Stream Shade and Canopy Cover 14-1 Water Quality Monitoring GuidebookVersion 2.0

Addendum to Water Quality

Monitoring Technical Guide Book:

Chapter 14

Stream Shade and CanopyCover Monitoring Methods

This document is designed as an additionalchapter to the Water Quality Monitoring:Technical Guidebook (OWEB July 1999).Many of the broader monitoring conceptspresented in the Water Quality MonitoringTechnical Guidebook apply to shade andriparian cover monitoring. Please add this toyour current version 2.0 as chapter 14.

Credits

This chapter was developed by a StreamShade Monitoring Team formed in 2000 as asubcommittee to the Oregon Plan for Salmonand Watersheds Monitoring Team. The workgroup was comprised of representatives fromOregon Department of Environmental Quality(DEQ ), Oregon Department of Forestry(ODF), Oregon Department of Fish andWildlife (ODF&W), and Oregon State Uni-versity Extension, Bioengineering, and RangeDepartments. Key contributors to theseguidelines included: Liz Dent, MichealMulvey, Dennis Ades, Barry Thom, JerryClinton, Derek Godwin, Kathy Lowson,Tamzen Stringham, and Greg Pettit. Theprotocol relies heavily on protocols devel-oped by the DEQ, ODF, EPA, ODF&W, andOSU. Valuable review comments on earlierdrafts from Mack Barrington, Bob Beschta,Ken Bierly, Rick Hafele, Phil Kaufmann,Bruce McIntosh, Scott Peets, Steve Ralph,Paul Ringold, and John Runyon were greatlyappreciated.

Stream Shade and Canopy Cover 14-2 Water Quality Monitoring GuidebookVersion 2.0

Table of Contents

Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 5

Shade Versus Canopy Cover ..................................................................................................................... 5Study Design ............................................................................................................................................................ 7

Reach Scale Questions and Analyses ........................................................................................................ 7Monitoring Changes in Shade that Result from Management or Restoration Activities ........................................ 7Comparing Shade Under Different Management Strategies ................................................................................... 8

Watershed Scale Questions and Analyses ................................................................................................ 9Multiple Reach Analyses for Watershed Trends ...................................................................................................... 9

Regional Scale Analyses ........................................................................................................................... 10

Selecting A “Representative” Reach ....................................................................................................... 10

Selecting A “Reference” Reach ............................................................................................................... 10

Sampling Designs .......................................................................................................................................11Procedure for Establishing The Sample Reach ...................................................................................................... 11Field Methods ......................................................................................................................................................... 13

Method Comparison ................................................................................................................................ 13

Densiometer .............................................................................................................................................. 13Equipment ............................................................................................................................................................... 13Procedure ................................................................................................................................................................ 15Complex Channels: Islands, Bars and Side Channels ........................................................................................... 16Data Analysis .......................................................................................................................................................... 16Measurement Precision .......................................................................................................................................... 17

Clinometer ................................................................................................................................................. 18Equipment ............................................................................................................................................................... 18Procedure ................................................................................................................................................................ 18Data Analysis .......................................................................................................................................................... 19Precision ................................................................................................................................................................. 19

Hemispherical Photography .................................................................................................................... 19Equipment ............................................................................................................................................................... 20Procedure ................................................................................................................................................................ 21Photo Processing and Analysis............................................................................................................................... 21

Shade measurement using the Solar Pathfinder© ................................................................................ 24Equipment ............................................................................................................................................................... 25Procedure ................................................................................................................................................................ 25Data Analysis .......................................................................................................................................................... 26Precision ................................................................................................................................................................. 26

Stream Shade and Canopy Cover 14-3 Water Quality Monitoring GuidebookVersion 2.0

Photo Documentation ............................................................................................................................... 26Equipment ............................................................................................................................................................... 27Procedure ................................................................................................................................................................ 27Data Analysis .......................................................................................................................................................... 29Precision ................................................................................................................................................................. 29

Ancillary Data ........................................................................................................................................... 32Equipment Vendors ................................................................................................................................................ 33Contacts .................................................................................................................................................................. 34References .............................................................................................................................................................. 34

List of Figures

Figure 14-1. Shade (measured with a solar pathfinder) versus canopy cover (densiometer). .................................. 6

Figure 14-2. Shade (measured with a fisheye camera) versus cover (densiometer). ................................................ 6

Figure 14-3. Schematic of theoretical monitoring reaches. ....................................................................................... 8

Figure 14-4. Study designs for different scales of interest and different types of monitoring. .............................. 12

Figure 14-5. Schematic of modified convex spherical canopy densiometer). ........................................................ 15

Figure 14-6. Study reach with 11 sample transects and example of 6 densiometer measurements

taken at each transect. ......................................................................................................................... 15

Figure 14-7. Canopy Cover Form. ........................................................................................................................... 16

Figure 14-8. Comparison of repeat densiometer measurements taken in the center of the channel only. ............. 17

Figure 14-9. Comparison of repeat densiometer measurements taken along channel margins only .. .................. 17

Figure 14-10. Use of the clinometer to estimate topographic (30°) and vegetative shade (55°) angles. ................. 18

Figure 14-11. Comparison of repeat cover measurements using a clinometer. ........................................................ 19

Figure 14-12. Examples of hemispherical (fish-eye) photographs taken at a site in the Coast Range (left)

and at a site in Eastern Oregon (right). ............................................................................................... 20

Figure14-13. Sample field data form for recording hemispherical photography field data. ................................... 22

Figure 14-14. Solar Pathfinder Apparatus ................................................................................................................. 24

Figure 14-15. Trees and other shade producing features are reflected on the Solar Pathfinder dome.. ................... 25

Figure 14-16. Solar Pathfinder sunpath diagram for latitudes 43o to 49o N. ............................................................. 25

Stream Shade and Canopy Cover 14-4 Water Quality Monitoring GuidebookVersion 2.0

Figure 14-17. Duplicate shade measurements at seven sites. .................................................................................... 26

Figure 14-18. Comparison of Solar Pathfinder “August” shade measurements taken at the

same locations in May and July. ......................................................................................................... 26

Figure 14-19. Relationship between the camera point, where the camera is located, and the photo points. ........... 36

Figure 14-20. Photographs taken at the study reach in 1975 and 1981. ................................................................... 28

Figure 14-21. Photo including an identification board (hand held) .......................................................................... 29

Figure 14-22. Site Description and Location form (Hall, 1999). .............................................................................. 30

Figure 14-23. Camera and photo point locations form (Hall, 1999). ........................................................................ 31

List of Tables

Table 14-1. Comparison of shade measurement methods. .................................................................................... 14

Table 14-2. Mean Difference in Repeat Canopy Closure Measurement. .............................................................. 18

Table 14-3. Sample of some of the output values with HemiView” analysis software. ........................................ 23

Table 14-4. Equipment Vendors ............................................................................................................................. 33

Stream Shade and Canopy Cover 14-5 Water Quality Monitoring GuidebookVersion 2.0

Chapter 14

Stream Shade and Canopy Cover Monitoring Methods

Introduction

Riparian areas provide a number of importantfunctions that benefit salmonids and salmonidhabitat. For example, large conifer trees thatfall into the stream from the riparian areaprovide critical fish habitat structure andcomplexity that benefit fish reproduction andrefuge needs. Other riparian functions in-clude, but are not limited to, bank stabiliza-tion, flood plain development, nutrient inputsfor aquatic insects, and stream shade. Thischapter only addresses stream shade andcover measurement and at this time does notaddress riparian composition and structure.The fact that stream shade is the only ripariancomponent addressed is not meant to mini-mize the importance of the other ripariancomponents. On the contrary, the compositionand structure (e.g. species and size classdistributions, understory components, dis-tance from stream, etc.) of the riparian areacan affect any or all of these functions andmay be of equal or greater interest to the user.Various techniques for monitoring these otherriparian components are being used by Or-egon State University (Borman and Chamber-lain), Oregon Department of Forestry (ODF1996, 1999), Department of EnvironmentalQuality (Mulvey et al 1992), Oregon Depart-ment of Fish and Wildlife(ODF&W 1998),EPA (Kaufman and Robison 1998, Bauer andBurton 1983), and US Forest Service (Plattset al 1987). Please contact these groups ifmore information is desired on this topic (Seethe mentors section at the end of this chapter).

Stream Shade Versus Canopy Cover

Shade is the amount of solar energy that isobscured or reflected by vegetation or topog-raphy above a stream. It is expressed in unitsof energy per unit area per unit time, or as apercent of total possible energy. Canopy

cover is the percent of the sky covered byvegetation or topography. Shade producingfeatures will cast a shadow on the water whilecanopy cover may not. Two trees of equalsize and distance from the stream channel,one on the north bank and the other on thesouth bank of a stream with an east-weststream channel, would have exactly the samecontribution to stream canopy cover whilemaking very different contributions to streamshade. Unlike the tree on the south bank, thetree on the north bank would cast little, if any,shadow on the stream. Of the measurementdevices described in this chapter, thedensiometer and clinometer both measurecanopy cover while solar pathfinder andhemispherical photography measure bothshade and canopy cover. Stream aspect can becombined with clinometer measurements tocalculate stream shade. Information is pro-vided in this chapter to assist in making thechoice on which device to use.

There are several reasons for monitoringstream shade or canopy cover, and monitoringdesigns will vary accordingly. The mostcommon motive for monitoring shade orcover is in relation to stream temperature.There are many factors that affect streamtemperature (incoming solar radiation, outgo-ing longwave radiation, evaporative andconductive heat transfers, channel morphol-ogy, heat capacity of water, volume of water)some of which are outside the control ofmanagement practices. Stream shade is onefactor that both affects stream temperatureand is also sensitive to management practices.Also, in the summer, it is direct solar radia-tion that plays the dominant role in warmingstreams. Therefore, providing shade to astream is one of the most important mecha-nisms that mitigates potential negative effectsof land management on stream temperature.

Stream Shade and Canopy Cover 14-6 Water Quality Monitoring GuidebookVersion 2.0

By monitoring shade in conjunction withstream temperature the land manager canbegin to evaluate relationships betweenmanagement practices and water quality.

Cover measures can be used as a surrogate orindex of shade. Both cover and shade mea-surements are valuable for tracking changesin riparian characteristics which may occur asa result of management or restoration activi-ties. The relationship between stream tem-

perature and cover is variable, particularly ifthe canopy cover is neither exceptionally highnor low. Figures 14-1 and 14-2 compareshade to cover data collected at the samelocations using different tools. Clearly shadeincreases as cover increases. However, thevariability about the lines (r2 = 0.62 and 0.72)indicate that the composition of the stream-side vegetation ulitmately dictates the amountof shade that will be cast on the stream.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Densiometer: % Canopy Cover

= measurements

= 1:1 line

= regression line

♦

Solar Pathfinder: % Shade

y = 0.8233x + 8.6962

R2= 0.6185

y = 0.6514x + 17.121

R2 = 0.7228

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

0 20 40 60 80 100

Shade: Fisheye Photos (%)

Cover: Measured with a Densiometer (%)

= measurements

= 1:1 line

= regression line

♦

Figure 14-2. Shade (measured with a fisheye camera) versus cover (densiometer).

Figure 14-1. Shade (measured with a solar pathfinder) versus canopy cover (densiometer).

Stream Shade and Canopy Cover 14-7 Water Quality Monitoring GuidebookVersion 2.0

The data in figure 14.1 were collected fromforested streams in the Nestucca River basinin north western Oregon, summer 1999. Eachcomparison is an average of three transectswithin a 200- to 500-foot long reach. (Pro-vided by Larry Caton, Oregon DEQ. ) Thedata for figure 14-2 were collected in North-east Oregon and Northwest Oregon during thesummer of 1999 and were contributed by theOregon Department of Forestry (Liz Dent).Each comparison is a reach average. Reachlength varied from 500 – 800 feet.

Chapters 2 and 3 of this guidebook providebackground information on how to design amonitoring plan and select field sites. Thischapter provides additional detail on studydesign as well as detailed field measurementprocedures for measuring stream shade andcover. Six different tools for measuringstream shade are presented. The user of thischapter can decide which tool to use based onavailable resources and the particular moni-toring question being asked.

Study Design

Riparian vegetation characteristics (standdensity, height, species composition, proxim-ity to stream) and channel characteristics(width and constraint) affect canopy coverand shade over the stream. The riparianvegetation in turn is influenced by distur-bances such as wind, fire, flood and landmanagement practices. Riparian vegetativetrends are also dependent on local geomor-phology and channel constraint. For example,terraces, meandering channels, abandonedchannels, beaver complexes, floodplains, andwetland areas are common in unconstrainedsystems. These variable conditions favorsome tree and shrub species over others andthus result in patchy vegetation types. Con-strained reaches commonly have less geomor-phic and vegetative variability than uncon-strained reaches. The OWEB WatershedAssessment Manual (WPN 1999) describesclassification methods that can be used todefine vegetation type (riparian conditionunit) and channel type (channel habitat type).

Use of that classification system in the shademonitoring study design can be used toaccount for the variability in riparian andchannel characteristics and disturbanceregimes.

The study design presented in this chapter isclosely aligned with the field protocolsdescribed in section 6 (physical habitatassessment) of the EPA EnvironmentalMonitoring and Assessment Program (E-MAP)(Klemm and Lazorchak 1994). The E-MAPmethodology was intended for evaluatingphysical habitat in wadeable streams duringlow flow. The design requires systematicintervals for measurements (i.e. every 100feet) rather than habitat-based intervals (i.eevery time the habitat type changes measure-ments are taken) and therefore results can bereadily compared to other systematicallycollected data.

Chapter 2 (Monitoring Strategy and Plan) ofthis guidebook describes the basic compo-nents of a monitoring plan. The objectives orspecific questions determine the appropriatescale, data analyses, and type of monitoringapproach that will be used. The followingdiscussion gives examples of shade-monitor-ing questions and how those questions influ-ence the study design. The questions areorganized under three scales: reach, water-shed, and region. See Appendix B for a moredetailed discussion of monitoring types (i.e.baseline, trend, implementation, and effec-tiveness).

Reach Scale Questions and Analyses

Monitoring Changes in Shade that Resultfrom Management or Restoration ActivitiesThe reach scale is commonly used to monitoreffectiveness of specific management prac-tices, water quality management plans, andrestoration efforts. It is important to select areach which is representative of the manage-ment or restoration activity. How to select arepresentative reach is discussed in greaterdetail below. Collection of pre-treatment datagreatly enhances the ability to answer effec-tiveness questions. Measurements collected

Stream Shade and Canopy Cover 14-8 Water Quality Monitoring GuidebookVersion 2.0

upstream and downstream of the managementpractice can also be utilized to understandeffectiveness of management practices andstrategies. Reach scale monitoring efforts arepoint measurements that can be aggregated tolarger scales depending on sample design,budget and time. Example questions include:

1. Have shade levels increase as a result ofmodifying riparian vegetation from grassand shrubs to trees?

2. How much have shade levels increasedover the next 5, 10, 15, and 20 years?

The study design would consist of measuringshade levels before the treatment, then afterthe treatment at 5-year intervals. The datawould be collected in one reach (Figure 14-3:sites B, C, or E).

Comparing Shade Under Different Manage-ment StrategiesThe user may be interested in monitoring theeffectiveness of different management activi-ties along different stream reaches. Under thisscenario the study reaches should have thesame vegetation potential, valley and channeltype. This assures the project is testing theeffects of the management practices and notinherent differences that would have occurredwith or without management. Examplequestions include:

1. How do the shade levels in an unmanagedor “reference” reach compare with treatedagricultural reaches?The study design would establish samplereaches along reference and treatedreaches. Average shade or cover along thereference reach E (Figure 14-3) are thencompared with average shade fromreaches B and C.

A

B

D

E

C

Reach Descriptions

A – untreated grass and shrub riparian

area, pasture grazed by livestock

B – treated riparian area by fencing and

planting trees and excluding livestock

grazing

C – treated riparian area by fencing and

planting trees and allowing rotational live-

stock grazing

D – untreated riparian area with shrubs

and trees, amount of shade is below its

potential amount

E – untreated riparian area with trees and

some shrubs, considered to represent the

amount of shade that A, B, C, and D could

attain (a.k.a. reference reach, see Chapter

3, page 4, for the criteria of reference

sites).

Figure 14-3. Schematic of theoretical monitoring reaches.

Stream Shade and Canopy Cover 14-9 Water Quality Monitoring GuidebookVersion 2.0

Watershed Scale Questions and Analyses

Multiple Reach Analyses for WatershedTrendsMonitoring efforts at the watershed scale canlook at effectiveness of treatments within thecontext of the larger system (e.g. percent ofstream miles shaded, downstream effects). Itis also useful for understanding trends, condi-tion, and disturbance regimes. The watershedscale is a particularly important scale forexamining historic watershed processes andhow the disturbance regime has shaped thecurrent condition. Finally, the watershed scaleis essential to examining cumulative effectsof natural disturbances (flood, fire, etc.) and avariety of practices (urban growth, roads,vegetation changes, etc.).

Watershed level questions might seek tounderstand trends in shade levels throughoutthe basin, how those change over time, andhow management affects those trends. Ex-ample questions include:

1. What percentage of streams in the water-shed have desired shade levels?

2. How do shade levels change over time?

3. Are there streams in the watershed withsignificant shade deficits relative toestablished reference conditions?

4. How do restoration and other manage-ment activities affect shade levels?

The study design would establish samplereaches distributed throughout differentchannel, valley, and vegetation types toaccount for the natural variability withinthe watershed. The samples have to benumerous enough to provide a reliableestimate of watershed condition. Averageshade or cover can them be comparedbetween multiple reaches. Results canalso be reported in terms of what percentof the watershed is in a given shadecondition for each of the channel, valleyand vegetation types. For example, 20%

2. How does the shade level of one treatedagricultural site compare to the other?

The study design would establish samplereaches within two differently managedagricultural reaches. Effectiveness oftreatments is evaluated by comparingshade or cover between reaches B and C(Figure 14-3).

Comparing Management Strategies onStreams with Different Channel, Valley, orVegetation TypesSometimes the channel, valley or vegetationtype has a greater effect on shade levels thanthe management strategy. In this case, thesame management strategy can be applied todifferent stream channel types to determinethe influence of other environmental condi-tions. For example a channel with steepvalley walls might have greater shade than achannel with a wide floodplain even if themanagement practices are the same. Like-wise, similar treatment strategies on differentvegetation types (i.e. fir versus pine, willowversus cottonwood) may result in differentshade levels. In this case, the channel typesmust be the same, but the vegetation types aredifferent. Example questions include:

1. Will the riparian treatment make a greaterdifference for valley-bottom streams thanit will for narrow-valley streams?

2. Do vegetation treatments in a white fir-dominated stand result in different shadelevels than in a pine-dominated stand?

The study designs would establish samplereaches along streams with similar man-agement activities but with differentchannel, valley or vegetation types.Average shade levels are then comparedbetween reaches.

Stream Shade and Canopy Cover 14-10 Water Quality Monitoring GuidebookVersion 2.0

of the streams sampled are providing theirmaximum amount of shade possible, 60%are providing half of their potential, and20% are providing 1/3 of their potential.Changes in shade over time can betracked by repeating the measurementsover time. Finally, the effectiveness ofmanagement activities can be evaluatedby nesting pre-management and post-management sample reaches within thestudy design.

Regional Scale Analyses

Regional scale monitoring efforts are typi-cally used to monitor trends in resourcecondition over large geographic areas (PacificNorthwest, State of Oregon) and long timeperiods (e.g. decades). This type of monitor-ing requires large sample sizes collected overlong periods of time. While monitoring at theregional scale is beyond the scope of thisdocument, an awareness of the approach isvaluable since regional monitoring effortsmight draw on local efforts.

To address questions posed at this scale, thesite selection needs to be probability based. Aspatially balanced probability design distrib-utes sample sites across the landscape, so thateach stream segment has an equal chance ofbeing sampled within the area in question. Asan example, The Oregon Department of Fishand Wildlife, Oregon Department of Environ-mental Quality and U.S. EnvironmentalProtection Agency have randomly selectedsites across the landscape to monitor streamhealth and fish populations. This is part of thestatewide monitoring of the Oregon Plan forSalmon and Watersheds. The sample siteswere selected using a Random TessellationStratified Design (Stevens, 1997). Sites weredistributed such that inferences can be madefor Gene Conservation Areas and the coast asa whole. However, because of the samplingdesign, data from these studies cannot be usedto make inferences at smaller scales such aswatersheds.

Selecting A “Representative” Reach

All sampling designs proposed in this chapterrequire multiple measures of shade or coverwithin a stream reach. A stream reach thatrepresents the shade or cover conditions to bemonitored is called a “representative” reach.This manual proposes three main characteris-tics to consider when choosing representativereaches. They include:

1. Channel Type: gradient, width, depth,constraint within the valley, substrate,sinuosity, etc.

2. Vegetation Type and Size: conifer, hard-wood, mixed tree, shrub, grassland, sizebased on diameter and height,

3. Treatment or Management Strategy:examples include fencing and plantingwith livestock exclusion, fencing andplanting with rotational grazing, increas-ing percentage of conifers and reducinghardwoods (and vise versa), reference(represents potential future condition), noactivity, forestry BMP’s

The OWEB Watershed Assessment Manual(WPN 1999) describes classification methodsthat can be used to define vegetation type andchannel type. Some variability is likely, butno major changes in channel type, vegetationtype, or management strategy should occurwithin the reach of stream that is going to bemonitored. This helps to assure that theresults are “representative” of the conditionbeing monitored. The stream should besurveyed prior to monitoring to determinewhere the major changes occur. The surveyresults define the maximum extent of thereach. The sample reach can be placed any-where within the “representative” reach andmay be determined based on where themanagement strategy has been implemented.

Selecting A “Reference” Reach

Reference reaches can be established todocument comparisons for “optimal” or

Stream Shade and Canopy Cover 14-11 Water Quality Monitoring GuidebookVersion 2.0

‘desired” conditions. Typically referencereaches represent the best available condi-tions and have minimal levels of anthropo-genic disturbance. Reference reaches shouldbe selected to represent variable disturbanceregimes that can be tracked over time. Be-cause of the great variability that exists inriparian characteristics throughout the state, itis important to recognize that each referencereach represents one possible condition thatwill change over time. Selecting a referencesite is described in detail in Reference siteselection: A six step approach for selectingreference sites for biomonitoring and streamevaluation studies. Technical Report BIO99-03 (Mrazik 1999). It is also discussed inChapter 3 of this guidebook.

Sampling Designs

Sample designs vary somewhat depending onthe scale of interest and the type of monitor-ing question that is being asked. This chapterproposes a design based on a reach withconsistent vegetation and channel types. Oncethe representative reach has been identified,the next step is to delineate the “sample”reach within the representative reach to bemeasured and determine the number ofsamples that will be collected (Figure 14-4).

The length of the “sample” reach is calculatedby multiplying the average wetted width by40. Studies indicate that this length of streamis necessary to adequately describe streamhabitat and biology (Kaufmann and Robison.1998), although the number and configurationof measurements may be different dependingon the needs of particular studies.

Procedure for Establishing The Sample Reach1. Survey the reach of interest to determine

where the major changes in vegetation,management, or channel morphologyoccur. Shifts in these characteristicsdefine the upper and lower limits of therepresentative reach.

2. Estimate the average wetted channelwidth by taking a few measurementsduring step 1.

3. Multiply the average wetted width by 40.This is the length of your sample reach.

4. The sample reach can be randomly placedwithin the reference reach, or establishedat a location which satisfies the objectivesof the study.

5. Divide the sample reach length by 10 todetermine the distance between transects.

6. Transects are placed perpendicular tostreamflow, numbered sequentially, andcan be marked with labeled flagging (i.e.Deer Creek Station 1).

7. Beginning at one end of the sample reach,shade or cover measurements are taken at11 evenly spaced transects. This samplescheme can be used for analyzing indi-vidual reaches, comparing one reach toanother, and analyzing multiple reaches ata watershed scale.

Stream Shade and Canopy Cover 14-12 Water Quality Monitoring GuidebookVersion 2.0

Scale

– Reach

Types of Monitoring

– Effectiveness of water quality manage-

ment plans

Selecting a Reach

– Consistent channel, vegetation, and man-

agement

Sample Scheme

– Sample length= 40 x channel width

– 11 evenly spaces shade measures

=sample

=representative reach

Scale

– Comparing multiple reaches

Types of Monitoring

– Effectiveness

– Comparisons under variable conditions

Selecting a Reach

– Different management strategies in

streams with similar reach types

Sample Scheme

– Sample length= 40 x channel width

– 11 evenly spaces shade measures

Scale

– Watershed

Types of Monitoring

– Trend over time and space

– Baseline

– Statue

Selecting a Reach

– sample reaches within similar channel

and vegetation types

Sample Scheme

– 30-50 sample reaches per channel, vege-

tation and management typesshaded areas indicate

different channel types

Figure 14-4. Study designs for different scales ofinterest and different types of monitoring.

Stream Shade and Canopy Cover 14-13 Water Quality Monitoring GuidebookVersion 2.0

This method measures canopy cover at 11evenly spaced transects over a length ofstream 40 times the channel width with a 150-meter minimum reach length. Six canopymeasurements are taken at each transect. Fourmeasurements are taken facing in differentdirections from the center of the stream andone is taken at each stream bank.

It is important to consider the seasonal flowand riparian vegetation conditions whenmeasuring cover using this method sincestream widths and deciduous vegetation covermeasurements will differ seasonally. Ideally,measurements would be taken during sea-sonal low flow periods each time to minimizethe effects of varying wetted widths. Lowflow conditions are usually a time of criticaltemperature stress to aquatic organisms andstream shade is important. Also, measure-ments should be taken during a time of yearwhen deciduous plants have leaves. Usuallycanopy measurements will not vary duringthe low flow season unless the canopy ispredominantly rapidly growing vegetation.

The densiometer reflects vegetation to thesides as well as overhead. Multiple measure-ments taken in different directions from thesame point will overlap vegetation measure-ments on the sides. The method describedhere is a modification of the instructions thatcome with the densiometer that corrects forthis bias by using only a portion of the mirrorsurface.

Equipment

1. Convex spherical densiometer (Model A)2. Tape measure3. Flagging4. Forms for recording data

Procedure

1. Tape the densiometer mirror exactly asshown in Figure 14-5.

Field Methods

This section describes how to measure shadeand cover using six different tools or meth-ods. The user will need to determine whichtool best fits their needs. What follows is acomparison of the different methods and thena detailed description of how to apply eachmethod. No matter which field method isdecided upon, the physical setting of thestream needs to be described as well. A listand brief description of ancillary data collec-tion is provided later in the chapter.

Method Comparison

All the tools presented in this manual basi-cally do the same thing: measure the propor-tion of sky that is shaded by vegetation ortopography. Which tool you choose dependson several factors including ease of use, cost,level of data precision desired, and the ques-tions asked of the monitoring data. Table 14-1is designed to help you make your choice.Each method is later described in detail in thischapter.

Densiometer

The procedure described in this section uses adensiometer to measure stream canopy cover.The device used in this procedure is a spheri-cal convex densiometer Model A (Lemon1957). The procedure is taken from theEnvironmental Monitoring and AssessmentProgram monitoring manual for streams(Kaufmann and Robison 1998), that is de-rived from Platts et al. (1987).

The densiometer is a small, convex, sphericalmirror with an engraved grid that reflects thecanopy over the stream. Canopy cover ismeasured by counting the grid intersectionscovered by vegetation. Measurements aretaken by holding the densiometer level and0.3 meters above the surface of the water.This standard height helps to minimize thepotential to get different results from peopleof different heights and to include the contri-bution of low hanging vegetation to streamcover.

Stream Shade and Canopy Cover 14-14 Water Quality Monitoring GuidebookVersion 2.0

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Stream Shade and Canopy Cover 14-15 Water Quality Monitoring GuidebookVersion 2.0

2. Following the procedures described in thestudy design section of this chapter (page12) establish 11 evenly spaced transectsalong the sample reach (Figure 14- 6).Transects can be flagged ahead of time, ifdesired.

3. Stand on the transect at mid-channelfacing upstream.

4. Hold the densiometer 0.3 meters abovethe water surface.

5. Hold the densiometer so that it is levelusing the level bubble indicator and thetop of your head just touches the point ofthe “V” as in Figure 14-5.

6. Count the number of points covered byvegetation. Values will be between 0 forcompletely open and 17 for completelycovered canopy.

7. Record the value on the canopy coverform under “Center-UP” (Figure 14-7).

8. Repeat steps 7 through 9 at the channelcenter facing towards the right bank,downstream and left bank. Record on thecanopy cover form. (Left and right direc-tions when facing downstream.)

9. Stand on the transect with the densiometer0.3 m from the left bank. Repeat steps 7through 9 and record on the canopy coverform.

10. Repeat for the right bank. At this pointyou should have six measurements for thetransect: four from the center and one ateach bank.

11. Repeat steps 7 through 14 for eachtransect and record on a separate line ofthe canopy cover form (Figure 14-7).

12. Canopy cover is usually represented asan average percent for either the center ormargins separately or combined for asingle canopy cover measurement for thestream reach.

Figure 14-5. Schematic of modified convexspherical canopy densiometer. In this example, 10of the 17 intersections show canopy cover, giving adensiometer reading of 10. Note proper positioningwith the bubble leveled and the head reflected atthe apex of the “V.” (Mulvey et al. 1992).

Figure 14-6. Study reach with 11 sample transectsand example of 6 densiometer measurements takenat each transect.

Stream Shade and Canopy Cover 14-16 Water Quality Monitoring GuidebookVersion 2.0

Complex Channels: Islands, Bars and SideChannelsSections of streams with side channels, mid-channel bars or islands, or complex braidedchannels are treated differently. In part, itdepends if a bar or an island forms the sidechannel. Bars are stream channel featuresbelow the bankfull flow height and may bedry during summer field surveys. Bars arewet during bankfull flows. Islands are chan-nel features that are as high or higher than thebank full flow height. Islands are dry duringbank full flows. Bars are considered part ofthe wetted channel and densiometer readingsare taken over bars and boulders, just as ifthey were a part of the wetted channel.

Island-formed side channels are treateddifferently than those created by bars. Visu-ally estimate the percent of flow in thesmaller side channel. No canopy measure-

ments are taken on the side channel if the sidechannel carries < 15% of the total streamflow. If the side channel carries >16% of thesteam flow, then six densiometer measure-ments are taken on the main channel and anadditional six are taken on the side channel.Extra transects are designated as “X1”, “X2”,etc. on the canopy cover form (figure 14-5).

Data AnalysisThe 66 densiometer measurements for thestream reach are typically analyzed separatelyfor the stream center and margins. The 44center channel measurements are averagedand reported as a percent of total possiblestream cover. The center channel average ismore independent of seasonal flow changesthan the margin measurements and is a betteroverall indicator of stream cover. The averagepercent cover of the 22 stream margin mea-surements is a better indicator of riparian

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Stream Shade and Canopy Cover 14-17 Water Quality Monitoring GuidebookVersion 2.0

vegetation density and is independent ofstream size.

Measurement PrecisionPrecision of densiometer measurements canbe evaluated by repeating canopy closuremeasurements at the same site with a secondfield crew. Measurements can be repeated onor close to the same day as the first measure-ment, or can be repeated later in the study toevaluate seasonal changes within the surveyperiod.

Figures 14-8 and 14-9 present 23 repeatdensiometer measurements at 20 sites. Thesesites were a random sub-sample of a surveyof approximately 200 first through third orderstreams in forested watersheds in westernOregon. Of the 23 repeat measurements 9were conducted on the same day and 14 wereconducted within the same July to Septembersurvey season. Seasonal repeat measurementswere separated by at least one to two months.Repeat measurements were taken indepen-dently by different workers.

Figure 14-8 represents the reach averageshade based on measurements taken along thestream margin and Figure 14-8 represents thereach average shade based on measurementstaken along the center of the stream. Themeasurements were taken on 11 evenlyspaced transects as described above. Thediagonal solid 1:1 line represents repeatvalues that agree exactly.

The graphs indicate that measurementvariability is partially a function of theamount of canopy closure. Replicates tend tobe closer together when the stream is eithervery heavily or very sparsely canopied.Replicates tend to be further apart at moreintermediate levels of canopy cover <80%and >20%.

Figure 14-8. Comparison of repeat densiometermeasurements taken in the center of the channelonly. Points represent reach averages from westernOregon. (Provided by M.Mulvey, DEQ)

Figure 14-9. Comparison of repeat densiometermeasurements taken along channel margins only.Late and early season designation on axis titlesapplies to seasonal duplicate measurements onlyand not same day duplicates. Points representreach averages from western Oregon. (Provided byM. Mulvey, DEQ)

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Stream Shade and Canopy Cover 14-18 Water Quality Monitoring GuidebookVersion 2.0

Overall, replicate measurements differed byan average of less than 9% for forestedwestern Oregon streams reported here (Table14-2). Surprisingly, there appears to be littledifference between precision of repeat mea-surements taken at different times in theseason and repeat measurements taken on thesame day.

Clinometer

This method describes the use of a clinometerto measure the angle between the streamchannel and the vegetation or topography thatis providing cover. This procedure is takenfrom the Oregon Department of Fish andWildlife Methods for Stream Habitat Surveys(Moore et al. 1997).

The clinometer is a small handheld deviceused to measure the slope of a surface indegrees or percentage. Both scales are pro-vided within a single view. Therefore, cautionmust be exercised to reference the desiredscale. The clinometer method described in

this section is used by ODF&W in conjunc-tion with stream habitat surveys to determinepercent cover angles. Cover angels measuredin this way are also used in stream tempera-ture models when the direction of measure-ment is known (i.e. azimuth). The clinometercan also be used to measure channel slopeand define bankfull and flood prone areas ofthe stream during the habitat surveys.

The clinometer is used to measure the anglefrom the center of the stream to a point thatprovides cover to the stream on both the rightand left banks. Stream cover is calculated asthe percent of a 180-degree arc over thestream that is covered by either vegetation,and or blocked by topographic features suchas hillslopes or high terraces.

Equipment1. Clinometer (SUUNTO® self dampening

clinometers are most commonly used)

2. Data sheets

Procedure1. Following the procedures described in the

study design section of this chapter (page12) establish 11 evenly spaced transectsalong the sample reach.

2. Stand in the center of the channel and faceto the left (relative to the downstreamdirection).

Figure 14-10. Use of the clinometer to estimate topographic (30°) and vegetative shade (55°) angles.

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Stream Shade and Canopy Cover 14-19 Water Quality Monitoring GuidebookVersion 2.0

3. Identify the top of vegetation that isproviding cover to the stream. This is thevegetative cover target. Identify the top ofthe topographic feature that is providingcover to the stream. This is the topo-graphic cover target (Figure 14-10).

4. Hold the clinometer to your eye and withboth eyes open look simultaneouslythrough the lens and along side the hous-ing. A horizontal sighting line will appear.Raise the sighting line to the vegetativecover target. Read and record the coverangle in degrees (the left side of the scaleinside the clinometer) which is closest tothe sighting line.

5. Repeat step 4 for topographic cover, andfor the right, upstream and downstreamdirections.

6. Repeat steps 4 and 5 at each of the eleventransects.

Data AnalysisThe data can either be used as a degreemeasurement or converted to percent cover.Conversion to percent shade is calculated as apercent of the 180-degree arc. Typically thedata from the eleven transects are averagedfor the reach.

PrecisionDepending on site conditions, clinometermeasurements can be highly variable within asample site or reach. Stream cover measure-ment precision can be evaluated throughrepeat site measurements from a second fieldcrew. Figure 14-11 presents repeat covermeasurements for 52 randomly selectedsample reaches monitored in 1998 and 1999between June 15 and September 15. Eachplotted point represents an average for thesample reach where 20 or more clinometermeasurements were taken. Overall streamcover measurements differed by an average of6.5%. Repeat measurements were not takenon the same day, but were conducted withinthe same June 15 - September 15 samplingperiod.

Figure 14-11. Comparison of repeat covermeasurements using a clinometer. (Provided byBarrry Thomm, ODF&W)

Hemispherical Photography

Hemispherical canopy photography is a datacollection technique for recording tree cano-pies and understory vegetation from beneath acanopy looking skyward. The method pro-vides a means to record a precise and perma-nent record of tree canopy cover in relation tothe sun’s path. The photographs are analyzedusing a computer software package to deter-mine percent shade. Fisheye photography hasbeen used for many years. Although it hasn’tbeen until relatively recent advances in imagedigitization and integrated computer imageanalysis systems that it has become a viablemonitoring and research tool.

Photographs are taken with a standard 35mmor digital format camera fitted with a hemi-spherical (fisheye) lens, and secured in a“self-leveling” camera mount that is sup-ported by a tripod or monopod. Such hemi-spherical photographs provide an extremewide-angle view, with up to 180° (horizon tohorizon) and 360° (horizontal) field of view.

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Stream Shade and Canopy Cover 14-20 Water Quality Monitoring GuidebookVersion 2.0

Figure 14-12. Examples of hemispherical (fish-eye) photographs taken at a site in the Coast Range (left) andat a site in Eastern Oregon (right) (ODF unpublished shade study).

These photographs (examples in Figure 14-12) can then be analyzed to determine thegeometry of canopy openings, and, in turn, toestimate light levels beneath the canopy.Therefore, canopy photographs can be used toassess shade. These photos can be put intodigital format and analyzed by a computersoftware program. The program overlays thesun’s path on the photograph and calculatespercent of the total solar radiation that isreaching the stream’s surface. Canopy pho-tography can be used to monitor managementactivities and as a ground-truth technique forstudies of plant canopies using remote sens-ing from aircraft and satellites.

Although this method is more expensivebecause of initial equipment and softwarecosts, it does afford a proportionately higherdegree of accuracy and repeatability. Thismethod allows the data collector to gatherdata at varying heights for studying relationsbetween understory and tree canopy influenceon light penetration.

EquipmentThe basic array of equipment required forcapturing tree canopy images suitable foranalysis with software programs such asHemiView© is not a great deal different thanis used for standard, high quality photogra-phy, with the exception of the last two itemsin the following list.

1. A single lens reflex camera such as aNikon FM2 or suitable digital formatcamera

2. Handheld light meter3. Mono-pod(s) or tripod (dictated by

particular application)4. Remote shutter release5. Hard case—for protection of camera/

mount assembly6. 100-400 asa film7. Lens cleaner8. 180° fisheye lens such as the Sigma

8mm, F4, fisheye9. Self-leveling camera mount with affixed

compass

Stream Shade and Canopy Cover 14-21 Water Quality Monitoring GuidebookVersion 2.0

Procedure1. Create a checklist to use prior to going in

the field to confirm that you have all ofthe necessary equipment and supplies,that it is all in good condition, and that itis assembled properly.

2. Put a new role of film in the camera foreach new sample reach even if only halfof the roll is used. (If an exposed roll isdestroyed, no more than one set of photosis lost.). If a digital camera is employed,download and “save” often.

3. When you arrive at the site take the firstphoto of a sheet of paper containingpertinent site information, i.e. site name,ID number, date etc. This reference photois a precaution which will help identifythe photo series should other identifica-tions (some cameras provide a databackfeature which will identify the photo) beswitched or lost. If using a digital camerathis step can be omitted since each imagehas an associated date and time that canmatched up tot he field notes.

4. Establish eleven evenly spaced transectsalong the sample reach as described in thestudy design section of this chapter (page12).

5. At the first transect set the shutter speedand f-stop based on the use of a handheldlight meter. The internal light meter builtin to most cameras is nearly impossible touse for tree canopy photography! Use thesame shutter speed throughout all stationsand use f-stop setting of one “stop” lowerthan light meter indicates. This willproduce a slightly under-exposed imagefor more contrast between open sky andother “features”.

6. Mount the camera on the monopod andself-leveling mount or tripod, with thecamera pointed skyward.

7. Position the camera at the sampling pointwith the top of the camera oriented toMagnetic North such that the camera is 3feet above the water surface. Make surethe camera is steady and the self-levelingframework has stopped moving thentrigger the shutter.

8. Step 7 can be repeated at different heightsto determine influence of shrubs versusoverstory canopy. Be sure camera shutteris “set” before setting up for photos beingtaken at a height which places the equip-ment out of reach.

9. Record photo series data on a field datasheet (Figure 14-13, example) whichcontains fields for all information perti-nent to your database design.

10. Repeat steps 7 – 9 at each of the eleventransects.

Photo Processing and AnalysisWhen it comes time for film processing,choose a reliable film processor and makesure they understand, and agree, to accommo-date all photo quality and identificationrequirements. Attention to photo seriesdocumentation/identification cannot be overemphasized.

Photo prints must be scanned to producedigital images for analysis with pc softwarepackages while images from digital camerasneed no further processing. Either digitalimage is adequate provided the highestresolution practicable is used—considerationshould be given to image-file size and filestorage capabilities when choosing imageresolution.

Photo analysis procedures, as well as com-puter system requirements, are unique to eachphoto analysis software package. Consulteach publisher’s software documentation fordetails. In general, the software packageoverlays the sun’s path for a particular lati-

Stream Shade and Canopy Cover 14-22 Water Quality Monitoring GuidebookVersion 2.0

tude and longitude, and day of the year.Percent shade is calculated as the proportionof available radiation to the amount thatreached the stream’s surface. Outputs are

available for diffuse, direct, and total radia-tion as well as canopy cover. Table 14-3shows examples of some output values fromHemiView©.

Figure14-13. Sample field data form for recordinghemispherical photography field data.

Stream Shade and Canopy Cover 14-23 Water Quality Monitoring GuidebookVersion 2.0

Table 14-3. Sample of some of the output values with HemiView© analysis software.

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Stream Shade and Canopy Cover 14-24 Water Quality Monitoring GuidebookVersion 2.0

Shade measurement using the SolarPathfinder©

A Solar Pathfinder is used to measure shadein a manner that considers characteristics ofsolar radiation such as latitude, solar azimuth,time of day and season while integrating localfeatures including channel aspect, topographyand streamside vegetation. Solar Pathfinder isa field instrument that consists of a tripod,base, and reflector dome (Figure 14-14). Thereflector dome is transparent plastic andreflects the image of nearby topography andvegetation (Figure 14-15). A paper sun pathdiagram for horizontal surfaces is placed onthe Solar Pathfinder base under the transpar-ent dome. This allows an observer to estimatethe percent of total daily radiation that isshaded at a given location. When placed in astream channel, the Solar Pathfinder becomesa convenient tool for estimating the amountof solar radiation blocked or attenuated bylocal topography and streamside vegetation.

The sun path diagram has 12 parallel sun patharcs, one for each month of the year (Figure14-16). Vertical lines that represent solar timeintervals of 30 minutes intersect these arcs.These segments of each monthly solar arc areassigned values that represent the percentageof solar radiation available during each 30-minute interval. The total value of all seg-ments for a solar path arc is 100. The valuesvary by month as day length and solar azi-muth change. For example, tracing the Augustsolar arc in the sun path diagram, it can bedetermined that six- percent of total dailysolar radiation is available during the 30-minute period of 11:30 to 12:00. Followingthe December solar arc it is apparent that 10percent of the daily solar radiation is avail-able during that same time period. Shade issimply a tally of those sun path arc segmentsthat are partially or completely shaded. Theactual energy reaching the stream can also becalculated.

The distribution of solar energy throughoutthe day should not be confused with theamount of solar energy that is available. The

amount of solar energy for an Oregon loca-tion is actually much greater and more evenlydistributed throughout the day in August thanDecember. Solar energy information isavailable in many cities where the NationalWeather Service maintains monitoring sites.

This method measures shade at 11 evenlyspaced transects over a reach length of 40times the wetted width with a 150-meterminimum reach length. One midchannelmeasurement is taken on each transect. Solarpathfinder measurements for all 11 transectsare averaged to determine shade on thestream reach.Detailed instruction on Solar Pathfinder use isavailable in the instruction manual thataccompanies the device, and in Platts et al.,1987. This document is not a substitute forthe Solar Pathfinder manual, but providesadditional guidance for shade data collectionand stream assessment purposes.

Figure 14-14. Solar Pathfinder Apparatus

Stream Shade and Canopy Cover 14-25 Water Quality Monitoring GuidebookVersion 2.0

Figure 14-15. Trees and other shade producingfeatures are reflected on the Solar Pathfinderdome. The transparent dome allows the user to seethe sunpath diagram placed on the base of theinstrument.

Figure 14-16. Solar Pathfinder sunpath diagramfor latitudes 43o to 49o N.

Equipment

1. Solar Pathfinder2. Tape measure3. Wax pencil4. Field form5. Field notebook for recording general

observations

Procedure1. Select the appropriate solar path chart for

your location, 37o to 43oN in SouthernOregon or 43o to 49oN in other Oregonlocations (these are purchased from SolarPathfinder).

2. Ensure the sun path diagram is correctedfor compass declination for your location.Declination correction for Oregon rangesfrom 17o to 19o east as shown on page 12of the Solar Pathfinder Manual. Releaseand rotate the center pivot counter-clockwise to set the declination if neces-sary.

3. Establish 11 evenly spaced transectedalong the sample reach as described in thestudy design section of this chapter (pg.12).

4. Record the date, time, site name, transectnumber, stream wetted width, and namesor initials of field personnel on the backof a sun path diagram.

5. Place the labeled sun path diagram on thebase of the Solar Pathfinder.

6. Place the Solar Pathfinder in the center ofthe stream.

7. Orient the Solar Pathfinder to south usingthe compass attached to its base.

8. Level the Solar Pathfinder using the levelattached to its base.

9. Trace the silhouette of the shade produc-ing features on a sun path diagram using

Stream Shade and Canopy Cover 14-26 Water Quality Monitoring GuidebookVersion 2.0

the white pencil as described in pages 6and 7 of the Solar Pathfinder Manual.This provides a permanent record ofshade and results can be tabulated in theoffice.

10. Repeat steps 5 through 10 at each transect.

Data AnalysisDetermine the percent shade for the month ofinterest by totaling the values for each shadedsegment on the solar path arc for that month.An estimate of shade is made for a 30-minutesegment when it is partially shaded by topog-raphy or vegetation. For example, if two-thirds of the 30-minute segment on the Au-gust solar path is shaded, multiply the totalvalue for the segment (printed on the sun-pathdiagram) by 0.66 to determine shade for thatperiod. Thus, the August sun path arc indi-cates that 6% of the daily solar energy occursduring the 30-minute period of 1:30 to 2:00.Shade for the half-hour interval is determinedby multiplying 6 by 0.66. The value isrounded to 4 and added to the shade tally. Thefinal shade value is recorded on the back ofthe sun path diagram and on appropriate fielddata sheets. Average the 11 shade measure-ments to determine percent shade for thestream reach.

PrecisionMeasurements should be repeated at 10% ofsites to document reproducibility within andamong field teams. Experienced field staffcan produce duplicate shade measurementswithin 5% of one another. Figure 14-17illustrates duplicate shade measurementsmade by different observers. The averagedifference in Solar Pathfinder shade values atseven sites was less than 3% shade. Whenshade measurements were repeated at ninesites after two months, the average differencein shade was 7% (Figure 14-18).

Figure 14-17. Duplicate solar pathfinder shademeasurements at seven sites. (Provided by DennisAdes, DEQ)

Figure 14-18. Comparison of Solar Pathfinder“August” shade measurements taken at the samelocations in May and July. (Provided by DennisAdes, DEQ)

Photo Documentation

Photographs are an important element in anymonitoring program, as they can illustratechanges that other methods of sampling mightnot describe. A detailed photo record can helplandowners and managers alike to documentchange, observe trends, and evaluate theeffectiveness of a management plan.

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Stream Shade and Canopy Cover 14-27 Water Quality Monitoring GuidebookVersion 2.0

used, but must be driven flush with theground to prevent damage to hooves/feetand tires. A metal detector will be re-quired to relocate them. Spray paint willimprove the visibility of the fence posts,and metal tags can be used to record thesite name and camera point number.

3. Set up your camera and tripod. A 35mmcamera is recommended for photo moni-toring. Use a consistent camera format,which is the combination of the bodyimage size and the focal length of thelens. You have three choices when decid-ing the type of film you want to use: colorslide film, which is good for presenta-tions, color prints, and black and whitefilm, which is good for reports whenphotocopies will be made. A tripod willhelp you to take clear, consistent photo-graphs, although it is not necessary.

4. Take a compass bearing between thecamera and photo points and record. Thisbearing will be used when subsequentphotos are taken to assure that the photo-graphs are taken in the same direction andenable comparisons between photographs.

Figure 14-19. The above diagram illustrates therelationship between the camera point, where thecamera is located and the photo points, which arethe center of focus for the picture. The arrowsindicate the distance and direction between thecamera and photo points; be sure to record thisinformation in your field notes.

EquipmentWhile photo monitoring is relatively easy,there is a specific list of equipment that youwill need for it to be effective:

1. Permanent Markers*2. Metal Tags*3. Hammer*4. Spray Paint5. Camera6. Film7. Tripod (optional)8. Profile Board9. Photo Identification Board10. Compass11. Measuring Tape12. Maps13. Field Notes14. Filing System

*These items will be needed only for theinitial setup of your monitoring sites.

Procedure1. Establish Camera Points and Photo

Points. The camera point refers to thelocation of your camera, and the photopoint is the center of focus of the picture,as illustrated in Figure 14-19. Establishingthe site for photo documentation mightdiffer from the other field methods de-scribed in this chapter depending on whatis being monitored. You will need tochoose a monitoring site that is represen-tative of the area you want to monitor.Also be aware of the variability of thestreams and stream channels when locat-ing your points. Flood damage and ero-sion may result in the loss of pointslocated too close to the stream bank.

2. Permanently Mark the camera and photopoint. Because you will be returning tothe same site to repeat photographs, it isimportant to permanently mark yourcamera and photo points. Metal fenceposts are recommended because they arecost-effective, visible and relatively theft-resistant. Rebar or metal stakes can be

Photo Points

Camera Points

Stream Shade and Canopy Cover 14-28 Water Quality Monitoring GuidebookVersion 2.0

5. Measure and record the distance betweenthe camera and photo points. Whensubsequent photos are taken make surethe same distance is used.

6. Measure the height of the tripod. Whensubsequent photos are taken make surethe same tripod height is used.

7. Take a picture of the photopoint with aprofile board and photo identificationboard included in each picture. A profileboard like the ones shown in Figures 14-20 is a plywood board, marked with ascale, generally one or two meters inheight, that is used to provide a referenceof vegetation changes over time. A photoidentification board like the one shown inFigure 14-21, should be used to displaybasic information such as the date, siteand photo point number. Although brightblue paper is ideal, a small chalkboard issuitable. Avoid white paper as it does notphotograph well.

8. When to take pictures. When you takeyour photographs depends on what youwant to monitor. You may want to con-sider a fixed date or dates, which wouldallow you to compare both seasonal andannual differences in plant development.A fixed date would also give you theopportunity to compare the changes in thevegetation over several years, as yourcollection of information grows. Picturestaken upstream, downstream and acrossthe channel are helpful and provide agood view of the channel, bank andriparian vegetation.

Study Reach, June 15, 1975.

Study Reach, June 15, 1981. (Photographs courtesy of

Fred Hall.)

Figure 14-20. These photographs taken at the studyreach in 1975 and 1981 capture the increased shrubgrowth, but they also illustrate the importance ofconsidering future vegetation growth whenchoosing your meter board position to avoid losingyour reference site.

9. Maps and Field Notes. You should havetwo sets of maps, a general overview tolocate your monitoring sites, and a sitemap with your camera and photo pointlocations. The information on your dataform should include the photopointnumber or name, the name of the photog-rapher, and the date and time the picturewas taken. Describe the use of the cam-era, lens, film type, and height of tripod

(if used). Provide a description of thelocation (as detailed as possible), andnotes on vegetation, weather, and otherconditions. Leave room on your form tosketch a diagram of the area, showingdirection of stream flow, and prominentfeatures, like boulders and stumps. Fig-ures 14-22and 14-23 are sample Photo-graphic Site Description and Location andCamera and Photo Point Locations formsthat can be copied for use in the field.

Stream Shade and Canopy Cover 14-29 Water Quality Monitoring GuidebookVersion 2.0

PrecisionThe most important thing to remember inphoto point monitoring is to be consistent.Use the same camera (if possible), be sure thefocal length is consistent, and use the samefilm. Take pictures from permanent camerapoint locations, and make sure the distanceand direction between the camera and thephoto point stays the same. Be sure to takepictures at the same time each year for goodcomparison. Furthermore, detailed notes anda filing system that will keep all of yourinformation in one place will be very benefi-cial when comparing change over time.

10. Filing System. It is a good idea to have acontainer or file folder that will hold allthe information from a site; maps, notes,negatives, extra set of prints, slides, etc. Apocketed three-ring binder will hold fieldnotes and pictures nicely. A helpful hint isto label all of your prints and negativesimmediately after processing, while yourmemory is still fresh.

Data AnalysisPhoto monitoring does not provide a directmeasurement of shade or cover, but it is apowerful, qualitative method for monitoringthe establishment, growth and maintenance ofriparian vegetation. When combined withother monitoring systems, photo monitoringcan be a very effective communication tool.

Figure 14-21. Including an identification board (hand held) within the picture provides a permanent recordon your negatives of the site location and description, and will help to eliminate any confusion about the sitein the future

Stream Shade and Canopy Cover 14-30 Water Quality Monitoring GuidebookVersion 2.0

Site Description and Location

Date:__________________________ Observer:___________________________________Project: ____________________________________________________________________Location Description (key features): ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Weather: ___________________________________________________________________Number of Camera Points: _________ Number of Photo Points:___________

Notes/Discussion:_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

MAP

Use back of sheet for additional information.

Figure 14-22. Site Description and Location form (Hall, 1999).

Stream Shade and Canopy Cover 14-31 Water Quality Monitoring GuidebookVersion 2.0

Camera and Photo Point Locations

Date: ______________________ Observer: _______________________________________Project:_____________________________________________________________________Camera Location: ___________ Number of Photo Points:___________________________

Photo Point A:Compass Bearing: ___________________Distance: ___________________________Notes: _____________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Photo Point B:Compass Bearing: ___________________Distance: ___________________________Notes: _____________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Photo Point C:Compass Bearing: ___________________Distance: ___________________________Notes: _____________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Figure 14-23. Camera and photo point locations form (Hall, 1999).

Stream Shade and Canopy Cover 14-32 Water Quality Monitoring GuidebookVersion 2.0

Ancillary Data

Stream shade and cover monitoring effortsare usually coupled with stream temperature,channel morphology and/or riparian standmonitoring activities. Chapter 6 of this guide-book explains in great detail how to go aboutstream temperature monitoring. What followsis a brief description of some of the otherstream and riparian characteristics that can bemeasured at the same stations where instreamshade or cover is being measured. A SalmonPlan Monitoring Team workgroup has beenformed to produce a guidebook for monitor-ing riparian characteristics.

• Hourly water temperature: Use continu-ously recording temperature probes at thedownstream end of the reach monitoredfor stream shade.

• Hourly air temperature: Use continuouslyrecording air temperature probes atlocations effected by the treatment beingmonitored.

• Stream Flow can be measured using avelocity meter and cross-sectional area.Good to measure if also measuring streamtemperature.

• GPS locations: Can be measured at alandmark or permanent plot marker.

• Buffer width: Distance from stream’s edgeto the outer edge of riparian vegetation.

• Buffer Height: Estimate average height ofriparian stand each side of the stream.

• Topographic shade angle: Using a clinom-eter measure the angle to the highesttopographic source of shade (ridge top,terrace) orienting yourself in four direc-tions (upstream, left, right and down-stream). This was discussed in this chapter.

• Wetted Width: Using a surveyors rod ortape measure the width of the wettedsurface, subtracting mid-channel pointbars and islands that are above thebankfull depth.

• Bankfull Width: Using a surveyors rod ortape measure the width of the channel atthe average annual high water mark.

• Thalweg depth: Measure the deepest partof the channel with surveyors rod or tape.

• Gradient: Measure the slope of the chan-nel with a clinometer, survey rod and twopeople. The downstream person finds eyelevel on the rod. The upstream personstands at the top of a riffle or pool holdingthe rod level. The downstream personstands approximately 100 feet down-stream, at the top of a similar habitat unitas the upstream person. Both are at thewater’s edge. The downstream personlooks upstream through the clinometeraiming at the predetermined eye level onthe rod.

• Azimuth: Measured with a compass byorienting yourself downstream and withthe direction of the valley (not a meander).

• Substrate: Estimate the percent of channelbed composed of each size class of mate-rial (Bedrock, bolder, cobble, gravel, sandor fines).

• Valley width and constraint ratio: Use amethod (i.e. Rosgen) to categorize thevalley width and constraint ratio (channelwidth/valley width).

• Dominant overstory species: Documentthe species of tree which dominates(tallest, and/or greatest in number) thestand.

• Dominant shrub species: Document themost common and shade-influencing shrub.

Stream Shade and Canopy Cover 14-33 Water Quality Monitoring GuidebookVersion 2.0

• Diameter distributions: Measure diameterat 4.5 feet above the ground on treeswithin a given survey plot).

• Basal Area: Use the diameters to calculatebasal area.

• Stand health: Estimate the percent ofstand composed of dead, diseased, ordying trees. Or when measuring diameterdocument tree health.

• Activities within the riparian area: Use amethod to document, measure, or rate thelevel of grazing, harvesting, development,restoration or recreational activities takingplace in the riparian area.

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Equipment Vendors

Table 14-4 lists for the equipment describedin this chapter. The vendors table may not beexhaustive, but rather lists vendors known tothe authors and is intended as a starting pointfor the user. This list should not be interpretedas an endorsement. Prices are approximate asof May 2000. Please contact the vendor forcurrent and accurate costs.

Stream Shade and Canopy Cover 14-34 Water Quality Monitoring GuidebookVersion 2.0

Contacts

Contacts for more information on riparianmonitoring are provided below.

Oregon Department of:

AgricultureOPSW Monitoring Representative(503) 986-4778

Environmental QualityVolunteer Monitoring Coordinator(503) 229-5983

Fish and WildlifeHabitat Monitoring Coordinator(541) 757-4263

ForestryForest Practices Monitoring Coordinator(541) 929-3266

Oregon State University:

Department of Bio-resource Engineering(541) 737-6299

Department of Rangeland Resources(541)737-0923

Extension Program(503) 566-2909

References

Bauer, S.B., T.A. Burton. 1993. MonitoringProtocols to Evaluate Water Quality Effectsof Grazing Management on WesternRangeland Streams. EPA 910/R-93-017.USEPA Water Division, Surface WaterBranch. Seattle WA. 179 pp.

Borman, M.M., D.J. Chamberlain. 1999.Photo Monitoring Your Range. CooperativeExtension System, Cattle Producer’sLibrary, Cow-Calf Section CL520. Univer-sity of Idaho Cooperative Extension Agri-cultural Communications College ofAgriculture, Moscow, ID 83844-2332. 4pages.

Hall, F.C. 1999. Ground-Bases PhotographicMonitoring (Draft). USDA Forest Service.Frederick C. Hall, USDA Forest ServiceNR Unit, PO Box 3623, Portland OR, 97208

Kaufmann, P.R. and E.G. Robison. 1998.Physical Habitat Characterizaton. pp 77-118 In: J.M. Lazorchak, D.J. Klemm andD.V. Peck, eds., Environmental Monitoringand Assessment Program — SurfaceWaters: Field Operations and Methods forMeasuring the Ecological Condition ofWadeable Streams. EPA/620/R-94/004F.Office of Research and Devel., U.S. Envir.Protect. Agency, Washington, D.C. pp 22-23.

Klemm Donald J. and JM Lazorchak. 1994.Environmental monitoring and assessmentprogram surface waters and region 3regional environmental monitoring andassessment program: 1994 Pilot fieldoperations and methods manual for streams,Section 6. Environmental monitoringsystems laboratory office of research anddevelopment. US Environmental ProtectionAgency, Cincinnati, Ohio 45219. 36 pp.

Lemon, Paul E. 1957. A New Instrument formeasuring Forest Overstory Density.Journal of Forestry. 55(9): 667-668.

Stream Shade and Canopy Cover 14-35 Water Quality Monitoring GuidebookVersion 2.0

Mrazik Steve. 1999. Reference Site Selection:A Six Step Approach for Selecting ReferenceSites for Biomonitoring and Stream Eval-uation Studies Technical Report BIO99-03.Oregon Department of EnvironmentalQuality, Laboratory Division, Biomoni-toring Section, 1712 S.W. EleventhAvenue, Portland, Oregon 97201

Mulvey, M., L. Caton, and R. Hafele. 1992.Oregon Nonpoint Source MonitoringProtocols Stream Bioassessment FieldManual for Macroinvertebrates and HabitatAssessment. Oregon Department ofEnvironmental Quality, LaboratoryBiomonitoring Section. 1712 S.W. 11thAve. Portland, Oregon, 97201. 40 p.

Moore, K. M. S., K. K. Jones, and J. M.Dambacher. 1997. Methods for streamhabitat surveys. Oregon Department ofFish and Wildlife information report 97-4.Portland, OR 40 pp. (http://osu.orst.edu/Dept/ODFW/freshwater/inventory/invent.html)

OWEB. 1993. Photo Plots: A guide toestablishing points and taking photographsto monitor watershed projects. Oregon’sWatershed Enhancement Board. 775Summer ST. NE., Suite 360, Salem, OR,97301-1290.

OWEB. July 1999. Water Quality MonitoringTechnical Guide Book. Oregon’sWatershed Enhancement Board. 775Summer ST. NE., Suite 360, Salem, OR,97301-1290.

Peters, A., and T. Deboot. 1996. Using Photosto Monitor Riparian Areas. Riparian Resto-ration and Monitoring Workshop. RiparianRestoration and Monitoring Workshop Apr30 - May 3, 1996. LaGrande, OR. Spon-sored by Department of Rangeland Re-sources, OSU.

Platts, W.S., C. Armour, G.D. Booth, M.Bryant, J.L. Bufford, P. Cuplin, S. Jensen,G.W. Lienkaemper, G.W. Minshall, S.B.Monson, R.L. Nelson, J.R.Sedell, J.S.Tuhy. 1987. Methods for evaluatingriparian habitats with applications tomanagement. Gen. Tech. Rpt. INT-221.USDA Forest Service, Ogden UT.

Stevens D.L. 1997. Variable density grid-based sampling designs for continuousspatial populations. Environmetrics: 8 167-195.

University of California Cooperative Exten-sion. November 1992. Fact Sheet No. 16:Photo Points as a Monitoring Tool. Source:Monitoring California’s Annual RangelandVegetation, UC/DANR Leaflet 21486, Dec.1990. http://anrcatalog.ucdavis.edu/

Watershed Professionals Network. 1999.Oregon Watershed Assessment Manual.June 1999. Prepared for the Oregon’sWatershed Enhancement Board, Salem,Oregon. Oregon’s Watershed EnhancementBoard. 775 Summer ST. NE., Suite 360,Salem, OR, 97301-1290.