admin. review causes of the spanish-american warcauses of the spanish-american war major naval...
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Admin
Review
• Causes of the Spanish-American War• Major Naval engagements of the War• Lessons learned• US Overseas possessions acquired• War Plan Orange• US Naval focus 1900-1914• Panama Canal
Lesson 13:
The U.S. Navy, World War I and Prologue
1900-1918
Learning Objectives
• Understand the goals of the Great White Fleet• Understand capital ship development in the
prewar period• Know the events leading to the entry of the
United States into World War I.• Comprehend U.S. strategy and diplomacy in
World War I.• Comprehend the effect of the events of World
War I on Mahanian theory.
Remember our Themes!
• The Navy as an Instrument of Foreign Policy• Interaction between Congress and the Navy• Interservice Relations• Technology• Leadership• Strategy and Tactics• Evolution of Naval Doctrine
War Plans• War Plan Yellow
– Dealt with war in China - specifically, the defense of Beijing and relief of Shanghai during the Second Sino-Japanese War.
• War Plan Green– War with Mexico or what was known as "Mexican Domestic Intervention" in order to defeat
rebel forces and establish a pro-American government. War Plan Green was officially canceled in 1946.
• War Plan Indigo – Occupation of Iceland. In 1941, while Denmark was under German occupation, the US actually
did occupy Iceland, relieving British units during the Battle of the Atlantic. • War Plan Purple
– Dealt with invading a South American republic. • War Plan Violet
– Latin America. • War Plan White
– White dealt with a domestic uprising in the US, and later evolved to Operation Garden Plot, the general US military plan for civil disturbances and peaceful protests. Parts of War Plan White were used to deal with the Bonus Expeditionary Force in 1932. Communist insurgents were considered the most likely threat by the authors of War Plan White.
War Plans
• War Plan Black– War with Germany. The best-known version of Black was conceived as a
contingency plan during World War I in case France fell and the Germans attempted to seize French possessions in the Caribbean Sea or launch an attack on the eastern seaboard.
• War Plan Gray– Invading a Caribbean republic.
• War Plan Brown– Uprising in the Philippines.
• War Plan Tan – Intervention in Cuba.
• War Plan Red – Plan for Great Britain (with a sub variant Crimson Plan for Canada)
• War Plan Orange. – Plan for Japan
Unconfirmed War Plans
• War Plan Gray: Azores• War Plan Brown: Indonesia• War Plan Ruby: India (in War Plan Red, India is Ruby)
• War Plan Scarlet: Australia (in War Plan Red, Australia is Scarlet)
• War Plan Pink: for the Soviet Union• War Plan Gold: War with France and Caribbean possessions. • War Plan Citron: Brazil• War Plan Lemon: Portugal• War Plan Olive: Spain• War Plan Emerald: Ireland in conjunction with War Plan Red. • War Plan Garnet: New Zealand (in War Plan Red, New Zealand is Garnet)
• War Plan Silver: Italy
The Great White Fleet
PresidentTheodore Roosevelt
and
Rear AdmiralRobley D. “Fighting
Bob” Evans
Prior to the sailing of the Great White Fleet -
1907.
Route of the Great White Fleet – 1907-08
Technological Improvements
The Rise of the Dreadnought:
1900-1914
Technology Improvements
• Improved gunnery:– Smokeless powder.
• HMS Dreadnought - 1907– First all “big-gun” battleship launched by Great Britain.– Makes all other battleships obsolete.
• Battle Cruisers– Same armament as dreadnoughts but less armor.– Faster speeds.
• Destroyers - Vital part of fleet - protection from torpedoes.• Submarines
– USS Holland - 1900– Diesel engines developed allow greater maneuverability.
• Radios - Improved communications.
HMS Dreadnought
Wright Brothers
Kitty Hawk, North Carolina
17 December 1903
Eugene ElyUSS Birmingham (CL 2)
14 November 1910
Dawn of Naval Aviation
• Wright Brothers -- Kitty Hawk, North Carolina: 1903
• Eugene Ely– First flight of an aircraft from a ship in 1910.– First landing of an aircraft on a ship in 1911.
• Glenn Curtiss - First seaplane landing - 1911. • Lieutenant “Spuds” Ellyson: Naval Aviator #1.• Royal Navy in a similar stage of development in
aviation.
Dawn of Naval Aviation
• Birthday of Naval Aviation: 8 May 1911.– U.S. Navy purchases two Curtiss biplanes.
• Office of Naval Aeronautics established in 1914.• Early naval aviation missions:
– Scouting location of the enemy fleet.– Directing naval gunfire.
The Great War
Major Allied Powers
• US (beginning in 1917)• Great Britain• Russia• France• Italy (partially)• Japan (Pacific)
Major Central Powers
• Germany• Austria-Hungary• Ottoman Empire
“Entangling Alliances”
• Triple Entente (Allied Powers): Great Britain, Russian Empire, FrancePlus: Italy (1915-16)
U.S. (1917)Japan (Pacific)
• Triple Alliance (Central Powers): German, Austro-Hungarian, and Ottoman (Turk) EmpiresPlus: Bulgaria
• Archduke Franz Ferdinand assassinated: June 1914.– Bosnia part of Austro-Hungarian Empire.– Serbia - Russia Defense Pact.
Naval Confrontation
British Royal Navy– Home Fleet– Grand Fleet
German Imperial Navy– High Seas Fleet
British Royal Navy
• First Lord of the Admiralty– Similar to U.S. Secretary of the Navy.– Winston Churchill
• First Sea Lord– Similar to today’s U.S. Chief of Naval Operations.– Admiral Sir John Fisher
• Grand Fleet– Admiral Sir John Jellicoe
Strategic Goals of Grand Fleet
• Sea-lift of British Army to France.• “Distant” blockade of Germany.
– Avoid German mines and torpedo boats near the coast.
– Scapa Flow - Main Grand Fleet base in the Orkney Islands.
• Goal: Destroy High Seas Fleet in a large engagement.
German Imperial Navy
• High Seas Fleet– Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz– Numerically inferior to the British Grand Fleet.
• North Sea defenses:– Mines.– U-boats (unterseeboots) - submarines.
• Not used for commerce raiding early in war.• Goal:
– Defeat portions of the Grand Fleet in small engagements.• “Fleet in Being”
– Threatens Allied operations by its presence in port.• Ineffective commerce raiding by German cruisers.
Major Naval and Maritime Events
• February 1915- Germany announces unrestricted submarine warfare
• May 1915- Sinking of Lusitania• Last German commerce raiding cruisers
destroyed• 1915- ANZAC landing at Gallipoli• March 1916 Sussex pledge• Battle of Jutland
Gallipoli Campaign - 1915
• German-led Ottoman Turk Fleet– Closes Dardanelles - Entrance to the Black Sea.– Allied line of communication with Russia is cut.
• Winston Churchill:– Advocate of amphibious assault on Gallipoli Peninsula.– Objective: Constantinople.
• Admiral Sir John Fisher– First Sea Lord resigns in protest.
• Dardanelles– Mines in sea lanes.– Guns emplaced on shore covering the straits manned by
the Ottoman Turk Army.
GallipoliCampaign
1915
- Winston Churchill proposes opening supply route to Russia through the Black Sea.
18 March 1915 Naval Action
Allied Retreatfrom
Gallipoli
November-December 1915
Failure of Allied Assault
• ANZAC Army Corps– Mustafa Kemal commands Turk counter-attack.
• Lessons learned in defeat:– Unity of command.– Control of local waters.– Element of surprise.– Rehearsal.– Beach reconnaissance.– Shore bombardment.– Specialized landing craft.– Ship-to-shore movement.– Aggressive exploitation of the beachhead.– Commitment of reserves.
• Winston Churchill resigns in failure.
Battle of Dogger Bank- 1915
Battle of Jutland
Battle of Jutland• Greatest naval battle to date• Minor strategic importance• Tactical lesson
– Speed and long-range gunfire outstripped the commander’s means of observation and control of own forces
• Only fleet action of war– Seemed to fit Mahanian prescription– British unhappy: not Nelsonian “Annihilation”– Admiral Nimitz says it was the battle most studied
by NWC in interwar years (1919-1939)
Battle of Jutland31 May - 1 June 1916
• High Seas Fleet sorties to attack merchant shipping to Norway.
• Jellicoe intercepts in the North Sea with Grand Fleet.
• Battle cruisers used for scouting.
• Jellicoe’s Grand Fleet “Crosses the T” of the High Seas Fleet.
• High Seas Fleet maneuvers back to port at night.
Battle of Jutland
• Largest naval battle to date ends in a tactical draw.– Only large fleet action of the war.– Last great battle between battleship fleets.– Jellicoe fails to win a victory.
• Afraid of stern chase over mines/submarines.• Turned away from torpedoes.• Would not risk fighting at night.
– Minor strategic importance to the outcome of the war.
• Tactical lesson: Speed and long-range gunfire outstripped the commander's means of observation and control of forces.
Course of the War - 1916
• Ground war in France = continued stalemate.• German U-boats continue commerce raiding.
– Very effective, especially in Mediterranean Sea.– February 1916 - Resume Unrestricted Submarine Warfare.– Sussex sunk March 1916 - Wilson protests again.– Tirpitz relieved of duty.
• Kaiser Wilhelm imposes restrictions on U-boat attacks again.
• British raids on German coast.• New German High Seas Fleet commander:
– Vice Admiral Reinhard Scheer– Commences raids on British coast.
Unterseeboots
Commerce Raiding
German U-boats threaten to cut off all maritime supply of Great Britain.
U.S. Enters World War I
• Germany announces Unrestricted Submarine Warfare. (February 1915)
• Lusitania (May 1915)• Sussex (March 1916)• Germany resumes Unrestricted Submarine Warfare.
(January 1917)– Calculated risk:
• U.S. unable to affect war for at least one year.• Need to cut off British food supplies.
• U.S. declares war. (April 1917)• U.S. Navy - First rate power, BUT:
– Unprepared for anti-submarine warfare.– Planned for fleet engagement in Caribbean Sea.
Backing Up
• US Naval strategy in World War I– period of Neutrality (August 1914-1917)
• Woodrow Wilson: The United States will remain:
– “neutral in thought and deed.”
• Favorable balance of payments for U.S. with Europe.
– Desire to trade with Allied and Central Powers.
U.S. in World War I
• Naval matters enter American consciousness.– Wilson converts to pro-Navy viewpoint.– Forty-eight capital ships planned for U.S. Navy by 1920.
• Naval Construction act of 1916• Impact of Jutland
• Assistant Secretary of the Navy– Franklin Delano Roosevelt– Experiences will influence World War II policies
• Causes for U.S. entrance on side of Allies.– Shift in European balance of power.– Unrestricted Submarine Warfare.– Cultural and economic ties to Allied nations.– Wilson sees chance for peace in outcome
…A word on Bureaucracy
• Naval leadership wants Naval General Staff– Rear Admiral Bradley Fiske, Captain William
S. Sims• SECNAV Josephs Daniels• “Fiske-Hobson” measure, Act of Congress
3 March 1915 creates CNO– Captain William S. Benson
Course of the War - 1917
• U.S. Navy Plans– Atlantic (defeat the submarine)
• Troop Transport• Reduce Emphasis on battle ships• Submarine chasers• Merchant Ships• Mine laying
– Integrated into convoy system.• 20-25 merchants and 6-8 destroyers.• Change from “hunt-and-kill” patrols to a convoy system.• Rear Admiral William Sowden Sims, USN - convoy proponent.
• Admiral Sir John Jellicoe– Appointed First Sea Lord, Chief of Naval Staff.– Convoys proved to be more effective in countering U-boats.
• “Germany’s revival of guerre de course had failed because the US Navy, with great reluctance, temporarily abandoned its capital ship construction program to send to sea an overwhelming number of transports and escorting submarine destroyers, which were hardly less fragile or more seaworthy than their underwater prey.”
End of the War
• Bolshevik Revolution in Russia - October 1917– Peace with Germany causes Eastern Front to disappear.
• French Field Marshal Ferdinand Foch– Supreme Allied Commander (including U.S. forces).
• German offensive repulsed at Second Battle of the Marne.
• Major General John A. Lejeune, USMC assumes command of the Second U.S. Army Division - 1918.– First time a Marine officer commands an Army Division..
• German Army defeated - morale becomes very low.– German sailors become mutinous.
• 11 November 1918 - war ends on “Armistice Day”.– Now celebrated as Veterans’ Day in the U.S.
New Weapons of Naval Warfare
• Submarines– Germany lost 187 U-boats, however:
• Sank 5,234 merchant ships. • Sank 10 battleships, 20 destroyers, and 9 submarines.
– Allied & Neutral Ships Lost: 1914-18
1914 1915 1916 1917 1918
3 396 964 2,439 1,035
Aviation– Anti-submarine warfare.– Early attempts at power projection:
• Strikes on German naval bases.– Did not practice anti-surface warfare.
Effect of World War I on Mahanian Theory
• Support in two areas:– Commercial antagonism and rivalry cause war.
– Faith in the battle fleet for command of the sea.
• Unrestricted Submarine Warfare's implications are ignored.– Commerce raiding can affect the course of the war.
– Importance of convoy system to protect against submarine attacks.