adaptation to physically and emotionally demanding...

Adaptation to physically and

emotionally demanding conditions: the

role of deliberate practice

Michael B. Johnson*a, Gershon Tenenbaumb andWilliam A. Edmondsc

aUniversity of Texas-Pan American; bFlorida State University; cNova Southeastern University

The current study elucidated the reasons for athletic performance differences between individuals

who (1) engage in similar workloads, and (2) develop in similar environments. 8 elite and 11 sub-

elite swimmers, with confirming data provided by 17 of their parents and 6 of their coaches,

participated in this investigation. Findings revealed that (1) a variety of different practice regimens

can result in attaining expertise, and (2) highly analogous developmental experiences may not

differentiate between elite and sub-elite performers. Results provide support for a 4-factor model

of expert athletic development: high effort, supportive environment, facilitative coping strategies,

and physical and psychological predispositions. Each is likely required to achieve elite athletic

performance, and all must be present in such a manner that they are systematically and

idiosyncratically functional.

Keywords: Expertise, Talent, Nature, Nurture, Swimming

The extensive scientific work of Ericsson, Krampe, and Tesch-Romer (1993) on

attaining and sustaining elite performance has resulted in several principles

collectively termed ‘deliberate practice.’ Deliberate practice refers to training

activities designed to enhance an individual’s performance, with explicitly defined

parameters including (1) a well-defined task with appropriate difficulty level, (2)

high effort, and (3) opportunities for repetition and error correction. Furthermore,

deliberate practice is designed to optimize the performer’s training regimen, and is

not inherently enjoyable due to its rigorous nature. Support for the principles of

deliberate practice within the motor domain was found in studies involving soccer

players (Helsen et al., 1998), wrestlers (Starkes et al., 1996), and middle-distance

runners (Young, 1998). The aim of the current study is to test the principles of

deliberate practice by sampling two groups of swimmers, one that attained world

recognition and the other that did not, while members of both groups trained under

*Corresponding author. UTPA, 1201 W. University Ave., Department of Educational Psychology,

College of Education, EDCC 1.650, Edinburg, TX 78541. Email: [email protected]

High Ability Studies

Vol. 17, No. 1, June 2006, pp. 117–136

ISSN 1359-8139 (print)/ISSN 1469-834X (online)/06/010117-20

# 2006 European Council for High Ability

DOI: 10.1080/13598130600947184

the same conditions. Contrasting the practice regimens and developmental

experiences of elite and sub-elite swimmers who trained under similar environmental

conditions permitted the elucidation of the crucial requisites and prerequisites

needed to reach elite performance levels. This is a more sound methodology than

previous empirical expert–novice contrasts where performers differed markedly in

many developmental and training aspects.

Ericsson et al. (1993) articulated a distinction between repetitive training and

deliberate practice, i.e., experience alone was not a good predictor of performance

level. Only when people face failures of their entrenched procedures do they actively

engage in learning and modification of their skills (Ericsson, 1998a), which is a main

feature of learning emphasized earlier by Bloom (1985). The need for concentration

is an important concept due to its differentiation from both mindless drilling and

playful engagement. In a study involving two expert athletes, Thomas and Thomas

(1999) provided support for this notion by interviewing two elementary school

physical education teachers who taught athletes that later became experts in their

respective sports. The teachers identified (1) hard work (i.e., practice), (2) knowing

what to do (i.e., knowledge), (3) demonstrating a positive attitude (i.e.,

attributions), and (4) coordinating skill execution as the most important factors

related to their former students’ athletic development. Research with soccer players

(Helsen et al., 2000) and ice skaters (Deakin & Cobley, 2003) provided additional

lines of evidence for the concept of purposeful ‘quality over quantity’ practice as a

salient factor in elite athletic development.

Given this empirical support for the tenets undergirding deliberate practice it is

also important to recognize some potential weaknesses. One area of investigation

that may strengthen deliberate practice lies in an exploration of the three limitations

to the amount of deliberate practice one may engage in, i.e., (1) resource constraints

(e.g., adequate time, energy, coaches, and facilities), (2) motivational constraints

(i.e., the fact that deliberate practice is not inherently enjoyable), and (3) effort

constraints, also known as learned industriousness (Eisenberger, 1998). Since all

human beings differ to some degree (e.g., resources, motivation, height, gender,

bone structure, and eyesight), there are differences among people in these three

factors that may require individuals to vary the amount of deliberate practice each of

them requires to achieve similar levels of performance.

Deliberate practice implies that nurture accounts for almost all of the variability in

the development of expert performances. However, there is evidence that supports

the existence of a salient factor in addition to nurture. Two empirical studies, when

considered together, provide support for this notion in athletics. In the first, Ericsson

and Lehman (1996) contended that basic human physiological adaptations in

response to repeated bouts of deliberate practice permit further extended intense

practice, thereby suggesting an additional factor involved in deliberate practice

beyond what is currently considered, i.e., deliberate practice factors may interact

with the expression of one’s genetic potentials to result in a particular performance

level. In the second study cited here, Pelliccia (1996) found that endurance sports

lead to a physiological enlargement of the heart, and to an increase in the heart wall’s

118 M. B. Johnson et al.

thickness, depending on the endurance sport, and on the intensity and extent of

training. However, Pelliccia argued that this adaptation might be influenced by

several factors including anthropometric parameters, gender, and genetic disposi-

tions. Furthermore, Gualdi-Russo and Graziani (1993) showed that different

somatotypes correlate with performance level in some sport domains, i.e., high

performers in ballgames and martial arts possess a greater tendency toward a

mesomorphic body type, while high performers in sports such as swimming tend to

be more endomorphic.

Theories of evolutionary adaptation, such as Darwin’s (1859/1964), also

contribute to questions regarding the validity of deliberate practice as it pertains

to athletic contexts. Evolution supports the premise that organisms appropriately

adapt to the environment, or they cease to exist. Organisms that get too far ahead, or

fall too far behind the requirements needed to survive fail to endure. Additionally,

organisms adapt at varying rates, and therefore differ in their inherited psychological

and physiological capabilities to assimilate similar cognitive, affective, or behavioral

workloads.

The current study aimed at investigating the possibility that a person begins life

with certain intellectual, affective, and physical potentials (i.e., talent) that are

actualized to varying degrees via environmental influences (i.e., nurture). Figure 1

presents a modified version of Tenenbaum’s (1999) model, which illustrates the

relationships among the factors involved in the development of athletic performance.

Figure 1. A model depicting the relationship between nature and nurture in the development of

expertise in sport. (Adapted from Tenenbaum, 1999, p. 114)

Talent and expert sport development 119

An individual’s genetic endowment impacts their entry factors, such as motor and

physical skills, cognitions, perceptions, self-efficacy, affect, and coping strategies.

These are expressed during practice, and are developed as a function of the idio-

syncratic appropriateness of the athlete’s practice/instruction experiences. The con-

tinuous and consistent engagement in deliberate practice secures further enhance-

ment of the athlete’s motor, cognitive, and affective skills. This developmental

model is consistent with Rose’s (1995) contention whereby lifetime behavioral

choices are guided by a person’s dispositional tendencies, and these tendencies find

expression within environmental opportunities that are actively created.

There are also two influential works that investigated the developmental stages of

highly accomplished athletes. Both proposed three stages of elite athletic

development. In the first, Bloom (1985) identified three stages of talent

development: (1) The early years (i.e., initiation, up to age 10 years), (2) the

middle years (i.e., development, ages 10–14 years), and (3) the late years (i.e.,

perfection, ages 14 and above). In the second, Cote (1999) proposed three distinct

stages of sport participation: (1) sampling, (2) specializing, and (3) investment

stages; which were very similar to those identified in Bloom’s earlier work. By

uncovering the developmental experiences of a number of elite and sub-elite

athletes, rather than solely analyzing the progress of elite performers as was done in

these empirical works, the current study illuminates developmental similarities and

differences among those of two different performance levels while controlling for

environmental factors to a greater degree.

The current study continues to expand upon and investigate the relationship

between deliberate practice and the developmental stages of athletic expertise based

on a modified version of Tenenbaum’s (1999) model (see Figure 1). It appears likely

that a diligent application of oneself for a prerequisite amount of deliberate practice

does not necessarily lead to athletic expertise. Based on previous research, it appears

plausible that a person’s idiosyncratic characteristics dictate the need for a unique

and multidimensional approach to maximizing their athletic development.

Deliberate practice may be a necessary condition for achieving expert athletic

performance, but it may not be sufficient. In order to diligently investigate this

possibility, the current study utilized participants from a sport that permits an

objective evaluation of an individual’s workload and their performance. If the

practice regimens and developmental experiences of an elite swimmer can be

recorded, and if these can be shown to mirror the experiences and workloads of

another swimmer who did not achieve elite performances, then further investigations

into the possible causes for this must involve factors in addition to those found in the

principles of deliberate practice.

Method

Participants

To examine the cause and effect relationship between environmental factors and

performance level posited by previous research on expert athletic development


(Cote, 1999; Ericsson, 1998a, 2001; Ericsson et al., 1993; Ericsson & Lehman,

1996) we interviewed 19 competitive swimmers, a parent of each (n517), and their

coach (n56). There were 41 total participants as one swimmer’s coach is also her

father. Expert performers in this study were defined as people who consistently

demonstrated a very high performance level relative to the general population, and

relative to other swimmers in this particular domain (Ericsson, 1998a, 1998b;

Ericsson et al., 1993). This distinction was made because research has shown that

experts in many fields, e.g., psychotherapy (Dawes, 1994) and the stock-market

(Stael von Holstein, 1972), perform as well as non-experts.

Elite swimmers (n58) in this study had achieved at least one gold medal at an

Olympic Games or World Championships, were ranked in the top 5 in the world at

the conclusion of a calendar year, or, in one case, was the top ranked 13 year old in

the world in her primary event. Sub-elite swimmers (n511) in this study had not

achieved these criteria, yet had qualified for at least one U.S. National

Championship or, in the case of the youths involved in this study, had achieved a

top 5 national ranking in the U.S.A. for their age-group. One exception was made as

an individual was included in the sub-elite group who had never qualified for a

national championship, yet he was identified as one of the better swimmers on his

NCAA Division I university swimming team. This study’s sub-elite swimmers would

be considered experts in many places around the world. These 19 swimmers were

culled from 6 different programs around the United States. Each of these programs

was included because they allowed multiple athletes to take part in this study, and

enabled to control for the potentially mediating environmental variable of coaching.

Instrumentation

Athlete interviews elicited a retrospective picture of the quantifiable developmental

experiences of each swimmer. Parents’ and coaches’ views, comments, thoughts,

perspectives, and recollections about the swimmers’ developmental, workout, and

competitive history and environments were used to triangulate and confirm

information obtained during interviews with the athletes to improve the validity of

this study (Patton, 2002). All participants were asked the same questions from this

study’s interview guide protocol. The goal of this study’s interview instrument was to

elicit an accurate picture of the swimmer’s developmental process and environ-

mental experiences.

The interview guide used in this study was adapted from Cote’s (1999) and

Bloom’s (1985) earlier work. The ability of such a recall, talk-aloud interview

process to elicit verifiable information regarding an athlete’s skill development, and

the factors that might influence their achievement level, has support in the literature

(Cote et al., 2005). Each participant was asked open-ended questions concerning a

number of areas of their developmental experiences including the annual number of

hours they spent (1) training in swimming each year, e.g., ‘How many hours did you

spend in swim training each week and for how many weeks each year?’ (2) training in

non-swimming activities specifically designed to positively impact their swimming


performance, e.g., ‘How many hours did you spend in non-swimming training each

week specifically designed to improve your swimming performance, and for how

many weeks each year?’ and (3) training in non-swimming activities that were

unrelated to swimming performance, e.g., ‘How many hours did you spend in non-

swimming training each week that was not specifically designed to improve your

swimming performance, and for how many weeks each year?’ Additionally, each

swimmer was asked to share the level of effort and concentration they engaged in

each year for each activity. Coaches and parents were also asked for their perceptions

regarding the swimmers’ level of effort and concentration. Activities in this final

domain could include sports (e.g., soccer), arts (e.g., musical instruments), or

sedentary/diversionary activities (e.g., watching TV or playing video games). Each

interview lasted from 50 to 105 minutes.

Procedure

Interviews were conducted with all 41 participants. Coding for each swimmer was

created in to denote their elite or sub-elite status, i.e., elite swimmers ‘E,’ sub-elite

‘S.’ Each swimmer was also assigned a number between 1 and 6, which

corresponded to their program’s training site. Training sites with more than one

elite and/or sub-elite swimmer also included ‘a,’ ‘b,’ or ‘c,’ to differentiate among

multiple elite or sub-elite athletes from a single training site.

The interview process included open-ended questions to aide participants’

recollection of past experiences in order to avoid relying on participants’ memories

of a specific event (Seidman, 1991). An interview guide suggested by Patton (2002)

was used in order to ensure that the same lines of inquiry were pursued with each

person interviewed. Verbatim-transcribed interviews were forwarded to the

respective participant for their review within a month of their interview. The

participant’s approval regarding accuracy of content was requested and received.

The depth and authenticity of the participants’ responses were assured via the

interview techniques used. Three types of questions were used in order to assure

depth of participant responses: (1) main questions, (2) probe questions, and (3)

follow-up questions (Rubin & Rubin, 1995). Main questions constituted the

interview script and guided the interview process. Probe questions clarified

responses, while follow-up questions investigated new issues that arose during the

interview process (Rubin & Rubin, 1995). Responses were valuable sources of

information regarding swimmers’ thought processes, affective responses, and

behavioral patterns.

Data Analysis

The interview data was systematically analyzed for content. Each swimmer’s sport,

artistic, scholastic, and sedentary activities were recorded, as were the ages at which

each person participated in that activity. Additionally, the hours spent practicing

each activity, and each swimmer’s achievement milestones, were also recorded. The


hours of practice that each swimmer self-reported was triangulated with reports from

their coach, and one of their parents. Each participant was interviewed individually.

Generally accepted quantitative methods were used in the current study in order to

accomplish the inductive goals of this study and are reported in the results section.

Results

The data consists of (1) the swimmers’ achievements, (2) the age at which these

achievements were accomplished, (3) the activities each swimmer was involved in

during their development, and (4) the amount of time each swimmer spent

deliberately practicing in each of these activities.

Table 1 itemizes the highest achievements of this study’s adult swimmers. Each of

the elite athletes reached the highest level in the sport of swimming for multiple

years. Additionally, the accomplishments of the sub-elite swimmers are indicative of

high-level performance; however, these athletes are easily differentiated from the

elite swimmers on objective performance.

Achievement milestones for every elite and sub-elite swimmer are shown in

Table 2. Each individual had a unique age at which they (1) became involved in

competitive swimming, (2) achieved state, national, and international standards of

performance, (3) made the decision to be an elite swimmer, and (4) began non-

swimming activities designed to improve their swimming performance.

Table 1. Athletic outcomes attained by elite (E) and sub-elite (S) swimmers in this study

Swimmer # Accomplishments

E1 3 Olympic gold medals (1996, 2000); 3rd all-time performer in 2 events

E2 #1 ranked 13 year old in the world in an event in 2004

E3a 1 Olympic gold medal (2000); USA National Team member for 2 years

E3b #4 in the world in 2 events in 2003; Current American record holder

E4 1 Olympic gold medal (2004); Current American record holder

E5 1 Olympic gold medal (2004); Current world record holder in 3 events

E6a #1 in the world in late 1990s; USA National Team member for 7 years

E6b 1 Olympic gold medal (2000); Current world record holder in 2 events

S1 USA Olympic Trials qualifier; NCAA Division I Championships qualifier

S2a Top 10 in the USA for her age when 10 years old

S2b Top 10 in the USA for her current age-group, i.e., 12 years of age

S2c USA Junior National champion; NCAA Division I scholarship athlete

S3 NCAA Division I athlete

S4a Olympic Trials qualifier; NCAA Division I Championships qualifier

S4b USA National Championship rookie of the meet; NCAA Division I

Championships qualifier

S5 NCAA Division I athlete

S6a NCAA Championships qualifier

S6b NCAA Championships qualifier

S6c NCAA Championships qualifier; 4th at British National Championships


Table 3 provides a list of the (1) non-swimming activities each athlete engaged in

specifically to enhance their swimming performance, and (2) non-swimming

activities each athlete participated that were unrelated to their swimming

performance. Only one swimmer, S2c, lacked non-swimming sport experience.

The remaining 18 reported a wide range of involvement in non-swimming activities.

The swimmers also provided information regarding their annual training volume.

Table 4 represents the cumulative number of hours each swimmer spent in (1) swim

training designed specifically to enhance swimming performance, and (2) training in

all athletic activities, up to the time of their first significant international competitive

achievement. Age at the time of that achievement was also noted. The average age

for the 7 elite swimmers in Table 4 was 19.3 years and their mean accumulated

hours of deliberate practice in Table 4 was 7,129 hours of swimming and 8,898

hours in all activities. The mean hours that the sub-elite swimmers spent engaged in

swimming specific activities prior to their most significant achievement was 7,819,

Table 2. Swimming achievement milestones of each swimmer

Swimmer #(and gender)

Age at which the swimmer:

Began

competitive

swimming

Achieved

state, national,

international

performance

Decided to be

an elite swimmer

Non-swimming

activities to

improve swimming

E1 (f) 5 7, 12, 14 12 17

E2 (f) 7 12, 13, N/A Has not yet

(currently

14 years of

age)

12

E3a (f) 8 12, 15, 17 17 15

E3b (f) 6 12, 13, 17 12 16

E4 (m) 7 15, 16, 20 16 13

E5 (m) 8 15, 20, 23 19 14

E6a (m) 15 18, 19, 22 18 14

E6b (m) 16 16, 18, 19 16 16

S1 (f) 11 11, 15, N/A Did not 15

S2a (f) 5 15, N/A, N/A Has not yet

(currently 16)

15

S2b (f) 7 12, N/A, N/A Has not yet

(currently 13)

N/A

S2c (f) 4 13, 16, N/A Did not N/A

S3 (m) 12 N/A, N/A, N/A Did not 14

S4a (m) 6 14, 16, N/A 16 13

S4b (m) 9 16, 18, N/A 19 13

S5 (m) 7 16, 20, N/A Did not 14

S6a (m) 7 14, 17, N/A 17 15

6b (m) 7 15, 17, N/A 17 15

S6c (f) 8 15, 17, N/A 17 18


while this group’s average for all activities was 9,196 hours. The average age of the 9

sub-elites swimmers in Table 4 was 20.3 years.

A comparison between the means of the two groups’ ages in Table 4 reveals little

difference, i.e., the sub-elite group was 1.0 years older than the elite group. Prior to

highest accomplishments, sub-elite swimmers spent on average 690 hours more (i.e.,

9.7%) more than elite group deliberately practicing swimming. Moreover, the sub-

elite swimmers spent, on average, 298 hours (i.e., 3.3%) more than their elite

counterparts deliberately practicing all activities.

Figure 2 illustrates the elite and sub-elite group’s mean hours of deliberate

practice by age for (1) swimming activities, (2) swimming and non-swimming

activities directly related to improving swimming performance, and (3) all activities.

The left panels of Figure 2 reflect the number of hours practiced each year, while the

right panels illuminate the accumulation of those annual hours, from the ages of 6 to

24 years. The cumulative mean hours illustrated at each age in Figure 2 reflect data

for those swimmers who were actively swimming at each age so as to account for the

Table 3. Non-swimming activities each swimmer was engaged in before and during swimming

career

Swimmer # Swimming related activities Non-swimming related activities

E1 Physical therapy, weights, spinning Triathlon, synchronized swimming

E2 Physical therapy Soccer, basketball, golf, computer chatting

w/friends

E3a Physical therapy, weights, dryland(1)

work, spinning, running

Dance, basketball, soccer, skiing,

gymnastics

E3b Weights, running Softball, soccer, gymnastics, cooking, violin

E4 Weights, dryland(1) work, stretch

cords

Tennis, soccer, piano

E5 Weights, structured flexibility work Soccer, basketball

E6a Dryland(1) work, stretch cords Soccer, waterpolo, baseball, football, drums

E6b Dryland(1) work, stretch cords Golf, soccer, basketball, baseball

S1 Weights Soccer, softball, diving, cheerleading, piano

S2a Running Clarinet

S2b None Running, soccer, cello

S2c None None

S3 Weights Baseball, piano

S4a Weights, dryland(1) work, physical

therapy, stretch cords

Baseball, soccer, tennis, piano

S4b Weights, dryland(1) work, physical

therapy, stretch cords

Soccer, tennis, piano

S5 Dryland(1) work, weights Basketball, baseball, piano

S6a Dryland(1) work, weights Soccer, basketball

S6b Dryland(1) work, weights Baseball, soccer, motocross bicycle, trumpet

S6c Dryland(1) work, weights Netball, field hockey, ballet

1Dryland work includes abdominal work (sit-ups, crunches…), core body exercises, yoga, Pilates,

and medicine balls.


late start of some swimmers (e.g., E6a and E6b), and the youthful ages of E2, S2a,

and S2b.

Visual inspection of Figure 2 indicates that the mean hours practicing of the elite

and sub-elite groups are very similar. At the age of 11 the average for each group’s

cumulative hours of deliberate practice in swimming exceeded 1,000 hours for the

first time. At the age of 19 years the mean of each group exceeded 5,000 hours, with

the sub-elite swimmers having engaged in slightly more hours, 5,138 and 5,090,

respectively. The only age at which these two groups meaningfully differ is after the

age of 22; an age most sub-elite swimmers ceased their swimming activities.

Both groups participated in approximately the same amount of deliberate prac-

tice in all activities from the ages of 6 to 12 (see Figure 2, panel c). At age 13,

however, the total number of hours engaged in by members of the elite group began

to exceed the hours engaged in by members of the sub-elite group. During the

swimmers’ 13th year of age the mean hours of deliberate practice for the elite group

was 19.9% more than the mean for the sub-elite group. From the ages of 14 through

18 the elite swimmers’ mean annual hours exceeded those of the sub-elite group by

40.5%, 6.7%, 13.4%, 34.0%, and 18.9%. Additionally, from the ages of 14 to 18 the

elite group’s mean cumulative hours of deliberate practice exceeded the sub-elites

group’s mean 4.8%, 5.1%, 6.3%, 9.4%, and 10.2%. Furthermore, after the age of

17, both groups’ mean annual hours of deliberate practice decreased. The causes for

this decrease were twofold: (1) the focus of the swimmers’ training shifted to a

greater emphasis on quality over quantity, and (2) the impact of injuries on the hours

spent training.

Table 4. Swimmers’ age and cumulative hours of deliberate practice in competitive swimming and

all activities at their first significant achievement

Swimmer # Age Hours of Deliberate Practice

Swim Focus All Activities

E1 (f) 16 7,488 8,640

E3a (f) 18 5,022 6,754

E3b (f) 18 8,032 8,656

E4 (m) 21 10,099 11,319

E5 (m) 22 10,019 10,295

E6a (m) 22 6,289 7,587

E6b (m) 19 2,956 9,036

S1 (f) 16 3,600 7,200

S2c (f) 18 7,866 7,866

S3 (f) 22 5,928 7,840

S4a (m) 19 8,622 10,434

S4b (m) 20 8,253 9,473

S5 (m) 22 9,978 10,624

S6a (m) 22 9,984 10,993

S6b (m) 22 6,155 6,843

S6c (f) 22 9,987 11,491


Figure 2. Mean annual and cumulative hours the swimmers of each group spent deliberately

practicing (a) swimming, (b) swimming and non-swimming activities directly related to enhancing

swimming performance, and (c) all activities, by age and skill level


The similarities and differences between these two groups of swimmers revealed in

Tables 1–4 and Figure 2 necessitated additional analyses to provide further insight

into the factors that play a role in the development of athletic expertise. As an initial

probe the members of each group were compared among themselves. Figures 3 and

4 illustrate each individual’s hours of deliberate practice. Figure 3 consists of the

annual (left panel) and cumulative (right panel) hours each (1) elite and (2) sub-elite

swimmer spent deliberately practicing activities that were designed specifically to

enhance swimming performance. Figure 4 includes each swimmer’s hours of

deliberate practice in all domains, not merely those designed specifically to enhance

swimming performance.

Every swimmer led a very active life; none spent much time engaging in sedentary/

diversionary activities. However, numerous differences among this study’s swimmers

emerged. At the age of 16, members of the elite group had accumulated between 196

Figure 3. Annual and cumulative hours each (a) elite and (b) sub-elite swimmer spent deliberately

practicing activities designed specifically to enhance swimming performance, by age


(E6b) and 7,488 (E1) hours of deliberate swimming practice. At age 20 the gap

ranged from a low of 4,156 (E6b) to a high of 12,048 (E1). However, by this age

both E1 and E6b were Olympic gold medalists, E6b owned one world record, and

E1 had recorded the 3rd best time in history in her two primary events. Additionally,

E1 had been the top ranked swimmer in those events for 5 years.

The sub-elite swimmers showed a commensurate breadth in their developmental

training experiences. S4a had 5,639 hours of deliberate practice at age of 16, while

S3 had accumulated 2,160 hours at the same age. By the age of 20 the cumulative

hours of deliberate practice that members of the sub-elite had engaged in ranged

from 4,815 (S6b) to 9,694 (S2c). Furthermore, prior to qualifying for the U.S.

Olympic Trials, S1 accumulated 3,600 hours of deliberate swimming practice,

whereas S4a had engaged in 7,634 hours before he qualified for the same

competition. However, S4a began his swimming career at a far younger age than S1.

Figure 4. Annual and cumulative hours each (a) elite and (b) sub-elite swimmer spent deliberately

practicing all activities, by age


Interestingly, the number of hours engaged in deliberate practice by select sub-elite

swimmers at the time of their highest achievement were 7,866 hours for S2c (U.S.

Junior National Champion), 8,253 hours for S4b (U.S. National Championships

Rookie of the Meet), and 9,987 hours for S6c (College Conference Most Valuable

Performer). Furthermore, S1 engaged in the largest amount of deliberate practice in

any one year of those in the sub-elite group, i.e., 1,200 hours during the age of 18

years. This one-year total was only exceeded by E1 who was the second most

decorated female swimmer in her discipline in the history of the sport. Ironically,

after her 18th year of age swimmer S1 quit the sport.

In summary, differences between each group’s average number of hours spent

deliberately practicing was minimal. However, there were dramatic differences

among all 19 swimmers, regardless of skill-level, in (1) the number of hours spent

deliberately practicing, (2) the number and type of activities they participated during

their development, and (3) the age at which activities, including swimming,

commenced.

Discussion

Theories averring to explain the development of expert sport performance (e.g.,

Bloom, 1985; Cote, 1999; Ericsson et al., 1993) guided this study’s questions and

method of investigation. The principles of deliberate practice and the stages of elite

athletic development were constructed via analyses of experts’ hours practiced in

multiple domains. One way to potentially strengthen the conclusions drawn from

these empirical works is to conduct research that goes beyond the accounts and

experiences of elite and novice athletes by initiating research methods that are more

sensitive to differences between elite and sub-elite athletes who had similar

developmental experiences. Findings from this study and from previous research

can neither individually nor collectively, definitively indicate whether (1) deliberate

practice leads to expert performance, or (2) people who possess the potential for

expert performance are able to engage in copious amounts of deliberate practice.

Some individuals in this study engaged in deliberate practice while being exposed to

a facilitative environment, yet they did not achieve expert performances. Differences

in peoples’ inherent physical and psychological attributes may impact their potential

level of achievement in a specific domain.

This study reconstructed the developmental experiences and stages of 8 elite and

11 sub-elite swimmers, all of whom engaged in copious amounts of swimming and/

or non-swimming activities when young. Research has illustrated that early

specialization in one, or a limited number of sports, may negatively impact the

development of athletic expertise. Too much specialization too early or too intensely

may be antithetical with respect to optimal athletic development (Baker, 2003).

There may be physiological and psychological advantages to engaging in a greater

variety of activities during one’s athletic development providing the athlete with the

opportunity to develop a greater assortment of facilitative coping options. Evidence

presented in Table 3 somewhat supports the contention that engaging in multiple


sports during one’s development is positively correlated with a high level of

performance in swimming. It also appears that engaging in multiple activities when

young may not be a differentiating factor leading to expert athletic performance.

There are apparently other factors that interact with non-swimming sport

involvement that facilitate or inhibit the achievement of elite swimming performance

as all of the swimmers in this study were very accomplished athletes. Data from this

study support the concept that in some cases there must be something in addition to

exposure to a broad athletic environment that mediates eventual athletic

performance level as this study’s elite swimmers participated in a broad range of

activities during their first two developmental stages.

The findings here also delineated a number of achievement milestones in an effort

to uncover any potential effect these had on eventual athletic performance. As these

data illuminate, neither (1) the age at which an individual initially engaged in the

sport of swimming, (2) the age at which they decided to be an elite swimmer, nor (3)

the age when the swimmer began non-swimming activities with the purpose of

improving their swimming performance differentiated between swimmers who

achieved elite swimming performance and those failed. However, there does appear

to be a difference between groups in the ability to explicitly express the wish to

become a world-class performer. All 7 of the adult elite swimmers explicitly

expressed this intention and their statements of intent were confirmed via interviews

with their coaches and parents. Only 5 of the 9 adult sub-elite swimmers made such

a concrete statement.

A third aspect that received substantial attention in this study involved the number

of annual hours each swimmer engaged in deliberate practice over the span of their

careers. Intergroup homogeneity was found in the mean hours of deliberate practice

that each group engaged in. However, the sub-elite group, on average, accumulated

more hours of deliberate practice up to the age of 20, which is approximately the age

at which 10,000 hours of deliberate practice was reported in other domains

(Ericsson et al., 1993). This may indicate a rather significant finding in this study. A

number of elite swimmers attained elite performances long before reaching the

10,000-hour milestone, while some of the elite swimmers never reached 10,000

hours over the course of their entire careers, indicating both person and task-specific

features must be considered in this line of research.

Intra-group differences in hours of deliberate practice were greater than were the

inter-group differences. This indicates the highly idiosyncratic nature of elite athletic

development. For example, two salient comparisons, as they relate to the current

theoretical bases of expert athletic development, were: (1) the swimmers from Site 4,

and (2) swimmers E1 and E6b. The swimmers from Site 4 are of interest because the

three are brothers. Their training site offered a unique opportunity for under-

standing expert development as all three young men grew up in the same household,

trained with the same club team and coach, and attended the same high school and

university. All three trained with and competed for the same university at the same

time. The middle son earned a gold medal at the 2004 Athens Olympics. His

brothers qualified for and competed in the U.S. National Championships, yet


neither of these two ranked in the top 50 in the world. The individual who coached

them from the ages of 14 to 18 years provided perhaps the most thought-provoking

statement during the approximately 45 hours of interview data collected when he

stated: ‘Hard work beats talent, until talent decides to work hard.’ His comment

succinctly expresses the primary hypothesis of this study. Data collected from these

three swimmers, their coach, and their mother illustrated a number of common-

alities and differences among them. One of the consistent behaviors they all

exhibited was a willingness to train rigorously with the goal of being the best

swimmer in the world. However, to date, only one of them achieved this status.

There is a distinct possibility that, in addition to effortful and intelligently applied

work, there are other factors leading to exceptional athletic performances.

A comparison between swimmers E1 and E6b is also of significant interest.

Swimmer E1 started swimming at the age of 6 years, exhibited exceptionally strong

motivational tendencies, and engaged in years of practice resulting in a 5-year span

(i.e., age 16–20 years) as the top ranked swimmer in her discipline in the world.

Swimmer E6b did not begin his competitive swimming career, from a deliberate

practice perspective, until he was a senior in high school (i.e., at age 17). Within

eight months he was one of the top swimmers in the world in his discipline. A year

later he won an Olympic gold medal in Sydney, Australia. His swimming experience

in terms of the amount of deliberate swimming practice was far less than E1’s;

however, his motivational capacity, self-awareness, and attentional focus were highly

similar to E1’s. It appears that factors in addition to those found in deliberate

practice play a major role in expertise development. In the case of E6b, these other

factors worked with his physical training in a systemic manner that permitted him to

become a World Record holder in swimming after less than two years of competitive

swimming. Limited swimming practice, and a lack of domain-specific learned

coping skills, have not constrained his performance attainment, strongly indicating

the presence of unmeasured talent-related factors that played a substantial role in

E6b’s elite achievement.

The case studies presented in this research lend support for, and expansion of,

Ericsson et al.’s (1993) concept of deliberate practice. For example, E1 earned a

bronze medal at the World Swimming Championships at the age of 14, which was

well before she accumulated 10,000 hours of deliberate practice. E6b reached the

highest level of performance with even fewer hours of deliberate practice. As

previously noted, three individuals who all experienced the same parents, training

facilities, and workload achieved different levels of performance. Based on the

evidence provided by these and the other 14 swimmers in this study, the principles

included in the concept of deliberate practice are an important part of understanding

the factors involved in achieving elite athletic performance. There appears to be

some additional factor(s) involved, and it is likely that one of those factors is a

natural one, i.e., genetic predisposition.

E1’s comments at the conclusion of her interview imply that the concept of

deliberate practice does not fully explain expert athletic achievement. Her answer

to the question: ‘What do you feel contributes to a swimmer achieving top


performances (e.g., world records) vs. excellent performances?’ included a number

of statements. She reported that she has a very supportive group of people in her life,

and that it has always been her goal to be the best, her willingness to make sacrifices

and work hard that were vital to her eventual achievement level and not someone

else’s. Additionally, she reported:

There were a number of people that worked with me in the distance group and did

pretty much stroke for stroke, yard for yard that I did. But maybe not as hard… I think

the difference may have been focus, desire.

She then added, ‘I think talent plays a role too.’ This is potentially of great

importance because her decade-long history of performing at the highest level in

swimming has led her to an understanding that there is likely an additional factor

(i.e., talent) that some possess and others lack. Additionally, she feels that this factor

plays a role in one’s athletic potential. All 41 participants reported that it is their

impression that talent plays a role in achieving elite swimming performance.

It is apparent from the data presented in this study that the presence of an expert

coach who has a history of guiding athletes to the highest performance level may be a

highly facilitative, yet insufficient environmental stimulus for some athletes to reach

elite performance levels. Thus, it is reasonable to assume that there may be other, as

yet unobservable, factors in addition to the deliberate practice time one engages in

that mediate performance level in sports, i.e., genetic predispositions. Lyubomirsky

(2001) proposed that it may be possible for genes and traits to influence one’s

performance level indirectly via intervening, and potentially malleable, cognitive and

motivational processes. An interaction among factors such as one’s physical

attributes and psychological skills may exist in a manner that mediates one’s

performance level in athletic domains.

An individual’s ability to even engage in deliberate practice may be impacted by

their psychological predispositions. Recently, Bonanno (2004) addressed differences

in people’s resilience and resistance to stress. Bonanno noted that when confronted

with stress there are multiple, and sometimes unexpected, pathways to resilience,

and that some people continue to have positive emotional experiences, and show

only minor and transient disruptions in their ability to function relative to others. In

the sport domain this may mean that some people have a predisposition to positively

managing the stress associated with training and competing, i.e., engage in high

levels of deliberate practice.

A theory of expertise development in the motor domain must extend Ericsson

et al.’s (1993) deliberate practice principles. For example, Figure 5 presents a 4-

factor model of expert athletic development which is very similar to the model

presented in Figure 1. This 4-factor model posits that there is likely an interac-

tion among (1) hard, idiosyncratically appropriate workloads, (2) a supportive

environment, (3) one’s facilitative coping skills, and (4) an athlete’s predis-

position to achieve exceptional athletic performance. Physical and psychological

predispositions dictated at the moment of conception impact one’s future ability to

implement high effort (i.e., deliberate practice) and positively interact with a

supportive environment via facilitative coping strategies when encountering life’s


challenges and learning opportunities (i.e., resiliency). How these factors develop

and interact to mediate athletic achievement are fruitful and vital areas of future

research.

A number of studies lend support to the 4-factor model of elite athletic

development proposed in this study. Mallett and Hanrahan (2004) illustrated

several processes that appear to be associated with elite track and field athletes

including (1) high motivation with personal goals, (2) high self-efficacy, and (3)

sport being central in the life of the athlete. The development of these processes

at a young age is likely a prerequisite of later elite performance. Additionally,

Minuchin et al. (1978) proposed a ‘systems theory’ positing that organisms tend to

maintain themselves within preferred ranges. Potential change that is perceived as

too great, too sudden, or too far beyond a subjective threshold of tolerance, is

likely to produce behavior moving the system back toward its pre-existing

homeostatic state. Therefore, once an athlete constructs their strategies for

interacting with the self and the environment, they will likely behave in a manner

congruent with maintaining this state. In some situations these schema may move

the athlete toward elite performance, and in others they may impede advancement to

the top. The system involved in the development of expert athletic performance

appears to be highly idiosyncratic and multidimensional. The 4-factor model of

expert athletic development proposed here conceptualizes the idiosyncratic and

systemic nature of expert athletic development. Athletes of differing performance

levels may encounter similarly supportive environments (e.g., coach, training

opportunities, and familial support) and early success, yet their eventual

performance levels may differ.

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expert athletic performance


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