststealsomeone’sstyle,butalsotosteal thethinkingbehindthestylesothatyoucansomehowgetaglimpseintothatperson’smindandinternalizeherwayoflookingattheworld.FIGURE4-2

AustinKleon’sdistinctionbetweengoodandbadtheft

Source:ExcerptedfromStealLikeanArtist,copyright2012byAustinKleon.UsedbypermissionofWorkmanPublishingCo.Inc.Allrightsreserved.

AimtoLearnLet’s admit it: one of the biggest reasons we don’t stretch beyond our currentselvesisthatweareafraidtofail,tosufferahittoourperformance.AsHarvardpsychologistRobertKeganandhis co-authors find,mostpeopleatwork “divert

considerableenergyeverydaytoasecondjobthatnoonehashiredthemtodo:preserving their reputations, putting their best selves forward, and hiding theirinadequaciesfromothersandthemselves.”47

Of course, all of uswant to performwell in a new situation, to get the rightstrategy in place, to be rewarded for our performance, andperhaps to get to anew place in our careers. But goals that are too narrowly focused on ourperformancecandiminishhowmuchwe’rewillingtoriskintheserviceoflearning.Whenwearesteppinguptonewroles,performancegoalscanactuallybackfire,becausethelesswelearn,thelowerourchancesofsuccess.

Considerwhat happed to Thomas, the head of a largeMexican sales teamthat accounts for 40 percent of his country’s revenues. Thomas was beinggroomed for a top sales job. To expose him to other parts of the business, hisboss appointed him to the management board for Mexico, a role Thomasdescribed as both his biggest developmental opportunity and his biggestchallenge:“NowIhavetobeable to talkaboutall theproductgroups, includingthose I have not been involved in at all, and all the functions, including R&D,finance, and marketing. Basically, I have to learn 40 percent of the business.”Knowing he was expected to make an impact, he tried to make up for hisinexperiencewithabiggerstagepresence,fakingconfidenceinsteadofshowingvulnerability.

A turningpointcamewhenThomaswasasked togive theboardaprogressreportonaprojectoutsidehisareaofexpertise.Knowingthathewouldencounterresistance to his proposal, Thomas understandably worried about someone’shijacking the discussions while he gave the presentation. To keep things fromgetting out of control, he just kept marching through his slides, sticking to thescriptdespitethemountingfrustrationofhisaudience.Henevergavetheboardmembers a chance to engage in a frank discussion of the issues. In search ofrecognitionandapproval,helostsightofalargerpurposeandfocusedinsteadonprotectinghispublic imageasanexpert.Sohemissedachance to learnwhatthey thought.Naturally,his recommendationswerenotadopted,and it tookhimmonthstolearnwhy.

In a series of ingenious experiments, psychologist Carol Dweck has shownhow concerns about how we will appear to others inhibit learning on new orunfamiliartasks.48Whenpeoplearedrivenbywhatshecalls“performancegoals,”they are motivated to show others that they have a valued attribute (e.g.,intelligence,humility,goodvalues)andtheyarelookingtovalidateforthemselvesa self-image as someone who has this attribute. When people are driven by“learninggoals,”bycontrast,theyaremotivatedtodevelopavaluedattribute.

Performance- or image-focused people prefer tasks that will help them lookgood, as opposed to tasks that will help them learn, and are more likely toapproach highly visible leadership situations as just that: performances. So,according to Dweck’s studies, these people experience more anxiety and

apprehension,arelesslikelytoworkontheirweaknesses,tendtotalkmoreandlisten less, and are more likely to stick with the familiar but inappropriateapproach,muchasThomasdid.

AgoodcounterexampleofThomas’sperformancefocusiswhatChrisJohnson(fromchapter3)didinhisfirstmeetingwiththecountrymanagerswhofeltthathisenterprise software implementation was being shoved down their throats.Johnson knew theyweren’t happy, and he expected a lot of pushback. So, hethrewoutthepreparedtalkandjustspentanentiremorningdoingQ&Ainstead.Thisapproachtookalotofguts.Themorningwasbrutal.Themanagersjustwentathim.ButJohnsonwantedtolearnabouttheirframeofmind.So,ashetellsit,heplayedit likeMuhammadAlitakingthepunchesfromGeorgeForeman.Afterlunch,Johnsontookadifferent,moreplayfulbutalsotoughertack.“Howmanyofyouwould likemyjob?”heasked.Whennohandswentup,hetoldthem,“If [it]doesn’twork,Igetfired.IfIgetfired,[myboss]isgoingtopickoneofyoutorunit.Sohereisthedeal:ifyoudon’twantmyjob,you’dbettermakethiswork.”

Managersandotherprofessionalsareconstantlyplunged intosituations thatelicitperformancegoals.Forexample, theymighthave to takecharge inanewrole,makeboardpresentationsorotherhighlyvisibleexpositions,or respond tonegativeformalperformancefeedback.Whenyouareinperformancemode,thegameisaboutpresentingyourselfinthemostfavorablelight:minimizingrisksandmaintainingpositiveillusions.Alearningmodeleadstoamoreplayfulapproach,onethatallowsyoutoreconcileyournaturalyearningforauthenticityinhowyouwork and lead with an equally powerful motivator: growing and, most of all,learningaboutandextendingpossibilitiesforyourself.

Don’tSticktoYourStoryWriterSalmanRushdieoncewrote:“Thosewhodonothavepoweroverthestorythatdominatestheirlives,powertoretellit,rethinkit,deconstructit,jokeaboutit,and change it as times change, truly are powerless because they cannot thinknewthoughts.”49Aswehaveseen,leadersusetheirstoriestopersonallyinspirepeople. A tried-and-trueway of finding the right personal story to convey one’svaluesorpurposeistoreflectondefiningmomentsinourlives,whenourmettlewas tested in some important way, when a life event taught us an importantlesson.50Butjustasourworkingidentitiescangetoutdated,socanourstories.AscognitivescientistDanDennettputsit“Ourtalesarespun,butforthemostpart,wedon’tspinthem;theyspinus.”51WeneedtofeelOKaboutrevisingthestorieseveryonceinawhile,whentheynolongermeetourpurposes.

FormerOgilvy&MatherCEOCharlotteBeersgivesagreatexampleaboutaleader she coached.Maria held an imageof herself as a “mother henwith herchicksallaround.”52TheimagecamefromastoryaboutatimewhenMariahadtosacrificeherselftotakecareofherextendedandmatriarchalfamily.ButasBeerspointed out to her, the story and the image she carried around from it werekeepingherfromsteppinguptoabigleadershiprole.Thestoryfitherimageofa

friendly and loyal team player and peacekeeper—not a leader who got the bigassignment shewanted. Together,Beers andMaria looked for another definingmoment,a timewhenasayoungwomanMariahad lefther family to travel theworldforeighteenmonths.ThisstorywasmoreinkeepingwiththecourageMariafelt it tookto leadhercreativegroup.Actingfromhersenseofself in thatstory,shegotthepromotion.

DanMcAdams,whohasspenthiswholecareerstudyinglifestories,saysthata person’s identity is “the internalized and evolving story that results from [theperson’s] selective appropriation of past, present and future.”53 McAdams’sstatement isn’t justacademic jargon.He issaying thatyouhave tobelieveyourownstory, to internalize it,but it ischangingall the time,according towhatyouneed it todo.Asyourpurposeschange,soshouldyouchangeyourstories,sothatyournarrativebestaccountsforyournewaspirationsandresonateswiththeaudienceyouaretryingtowinover.Youarenot inventingfiction,butselectivelyappropriating things that havemade youwho you are. That’s why revising—orplayingwith—yourstoryisabigpartofsteppingup.54

BeLikeWater“Be likewater,”saysHetainPatel,quotingBruceLee inoneofmy favoriteTEDtalks,titled“WhoAmI?ThinkAgain.”55Patel,aperformanceartist,isinterestedinidentity precisely because we are many different selves. The son of Indianimmigrants to Britain, he was always up against the limited, one-dimensionalimagethatpeoplewouldformofhiminlightofhisappearance.Inhisplayfulyetseriousdiscussionofauthenticity,Pateltalksabouthowhelearnedabouthimselfby imitating his heroes: his father, Spider-Man, Bruce Lee, and his Chineseteacher(whohappenedtobeawoman,sohegot the intonationallwrong).Forexample,inonemultimediaproject,hegrewamustachetolooklikehisfatherandrecordedtheresults.

Bruce Lee, the great martial artist, fascinated Patel because Lee wasconstantlyexperimentingwithnewmethodsandinventinghisownmixtoimprovehisart.Leebelievedthatyoushould“useonlythatwhichworksandtakeitfromanyplaceyoucan find it.”56Hismantrawas “be likewater:”57Don’t get set intooneform,adapttodifferentsituations(aswaterflows),andgrowfromthem.

Likewise, Patel concludes: “Contrary to what we might usually assume,imitatingsomethingcanrevealsomethingunique.SoeverytimeIfailtobecomemorelikemyfather,Ibecomemorelikemyself.EverytimeIfailtobecomemorelikeBruceLee,Ibecomemoreauthenticallyme.”Kleonbasicallysaysthesamething: “Awonderful flaw about human beings is thatwe’re incapable ofmakingperfect copies.Our failure to copy our heroes iswherewe discoverwhere ourown thing lives. That is how we evolve.”58 See the sidebar “Getting Started:ExperimentswithYourSelf”forideasonhowtoredefineyourself-conceptasyoulearnfromnewexperiencesandobservingothers.

GETTINGSTARTED

ExperimentswithYourSelf

>Inthenextthreedays,startfindingheroes:peoplewhoseleadershipyouadmire.Watchthemclosely.

>Overthenextthreeweeks,gettoknowsomeoftheseheroesbetter.Findoutwhoinfluencedthemand

howtheythinkaboutwhattheydo.Talktothemabouttheirpurposeinworkandhowtheydiscoveredit.Startyourowncollage,thatis,trytoincorporateusefulqualitiesfromtheseheroesintoyourownpersona.

>Inthenextthreemonths,findacontextorsituationthatmakesyouuncomfortable.Thiscouldbegivinga

presentation, speaking at an industry forum, or even speaking out at importantmeetings. Set learninggoals.Actasradicallydifferentfromyournormalbehaviorasyoucan.

Learning, by definition, always starts with unnatural and often superficialbehaviors that canmake a person feel like a fake-a strategic, calculating, andutilitarian being instead of the genuine, spontaneous person we’d prefer to be.Findinganappropriatelevelofdisclosureandfriendlinesswithdirectreportsandlearning to sell our ideas, manage our bosses, operate effectively in an alienculture, and tame our dark side doesn’t always come naturally. Rather thanadaptingtonewinformationandexperiences,wetendtokeepourselvesinarigidbox in the guise of authenticity. But sometimes, as Patel and Lee discovered,we’remuchbetteroffbeinglikewaterandlettingnewexperiencesandsituationsdecidewhatshapeouremergingtrueselveswilltake.

CHAPTER4SUMMARY

✓Manyofthetypicalchallengesofsteppinguptoleadershipmakepeoplefeellikefakes:takingchargeinanewrole,sellingtheirideas,managingtheirhigher-ups,workinginanalienculture,andlearningfromnegativefeedback.

✓Chameleonsarecomfortableshiftingshapesandstylestofiteachnewsituation;true-to-selfers,ontheotherhand,tendtofeelinauthenticwhenaskedtostretchoutsidetheircomfortzone.

✓Authenticitytrapsreallygetyouintotroublewhenyouaresteppinguptoleadership,becausewhatfeelsliketheauthenticyouistheoldselfthatyouaretryingtoshed.

✓Onewaytoescapetheauthenticitytrapistothinkaboutexperimentingwithnewbehaviorsasplayingaroundwithyoursenseofwhoyouareinsteadofworkingonit.Thenewbehaviorsmightfeelunnaturalinthebeginning,buttheyhelpyoufigureoutwhoyoumightwanttobe,withoutyouractuallycommittingtobecomeit—playinggivesyouout-sightonyourself.

✓Identity—whoyouare—isnotjustaboutthepast;it’salsothepossibilitiesyouenvisionforyourselfinthefuture.

✓Herearethreewaysyoucanplayaroundwithyoursenseofwhoyouare:–Steallikeanartist:Observeabroadrangeofrolemodelstocreateyour

owncollageofthingsyouwanttolearnfromthesemodels,andkeeprefiningyourstyleuntilitiseffectiveandauthentic.

–Aimtolearn:Setlearninggoals,notjustperformancegoals.

–Don’tsticktoyourstory:Trydifferentversions,narratedifferentdefiningmoments,andkeepediting,muchasyouwouldyourcurriculumvitae.

CHAPTER5

ManagetheStepping-UpProcessSO, YOU’VE BEEN WORKING on increasing your outsight by following some of thesuggestionsinthelastthreechapters.Whathappensnext?Howdotheseeffortsadd up to increase your leadership capacity? To answer these questions, youhave to takea closer lookat howchangeunfoldsandat someof the commonmisconceptionsabouthowithappens.

People often hope that they’ll have some sort of conversion experience: amomentwhenitallsnapsintoplace,afterwhichnothingisthesameagain.Thisimagecomesfromthearchetypalstoriesweheardwhenweweregrowingup:thebiblicalstoryofSaulontheroadtoDamascus,forexample.StruckdownfromhishorsebythehandofGod,heinstantaneouslybecamePaulanddevotedhislifetoChrist thereafter.Conversionstoriesexist ineverycultureand religion.They tellabout the one event that changed everything. But it’s just not the way it reallyworks.

AmuchbettermetaphoristhestoryofUlysses,onhislong,wanderingjourneybacktoIthaca—ajourneywithmanytemptationstostray.We’llgetlostalongtheway,lostenoughtofindourselves,asRobertFrostputit.1

Soitiswithsteppinguptoplayabiggerleadershiprole.It’snotanevent;it’saprocessthattakestimebeforeitpaysoff.

Our new actions are important, even if they sometimes seem superficial,because they provide some necessary quick wins and fresh information aboutwhat is possible. But there is rarely a straight line to the finish. Things getcomplicated.Wegetbusy.Timepressurepileson.Wealmostalwaysbackslideorfailtosticktoourcommitments.Becausewe’rerarelyverygoodatournewrolesatfirst,weareloathtoletgoofoldbehaviors.Whatslowlystartstobecomemoreand more apparent is that our goals for ourselves are changing. That’s whenreflectingonwhatwehavebeen learningbydoingbecomes invaluable,so thatthebiggerchangesthatensuearedrivenbyanewclarityofself.

TheConversionofaProcessEngineerGeorge,amanufacturingengineer,waspartofagroupof functionalspecialists,productionsupervisors,andengineersselectedbytheircompanytoparticipateina major reengineering project.2 Somewhat bored after fifteen years in thecompany’soperationsgroup,Georgelookedforwardtothistwo-yearassignment.Hewaseagertolearnsomethingnew,togetoutofthebox.Whenhesignedup,hehadnoideawhatconsequencesthemovewouldhaveforhiscareer.

Working on the reengineering project profoundly changed how he thoughtabouthisorganizationandthepurposeofhiswork.Georgeacquiredabig-picture

view of his company and understood, for the first time, the extent towhich hispriorfunctionalperspectivewaslimitedandparochial.Overtime,hecametoseehimself as a systems thinker. He experienced a shift in how he saw hiscontribution, from doing great functional work to changing the organization tobetterservethecustomer.

Asthesenewwaysofthinkingtookroot,Georgefoundhimselfdisconnectingmoreandmorefromhishome-baseworkunit,whereheno longer felthereallybelonged, and instead seeking out opportunities to interact not just with otherproject teammembers butwith a larger external communitymadeup of otherswhohadalsobeenbittenbytheprocess-engineeringbug.

Thesenewexperiencesandrelationshipsledhimtoredefinehissenseofself,hispurposeinwork,andhiscareerambitions.Aftertheprojectended,hehadnodesire to return to his old group. Working to change his organization wasmeaningful. It gave him a sense of making a difference, and he wanted to domoreofit.

Thischangedidnothappenovernightbutincheduponhimasheworkedonthe project and became an ever-more-active participant in an industrywidecommunityofprocessreengineers.Atthestartof thetrainingthatall theprojectmembersunderwent,Georgelearnedthetoolsofbusinessprocessredesignandcametounderstandnotionslikeroot-causeanalysisandflow-charting.Itwasallquiteabstractandtheoretical, farremovedfromtherealproblemstheteamwasbeingaskedtosolve.Hewasoftenasconfusedaboutwhathewassupposedtobedoingashewasstimulated.Tomakesenseof itall,George lookedoutside,attendingconferences,hangingaroundwithpeersdoingthesamethinginotherorganizations,andreachingouttothegurusinthisfield.Overtime,hestartedtounderstand enough about what they thought about complex systems to startcomingupwithhisown ideas forhisorganization.Hisactiveparticipation in theworldofreengineeringmadehisnewandoftenpuzzlingexperiencescomealive,replete with personal implications for a possible new identity as an agent forchange.

Many of the leaders whose stories I have told in the preceding chaptersstartedlearningaboutleadershipinanequallyabstractway.Theywereexposedtoclassicleadershipconcepts,readthebestsellers,hiredcoachestohelpthemimprove their style, and thought hard about what they wanted and needed tochange.Butallthatisafarcryfromactuallylearningtodotheworkofleadershipandcoming toadeep-seatedunderstandingofwhy leadership is importantandpersonallymeaningful. For that to happen, they had to live through a transitionprocess,likeGeorge’s,thatwasoftenmorechallengingthantheyfirstexpected.

Process,NotOutcomeMostmethods for changing ask you to beginwith the end inmind, the desiredoutcome.3Butinreality,knowingwhatkindofleaderyouwanttobecomecomes

last,notfirst,inthestepping-upprocess.

Georgecouldhavetoldyouthathenolongerfeltchallengedinhisoldjobandthat it lackedmeaningforhim.Butnomatterhowmuchtimehespentreflectingonwherehewantedtogoandwhohewantedtobecome,hewasnevergoingtofindthepurposehefoundinthereengineeringwork.Onlyhisdirectexperiencesledhim toadeeperunderstandingof hisdesire for changeandallowedhim toconstructamoreattractive,concretealternative.

Getting therewasn’t easy.During the first year of the reengineering project,George had a hard time reconciling his new role as a change agent with hisearlierviewsaboutwhatkindofworkwasworthdoing.Forexample,helearnedthat he actually loved managing a team—something that had been a tediouschore for him before—when the work was something he cared passionatelyabout. But there was a price to pay for the learning: as his thinking about hisorganizationanditsproblemschanged,hedidn’tfitinsowellanymorewithhisoldcrowd.

So it iswith theexecutiveswhoattendmycourses.Afteran intensiveweeklearningabouttheideaspresentedinthelastthreechapters,theygohomewithapersonalizedactionplan.Thisplan is justmeant toget themstarted; it isbynomeans a one-shot deal. More often than not, they initially commit to the low-hangingfruit,theobviousandimmediatethingstheyneedtodotoimprovetheirkeyworkingrelationships,extendtheirnetworks,andexplorenewprojects.Theyaddbefore theysubtract,meaningthat theyfocusmostlyonwhatelse theycando, before they start dropping things from their usual operating routines. Ingeneral,theexecutivestendtobecomeverybusysoonaftertheyreturntowork.They get sidetracked and become frustrated with the slow pace of progress.Someofthemstarttogiveup.Thosewhosticktoit,withhelpfromeachotherviavirtual groupmeetingsanda secondon-campussession, gradually start to seesomeevolution,butnotwithoutsomehard thinkingaboutwhat theymust leavebehindandwhattheywillkeepdoing.

George and all my participants went through what I call the stepping-upprocess.ThisprocessiswhathappensinbetweenA(whereyouaretoday)andB(whereyoueventuallymightarrive) (figure5-1).Steppingup isa transition,andtransitions are unpredictable, messy, nonlinear, and emotionally charged, formanyreasons:4

•Bisunknownanduncertain.

•Aisnolongerviable.

•TherearemanypossibleroutestoB.

•Bchangesasweapproachit.

The net result is thatmanaging a transition is completely unlike shooting for aknownoutcome.5Thinkaboutitasthedifferencebetweenmakingadishfollowing

arecipeandbecomingagreatchef.Whenyouaretryingtomakesomethingthattastes good, you prettymuch achieve the desired outcome if you get the rightingredientsandfollowtherecipe.It’saninput-outputmodel,wheretheoutputcanvary, frommore to less tastyor from lookingmore to less like thepicture in therecipebook.Withpractice,mostpeoplecanexpecttobecomeabettercookthantheywereatthestart.FIGURE5-1

SteppinguptoleadershipisaprocessofmovingfromAtoBa

Anyprocessofpersonalchange iscomposedof threeparts:A,B,andthetransitionbetweenthem.A,ourcurrent state, is how we do things and who we are today. It may not be optimal, but it is familiar andcomfortablebecauseweknowwhat toexpect.We’vebeensuccessful atA,andweknowhowwewill bemeasuredandevaluatedwhendoingA.B,thefuturestateweaspireto,istheunknown.It’swherewethinkwearetryingtogo,butthat’snotalwaysclearorwelldefinedatthestart,anditusuallyshiftswhilewearetrudgingthroughthetransition.Btendstochangeaswechange.

a.WilliamBridges,ManagingTransitions:MakingtheMostofChange(Philadelphia:DaCapoLifelongBooks,2009).

Whenyouaretryingtobecomeagreatchef,theinputsalsomatter,butthereisnodirect relationshipbetweenthetimeandeffortyouput inandtheoutcomeyouget.Becomingagreatchefdependsonconditionsthatincreasethelikelihoodthat your cooking will be inventive-conditions like training under a great chef,traveling to far-off places to learn about new ingredients, a serendipitousencounter with a famous food critic, and a strong network of the best foodsuppliers.Butnoneofthesewillguaranteethatyou’llmeetyourgoal.Successinthiscasedependsonyourbecomingadifferentpersonfromwhoyouwereatthestart.

Steppinguptoleadershipismorelikebecomingagreatchefthanfollowingarecipe.Theprocesschangeswhoyouareinwaysthatyoumightnotanticipate.

StagesofSteppingUptoaBiggerLeadershipRoleStage1:Disconfirmation•Feelingthegapbetweenwhereyouareandwhereyouwanttobe

•Increasedurgencytospurfirstactionsteps

Stage2:SimpleAddition•Addingnewrolesandbehaviors(withoutsubtractingoldones)

•Increasedoutsight;gettingquickwinsonlow-hangingfruit

Stage3:Complication

•Back-sliding,setbacks

•Exhaustionfrommakingtimeforbotholdandnewbehaviors;obstructionasthepeoplearoundyouencourageyour“old”self

Stage4:CourseCorrection•Frustrationsthatraisebiggercareerquestions

•Timeto“bringtheoutsightbackin”:reflectiononnewexperiencestoreexamineoldgoalsandmakenewones

Stage5:Internalization•Changesthatstickbecausetheyaremotivatedbyyournewidentityandexpresswhoyouhave

become

APredictableProcessAlthoughyoucan’tanticipatewhatBwillactuallylooklikeasyoustartsteppinguptoabiggerleadershiprole,youcananticipatepredictablestagesinthetransition.Inmyresearchandteaching,Ihaveobservedthattheprocesstypicallyfollowsasequenceoffivestages.Youdon’tmovefromtoday’sproblematicstate(stage1)tocompetentleadership(stage5)inonefellswoopbutrathernavigateaseriesofstepsinbetween(seethesidebar“StagesofSteppingUptoaBiggerLeadershipRole”).

DisconfirmationThestepping-upprocessalmostalwaysstartswithagapbetweenwhereyouareandwhereyouwanttobe.That’sthesparkthatmotivatesustotakeaction.

Indeed, most forms of adult learning and change start with some sort ofdissatisfactionorfrustrationgeneratedbyinformationorfeedbackthatdisconfirmsour expectations.6 For years, psychologists using the carrot-and-stick analogyhave stressed the importance of the stick, or a painful motivator, in sparkingpersonal change—for example, the catalytic role of a negative performanceappraisalor360-degreeassessmentandthedisconfirmationprovidedbyafailureor personal disappointment. This frustration is the stick. When coupled with acarrot, suchasstrongpersonalambition,adrivingpurpose,andavisionofouridealselves,alltheelementsareinplaceforsuccessfulchange.That’sthetheory,anyway.

Theproblemisthatthecarrot-and-sticktheoryofself-motivationrarelyworks,becausechangeissodifficult.Thestatisticsaredepressing.Some80percentofpeoplewhomakeNewYear’sresolutionsfalloffthewagonbymid-February.Two-thirdsofdietersgainbackanylostweightwithinayear.Somepeoplesignupforayear’s gym membership and never show up; many stop after the first month.Seventypercentofcoronarybypasspatientsreverttotheirunhealthyhabitswithintwo years of their operation.7 Even in life-and-death situations, we’re oftenresolutelyresistanttochange.Wemayknowwhatweneedtochangeandagreethatitisdesirable,butwefindithardtodoanyhow.

Likewise,mostmanagersseekaleadershipcourseorcoachingbecauseofastick(e.g.,negativefeedbackfromimportantstakeholdersliketheirbosses)oracarrot(e.g.,adesiretogetpromotedorincreasetheirimpact).Butthemanagersstillmake littleprogress,becausethey lackasenseofurgencytodosomethingaboutthefeedback(“Yes,Ineedtoloseweightandexercisemore.I’llstartnextMonday”).

Let’sreturntoJeff,whoseteamwrote“Solvingproblems”atthebottomofhisMaslowpyramidofhumanneeds(chapter2).Thenegativeperformanceappraisalhe received for the first timeever, despite stellar results, didn’tmotivate him tochange.Instead,herationalizedthenegativefeedbackbyexplainingtohisbosswhyitwasagoodthingforthecompanythathe,Jeff,wassuchamicromanager.

Sowhatdid raiseJeff’surgencyenough toputsteppingupat the topof theprioritylist?Ithappenedwhenhisbosstoldhim,“It’stimeforyoutochoosewhatpathyouwanttofollow.Youareavaluedmanager,andweareexpandingrapidlyin the emerging markets. There will be many more operations for you to turnaround,andyouwillbecompensatedhandsomely.But ifyouwant toeventuallymove into the senior leadership of this firm, you need to decide now, becausewhichwayyougodeterminesyournextassignment.”

The tricky thingwas thatJeff lovedhands-onproblemsolving.Butwouldhestillloveitsomuchafterthenthtimedoingmoreorlessthesame?Jeffrealizedhe would eventually get bored and find himself without other options. Heconcludedthatthetimetotakeactionwasnow.

PeoplelikeJeffstarttotakethefirststepsonlywhentheygetthiskindofnow-or-neverurgency.Hisurgencyshotupwhenherealizedthatifhestayedtoolongin the same kind of role, he would never get a shot at the top. Other peopleexperience an urgency infusion frommeeting peoplewho are clearlymaking abiggerimpactorfromoneofthebiggesturgencyraisersofall—losingtheirjoboranopportunitytheyreallywanted.

SimpleAdditionIt’shardtostopdoingsomethingthatisrewardingwhenthereisn’tabetter,moreinterestingwaytospendyourtime.That’swhythebestplacetostart isoftenbydoingwhatIcallsimpleaddition:doingsomenewthingsthatallowyoutopracticenew behaviors and push you outside the box of your usual work routines andnetworks.

Asdescribedearlier in thebook,Jacobnevergotaroundtodelegatingmoreandmicromanaginglessuntilhefoundsomethingmoreinterestingtodo:workingon his company’s acquisition strategy. The problem, however,was that hewasfindingithardtosticktohispersonalgoalofspendingtwohoursofuninterruptedtime inhisoffice,becauseevery timeheshut thedoor,oneofhisdirect reportscameknocking.Theycameknockingbecausehehadn’tyetperformedasecondcrucialoperation:subtraction.Hewasstilldoingtoomuchoftheworkhimself.

As we saw, Jacob also resolved to patch up his relationship with his salesdirector and to get to know his peers across the lines better so that theyweremorelikelytoconsiderhisideas.Afterall,therewasnousespendingtwohoursadaythinkingstrategicallyifnoonepaidattentiontohiswell-thought-outideas.Toincreasehis team’sautonomy, Jacobalsostarted investingmore timecoachinghissubordinatesandschedulingmoremeetings, to improvecommunicationanddetectproblemsearlier(andthusavoidtheconstantfirefighting).Hefoundhimselfbusierthanhehadeverbeen.

Like Jacob, high achievers who start working on new skills typically findthemselveswithmorethingstodothanthereistimefor.It’stoughtosqueezenewrolesandactivities into analready-full schedule, andour early efforts inevitablytaketimebeforetheypayoffenoughthatwewillinglyshedtime-consumingtasksandresponsibilitiesthatnolongermeritsomuchofourattention.8Intheinterim,ourworkcontinuestocueouroldroutines,andwefindithardtosticktothenewplan.Onlywhenthenewleadershipactivityhasbecomerewardingenoughtobesustainingdopeople likeJacobstop investing largechunksof their timeon theolder,moreingrainedoperatinghabits.

ComplicationJacobhadenteredwhatIcallthecomplicationstage.Hefoundhimselfrevertingtohiscomfortable“driver”style,andhisteamconcludedthathiseffortstobehavedifferentlywerenotgenuine.

Personal change, like organizational change, is rarely the linear, upwardprogressionwenaivelyhopeittobe.(Weassumethatit’sjustamatterofgettinghit by the right trigger or catalyst—or brick to the head.)Changingourselves isalsorarely thewaytheorytellsus itshouldbe—thefamiliarScurvewithaslowtakeofffollowedbyrapidprogresspastthetippingpoint.Infact,thingsusuallygetworsebefore theyget better.Personal change ismore likea lineof peaksandvalleys,falsestarts,newbeginnings,rockyprogress(figure5-2).

We’ve already discussed one reason for the circuitous path to real change:yourowncapacitytostickwithitthroughthehardertimes.Asecondreasonisthatmanyof thepeoplearoundyoudon’t thinkyoucanorwillsustain thechanges-andthatimplicitexpectationaffectsyoumuchmorethanyou’dthink.Towardtheend of my courses, when my students are feeling the most energized andmotivatedtogobacktoworkandmakesomerealchanges,Ishowthemasingle-frame cartoon. In the background, a bespectacled man is bursting through anoffice door, arms raised in victory.He iswearinga superhero’s capeand tightswith “MANAGER’SEMPOWERMENTSEMINAR” emblazoned across his chest.Meanwhile in the foreground, a single worker, hunched over her desk andclutchingherhead,looksawayandgrimaces.Everyonelaughs,buttheygetit.FIGURE5-2

Modelsofpersonalchange

The problem, as the cartoon illustrates, is that your newly inspired selfinevitably returns to a team or an organization that does not understand orappreciate the new thinking to which you have been exposed. Your bosses,teams,closeworkcolleagues,andevenyour friendsandfamilyhaven’thadtheconversion experience. Worse, they will be suspicious of any new andunpredictablebehavioronyourpart.Often,theirattitudeis,“Ifwejustignorehim,hewillgetoverit.”Consciouslyornot,theyremaininvestedinyouroldself.Thepressuresoftheoldsituationconspireagainstyourwilltochange,andsoon,it’sbacktobusinessasusual.

One financial services executive, Olav, fell exactly into this trap. He took aone-month-long general management course, as he needed a break from hislongtime career with a firm he had helped to found. “I was burned out,unenthusiastic,” he said. “I thought of taking the course as hitting the refreshbutton.”During the training,Olav got excited bywhat he learned about leadingchange:“WhenIcameback,Iwaspumpeduptocreatechangeinmyfirm.”Butafteramonthaway,histo-dolistwaslongandeveryonewaseagerforhimtotakecare of what hadn’t gotten done while he was away. The changes he lookedforwardtoimplementingfailedtomaterialize.

Making progress through the complication stage often requires a newassignment,becausestaying in theoldsituationkeepsyouvulnerable toall theoldexpectationsofthepeoplewhohavecometoknow(andlove)youintheoldrole. A newassignment is exactlywhat got Jeff through the transition.After hestepped up in the old job, his boss rewarded him with a stretch assignment:headingalargerunitthatservedamuchlargermarket.Thisorganizationwaswaytoo big and complex to be run in Jeff’s familiar, hands-onway, and although itneededimprovement,itwasnotaturnaround.Itforcedhimtodoaverydifferentjob,togrowhisnetwork,andtochangehissenseofhimself: itmotivatedhimtotakethechangetothenextlevel.

CourseCorrectionThefrustrationofthecomplicationstageeventuallyledOlavtorevisithisgoalsforhimself. His training course had opened up a whole new world. He picked upexciting ideas about how to shake up his stodgy company. Hemet peers whoshared similar experiences, andhewasexposed to career pathshehadneverevenenvisioned.Before theprogram,hehadsimplywanted to refreshhimself.Buthisambitionsgrewasaresultofeverythinghehadexperienced.Animageofhimselfassomeonewhocouldmoreconfidentlytakeonastrategicrolebeganto

blossom.Unfortunately,neitherhiscofoundernorhissubordinateswerepreparedfor themetamorphosis;his fledglingeffortswerestymiedateach turnbya firmthat hadn’t grown as he had.On reflection,Olav realized he had outgrown thejunior role his cofounder still expected him to play. Olav course-corrected hisgoalsandendedupleavingtotakeanentrepreneurialpath,startinghisownfirm.

Note that Olav’s goals didn’t guide his stepping-up process; they emergedfromtheprocess.Hehadnotbeenclearabouthisobjectives,simplybecausehehimselfdidnotpreviouslyknowwhat theywere.Whatgoodwould ithavedonehimtospendalotoftimeupfrontgettingclearonwhathisobjectiveswere?9

Howwesetourobjectivesandhowthosegoalshelpusperformaretopicsthathave fascinated psychologists for decades.10 Unfortunately, much advice topeople inthemidstofatransitioncomesdowntomechanisticprescriptions, likesetting specific, measurable, ambitious goals that presume a static world andleave little room for iteration. Most theories say, for example, that the mosteffectivegoalsareconcreteandmeasurable.Butmanytimes,ourconcretegoalsdon’ttakeintoaccountthelikelihoodthatthenewbehaviorsrequiredtomeetourgoalswillendupchangingourobjectives.

WhentheexecutivesIteachcomebacktocampusaftermonthsawayworkingon the action commitments theymade during the training, they typically returnarmedwithdifferentgoalsandconcernsthanthosetheyhadstatedattheoutset.Afteraddressingthemostproblematicaspectsoftheir360-degreefeedback,theirother most urgent problems, and their personal goals that were the easiest toachieve,theexecutivesstartthinkingaboutthemediumtolongerterm.Theyalsostartthinkingmoreabouttheirownagendas,notjustwhatotherpeoplewantthemtodo.

This iswhen theybegin tobring theoutsightback in—to reflect, revise,andcourse-correcttheirgoalsfortheircareersandforthemselves.InOlav’scase,hisfrustration(andanger)ultimatelyledhimtoadeeperrealization:hehadoutgrownhis organization; in any case, it wasn’t going to let him keep growing. Thisrealizationtookawhiletohithomebecausehewasstilloperatingunderanolderset of career and personal goals, ones that concerned his role in his currentcompany.

While the changeswemake at first beginwith small steps and incrementalmoves,atsomepointitbecomesimportanttoreexaminethegoals,priorities,andambitionsthathavebeendrivingusandtoaskwhethertheyarestillrelevantforthe future. As we gain experience, we are better placed to judge our relativesuccessorfailureinmeetingthegoalswehavepreviouslysetforourselvesand,moreimportantly,tostepbacktoappraisewhetherourgoalshavechanged.

InternalizationPsychologists use the term internalization to refer to the process by whichsuperficialchanges, tentativeexperiments,and fuzzycareergoalsbecomeyour

own. I call it bringing the outsight back in. When you internalize a change, itbecomesgrounded—realandtangible—inyourdirectexperienceandisrootedinnewselfdefinitions.Theoutsightsbecomeinsights.

Internalizationisthenecessarystepthatallowspeopletomovefromwhattheyknowanddotowhotheyare.11Thereisabigdifferencebetweendoingwhatyouthinkyouaresupposedtodoanddoingthingsbecauseofwhoyouareandwhatyou firmlybelieve.Forexample,amanagermightknow thatshehas todeviatefrom her PowerPoint bullets to deliver a more emotional speech to badlydemoralized employees and actually do a decent job of it. But if she hasinternalized the value of inspiring and connecting to people in amore personalway, she will deliver amore powerful speech because it is congruent with hervaluesandhersenseofthevalueshewantstobring:it’swhosheis.Likewise,itwasonethingwhenIfirsttoldthestoryaboutbeingadvisedto“markmyterritory”inclass;it’squiteanothertoappropriateittomakeapointInowfirmlybelieve.FIGURE5-3

Thetransitionprocess

Figure5-3 summarizes the five stages of the transition process. It’s a circlebecause, interestingly,becomingthekindofpersonyouaspiretobeisthemostpowerfulmotivatorofall.Thismotivationwillraiseyoururgencytokeepgoingandseekoutevenmoreopportunitiestolead.Andthecyclebeginsagain.

SteppingUporSteppingOut?Insomeinstances,steppingupresults inamovetoanewassignment,asitdidforJeff.Alternatively,apersonmightstayinthesamejobbutapproachherworkin a completely newand differentway, asSophie did.Other times, the journeyleadsustoamajorcareerchange,asitdidforOlav.

How do we recognize when we have outgrown our jobs or organizations?

Whenis it timetogo?Manypeoplewhostepupto leadershipeventuallyget tothisquestion,whichisnotalwayseasytoanswer.Aswesawearlier, leadershipexperienceincreasesclarityaboutwhoweareandwanttobecomeandcreatesurgency for more opportunities to develop our leadership further. When thesemotivesremainunfulfilledbyourorganizations,westarttolookelsewhere.

Many of the executives in this book ultimately asked themselves, “Should Istayorshould Igo?”Forexample,duringherstint runningalternativeenergyatBP, Vivienne Cox realized that her leadership style and philosophy had beenevolvingaway fromwhat she sawas thedominantmodel at her company.Herexperimentswithdoingitmoreherway,withinthecontextofanewventurewithinherorganization,madeherwant toplayaroundwithherself-conception further.ButthelimitstowhatwaspossiblewithinBPwerehardandclear,andsheranupagainst them. So, she continued the work in a different role at anotherorganization.

Whenapersonreacheshismidcareer, thestay-or-goquestionisoftenladenwith psychological meaning, as it was for Robert (chapter 2), who ultimatelyrealizedthathismotiveforleavingwasn’tjustgettingabiggerjob.Itwaspartofagrowing-upprocessthatrequiredbreakingfreefromhisdysfunctionalrelationshipwithafather-figurebossandmentorwhomRoberthadneverdaredtooppose.

Havinghadacertainmeasureofcareersuccess,Robert,Vivienne,andmanyoftheothermanagerswhomIinterviewedforthisbookcametoaskthemselveswhethertheywantedmoreofthesameorsomethingdifferent,andwhethertheircurrentorganizationallowed themsufficient rein toexpress the leader theyhadbecome. For anyone facing these kinds of questions, research on adultdevelopment suggests thatmaking senseof thedeeperoutsightsgained in thestepping-upprocessrequiresamorepersonalkindofreflection.12

ALifeofTransitionsPsychologistDanielLevinsoniscreditedwithhavingpopularizedtheideasoftheseven-year itch and themidlife crisis. His research found that change tends tocome in cycles and that lives evolve in alternating periods of stability andtransition.

Stabilityperiods,hesaid, lastedonaverageaboutsevenyears.Thatdoesn’tmean thatwe don’tmake any changes during these periods, and certainly, wemake more frequent changes today than when Levinson first conducted hisstudiesinthe1970s.13Butthechangeswemakeduringtheseperiodsaremoreincremental. They don’t upset everything. During a relatively stable period(relative because, of course, our lives are constantly evolving),wemake a fewkeydecisionsregardingourworkandfamilylife,andthesebecometheprioritiesaroundwhichweorganizeour livesandfit in(or leaveout)everythingelse.Ourjob is to execute and implement “the plan.” But after a while, we realize thatsomethingisnotworkinginwhatwehavesetup.Maybewe’vechanged,maybe

thesituationhaschanged,andsometimesit’sboth.

During transition periods, which are shorter and typically last about threeyears,peoplebecomemoreopen to reconsideringnot justwhat theyaredoingbutthepremisesandgoalsonwhichtheiractionsarebased.Theyconsider,andoftenmake,moreradicalchanges.Ourjobnowistoprobethechoiceswehavemade,explorealternativepossibilities,andplanttheseedsfromwhichmightgrowanewperiodofrelativestability.

TheBigQuestionsIfyoufindyourselfinatransitionalperiod,it’sprobablybecauseyou’vestarteddoingsomedifferentthings that give you a glimpse of new possibilities. That’s when you need to step back and askyourselfquestionslikethese:a

•WhatamIreallygettingfromandgivingtomywork,colleagues,professionalcommunity—andmyself?

•DoIknowwhatItrulywantformyselfandothers?HowcanIstartfindingout?

•Whataremycentralvalues,andhowaretheyreflectedinmywork?

•Whataremygreatesttalents,andhowamIusing(orwasting)them?

•WhathaveIdonewithmyearlyambitions,andwhatdoIwantofthemnow?

•CanIlivemyworklifeinawaythatleavesenoughroomforotherimportantfacetsofmylife?

•Howsatisfactoryismypresentstateandtrajectory,andwhatchangescanImaketoprovideabetterbasisforthefuture?

a.DanielJ.Levinson,TheSeasonsofaMan’sLife(NewYork:Knopf,1978),192.

According to Levinson’s research, the most potentially turbulent transitionperiodofall happenssometimearoundage forty (manyhaveargued,however,thattoday,fiftyisthenewfortybecausewearelivingandstayingactivelonger).14Atmidlifeormidcareer(howeverwemaydefineit),peoplegainmoreurgencyforchange, seeing it as a now-or-never proposition. They feel that they still haveenoughtimetoplayoutanotherchapteroftheirlivesorcareersbutnotenoughtowastetimeinanoutdatedone.Theywanttogivereintofacetsofthemselvestheyhave not had time to express. They also have enough experience with earlierchoicestobeabletoevaluatethem.Andstuffhappensthatchangesourprioritiesas well as the opportunities available. That’s when we start asking the bigquestions(seethesidebar“TheBigQuestions”).

One of the biggest challenges of a midcareer transition is knowing what tochangeandwhat tokeep.Sometimes the temptation is tochangeeverythingatonce.Butmajor,externalmoveslikechangingjobsandcareerswon’talwaystakeus to a better place. James Marcia, a student of the great psychologist ErikErickson, argued thatwhat ismore important instead is to growby questioningwherewearetoday,activelyentertainingalternatives,andeventuallycommittingtomaking changes,whether they are external changes like jobmoves ormoreinternalchangeslikechangingthewaywethinkaboutwhatwedoandwhy.15

Hismodel of the different “identity states” that can characterize a person atanygivenmomentissummarizedinfigure5-4.Eachofthefourstatesdescribeswhere a person falls along two continua: exploration on the one hand andcommitmenttoconcretechoicesontheother.Whenwecommittoacareerpath,job, or companywithout ever exploringwhether it is the right choice for us,weforeclose onoptions thatmightbemore rewarding (quadrant1). Ifwedon’t yetcommitbutcontinuetoexplore,suchastakingasabbatical,goingbacktoschoolforaspell,orevenjobhoppinginsearchofourselves,weareinwhatMarciacallsthemoratoriumstage(quadrant2).Butwhenwequestionendlesslywithouttrulyexploringanythingindepthandnevercommittoanoldoranewcareerpath,wealsoforgothepossibilityofmasteryandmaturity.Marciacalls thisstage identitydiffusion (quadrant 3), because we are figuratively all over the place. As oneperson I interviewed put it, “There are two types of people. Some are alwaysjumping.Somenever jump—theysettledowntooeasilyandgetstuck.”Tobeagrowingadultmeansmakingcommitmentsthatareinformedbypriorexplorationand questioning (quadrant 4); this stage is identity achievement, an apt termbecauseitonlycomestousthroughaprocessofbecomingourselves.

TheproblemwithwhatMarciacalls foreclosure is thatweoftendon’t realizethat’swhatwearedoing.Noonechoosestoforecloseoptionsexplicitly.Butthat’swhat happens when we let the years elapse without asking ourselves the bigquestions. Too much certainty is as much a problem as too much doubt, notnecessarily because we might be in the wrong job but because we mightunwittingly remain the victim of other people’s values and expectations.Sometimesweso fully internalizewhatotherpeople think is right forus thatwedon’t ever become what Harvard psychologist Robert Kegan calls “self-authoring.”16Earlierinourlivesandcareers,Keganexplains,wemakedecisionsaccording to social expectations about what constitutes a good job, a goodemployer, and a loyal employee. The task atmidcareer is to understand thosehidden assumptions so that we can break free from our “ought selves”-whatimportantpeopleinourlivesthinkweoughttobe-tobecomeourownperson.Thesidebar “Self-Assessment: Are You in a Career-Building Period or in a Career-TransitioningPeriod?”canhelpyouunderstandwhereyouareinatransition.FIGURE5-4

Thefourstatesofexplorationandcommitmentinmanagingtransitions

Source: Adapted from J. E. Marcia, “Development and Validation of Ego Identity Status,” Journal of

PersonalityandSocialPsychology3(1966):551–558.

Self-Assessment:AreYouinaCareer-BuildingPeriodorinaCareer-TransitioningPeriod?

YES NO

1.Ihavebeeninthesamejob,careerpath,ororganizationforatleastsevenyears. ____________

2.Ifindmyselffeelingabitrestlessprofessionally. ____________3.Onbalance,myjobismoredrainingthanenergizing. ____________4.Iresentnothavingmoretimeformyoutsideinterestsorfamily. ____________5.Myfamilyconfigurationischanginginwaysthatfreemeuptoexplore

differentoptions;forexample,mykidshaveleftforcollegeormypartner’scareersituationhaschanged. ____________

6.Ienvy(oradmire)thepeoplearoundmewhohavemademajorprofessionalchanges. ____________

7.Myworkhaslostsomeofitsmeaningforme. ____________8.Ifindthatmycareerambitionsarechanging. ____________9.Recentpersonalevents(e.g.,ahealthscare,thedeathofalovedone,

thebirthofachild,marriage,ordivorce)haveledmetoreappraisewhatIreallywant. ____________

10.Idon’tjumpoutofbedinthemorningexcitedabouttheupcomingday. ____________Assesswhetheryouareinatransitionalperiodbytotalingthenumberof“yes”responses:

6–10 Youarelikelytobedeepintoacareer-transitioningperiod.Maketimetoreflectnotonlyonyournewexperiencesbutalsoonwhetheryourlifegoalsandprioritiesneedrethinking.

3–5 Youmaybeenteringacareer-transitioningperiod.Worktoincreaseoutsightvianewactivitiesandrelationships.

2orbelow Youaremorelikelytobeinacareer-buildingperiod.

Theprocessofbringingtheoutsightbackinmightleadyoutomakesignificantexternal changes in your career and lifestyle; alternatively, you may entertaindoubts but decide to remain where you are, making changes that can besignificant even if they are not so visible to the outsideworld. The stepping-upprocessoutlinedinthischapterdescribesthepathtogettingthere.

CHAPTER5SUMMARY

✓Steppinguptoplayabiggerleadershiproleisnotanevent;it’saprocessthattakestimebeforeitpaysoff.Itisatransitionbuiltfromsmallchanges.

✓Mostmethodsforchangingaskyoutobeginwiththeendinmind-thedesiredoutcome.Butinreality,knowingwhatkindofleaderyouwantto

becomecomeslast,notfirst,inthestepping-upprocess.

✓Thetransitionprocessisrarelylinear;difficultiesandcomplicationswillinevitablyariseandoftenfollowapredictablesequenceoffivestages:

1.Disconfirmation

2.Simpleaddition

3.Complication

4.Coursecorrection

5.Internalization

✓Gettingunstuckwhenproblemsinevitablyariserequiresthatyoureflectandintegratethenewlearning-tobringtheoutsightbackin-sothattheensuingchangesaredrivenbyanewself-imagethatisbasedonyourdirectexperience.

✓Makingmajor,externalmoveslikechangingjobsandcareers,however,doesnotnecessarilytakeyoutoabetterplace.Moreimportantistogrowbyquestioningwhereyouaretoday,activelyentertainingalternatives,andeventuallycommittingtomakingchanges.Thechangescanbeexternal,likejobmoves,ormoreinternal,likechangingthewayyouthinkaboutwhatyoudoandwhy.

✓Breakingfreefromyour“oughtself”—whatimportantpeopleinyourlifethinkyououghttobe—isattheheartofthetransitionprocess.

CONCLUSION

ActNowNOMATTERWHATYOUAREDOINGTODAY,chancesarethatyouarefacingsomekindofdo-it-yourself transition. Thatmeans you are not only responsible for your owndevelopment(asweallare)butalsoneedtoknowwhenit’stimetostartsteppingup to leadershipeven if there’snonewassignmenton thehorizon. If youdon’tcreate new opportunities even within the confines of your current job, the nextassignment,promotion,orcareerstagemaynevercomeyourway.

Wheredoyoubegin?Probablythemostimportant lessoninthisbookisthattheonlywaytobecomealeaderistoactlikeone.Action—changinghowyoudoyour job,howyoubuildanduseyournetwork,andhowyouexpressyourself—givesyououtsight, thefresh,externalperspectiveyouneedtounderstandmoredeeplywhatisinvolvedintheworkofleadershipandtomotivateyourselftodoit.Outsightholdsthepowertoreshapeyourimageofwhoyouare,whatyoucando,andwhatisworthdoing—itwillchangethewayyouthink.You’llremakeyourselfasyougrowandtheworldchanges.

Apointworthunderlining:everyonearoundyouwilltellyouthattobeabetterleader, you need to self-reflect, introspect, know what you want, increase self-awareness.Allof that iswellandgood,but itwillonlyhelpyou later,whenyouhave some new experiences to reflect on. Otherwise, all your material forreflection is theoutdatedpast. Insight isanoutcome,notan input.Knowing thekindofleaderyou’dliketobecomeisnotthestartingpointonyourdevelopmentjourney, but rather the result of increasing your outsight. Youmust reverse theconventional“thinkingbeforedoing”logictosuccessfullystepup.

Makinga leapfroma lifetimeofexpertcontributionsandhands-oncontrol tothemoresubtleprocessesofthinkingstrategically,workingthroughnetworks,andleading more authentically is not a one-shot deal, and it does not happenovernight. The transition is built from small changes, is less than linear, and isdistinctlyuncomfortable.Itwilltaketimebeforeyouachievetheresultsyouwant.The process is full of complications, false starts, setbacks, and unanticipatedturns,butthemessofitallsetsthestageformoreprofoundinternalchanges.Atsomepoint,wehave tostartbringing theout-sightback in,connecting thedotsamongournewleadershipexperiencestoreflectonwhat theymeanforus,ourwork,andcareer.

Newwaysofactingnotonlychangehowwethink—ourperspectiveonwhatisimportantandworthdoing—butalsochangewhowebecome.Westartbydoing,we reflect on our experience, andwe rethink ourselves.Whether we decide totaketheleaptoanewcompanyoradifferentcareerorconcludethatit’sbettertostayon thecurrentpath,allofusstrugglewithcraftingawork role inwhichwefeelbothpartofsomethinglarger(theorganization,thework)andfreeenoughto

beourselves.Throughreflectingonournewexperiences,wecanbetterknowandpursue our own aims—what the Irish philosopher and author Charles Handycalledcreating“alifeofourown.”1

MyOwnTeadershipTransitionA little over ten years ago, I was dragged kicking and screaming into a newleadershipjob,athree-yeartourofdutyaschairofmydepartmentatINSEAD.Asalifelongacademic,Ienjoywritingandresearching;IbelieveIdowellatit,andIhavebeenrewardedforit.Itwasonethingtoteachleadership,butquiteanothertoactuallyhavetopracticeit.Maddeningly,thenewroletooksomuchtimeawayfrom what I really wanted to do and thought I did best: write my books andarticles.

I remember feelingmoreandmore frustratedduringmy firstyear in the job.The task at hand was guiding my group to define its strategic priorities. Thatmeant having to do all the things I teach: setting a direction, communicatingpriorities,gettingbuy-infromkeystakeholdersinsideandoutsidethegroup,andhavingmeetings—meetingsbeforethemeeting,meetingsafterthemeeting,one-on-one meetings, informal small-group meetings—and so on. But still no oneagreed.Mynewleadershippositionwasexhaustingandwasputtingabigdentinmypublicationrecord.Iwasn’thappy.

Iremembervividlyadepartmentmeetingthattookplaceaboutoneyear intothe job. I had spent much time over the previous twelve months trying to getconsensusonsomekey issues.Tomydismay, I foundmyselfhavinganalmostidenticalconversationwiththesamepeople,whowererepeatingmoreorlessthesamethingsthattheyhadsaidoneyearearlier.AndIremembersayingtomyself,“WithallthetimeIhaveputintothis,Icouldhavewrittenoneortwonewarticles,andatleastIwouldhavehadaclearpayoffforthetimeIinvested.”

Then I realized that Iwasexactly in thesameboatas theexecutives Iwasteaching. Iwasn’t stepping up to leadership, because I didn’t think that leadingwasrealwork.Therefore,Iwasn’tinvestingenoughtimedoingittoseeapayofffrommyinvestment.Withnoresultsformyefforts,thesacrificeofsomuchofmyprecious“doing”timewouldneverseemworthwhile.Ifitdidn’tseemworthwhile,Iwasn’tgoing todomuchmore thancomplywith theminimum jobrequirements:scheduling, holding and attending meetings, assigning people and groups totasks,managing performance appraisals, staffing courses,mentoring the juniorfacultyon their teachingandresearch,conductingperformancereviews, fightingfires when conflicts erupted, and maybe organizing occasional social eventsaroundpromotions,retirements,andholidays.Yougetthepicture:Iwasn’tleadinganything.Ifoundthejobdraining.

Steppingup to leadership,aswas true inmycase, rarelymeanseliminatingeverythingelseweusedtodo.Instead,itrequiresustomakedelicatejudgmentsabout how to reallocate our time—what to do less of,what to domore of, and

whatnewactivitiestoadd.Whathappensinvariablyisthatwetrytokeepmostofthe old things we liked to do and were rewarded for, add the obvious newresponsibilities(whichareoftentheleastfun,becausetheytendtobeimposedbyothers), and neglect to think strategically aboutwhat new activitieswe need toaddtomakethejobourown.

Inmycase,mylimitedviewofthejobwasnegativelyself-reinforcing.InsteadofdrivinganagendaofthingsIwantedtoaccomplish,Istayedinreactivemode,doing the least rewarding of the administrative tasks. Worse, other people’sagendassomehowendeduponmyplate—someof the things Ispent themosttimeandenergyonhadverylittlebearingonmyeffectivenessasagroupleader.AndbecauseIwassopressedfortime,thelastthingthatwouldhaveoccurredtome was to spend time outside my area, where I could hang out with othercolleagues or volunteer for committees or task forces. I was even limiting myexternalactivities—andthesearethelifebloodofacademiccareers—morethanIeverhad,becauseIwassoworriedaboutmyindividualproductivity.Naturally,mywhole viewofwho Iwasandhow I could best contributewasat oddswithmyresponsibilitiesofleadingthegroup.

Fouryearsago,whenIstartedworkingonthisbook,Iwasaskedagaintoleadmy group for another three-year term. This time I did it gladly, with personalenjoyment,andIamproudofwhatIaccomplished.Iworkedlesshard(andhadmore time towrite),butmyworkwasvery focusedonacoupleofkeyprioritiesthatIfocusedonsingle-mindedly.Theyinvolvedgrowingmygroupandremovingthesinglemostobviousbarrierstomygroup’sabilitytorecruitthebestfacultyandthenletthefacultymembersgetonwiththeirresearch—apracticethathelpedusgetthempromotedinsteadoflosingthemaftersomuchinvestment.Prettymuchanythingelsewasdelegatedorignored.

Acolleagueofmine,aneophyte,onceconfessedtomethathefoundthejobof leading draining. Funnily enough, he is a leadership researcher. I asked himwhathethoughtaboutthejob.Heansweredmeaccordingtopopulartheory:“Youhavetohaveaclearpurposefordoingthis.”Forhim, itwasallaboutservicetohisgroupmembers. “That’sa loftygoal,” I said, “butservice forwhat?”Hewasservingleftandrightwithnoclearagendaofhisownaboutwhatmatteredmostandwhatkeyleverswouldmakethebiggestimpact.

What changed for me? Many things. In the time between the twoappointments, several committees and task forces I was involved with at theschoolgavemeabigger-pictureviewofhowthedifferentpiecesoftheinstitutionworked and helped me get to know colleagues outside my area better. I tooksomedifferent rolesoutside INSEADandservedonHarvardBusinessSchool’sVisitingCommittee. Isatonsomeadvisoryboardsandstartedworkingwith theWorld Economic Forum on its leadership program, the annual conference atDavos, and its global agenda councils.My professional relationships expandedway beyondmy traditional academic connections. I foundmy new activities so

interesting that Iwasmotivated tospend less timeon the things Ididn’t findsorewarding.

I couldgoon,but youget thepoint. I hadactedmyway intoanewwayofthinkingaboutleading.

ConnectingtheDotsInhisfamousStanfordgraduationspeech,SteveJobstalkedaboutthingshedidas an undergraduate dropout, such as taking a calligraphy course that wouldprofoundlyaffectthelookandfeelofAppleproductsmanyyearslater.Heneverexpectedthatthissideinterestofhiswouldhavesuchprofoundconsequencesforhislaterachievements.“Youcan’tconnectthedotslookingforward;youcanonlyconnectthemlookingbackwards,”heconcluded.2

Like Jobs, you may not see at first how all the dots connect as you startbranchingoutbeyondyourroutinework,habitualnetworks,andhistoricalwaysofdefiningyourself.Youwon’tknowwhereit’sallgoingtotakeyou.Butthesenewwaysofactingwillslowlychangethewayyouthinkaboutyourworkandyourself,givingyoufreshmaterialforreflectionandurgingyouontofindmoremeaningfulwaysofleadingatworkandinyourlifebeyond.

Slowlybutsurely,amorecentralandenduring leader identitystarts to takesroot,onethatmotivatesyoutospendmoretime“doingleadership,”expandsthepoolofpeopleyoulearnanddrawinspirationfrom,andeventuallyraisesthelevelofenjoymentandsenseofcompetencyyouderivefromit.Intime,itwillinfluenceyourchoiceofactivitiesandsettings,asyouwillbepronetoinvestinthosethatincreaseyour capacity toprovide leadership.Sometimes the journey leads toamajorcareershift;othertimes,thetransitionisinternal:you’vechangedthewayyouseeyourworkandyourself.

It’sworthit.Startnow.Actnow.

NotesChapter1

1.ThenameJacob isapseudonym.Toensureanonymity,Iusedpseudonymsforallparticipantsinmyresearchstudies. Inaddition,particulardetailsof their lives,suchaswhere they liveorwhere theyworkedbefore the career change, have been altered somewhat. I use real names when I am citing from publicsources.

2.Someexamplesof thisapproach includeMarcusBuckinghamandDonaldO.Clifton,Now,DiscoverYour Strengths (New York: Free Press, 2001); James M. Kouzes and Barry Z. Posner, The LeadershipChallenge:HowtoMakeExtraordinaryThingsHappeninOrganizations(SanFrancisco:Jossey-Bass,2012);Bill George,Authentic Leadership: Rediscovering the Secrets to Creating Lasting Value (San Francisco:Jossey-Bass,2004).

3.The“dogood,begood”ideacomesfromAristotle’sstatement“Thesevirtuesareformedinmanbyhisdoingtheactions”(TheNicomacheanEthics),summarizedas“Wearewhatwerepeatedlydo,”inWillDurant,TheStoryofPhilosophy:TheLivesandOpinionsoftheWorld’sGreatestPhilosophers(NewYork:Simon&Schuster,1926).

4.Thinkingfollowsaction:self-perceptiontheorypositsthatpeopleinfertheirattributesbyobservingtheirfreely chosen actions. See Daryl J. Bem, “Self-Perception: An Alternative Interpretation of CognitiveDissonancePhenomena,”PsychologicalReview74,no.3(1967):183–200.

5. Richard T. Pascale, Mark Millemann, and Linda Gioja, “Changing the Way We Change,” HarvardBusinessReview75,no.6 (1997):126–139.RichardT.Pascale,MarkMillemannandLindaGioja,SurfingtheEdgeofChaos:TheLawsofNatureandtheNewLawsofBusiness(NewYork:CrownBusiness,2001).

6.DavidA.Jopling,Self-KnowledgeandtheSelf(NewYork:Routledge,2000).

7. D. Scott DeRue and Susan J. Ashford, “WhoWill Lead andWhoWill Follow?A Social Process ofLeadershipIdentityConstructioninOrganizations,”AcademyofManagementReview35,no.4(2010):627–647;Herminia Ibarra,SarahWittman,GianpieroPetriglieri,andDavidV.Day, “Leadershipand Identity:AnExaminationofThreeTheoriesandNewResearchDirections,” inTheOxfordHandbookofLeadershipandOrganizations,ed.DavidV.Day(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,2014).

8.KarlE.Weick,SensemakinginOrganizations(ThousandOaks,CA:SagePublications,1995).

9. Survey of 173 INSEAD executive students conducted inOctober 2013.Of the 173 participants, 80percentweremenand20percentwerewomen;thismatchesthegendersplitofthepopulation.Theaverageage of the participants was 42.1 years. Of the participants, 46 percent were employed in generalmanagement functionswith profit-and-loss responsibility, 31 percentwere in functionalmanagement (e.g.,marketing),and12percentwereinprojectorteammanagement.SeeMarshallGoldsmithandMarkReiter,WhatGot YouHereWon’tGet You There:HowSuccessful People BecomeEvenMoreSuccessful (NewYork:Hyperion,2007).

10. Some of my early work on authenticity dilemmas is Herminia Ibarra, “Making Partner: AMentor’sGuidetothePsychologicalJourney,”HarvardBusinessReview78,no.2(2000):146–155;HerminiaIbarra,“Provisional Selves: Experimenting with Image and Identity in Professional Adaptation,” AdministrativeScience Quarterly 44, no. 4 (1999): 764–791. For my research on career change, see Herminia Ibarra,WorkingIdentity:UnconventionalStrategiesforReinventingYourCareer(Boston:HarvardBusinessSchoolPublishing,2003);andHerminiaIbarra,“HowtoStayStuckintheWrongCareer,”HarvardBusinessReview80,no.12(2002):40–48.Foradiscussionof leaderdevelopmentas identitychange,seeHerminia Ibarra,ScottA.Snook,andLauraGuillénRamo,“Identity-BasedLeaderDevelopment,”inHandbookofLeadershipTheoryandPractice,ed.NitinNohriaandRakeshKhurana(Boston:HarvardBusinessPress,2010).

11.Someofmyearly researchonnetworks includesHerminia IbarraandStevenB.Andrews, “Power,SocialInfluenceandSenseMaking:EffectsofNetworkCentralityandProximityonEmployeePerceptions,”AdministrativeScienceQuarterly38,no.2(1993):277–303;andHerminiaIbarra,“NetworkCentrality,PowerandInnovationInvolvement:DeterminantsofTechnicalandAdministrativeRoles,”AcademyofManagementJournal36,no.3 (1993):471–501.Amorerecentdiscussion foramanagerialaudience isHerminia IbarraandMarkHunter,“HowLeadersCreateandUseNetworks,”HarvardBusinessReview85,no.1(2007):40–47.

12.See,forexample,JonR.KatzenbachandZiaKhan,LeadingOutsidetheLines:HowtoMobilizetheInformal Organization, Energize Your Team, andGet Better Results (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2010);ChrisErnstandDonnaChrobot-Mason,BoundarySpanningLeadership:SixPracticesforSolvingProblems,DrivingInnovation,andTransformingOrganizations(NewYork:McGraw-Hill,2010);andHerminiaIbarraandMortenT.Hansen,“AreYouaCollaborativeLeader?”HarvardBusinessReview89,nos.7–8(2011):68–74.

13.Foracomprehensivetreatmentofeachof thetransitionsmanagersencounterastheymoveuptheleadershippipeline,seeRamCharan,StephenDrotter,andJamesNoel,TheLeadershipPipeline:How toBuild the Leadership Powered Company (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2011); Markus Hazel and PaulaNurius,“PossibleSelves,”AmericanPsychologist41,no.9(1986):954–969;andLindaA.Hill,BecomingaManager(Boston:HarvardBusinessSchoolPublishing,2003).

14.JeffreyPfefferandRobertI.Sutton,TheKnowing-DoingGap:HowSmartCompaniesTurnKnowledgeinto Action (Boston: Harvard Business School Publishing, 2000); David H. Maister,Strategy and the FatSmoker:DoingWhat’sObviousbutNotEasy(Boston:TheSpanglePress,2008).

15. Ronald A. Heifetz,LeadershipWithout EasyAnswers (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of HarvardUniversityPress,1994).

16.JoelM.Podolny,RakeshKhurana,andMaryaHill-Popper,“RevisitingtheMeaningofLeadership,”inHandbook of Leadership Theory and Practice, ed. Nitin Nohria and Rakesh Khurana (Boston: HarvardBusinessPress,2010).

17.JohnP.Kotter,PowerandInfluence(NewYork:FreePress,2008).

18.JackWelchquotedinInc.(March1995):13.

Chapter21.For theclassicstudyofhowcompanies fall intocompetency traps,seeClaytonM.Christensen,The

Innovator’sDilemma:WhenNewTechnologiesCauseGreatFirmstoFail(Boston:HarvardBusinessSchoolPublishing:1997).Forhowpeoplefallintocompetencytraps,seeMarshallGoldsmithandMarkReiter,WhatGot YouHereWon’t Get You There: HowSuccessful People BecomeEvenMore Successful (NewYork:Hyperion,2007);andMarkE.VanBurenandToddSafferstone,“TheQuickWinsParadox,”HarvardBusinessReview87,no.1(2009):54–61.

2.GoldsmithandReiter,WhatGotYouHere.

3.For theclassicworkonself-efficacy,seeAlbertBandura,Self-Efficacy:TheExerciseofControl (NewYork:WorthPublishers,1997).

4.Maslow’shierarchyofneedsisatheoryinpsychologydescribedinAbrahamH.Maslow,“ATheoryofHumanMotivation,”PsychologicalReview50,no.4(1943):370–396.

5.Thedifferencebetweenexploitingcurrentcompetenciesandexploringtogainnewcompetenciesisaclassic trade-off in corporate strategy and individual learning. See James G. March, “Exploration andExploitationinOrganizationalLearning,”OrganizationScience2,no.1(1991):71–87.

6. The classic distinctionwas first developed byAbrahamZaleznik and popularized by JohnP.Kotter.AbrahamZaleznik, “ManagersandLeaders:AreTheyDifferent?”HarvardBusinessReview 55 (May–June1977):67–78;andJohnP.Kotter,AForceforChange:HowLeadershipDiffersfromManagement(NewYork:FreePress,1990).

7. Deborah Ancona and Henrik Bresman, X-Teams: How to Build Teams That Lead, Innovate andSucceed(Boston:HarvardBusinessSchoolPublishing,2007).TheoriginalresearchleadingtothisinsightisDeborah Ancona and David F Caldwell, “Bridging the Boundary: External Activity and Performance inOrganizationalTeams,”AdministrativeScienceQuarterly37,no.4(1992):634–665.

8.AlthoughBPeventuallytookaturnawayfromalternativeenergyunderTonyHayward’stenureasCEO,theorganizationCoxbuiltremainsandcontinuestodevelopenergyalternativesforBP.HerminiaIbarraandMarkHunter,“VivienneCoxatBPAlternativeEnergy”,Case5473(Fontainebleau:INSEAD,October2007).

9.Ibid.

10. Herminia Ibarra and Cristina Escallon, “Jack Klues: Managing Partner VivaKi (C)”, Case 5643(Fontainebleau:INSEAD,December2009).

11.JamesM.KouzesandBarryZ.Posner,“ToLead,CreateaSharedVision,”HarvardBusinessReview87,no.1(2009).

12.JamesM.KouzesandBarryZ.Posner,TheLeadershipChallenge:HowtoMakeExtraordinaryThingsHappen in Organizations (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2012); Burt Nanus, Visionary Leadership (SanFrancisco:Jossey-Bass,1995).

13.RogerL.Martin,“TheBigLieofStrategicPlanning?”HarvardBusinessReview92,nos.1–2(2014):78–84;RogerL.Martin,“AreYouConfusingStrategywithPlanning?”HarvardBusinessReviewBlog,May2,2014;RogerL.Martin,“WhySmartPeopleStrugglewithStrategy,”HarvardBusinessReviewBlog,June12,2014.

14.ManfredF.R.KetsdeVries,PierreVrignaud,ElizabethFlorent-TreacyandKonstantinKorotov,“360-degreefeedbackinstrument:Anoverview,”INSEADWorkingPaper,2007.Myresearchindicatesthatwhileeveryonefallsshortonenvisioning,womenaremorelikelythanmentorateashortfallonthisdimension.SeeHerminia Ibarra and Otilia Obodaru, “Women and the Vision Thing,”Harvard BusinessReview 87, no. 1(2009):62–70.

15. Amy J. C. Cuddy, Matthew Kohut, and John Neffinger, “Connect, Then Lead,”Harvard BusinessReview91,nos.7–8(2013):54–61.

16.JayA.CongerandRabindraN.Kanungo,CharismaticLeadershipinOrganizations(ThousandOaks,CA:SAGEPublications,1998).

17.JamesR.Meindl,“TheRomanceofLeadershipasaFollower-CentricTheory:ASocialConstructionistApproach,”LeadershipQuarterly6,no.3(1995):329–341;andRobGoffeeandGarethJones,WhyShouldAnyone Be Led by You? What It Takes to Be an Authentic Leader (Boston: Harvard Business SchoolPublishing,2006).

18. Herminia Ibarra and Jennifer M. Suesse, “Margaret Thatcher,” Case 497018 (Boston: HarvardBusinessSchool,revisedMay13,1998).

19. Herminia Ibarra and Cristina Escallon, “David Kenny: Managing Partner VivaKi (B),” Case 5643(Fontainebleau:INSEAD,December2009).

20.MelbaDuncan,“TheCaseforExecutiveAssistants,”HarvardBusinessReview,89,no.5(2011).

21.SherylSandberg,LeanIn:Women,Work,andtheWilltoLead(NewYork:Knopf,2013),ch.4.Forthelast few years, the research organization Catalyst has been surveyingMBA graduates from top businessschools to understand what career pathways lead to greater success. They found that 62 percent of thepeopletheysurveyeddescribedobtainingstretchandhigh-profileassignmentsashavingthegreatestimpactontheircareers.

22.TEDisanonprofitdevotedtospreadingideasundertheslogan“IdeasWorthSpreading.”Theformatis usually short (eighteen minutes or shorter) talks. For an explanation of the TED format, see ChrisAnderson, “How toGive aKiller Presentation,”HarvardBusinessReview 91, no. 6 (2013): 121–125; andJeremeyDonovan,How toDeliver a TEDTalk: Secrets of theWorld’sMost InspiringPresentations (NewYork:McGraw-Hill,2013).

23. JosephL.Badaracco,DefiningMoments:WhenManagersMustChooseBetweenRight andRight(Boston:HarvardBusinessSchoolPublishing,1997),58–61;HerminiaIbarraandR.Barbulescu,“IdentityasNarrative: A Process Model of Narrative Identity Work in Macro Work Role Transition,” Academy ofManagementReview35,no.1(2010):135–154.

24. See, for example, Annette Simmons,Whoever Tells the Best StoryWins: How to Use Your OwnStoriestoCommunicatewithPowerandImpact(NewYork:AMACOM,2007).

25.AnnetteSimmons,“TheSixStoriesYouNeedtoKnowHowtoTell,” inTheStoryFactor (NewYork:BasicBooks,2006).

26. JohnP.Kotter, “WhatEffectiveGeneralManagersReallyDo,”HarvardBusinessReview 77, no. 2(1999):145–159.

27.SendhilMullainathanandEldarShafir,Scarcity:WhyHavingTooLittleMeansSoMuch (NewYork:TimesBooks,2013).

28.TheclassictextonhowtomakeroomforwhatisimportantbutnoturgentisStephenR.Covey,The7HabitsofHighlyEffectivePeople:PowerfulLessonsinPersonalChange(NewYork:FreePress,2004).

Chapter31. For a reviewof the research on hownetworks affect careers, seeHerminia Ibarra andPrashantH.

Deshpande, “Networks and Identities:Reciprocal Influences onCareer Processes andOutcomes,” inTheHandbookofCareerStudies,ed.MauryPeiperlandHughGunz(ThousandOaks,CA:SAGEPublications,2007),268–283.

2.Herminia Ibarra, “NetworkAssessmentExercise:ExecutiveVersion,”Case497003 (Boston:HarvardBusinessSchool,revisedJuly31,2008).

3.ThisresearchissummarizedinMillerMcPherson,LynnSmith-Lovin,andJamesM.Cook,“BirdsofaFeather:HomophilyinSocialNetworks,”AnnualReviewofSociology27,no.1(2001):415–444.Inresearchjargon, the narcissism principle is called homophily, the tendency for discretionary relationships to formamongpeoplewhoshareacommonstatusorsocial identity.Researchon theprevalenceofhomophily insocialrelationshipsalsoshowswhyitcanbesohardtonetworkprofessionallyacrossraceandgenderlines.See,forexample,HerminiaIbarra,“HomophilyandDifferentialReturns:SexDifferencesinNetworkStructureandAccessinanAdvertisingFirm,”AdministrativeScienceQuarterly37,no.3(1992):422–447.

4.See,forexample,NigelNicholson,ExecutiveInstinct:ManagingtheHumanAnimalintheInformationAge (New York: Crown Business, 2000). Nicholson says that only by acknowledging that our brains are“hardwired”forsurvivalcanweunderstandbehaviorand“manage”ourinstincts.

5. Monica J. Harris and Christopher P. Garris, in First Impressions, ed. Nalini Ambady and John J.Skowronski(NewYork,NY:GuilfordPublications),147–168.

6.ThepropinquityeffectisaconceptproposedbypsychologistsLeonFestinger,StanleySchachter,andKurt Back to explain that the more frequently we interact with people, the more likely we are to formfriendships and romantic relationships with them. In a 1950 study carried out in the Westgate studentapartmentsonthecampusofMassachusettsInstituteofTechnologytheauthorstrackedfriendshipformationamongcouplesingraduatehousing;theclosertogetherpeoplelived,evenwithinabuilding,themorelikelytheyweretobecomeclosefriends.LeonFestinger,StanleySchachter,andKurtBack,“TheSpatialEcologyofGroupFormation,”inSocialPressureinInformalGroups:AStudyofHumanFactorsinHousing,ed.LeonFestinger,StanleySchachter,andKurtBack(Stanford,CA:StanfordUniversityPress,1963).

7.Ibid.Thepropinquityeffectworksduetomereexposure,i.e.,themoreexposurewehavetoastimulus,themoreaptwearetolikeit,providedthestimulusisnotnoxious.

8.StanleyMilgram,“TheSmall-WorldProblem,”PsychologyToday1,no.1(1967):61–67.

9.NicholasA.ChristakisandJamesH.Fowler,“TheSpreadofObesityinaLargeSocialNetworkover32Years,”NewEnglandJournalofMedicine357,no.4(2007):370–379.Seealsotheirbook,Connected:TheSurprisingPowerofOurSocialNetworksandHowTheyShapeOurLives(NewYork:Little,BrownandCo.,2009).

10.ThisnumbercomesfromMortenHansen,“TheSearchTransferProblem:TheRoleofWeakTiesinSharingKnowledgeAcrossOrganizationSubunits,”AdministrativeScienceQuarterly44,no.1(1999).

11.Individuals’mobilityisenhancedwhentheyhavealarge,sparsenetworkofinformaltiesforacquiringinformation and resources. But since stakeholder expectations may diverge, they also benefit from aconsistencyofmessagestheygetfromadensecoreofkeypeoplewhoagreeonwhattheyshouldbedoing.JoelM. Podolny and JamesN. Baron “Resources andRelationships: SocialNetworks andMobility in theWorkplace,”AmericanSociologicalReview62,no.5(1997):673–693.

12.BorisGroysbergandDeborahBell,“CaseStudy:ShouldaFemaleDirector‘ToneItDown’?”HarvardBusinessReviewBlog,July29,2014.

13.JamesD.WestphalandLaurieP.Milton,“HowExperienceandNetworkTiesAffect theInfluenceofDemographicMinoritiesonCorporateBoards,”AdministrativeScienceQuarterly45,no.2(2000):366–398.

14.MalcomGladwell,TheTippingPoint:HowLittleThingsCanMakeaBigDifference(Boston:BackBayBooks,2002).

15.JoelM.PodolnyandJamesN.Baron,“ResourcesandRelationships:SocialNetworksandMobilityintheWorkplace,”AmericanSociologicalReview62,no.5(1997):673–693.

16.SociologistMarkGranovetterexaminedtheimportanceofweaktiesinhisclassic1974bookGettingaJob,inwhichhefoundthatmostpeopleobtainedtheirjobsthroughacquaintances,notclosefriends.MarkS.Granovetter,GettingaJob:AStudyofContactsandCareers,2nded.(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1995).SeealsoMarkS.Granovetter,“TheStrengthofWeakTies,”AmericanJournalofSociology78,no.6(1973):1360–1380.

17. EtienneWenger,Communities of Practice: Learning,Meaning, and Identity (NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress,1998).Wengercoinedthephrasecommunitiesofpracticetodescribegroupsthatshareacommonbodyofprofessionalexpertiseandidentifyasmembersofthatcommunity.

18.Using aFacebook database that included 950million people,EmanYasserDaraghmi andShyan-MingYuanshowedthat theaveragenumberofacquaintancesseparatingany twopeople,eventhosewhoworkinrarejobs,isnot6but3.9.“Wearesoclose,lessthan4degreesseparatingyouandme!”ComputersinHumanBehavior30(January2014):273–285.

19. Patrick Reynolds, “The Oracle of Bacon,” website, accessed August 27, 2014,http://oracleofbacon.org/.

20. LinkedIn founderReidHoffmanmakes this pointwell. SeeReidHoffmanandBenCasnocha,TheStart-Up of You: Adapt to the Future, Invest in Yourself, and Transform Your Career (New York: CrownBusiness,2012):110–115.

21.KathleenL.McGinnandNicoleTempest, “HeidiRoizen,”Case800228 (Boston:HarvardBusinessSchool, January 2000; revisedApril 2010); KenAuletta, “AWoman’s Place:CanSheryl SandbergUpendSiliconValley’sMale-DominatedCulture?”TheNewYorker,July11,2011.

22.Chris’sstoryistoldinmoredetailinPeterKilling,“Nestle’sGlobeProgram,”CasesIMD-3-1334,IMD-3-1334,IMD-3-1336(Lausanne,Switzerland:IMD,January1,2003).

23. JudithRichHarris,TheNurtureAssumption:WhyChildrenTurnOut theWayTheyDo (NewYork:FreePress;updatededition,2009),explainshowandwhythe tendencyofchildren to takecues fromtheirpeers(andnottheirparents)workstotheirevolutionaryadvantage.

24.DavidBrooks,“BillWilson’sGospel,”NewYorkTimes,June28,2010.SeealsoDavidBrooks,TheSocialAnimal:TheHiddenSourcesofLove,Character,andAchievement(NewYork:RandomHouse,2011),270–271.

25. For an accessible review of research on the power of reference groups, see Harris, The NurtureAssumption.

26.StevenJohnson,WhereGoodIdeasComeFrom(NewYork:RiverheadTrade;reprint2011).

Chapter41.TousethephrasepopularizedbyHarvardBusinessSchoolprofessorandformerMedtronicCEOBill

George, in Bill George and Peter Sims,True North: Discover Your Authentic Leadership (San Francisco:Jossey-Bass,2007).

2.TherearemorethantwentythousandbookswiththewordauthenticinthetitleonAmazon.com.

3.Peoplebornbetween1957and1964heldanaverageof11.3jobsbetweenageeighteenandforty-six(USBureauofLaborStatistics,NumberofJobsHeld,LaborMarketActivity,andEarningsGrowthAmongtheYoungest Baby Boomers, July 25, 2012). On the “protean career,” see Douglas T. Hall, “Self-Awareness,Identity,andLeaderDevelopment,”inLeaderDevelopmentforTransformingOrganizations:GrowingLeadersforTomorrow,ed.DavidV.Day,StephenJ.Zaccaro,andStanleyM.Halpin(Mahwah,NJ:LaurenceErlbaumAssociates,2004):153–176.

4.MarkSnyder,PublicAppearances,PrivateRealities:ThePsychologyofSelf-Monitoring(NewYork:W.H.Freeman,1987).

5. Martin Kilduff and David V. Day, “Do Chameleons Get Ahead? The Effects of Self-Monitoring onManagerialCareers,”AcademyofManagementJournal37,no.4(1994):1047–1060.

6. For how tacit knowledge is shared, see Ikujiro Nonaka, “A Dynamic Theory of OrganizationalKnowledgeCreation,”OrganizationScience5,no.1(1994):14–37.

7.E.ToryHiggins,“PromotionandPrevention:RegulatoryFocusasaMotivationalPrinciple”inAdvancesinExperimentalSocialPsychology,ed.MarkP.Zanna(SanDiego:AcademicPress,1998):1–46.

8.“Properlyspeaking,amanhasasmanysocialselvesasthereareindividualswhorecognizehimandcarryanimageofhimintheirmind…[W]emaypracticallysaythathehasasmanydifferentsocialselvesastherearedistinctgroupsofpersonsaboutwhoseopinionhecares.Hegenerallyshowsadifferentsideofhimself toeachof thesedifferentgroups.”WilliamJames,ThePrinciplesofPsychology, vol. 1 (NewYork:HenryHolt&Co.,1890;repr.,NewYork:DoverPublications,1950),294.

9.HazelMarkusandPaulaNurius,“PossibleSelves,”AmericanPsychologist41,no.9(1986):954–969.

10.I’mgratefultoClaudioFernández-Aráozforpassingonthisinsight,whichhegotfromEgonZehnder’schairman,DamienO’Brien.

11. In this usage, authenticity conveys moral meaning about one’s values and choices. A person, forinstance, issaid tobeauthentic ifhe issincere,assumes responsibility forhisactions,andmakesexplicitvalue-basedchoicesconcerning thoseactionsandappearances rather thanacceptingpre-programmedorsociallyimposedvaluesandactions.

12.SeeBruceJ.AvolioandWilliamL.Gardner,“AuthenticLeadershipDevelopment:GettingtotheRootofPositiveFormsofLeadership,”LeadershipQuarterly 16,no.3 (2005): 315–333;andGeorgeandSims,TrueNorth.

13. Robert G. Lord and Rosalie J. Hall, “Identity, Deep Structure and the Development of LeadershipSkill,”LeadershipQuarterly16,no.4(2005):591–615,arguethatanewleader’scentralconcernisemulatingleadershipbehaviorstoprojectanimageofhimselforherselfasaleaderthatotherswillvalidateandreward.Expertleadersdevelopanincreasingcapacitytopursueinternallyheldvaluesandpersonalizedstrategiesinserviceofgoalsthatincludeothers.

14. In lightof her research inpsychology,SusanCain,Quiet:ThePowerof Introverts inaWorldThatCan’tStopTalking(NewYork:BroadwayBooks,2013),explainshowintrovertsarecapableofbehavinglikeextrovertswhenitisintheserviceofapurposethatmatterstothem.

15. A person’s identity is partly defined by how a person’s social entourage views him or her. Roy F.Baumeister,“TheSelf”inTheHandbookofSocialPsychology,4thed.,ed.DanielT.Gilbert,SusanT.Fiske,andGardnerLindzey(NewYork:McGraw-Hill,1998),680–740.

16. Amy Cuddy, “Your Body Language Shapes Who You Are,” TED talk, 2012,www.ted.com/talks/amy_cuddy_your_body_language_shapes_who_you_are.

17. Jennifer Petriglieri, “Under Threat: Responses to and the Consequences of Threats to Individual’sIdentities,”AcademyofManagementReview36,no.4(2011):641–662.

18.Basedonmy interviewwithCynthiaDanaherafter readingCarolHymowitz, “HowCynthiaDanaherLearnedtoStopSharingandStartLeading,”WallStreetJournal,March16,1999.

19.SeeRobGoffeeandGareth Jones,WhyShouldAnyoneBeLedbyYou?What It Takes toBeanAuthentic Leader (Boston: Harvard Business School Publishing, 2006), for a great discussion aboutmanagingdistanceanddilemmasofauthenticityingeneral.

20. See Deborah H. Gruenfeld, “Power & Influence,” video presentation, Lean In website, accessedAugust27,2014,http://leanin.org/education/power-influence/.

21.CharlotteBeers, I’dRatherBe inCharge:A LegendaryBusiness Leader’sRoadmap forAchievingPride,Power,andJoyatWork(NewYork:VanguardPress,2012).

22.CharlotteBeers,“CharlotteBeersat2012MAConferenceforWomen,”video,postedApril16,2013,www.youtube.com/watch?v=VxjH0zYswzM/The speech is basedonher book, I’dRatherBe inCharge:ALegendary Leader’s Roadmap for Achieving Pride, Power and Joy at Work (New York: Vanguard Press,2012).

23.SusanM.Weinschenk,HowtoGetPeopletoDoStuff:MastertheArtandScienceofPersuasionandMotivation(Berkeley,CA:NewRiders,2013).

24. Bernhard M. Bass, The Bass Handbook of Leadership: Theory, Research, and ManagerialApplications(NewYork:FreePress,2008);GaryA.Yukl,LeadershipinOrganizations(UpperSaddleRiver,NJ:Prentice-Hall,2010).

25.SeeShelleyE.Taylor,Positive Illusions:CreativeSelf-Deception and theHealthyMind (NewYork:BasicBooks,1991).

26.TheLakeWobegoneffectisthehumantendencytooverestimateone’sachievementsandcapabilitiesinrelationtoothers.ItisnamedforthefictionaltownofLakeWobegonfromtheradioseriesAPrairieHomeCompanion,where,according toGarrisonKeillor, “all thewomenarestrong,all themenaregood looking,andallchildrenareaboveaverage.”

27.ThomasGilovich,HowWeKnowWhat Isn’tSo:FallibilityofHumanReason inEverydayLife (NewYork:FreePress,1991):77.

28.Jean-FrançoisManzoniandJean-LouisBarsoux,TheSet-Up-to-FailSyndrome:HowGoodManagersCauseGreatPeopletoFail(Boston:HarvardBusinessSchoolPublishing,2002).

29.RoyF.Baumeister,EllenBratslavsky,CatrinFinkenhauer, andKathleenD.Vohs, “Bad IsStrongerThanGood,”ReviewofGeneralPsychology5,no.4(2001):323–370.

30.Peoplefacedwithunfamiliarroledemandsmayhaveahardertimebenefittingfromnegativefeedbackbecausetheymaylacktheabilitytoassessindependentlythevalidlyofthefeedbacktheyreceive.Aswell,whenpeopleareinsecureabouttheirstatus,asneophytesareapttobe,theyoftenadoptadefensivestancethat reduces their ability to objectively assess negative information. Pino G. Audia and Edwin A. Locke,“Benefittingfromnegativefeedback,”HumanResourceManagementReview13,(2003):631–646.

31.EdgarH.Schein, “KurtLewin’sChangeTheory in theFieldand in theClassroom:NotesTowardaModelofManagedLearning,”SystemsPractice9,no.1(1996):27–48.

32. Laura A. Liswood, The Loudest Duck: Moving Beyond Diversity While Embracing Differences toAchieveSuccessatWork(Hoboken,NJ:Wiley&Sons,2009).

33.ErinMeyer,TheCultureMap:BreakingThrough the InvisibleBoundariesofGlobalBusiness (NewYork:PublicAffairs, 2014);FonsTrompenaarsandCharlesHampden-Turner,Riding theWavesofCulture:UnderstandingDiversityinGlobalBusiness(NewYork:McGraw-Hill,1998),83–86.

34. RosabethMoss Kanter, “Leadership in aGlobalizingWorld,”Handbook of Leadership Theory andPractice,ed.NitinNohriaandRakeshKhurana(Boston:HarvardBusinessPress,2010).

35.For recent reviewsof researchongenderandbehavioralexpectations, seeHerminia Ibarra,RobinEly,andDeborahKolb,“WomenRising:TheUnseenBarriers,”HarvardBusinessReview91,no.9(2013):60–66;andRobinEly,HerminiaIbarra,andDeborahKolb,“TakingGenderintoAccount:TheoryandDesignforWomen’sLeadershipDevelopmentPrograms,”AcademyofManagementLearning&Education10,no.3(2011):474–493.

36.AnnaFels,NecessaryDreams:AmbitioninWomen’sChangingLives(NewYork:Pantheon,2004).

37.ReidHoffmanandBenCasnocha,TheStart-UpofYou:AdapttotheFuture,Invest inYourself,andTransformYourCareer(NewYork:CrownBusiness,2012).

38. The original definition of the term identity work comes from David A. Snow and Leon Anderson,“IdentityWorkAmongtheHomeless:TheVerbalConstructionandAvowalofPersonalIdentities,”AmericanJournalofSociology92,no.6(1987):1336–1371.

39. See Herminia Ibarra,Working Identity (Boston: Harvard Business School Publishing, 2004), for adiscussionofthedifferencebetween“planandimplement”and“experimentandlearn.”

40.Herminia IbarraandJenniferPetriglieri, “IdentityWorkandPlay,”Journal ofOrganizationalChangeManagement23,no.1(2010):10–25.

41.Ibid.

42.MihalyCsikszentmihalyi,Flow:ThePsychologyofOptimalExperience (NewYork:HarperPerennial,1990); JamesG.March, “The Technology of Foolishness,” inAmbiguity andChoice inOrganizations, ed.JamesG.MarchandJ.P.Olsen(Oslo,Norway:Universitetsforlaget,1976).

43.MaryAnnGlynn,“EffectsofWorkandPlayTaskLabelsonInformationProcessing,Judgments,andMotivation,”JournalofAppliedPsychology 79,no.1 (1994): 34–45;andLeonNeyfakh, “WhatPlayfulnessCanDoforYou,”BostonGlobe,July20,2014,www.bostonglobe.com/ideas/2014/07/19/whatplayfulness-can-for-you/Cxd7Et4igTLkwpkUXSr3cO/story.html.

44.Researchersarguethatworkandplayrepresentdifferentwaysofapproaching,orframesfor,activitiesrather thandifferences in theactivities themselves.See, forexample,GregoryBateson, “ATheoryofPlayandFantasy,”AmericanPsychiatricAssociation,PsychiatricResearchReports2(1955):177–178;StephenMiller,“Ends,Means,andGalumphing:SomeLeitmotifsofPlay,”AmericanAnthropologist75,no.1(1973):87–98.

45. Austin Kleon,Steal Like an Artist: 10 Things Nobody Told You About Being Creative (New York:WorkmanPublishingCompany,2012).

46.Ascitedinibid.

47.RobertKegan,LisaLaheyandAndyFleming,“MakingBusinessPersonal,”HarvardBusinessReview92,no.4 (2004):45–52.ChristArgyris furtherargued thatexecutive’sability to learnshutsdownprecisely

whentheyneeditmostduetotheirdefensivereactionstoavoidembarrassmentorthreatandavoidfeelingvulnerableorincompetent.ChrisArgyris,“TeachingSmartPeopleHowtoLearn,”HarvardBusinessReview69,no.3(1991):99–109.

48.CarolDweck,Mindset:TheNewPsychologyofSuccess(NewYork:BallantineBooks,2007).

49.SalmanRushdie,“OneThousandDaysinaBalloon,”inImaginaryHomelands:EssaysandCriticism,1981–1991, ed.SalmanRushdie (NewYork/London:Penguin, 1992), 430–439.Psychologist TimWilson’sresearchshowshowmuchournarrativesshapethewaysinwhichweinterpretwhathappenstous;changingthestorieswe tellaboutourselvesandour lives,even insmallways, isoneof themostpowerful tools forpersonalchange;Redirect:TheSurprisingNewScienceofPsychologicalChange (NewYork:Little,BrownandCo.,2011).

50.RobertJ.Thomas,CruciblesofLeadership:HowtoLearnfromExperiencetoBecomeaGreatLeader(Boston:HarvardBusinessSchool Publishing, 2008); Joseph L. Badaracco, Jr., DefiningMoments:WhenManagersMustChoosebetweenRightandRight(Boston:HarvardBusinessSchoolPublishing,1997).

51.DanielC.Dennett,ConsciousnessExplained(Boston,MA:Little,BrownandCo.,1991).

52.CharlotteBeers,“CharlotteBeersat2012MAConferenceforWomen,”video,postedApril16,2013,www.youtube.com/watch?v=VxjH0zYswzM.

53.DanMcAdams,“Personality,Modernity,andtheStoriedSelf:AContemporaryFrameworkforStudyingPersons,”PsychologicalInquiry7,no.4(1996):295–321.

54.HerminiaIbarraandKentLineback,“WhatIsYourStory?”HarvardBusinessReview83,no.1(2005):64–71.

55. Hetain Patel and Yuyu Rau, “Who Am I? Think Again,” TED talk, TEDGlobal 2013, June 2013,www.ted.com/talks/hetain_patel_who_am_i_think_again.

56.BruceLee, quoted inBruceThomas,BruceLee:FightingSpirit (Berkeley,CA:BlueSnakeBooks,1994),44.

57. Bruce Lee’s “Be like water” quote is as follows: “Be like water making its way through cracks…[A]djusttotheobject,andyoushallfindawayaroundorthroughit.Ifnothingwithinyoustaysrigid,outwardthingswilldisclosethemselves…beformless.Shapeless,likewater.Ifyouputwaterintoacup,itbecomesthecup.Youputwaterintoabottleanditbecomesthebottle.Youputit inateapot,itbecomestheteapot.Now,watercanfloworitcancrash.Bewater,myfriend”(BruceLee,“BeWater[Longstreet],”video,postedDecember26,2012,http://youtu.be/bsavc5l9QR4?t=19s).

58.Kleon,StealLikeanArtist.

Chapter51.“Lostenoughtofindyourself”(RobertFrost,“Directive”).

2. George’s story comes from Ruthanne Huising, “Becoming (and Being) a Change Agent: PersonalTransformation and Organizational Change,” paper presented at the annual meeting of the AmericanSociologicalAssociation,MontrealConventionCenter,Montreal,Quebec,August10,2006.

3.Beginningwith theend inmindwasoneof the sevenhabits inStephenR.Covey,The 7Habits ofHighlyEffectivePeople:PowerfulLessonsinPersonalChange(NewYork:FreePress,2004).ThebestsellerPrimal Leadership also tells people to begin their change journey by identifying their “ideal self”; DanielGoleman, Richard Boyatzis, and Annie McKee, Primal Leadership (Boston: Harvard Business SchoolPublishing,2002).

4. See Herminia Ibarra,Working Identity (Boston: Harvard Business School Publishing, 2004), for adescription of the transition process.See alsoWilliamBridges,Managing Transitions:Making theMost ofChange(Philadelphia:DaCapoLifelongBooks,2009).

5.LaurenceB.Mohr,ExplainingOrganizationalBehavior(SanFrancisco:Jossey-Bass,1982).

6. Edgar H. Schein,Career Dynamics: Matching Individual and Organizational Needs (Reading, MA:Addison-Wesley,1978).

7.AlexWilliams,“NewYear,NewYou?NiceTry,”TheNewYorkTimes,January1,2009.

8.Weonlybreakahabitwhenwereacttooldcueswithnewroutinesthatgetusrewardssimilartothosewe gotwith the old routines.CharlesDuhigg,ThePower of Habit:WhyWeDoWhatWeDo in Life and

Business(NewYork:RandomHouse,2012).

9.Foragreatdiscussionofhowthisworkswithentrepreneurs,includinghimself,seeReidHoffmanandBenCasnocha,“PlantoAdapt,”inTheStart-UpofYou:AdapttotheFuture,InvestinYourself,andTransformYourCareer(NewYork:CrownBusiness,2012),47–76.

10. For a great reviewof the latest thinking on goal setting, seeSusanDavid,DavidClutterbuck, andDavidMegginson,BeyondGoals: Effective Strategies for Coaching andMentoring (Aldershot,UK:GowerPubCo.,2013).

11.Formoreontheknow-do-beofleadershipdevelopment,seeScottSnook,HerminiaIbarra,andLauraRamo, “Identity-Based Leader Development,” in Handbook of Leadership Theory and Practice, ed. NitinNohriaandRakeshKhurana(Boston:HarvardBusinessPress,2010),657–678.

12.Forathoroughdiscussionoftherelationshipbetweenleaderdevelopmentandadultdevelopment,seeDavidV.Day,MichelleM.Harrison,andStanleyM.Halpin,AnIntegrativeApproachtoLeaderDevelopment:ConnectingAdultDevelopment,Identity,andExpertise(NewYork:Routledge,2008).

13.Moststudiesandpeopleinterviewedcitedfivetosevencareerchangesinprofessional life.See,forexample,“SevenCareers inaLifetime?ThinkTwice,ResearchersSay,”WallStreetJournal,September4,2010.

14.See,forexample,GailSheehy,NewPassages(NewYork:BallantineBooks,1996).

15.J.E.Marcia,“DevelopmentandValidationofEgoIdentityStatus,”JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology3(1966):551–558.

16.Robert Kegan,The Evolving Self: Problem and Process in HumanDevelopment (Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress,1982).Foramoreaccessible versionof his theory, seeRobertKeganandLisaLaskow Lahey, Immunity to Change: How to Overcome It and Unlock the Potential in Yourself and YourOrganization(Boston:HarvardBusinessPress,2009).

Conclusion1. “Life… is reallyasearch forourown identity,”CharlesB.Handy,Myself andOtherMore Important

Matters(NewYork:AmacomBooks,2008).

2. Steve Jobs, Commencement address at Stanford University, June 12, 2005,http://news.stanford.edu/news/2005/june15/jobs-061505.html.

Indexactionversusreflection,1–3,5–6,185–186

agility,9

AlcoholicsAnonymous,110

Allen,Woody,103

Ancona,Deborah,37–38

Apple,99–100,190

approachability,134–135

aspirations,42–43,128

assumptions,testingold,12

ATracker,35

authenticity,3

asbarriertochange,117–121,146–147

basedonthepast,128–129

chameleonsand,121–129

culturalnormsand,142–145

defining,129–132

asexcuseforstayingincomfortzone,118–121

identitystretchingand,145–155

leadershipchallengesand,132–145

networkingand,79–84

playfulnessand,147–148

playingwithidentityand,117–157

positiveillusionsand,138–141

preventionversuspromotionorientationin,128–129

self-assessmenton,146–147

true-to-selfersand,121–129

authority,57,134–135

Bacon,Kevin,106–107

“badisstrongerthangood”effect,139–140

Baumeister,Roy,139–140

Beers,Charlotte,136,153

behavioralnorms,141–143

benchmarks,110–112

Bernstein,Leonard,93

biases,138–141

boardsofdirectors,99

BP,38–39,42,175

breadth,ofnetworks,87

bridgerole,37–40

Bruner,Jerome,64

Burt,Ron,97–98

Bush,GeorgeH.W.,40

buy-in,achieving,44–50

careertransitions

actingon,185–190

authenticityand,117–122

theauthor’s,118–122,186–189

changingjobsand,174–176

cyclesin,176–182

do-it-yourself,7–9

hierarchicalversus“jungle-gym,”57–58

importanceofoutsightfor,6–9

mentors/coachesin,16–17

predictablestagesin,166–174

asprocess,158–164

questionstoaskabout,177

referencegroupsin,110–112

self-assessmenton,180–181

Casciaro,Tiziana,80–81

Casnocha,Ben,145

catalysts,64

chameleons,121–129

change

cyclesin,176–180

embodying,50–53

gainingbuy-infor,45–50

asjourneyversusconversion,159–162

keycomponentsforleading,46,47

leading,25

modelsof,169–171

paceof,9

processversusoutcomefocusin,162–164

resistanceto,166–167

self-assessmentontimefor,21–22

steppingupto,19–21

throughacting,2–3

Seealsomind-sets

charisma,50–53

Christakis,Nicholas,96

coachingandmentoring

chameleonsand,125–127

inleadershipdevelopment,16–17

coherence,130

collaboration,creativityand,92–93

CollegeBoard,139

communication,31

balancingdistanceandclosenessin,134–135

bridgingdiversitythrough,37–40

charismaand,51

inextracurricularactivities,60–62

ingainingbuy-in,44–50

hubsversusbridgesin,37–40

innetworkbuilding,104–106

networkdensityand,94–96

soundbitesin,38–39

storytellingin,51–53,62–65

communitiesofpractice,103–105

competencies,4

feelingsofinauthenticityand,121

jobdefinitionbasedoncurrent,34

forleadership,13,14,18–19,25,62–65

masteryastrapin,31–33

self-definitionand,127–129

360-degreeassessmentsof,43–44

visionand,41

competencytraps

avoiding,29–36

doingthewrongthingswell,27–29

joyofmasteryin,31–33

opportunitycostof,33–36

complicationstage,165,169–171

confrontation,142–143

Conger,Jay,51

connectiveadvantage,86–87

connectivity,ofnetworks,87,93–99,106–108

consensus,97–98

context,understandingthebigger,54–56

conversionstories,159

corporateculture,141–144

coursecorrection,165,171–173

Cox,Vivienne,38–39,42,175

creativity,62–64

collaborative,diversityand,92–93

connectivityand,112–113

groupthinkand,97–98

networksand,71

playfulnessand,147

credibility,98–99,108–110

Cuddy,Amy,132

culturaldifferences,30–31

Darwin,Charles,112

defensiveness,141

degreesofseparationprinciple,93–99,106–108

delegating,134–135

Dennett,Dan,153

density,network,94–99

disconfirmationstage,165,166–168

diversity

inbehavioralnorms,141–143

competencytrapsand,30–31

creativityand,92–93,112–113

gainingbuy-inon,47–50

leadersinbridging,37–40

innetworks,85–92

do-it-yourselftransitions,7–9

Dweck,Carol,151–152

dynamism,ofnetworks,87,99–103

Eat,Pray,Love(Gilbert),62–64

employmentinterviews,76

engagement,44–50,63–65

Erickson,Erik,178

expectations,171

competencytrapsand,30–31

identitydevelopmentand,179–182

experimentation,5

extracurricularactivities,58–62

extroversion,131

Facebook,61,81,108

fear,128–129,150–152

feedback

integratingnegative,133,138–141

rationalizing,140,167

flexibility,125

foreclosure,identity,178,179

Fowler,James,96

genderdiversity,48–49,61,144

Gilbert,Elizabeth,62–64

Gino,Francesca,80–81

Gladwell,Malcolm,99

goals,155–156

changingyourperspectiveon,53

instepping-upprocess,166,171–173

Goldsmith,Marshall,31

groupthink,97–98

Gruenfeld,Deborah,135

Handy,Charles,186

Heifetz,Ronald,15

hierarchyofneeds,32–33,167–168

Higgins,Tory,128–129

Hoffman,Reid,107,145

hubsversusbridges,39–40

hubversusbridgerole,37–40

identity

achievementof,179

authenticityand,19

chameleonsand,121–129

defining,129–130

developingaleader’s,4

internalizing,4

networkingand,79–84

playingaroundwith,17–19,117–157

preventionversuspromotionorientationin,128–129

statesof,178–179

stretching,123,146–154

true-to-selfersand,121–129

viewofothersin,131–132

watermetaphorforchanging,154–156

Seealsoauthenticity

identitydiffusion,178–179

identitywork,145–154

adaptabilityin,154–156

experimentsin,155

focusonlearningin,150–152

imitationin,148–150

storytellingin,153–154

I’dRatherBeinCharge(Beers),136

image,reshaping,5–6.

playingaroundwith,17–19

self-,9,11–12

Seealsoauthenticity

imitation,148–150

authenticityand,154–155,156

redefiningyourselfand,121–129

importantversusurgent,1–2,67–68

industryconferences,60,103–105

influence,57,99,137

INSEAD,8,9–10,14,17,76,89,91,186–189

insight,6,185–186

inspiration,18–19,41.Seealsomotivation

internalizationofidentity,4,150

self-authoringversus,179–180

instepping-upprocess,166,173–174

introductions,askingfor,108

introspection.Seereflection

introversion,131

James,William,129

jobredefinition,11,12–15,25–70

additionandsubtractionin,67–68

competencytrapsand,29–36

currentjobasplatformfor,53–67

doingthewrongthingswelland,27–29

experimentingwith,68

operationaldemandsand,14–15,18,25–27

self-assessmentontimefor,21–22

self-conceptand,17–19

strategicapproachin,26–27

Jobs,Steve,51,190

Johnson,Chris,108–109,152

Johnson,Steven,112

Jones,Benjamin,92–93

Joynson-Romanzina,Nia,48–49

Kegan,Robert,150,179–180

Kenny,David,54–55

kindredspirits,86,110–112

Kleon,Austin,148–149,150,155

Klues,Jack,39

Kotter,John,65–66

Kouchaki,Maryam,80–81

Kouzes,James,42

“LakeWobegoneffect,”139

lazyprincipleofrelationshipformation,76–78,84,90–92

leadersandleadership

balancingdistanceandclosenessin,134–135

asbridges,37–40

buy-inand,44–50

changeembodiedby,50–53

competenciesfor,13,14

conventionalwisdomon,2–3,185–186

expectationsof,30–31

feelinglikeafakeand,132–146

gendernormsand,144

ashubs,39–40

identitydevelopmentin,3–4

managementversus,36–37

mind-setfor,4–6

motivationversusmanipulation

in,135–138

personalconnectionswith,44–50

positiveillusionsand,138–141

referencegroupsfor,110–112

showingpotentialfor,33–34

steppingupto,19–21,159–183

storytellingby,51–53

timemanagementfor,34–36

unscheduledtimefor,65–67

visionand,40–44

whattheyreallydo,36–53

leadershipdevelopment

actingon,185–190

coachingandmentoringin,16–17

communicating“why”and,54,62–65

competencytrapsand,29–36

doingthewrongthingswellversus,27–29

do-it-yourself,7–9

extracurricularactivitiesfor,54,58–62

fromtheoutsidein,11–12

makingyourjobaplatformfor,53–67

networksin,16–17

outsideprojectsfor,54,56–58

self-assessmentontimefor,21–22

situationsensordevelopmentin,54,56

timeallocationfor,54,65–67

leadershipstyles,2

charismaand,50–53

playingaroundwith,18–19

positiveillusionsabout,139–140

LeadershipTransitioncourse,9–10

LeanIn(Sandberg),62

learning

goalsfor,155–156

negativefeedbackand,141

opportunitycostof,33–35

playfulnessand,147–148

reputationpreservationversus,150–152

self-definitionand,125–127

thinkingandactingin,2–3

throughoutsideprojects,56–58

timeallocationfor,33,57

Lee,Bruce,154–155,156

Levinson,Daniel,176–178

Lewis,Michael,125–126

Liar’sPoker(Lewis),125–126

LinkedIn,81,94,107

L’Oréal,141–143

MacGillis,Alec,123,124

managersandmanagement

changeembodiedby,50–53

diversityand,30–31

doingthewrongthingswell,27–29

howjobshavechangedfor,7–9

jobredefinitionby,11,12–15

leadershipversus,36–37

micro-,31,33

styleversuscharismaof,50–53

timeallocationby,34–36

unscheduledtimefor,65–67

vision-impaired,43–44

manipulation,17,19,120–121,133,135–138

networkingand,79,81

Marcia,James,178–179

Markus,Hazel,130

Martin,Roger,43

Maslow,Abraham,32–33,167–168

McAdams,Dan,153–154

meetings,34

Meyer,Erin,142

micromanagement,31,33

midlifecrisis,176–180

Milgram,Stanley,93–94,106

mind-sets

changing,4–6

changingbyacting,2–3

diversityinitiativesand,48–49

networktrapsfrom,78–84,100–103

playfulnessand,147–148

Mizner,Wilson,150

moratoriumstageofidentity,178–179

motivation

aspirationsin,174

carrot-and-sticktheoryof,166–167

extracurricularactivitiesand,61–62

identitydevelopmentand,4

asleadershipcompetency,18–19

manipulationversus,135–138

mobilizinginothers,12–15

Mullainathan,Sendhil,66–67

MyMinutes,35

narcissisticprincipleofrelationshipformation,73–77,84,90–92

Nestlé,108–109

networksandnetworking,71–115,145

assessingyourcurrent,72,74–75,100–102

authenticityand,79–84

aversiontoinstrumental,80–81

breadthof,87–92

asbridges,37–40

connectivityof,87,93–99

connectorsin,100

creativityand,112–113

credibilityand,99–100,109–110

degreesofseparationand,93–99,106–108

densityof,94–99

dynamismof,87,99–103

externalversusinternalfocusin,87–88,89

futurefacing,100–102

groupthinkin,97–98

importanceandvalueof,71–72

instrumentalversuspersonal,80–81

juniorpeoplein,88,90,91

kindredspiritsin,86,110–112

maintaining,108–110

mind-settrapsin,78–84

narcissisticandlazy,73–77

networklagin,99–101,102

operational,personal,andstrategic,80–81,84–87

outsightdevelopmentthrough,15–17

powerplayersin,90,91

practicalstepsforexpanding,113–114

referencegroupsin,110–112

showingupfor,103–105

forstrategicthinking,27–29

timespentonbysuccessful

leaders,34–36

visiondevelopmentand,40–44

Obama,Barack,123–124

obesity,96,110

Ogilvy&Mather,136,153

operationaldemands,14–15,18,25–27

competencytrapsbasedon,29–30

managementversusleadershipand,36–37

opportunitycostof,33–35

outsideprojectsversus,57

self-definitionand,127–129

slacktimeversus,65–67

operationalnetworks,15,80–81,84–87

opportunities,sensing,41

opportunitycost,33–35

“OracleofKevinBacon,”106–107

outsight,53,185

bringingitbackin,173–174,181–182

changingmind-setwith,4–6

definitionof,5

fromextracurricularactivities,58–62

importanceof,forcareertransitions,6–9

insightversus,6

iterativedevelopmentof,12

jobredefinitionand,11,12–15

networkingincreating,15–17

fromself-redefinition,117–157

sourcesof,11–12

Pascale,Richard,2

Pasteur,Louis,112

Patel,Hetain,154–155,156

personalbrands,60

personalnetworks,80–81,84–87

perspective,changing,53,77,87–93

plagiarism,150

playfulness,117–157

inidentitywork,145–154

imitationand,148–150

withself-image,17–19

workversus,147

Podolny,Joel,99–100

politics,19,82–83

positiveillusions,138–141

Posner,Barry,42

power,80–81,90

wielding,137

preventionorientation,128–129

problemsolving,32–33,167–168

process

creative,62–63

importanceof,inbuy-in,44–50

professionalassociations,60,103–105

projects

extracurricular,58–62

internal,outsideyourcurrentarea,54,56–58,68

promotionorientation,128–129

protagonists,63

proximity,inrelationshipformation,76–77

PublicisGroupe,39

publicspeaking,105–106

purpose,3,19,130–131,154

rationalization,140,167

Raytheon,97–98

reciprocityprinciple,90

recognition,12,145

referencegroups,110–112

referrals,askingfor,108

reflection,175–176

asanchortothepast,5–6

doingversus,1–3

outsightversus,5–6

reinvention,9

relationaltasks,14–15

relationships

balancingdistanceandclosenessinleadershipand,134–135

buy-inbasedon,44–50

charismaand,50–53

favorsin,79,108

narcissisticprincipleof,75–77

networklagand,99–100

storytellingand,64–65

Seealsonetworksandnetworking

reliability,85

Remnick,David,122–123

reputation,131

developing,forleadership,4

hubversusbridgeroleand,39

preservationof,versuslearning,150–152

resolutions,instories,63

risktaking,150–152

Roizen,Heidi,107–108

roles

authenticityand,129–130

hubsversusbridges,39–40

Rushdie,Salman,153

SalomonBrothers,125–126

Sandberg,Sheryl,61,108

Scarcity(MullainathanandShafir),66–67

Schein,Edgar,141

self-fulfillingprophecies,46–47

self-knowledge,2–3

self-monitoringquestionnaire,124

self-observergap,138–141

self-promotion,133,137–138

seven-yearitch,176–180

Shafir,Eldar,66–67

shape-shifters,122–123.Seealsochameleons

similarity,inrelationshipformation,73–77

simpleadditionstage,165,168–169

sincerity,130

Sinek,Simon,53

situationsensors,developing,54–56

“sixdegreesofseparation”principle,93–99,106–108

Snyder,Mark,123,124

socializationofideas,38–39

socialmedia

Facebook,6181

LinkedIn,81,94,107

networkingvia,105

Sondheim,Stephen,93

soundbites,38–39

Spiro,Jarrett,93

stability,176–180

StealLikeanArtist(Kleon),148–149,150

stepping-upprocess,19–22,159–183

changingjobsand,174–176

complicationstagein,165,169–171

coursecorrectionin,165,171–173

disconfirmationstagein,165,166–168

identitystretchingin,132

predictablestagesin,165–174

processversusoutcomefocusin,162–164

simpleadditionstagein,165,168–169

storytelling,51–53,62–65

inchangingidentity,153–154

conversionversusjourneystories

in,159–162

elementsofgood,64

strategicnetworks,80–81,84–87

strategicthinking,185–186

drivingresultsversus,13–14

networksand,71–72,80–81,84–87

operationaldemandsversus,13–15,18,25–27

top-downstrategyversus,43–44

visionand,40–44

SwissRe,48–49

teams

creativityanddiversityin,92–93

leading,37–40

TEDtalks,53,62,68,154–155

Thatcher,Margaret,52–53,140–141

360-degreeassessments,43–44,138

threatassessment,41

timemanagement

addingandsubtractingtasksin,67–68,165,168–169

appsfor,35

byleaders,34–36

fornetworking,72,77,83

operationaldemandsand,13–15,18,25–27

foroutsideprojects,57

forskilldevelopment,27

forstrategicthinking,25–70

unscheduledtimein,65–67

TIMEPlanner,35

TippingPoint,The(Gladwell),99

Toggl,35

transitiontoleadership.Seestepping-upprocess

trendscharismaticleadersand,51

developingsensorsfor,55–56

networksandstayingcurrentwith,77–78,88,107

noticing,12,16,25

trialsandtribulations,instories,64

turningpoints,64

urgency

importanceversus,1–2,67–68

fromleadershipexperience,175

networkingand,83–84

self-motivationand,167–168

Uzzi,Brian,92–93

valuecreation

collaborative,jobredefinitionand,12–15

micromanagementand,31

self-imagechangesand,11–12

values

authenticityand,130–131

networkingand,82–83

vision,40–44

short-termfocusversus,66–67

Vivaki,39

WeatherChannel,The,54–55

Weick,Karl,6

Welch,Jack,20

Westphal,James,99

WestSideStory,93

WhatGotYouHereWon’tGetYouThere(GoldsmithandReiter),9

WhereGoodIdeasComeFrom(Johnson),112

“WhoAmI?ThinkAgain”(Patel),154–155

Willis,Gary,122

Wilson,Bill,110

WorkingIdentity(Ibarra),3

workingthegoldencircle,53

WorldEconomicForum,189

Wuchty,Stefan,92–93

YoungPresidents’Organization(YPO),60,110

AcknowledgmentsThisbookhashadalonggestationperiod,andIamespeciallygrateful tothosewho gently pushed me to get on with it. I am particularly indebted to MelindaMerino, my editor at Harvard Business Review Press, and Carol Franco, myagent,forbelievinginthisbook,eveninits“uglyfirstdraft”form.Liketheleaderswhosestoriesappearwithin it, thebookevolved throughvariousphases, somesmootherthanothers.MelindaandCarolencouragedmeeverystepoftheway,frommyearliestideasallthewaytothefinishingtouches.

Melindahasbeenanamazingprofessionalpartnerthroughouttheyears.Sheencouragedmetoconsiderhowpeoplelearntothinklikeleadersandchallengedmetomovebeyondmycomfortzone inspellingout thepractical implicationsofmy ideas.ShegavemespaceandconfidencewhenIhad to takeabreak fromtheproject.Shealsoshowedremarkablepatiencewhenmyperfectionismreareditsheadnearthefinishline.

Working with Carol has been a godsend. I’ve known Carol since we bothjoinedHarvardBusinessSchool,but this is thefirst timewe’veworkedtogether.Carolhelpedme“see”thebookandcraft thebookproposal;shethenstruckanamazing balance between sharp professional advice and friendly motivationalsupport.I’malsogratefultoCarolforhelpingmecreateanddeploytheextendednetworkofpeoplewhobringoutthebestinabook.OneofthosepeopleisKentLineback,who has taughtme somuch over the years aboutwhatmatters andhowtogetitacrossinwriting.AnothergiftfromCarolisMarkFortier,mypublicist,whoonlyjustjoinedtheteambuthasalreadyprovidedmuchvaluablecoaching.

Ihaveagreatcore teamat INSEADwithoutwhichthisbookwouldstillbeadraft.NanavonBernuth,my researchassociateandprojectmanager,didmorethanIcaneverdescribetomakethebookcometolife.Reachingfarbeyondherjobdescription,Nanahelpedonallfronts,cajolingmetoreturntothebookwhenitgotpushedtoabackburner,suggestingwaystomakeitmorecompellingandmore applicable, and always giving prompt and valuable support nomatter thetime or place. Like the book’s chameleons, she managed to morph hercontributionsintowhateverIneededateachofthedifferentstagesofwriting.Iamespeciallyindebtedtoherforherhelpwiththeseconddraftduringthesummerof2014: I in Miami Beach, she on the Tuscan coast, both of us glued to ourcomputer screens while our kids played in the sun. Although she had notconsideredwritingoneofhercorestrengths,NanaendedupgivingmesomeofthemostvaluableeditorialfeedbackI’vehad.

Another member of my core team I couldn’t have done without is MélanieCamenzind,myassistantforaslongasIcanremember.Mélaniekepteverythingorganized and on track, taking all the distractions off my plate in her usualcompetentandprofessionalmanner.Expertlyjugglingmymanydiverseactivities,she’smadeado-it-yourselftransitiontoafull-fledgedprojectmanager.Mélanieis

agreatexampleofhowtoredefineyourjobinordertomakeabiggercontribution.

Many friends and colleagues read early versions of my book proposal andchaptersandlistenedtomyideasinseminarsorinconversation.Iamespeciallygrateful to Gianpiero Petriglieri and José Luis Alvarez, whose insights intoleadershiphave taughtmesomuch, toErinMeyer,whogenerouslypassedoneverything she’d learned from publishing her book a year prior tomine, and toKristen Lynas and Claudia Benassi, who were always ready to share theirwisdom,bounceideasaround,andoffergoodcheer.

Inmoreways than I canenumerate, I relied onmyOrganizationalBehaviorcolleagues at INSEAD at every step of this journey, from discussing classicstudies in social psychology and organizational sociology to getting incisivefeedbackontitlealternatives,bookcovers,andjacketcopy.Moreoftenthannot,theywerewillingtoletmedivertthelunchtimeconversationtowhateverIneededtomulloverwithtrustedfriends.

IhadthegoodfortuneandgreatpleasuretogettoknowClaudioFernández-Aráoz in an earlier project on CEO performance. I am deeply grateful for histhoughtful and extensive feedback on the first draft of my manuscript and themany follow-up conversations that have guided me since. Claudio’s area ofexpertise is development, and he practices what he preaches. I was a luckybeneficiary.

AsmyLeadershipTransition facultycoconspirators,GianpieroPetriglieriandJoséLuisAlvarezalsoplayedacrucial role in that longand iterativeprocessofdesigninganddeliveringacoursethatfullyaddressestheneedsofparticipantsintransitiontobiggerleadershiproles.Abigpartofthecourse’ssecretsauceisitsstellar teamof coaches, led byMartineVan denPoel,which helps participantspersonalizethelearninganddevelopmentprocess.Ihavelearnedalotfromtheirinsights into thechallengesexecutives face in thestepping-upprocess,and I’mgratefulfortheirpassionforhelpingpeoplerealizetheirpotential.

The team at Harvard Business Review Press, including Dave Lievens, LisaBurrell,CourtneyCashman,SalAshworth,StephaniFinks,NinaNocciolino,EricaTruxler,PattyBoyd,ErinBrown,andJamesdeVries,hasbeenamazingtoworkwith.Theyaretrueprosandtheirworkhasmadeallthedifference.I’dalsoliketothank Bronwyn Fryer, who helpedme revise the manuscript after the reviewerfeedbackcamein,makingrecommendationsforclarityandstyle.

Bookstaketimeandresourcestowrite.Overthepastfiveyears,I’vebenefitedenormously fromthegeneroussupportof thePatrickCescau/UnileverEndowedFund for Research in Leadership and Diversity. Not only did this endowmentprovidefunding,italsobroughtmeintouchwithmanyfolksfromUnilever—SandyOgg (now at Blackstone), Jonathan Donner, Doug Baillie, Leena Nair, andUnileverCEOPaulPolman—fromwhom I learnedmuchaboutwhatcompaniescandotohelppeoplestepup.

Andofcoursethisbookcouldnothavebecomearealitywithoutthemenandwomenwho generously shared their leadership transition experienceswithme.Thisspecialgroupincludestenyears’worthofLeadershipTransitionparticipants,my executive MBAs, and participants in my Deutsche Bank, Unilever, IWF,Siemens,andWorldEconomicForumGlobalFellowsleadershipprograms.Whileafewofthemarefeaturedinthisbook,many—fromwhomIlearnedjustasmuch—are not. I deeply appreciate the lessons they taught me, and I value theconfidencetheyplacedinmebytellingmetheirstories.

AbouttheAuthorHerminia Ibarra is theCoraChairedProfessorofLeadershipandLearningandProfessor of Organizational Behavior at INSEAD. An expert on professionalcareersandleadershipdevelopment,Ibarraistheauthorofnumerousarticlesonthese topics published in Harvard Business Review and leading academicjournals. Her bestselling book,Working Identity: Unconventional Strategies forReinventing Your Career (Harvard Business School Publishing, 2003), isconsideredthepremierreferenceonmid-careerchange.

At INSEAD, Ibarra is the founding director of The Leadership Transition, anexecutiveprogramformanagersmovingintobiggerleadershiproles.Shespeaksandconsults internationallyonleadershipdevelopment,talentmanagement,andwomen’scareeradvancement.SheisamemberoftheWorldEconomicForum’sGlobal Agenda Council and Chair of the Harvard Business School VisitingCommittee.Thinkers50rankedIbarranumbernineonits2013listofthefiftymostinfluentialbusiness thinkers in theworld.Prior to joining INSEAD, IbarraservedontheHarvardBusinessSchool faculty for thirteenyears.ShereceivedherMAandPhDfromYaleUniversity,whereshewasaNationalScienceFellow.