Adolescence

Chapter 4

Section 1Physical and Sexual Development

Theories of Adolescence

1904 – G. Stanley HallPioneering theory of adolescenceRepresents transitional stageSomething like an animal in a cage

Sees freedomDoesn’t know when freedom will occur or how

Existing in a state of great “storm and stress”Marginal beingConfused, troubled, and highly frustrated

Other theorists say that adolescence is a period of growth that is in no way discontinuous with childhood or young adulthood

Margaret Mead’s anthropological studies show:

In some cultures – adolescents enjoy this time of lifeStorm and stress is a by-product of industrial societyProposed that culture might play a role in development

Psychologist Robert HavigburstGreat physical, mental, and emotional changes are

taking placeFacing challenges – developmental tasks that must

be mastered1) Accept physical makeup and acquire masculine or

feminine gender roll2) Develop appropriate relations with age-mates of both

sexes3) Become emotionally independent of parents/adults4) Achieve assurance of becoming economically independent5) Decide on, prepare for, enter a vocation6) Develop cognitive skills/concepts for social competence7) Understand & achieve socially responsible behavior8) Prepare for marriage and family9) Acquire values that are harmonious and appropriate

Pattern of development depends upon many factors.

Most important Individual’s adjustment in childhoodLevel of adjustment of his/her parents & peersChanges that occur during adolescence

Marked by major changesPhysicalSocialEmotionalIntellectual

Physical DevelopmentPuberty (sexual maturation) marks end of

childhood – varies widelyHormones trigger internal/external changes

Girls b/t 8 and 10 / boys 9-16Just before puberty, both experience growth spurt

(rapid increase in weight & height)Girls peak at 12, boys at 14Most societies consider menarche the beginning of

womanhood.Even though boys are 2 years behind, their growth spurt

lasts about 3 years longer. They get broader shoulders, thicker trunk, more muscle tissue & larger heart & lungs than girls, voices deepen, and facial hair begins to grow.

Asynchrony is common – uneven growth of body parts

Reactions to GrowthRather sudden bodily changes make an

adolescent self-conscious.Particularly if they are early or late

developers.There is a strong correlation between having

a negative body image and depression.It is very important to measure up to ideal

standards.Most tend to evaluate themselves in terms of

their culture’s body ideal.

Individual differences in growth significantly affect the personality of young adolescents.

Boys who develop early have an advantage – sports heroes, leaders

Other boys look up to them, girls have crushes, adults treat them as more mature.

As a result, they are generally more self-confident and independent.

Correlation found in adulthood throughout 30s – earlier matured males tend to have higher occupational and social status (weakens as they enter their 40s.

Girls are different for early maturationEarly teens - some feel embarrassed, some date older boys,

some become bossy with people their own ageLate bloomers – less quarrelsome, may get along with peers betterIn their late teens, early matured girls may be more popular and

have a more favorable imageWhy such powerful psychological effects?

Self-fulfilling prophecy (boy doesn’t meet culture’s physical ideal/thinks less of himself/doesn’t pursue success as doggedly/bring about failure he feared.

Sexual DevelopmentPhysical changes are accompanied by

changes in behavior.Adolescence is also a time when a person

develops attitudes about the sex and gender roles her or she will fill.

Sexual AttitudesAffect way we feel about sex and the way we

respond sexually.Around the world – wide variations in what

children are told about appropriate sexual behavior and how they respond.Some societies – kept in the dark until marriageOthers – preadolescents encouraged to engage in

sexual play, which will foster mature developmentU.S. – behavior has not changed since 1970s,

but attitudes haveIncrease of sexual awareness and activityAbout 1 million teen pregnancies occur each year3 million teen sexually transmitted diseases each yearFear of AIDS has also impacted sexual attitudesMany teens today choosing abstinence

Discussion

Think back over the stages of your life from childhood to the present.

1.Which were the best and worst years of your life and why?

2.Do you think adolescence is a time of “storm and stress”?

Section 2

Personal Development

The transition from childhood to adulthood involves changes in patterns of reasoning and moral thinking, and adjustments in personality and sexual behavior.

Cognitive DevelopmentDuring adolescence, thinking patterns

characteristic of adults emerge.Jean Piaget – formal operations – abstractExpands problem-solving capacityCan deal with abstractions in own life

Ethics, conformity, and phoninessAllows for introspection (own motives and thoughts)

Deal with overpowering emotions through rationalization (explain an unpleasant emotion or behavior in a way that will preserve self-esteem)

Changes in thinking – changes in personality and social interactionsBecome idealistic – imagine the hypotheticalCan grow rebelliousCan develop a “messiah complex” (save the

world from evil)Impatient with adult world’s failures – unrealistic

about realities of lifeIdealism can keep older adults thinking about

how the world needs to change

Dr. David Elkind - identified problems developed because of immaturity and abstract thought processes:

Finding fault with authority figuresArgumentativeness (build own viewpoints)Indecisiveness (aware of many choices)Apparent hypocrisy (living up to their ideals)Self-consciousness (think everybody is thinking

about them)Invulnerability (causes risk-taking)

Feel specialExperiences are uniqueNot subject to same rules as everyone else

Moral Development

Lawrence Kohlberg – develops in stagesStage 1 – right or wrong depends on if punishedStage 2 – positive or negative effects on themStage 3 – whether or not socially approvedStage 4 – sanctioned by established authorityStage 5 – whether law is fair or justStage 6 – concerned with making fair/just decisions

Absolute ethical principles that cannot be brokenMore important than laws

Higher levels involve abstract thinking – seeing things from another’s point of view

Adolescence is time when formal operations begin

Only about 1 in 10 adolescents reach levels 5 and 6 of moral thinking.

Does not progress much during high school – more when in college (away from home)

Psychologists agree that moral development depends on many factors – most important is relationship with parents/significant others

Identity Development

Erikson’s Theory of Identity CrisisEstablishing identity is key to adolescent development

Adolescents Identity crisis (inner conflict, worry about identities)Begin to see future as a reality, not a gameBegin to think about themselvesOnly by resolving conflict do they achieve integrated sense of

self

Children do not fret about who they are or

where going

James Marcia’s view of the identify crisis – 4 attempts to achieve a sense of identityIdentity moratorium adolescents

(seriously considering issues, but no commitment)

Identity foreclosure adolescents (firm commitment on suggestion of others not themselves)

Identity confused or diffused adolescents (no thought to making decisions, no real sense of identity)

Identity achievement adolescents (considered many possible identities, freely committed to occupations and other important life matters.

Criticisms of Erikson and Marcia“Crisis” implies overwhelming stressImplies transition required radical break with

childhood experienceErikson’s view may have been because he

focused study on disturbed adolescents who sought clinical treatment.

Adolescents at school picked randomly show no sign of crisis and appear to progress smoothly

Social Learning View – Albert BanduraOne continuous processIndividuals develop by interacting with othersCalled social learning theory of development

Personality development in adolescents is a complex phenomenon.Sense of self (identity)How relationships developedSocial interaction skillsNeed to call upon all viewpoints

Section 3

Social Development

The Role of the FamilyA principal developmental task of adolescent

is to become independent of familyMixed feelings on both sides

Some parents reluctant to let children goCan the child cope with realities of life – child

shares the worry alsoYoung people long to get out on their own – try

their skills (worry about failing)Internal struggle often mirrored in unpredictable

behavior (rebellion)

The Role of PeersCan trust friends not to treat

them like childrenNeed friends to define

themselvesHigh school fairly rigid hierarchy

Everyone knows who belongs to which group

Usually form along class linesMany adopt distinct styles to

express themselvesStudies show personal

characteristics importantPopularity based on good looks and

personalityAthletic ability is important factor

Belonging to clique is importantFulfills need for closeness with othersGives means of establishing an identity

Defines who he is and who he is notHelps achieve self-confidenceHelps develop sense of independenceHelps clarify valuesHelps in experimenting with new rolesLeads to conformity (acting in accordance with

some specified authority)

Both parents and peers exercise considerable influence in shaping adolescent behaviorPeers set standards on

fashion and music and give advice on school-related issues

Parents are more influential on matters of marriage, religion, education plansPeer groups do not pose a threat to parental

authority.

Adolescents tend to pick friends with same

values. Makes them immensely helpful in making

the transition from dependent child to independent adult.

Difficulties During AdolescenceMajority adjust very quickly to changesHowever, teenage suicide has nearly tripled

over the last 50 yearsMay be underestimated (unreported)

Illusion of invulnerability part of egocentrismDo things with peers would not do aloneActs of juvenile delinquency typical in some

areasTroubled teens do not outgrow problems

Adults should be concerned with troubled teens

Teenage Depression and SuicideMore widespread than most parents or

educators suspectTriggers

Loss of loved one (death, divorce, relocation)Communication is necessary

Eating DisordersAnorexia nervosa

Refusal to eatMay represent a female’s refusal

to grow up or an attempt to assert control over their lives when so much seems out of their control

Treatment – encourage eating and deal with psychological problems

Bulimia nervosaBinge eating and then purgingMay result from person’s

feelings of alienation or a need to feel approval from others

Treatment involves antidepressant drugs and therapy

Section 4

Gender Roles and Differences

Gender IdentityOne’s physical and biological makeup.Your awareness of being male or female.Includes genetic traits we have inherited and

may include some gender-linked behaviors as well.

By age 2 or 3, kids have labeled themselves boy or girl.

By age 5, have learned thoughts, expectations, and behaviors that accompany their gender role.

Gender RolesDefined partly by genetic makeup but mainly

by the society and culture in which the individual lives.

A standard of how a person with a given gender identity is supposed to behave and includes the traditional behaviors that society expects of people because they are male or female.

Vary from one society to another and can change over time within a given society.

Give social meaning to gender identity.

Oversimplified or prejudiced opinions and attitudes concerning the way men or women should behave.

Have their roots deep in a time in our history when a division of labor was necessary for survival.

Sharp gender roles are no longer necessary or appropriate, esp. in the labor force.

Many young people now accept new androgynous roles.Roles that involve a flexible combination

of traditionally male and female characteristics.

Older people tend to be more traditional.

Gender Stereotypes

Exists more in groupsMales are more confident than females (esp. in math &

science).Women perceive themselves as less competent than males (even if

same grades).Aggression (hostile or destructive behavior) is one area

with the most significant differences.Males are more physically aggressive.

Encouraged to be competitive and settle conflicts.Studies show lower levels of seratonin in males (associated with

aggression).Females are more verbally aggressive and indirectly aggressive

(rejection).Another difference is communication styles.

Men actually talk more than women and interrupt women more while they talk.

Women talk more when they have power in the situation.Women hedge more (“kind of” and “you know”)Women use more disclaimers (“I may be wrong.”)Women use more tag questions at the end (“Okay?”

Gender Differences in Personality

Gender Differences in Cognitive Abilities

Research shows no measurable difference between genders:At spatial and mathematical skillsAt verbal skills

Did find some differences in specific topics and age trends.Perform about the same in problem solving until high

school – then males do better on tests of spatial ability / women do better at tracking objects.

Origins of differencesBiological TheoryPsychoanalytical TheorySocial Learning TheoryCognitive-Developmental Theory

Biological Theory

Emphasizes role of anatomy, hormones, and brain organization.

Regardless of what parents do, boys prefer trucks, girls dolls.

Said that differences in behavior are the result of behaviors that evolved from early men and women (attempt to survive).

Men – find a mate and reproduce – be dominant & aggressive .

Women – raising children – be concerned, warm, sensitive.

Psychoanalytical TheoryLittle boys identify with their fathers / girls

with mothers.Gender identity results.Happens between 3 – 5 years old.Critics argue – this identification is the result,

rather than the cause, of gender typing.

Social Learning TheoryEmphasizes the role of social and cognitive

processes on how we perceive, organize, and use information.

Children learn gender roles by observing and imitating models (parents, friends, peers, etc.).

Models respond to and reward certain behaviors for boys and different behaviors for girls that match their views of traditional male and female gender roles.

Cognitive-Developmental TheoryProposes that children acquire gender roles

by interacting with their environment and thinking about those experiences.

This way they learn different sets of standards for male and female behavior.

To learn a gender, child must see himself or herself as male or female.

Then, organizes behavior around this concept.

May acquire preferences consistent with perceived gender.Watch football, play rough with other boys.Eventually form gender schema.

Gender schema – mental representation of behavior that helps child organize and categorize behavior.Develop schemas of how we should act –

then behave accordingly

Changing Gender Roles

Roles of women and men in society are changing.

Women now in the workforce, but:Studies show there is inequality

Lower levels of leadership positionsDo not advance as quicklyCompanies may discriminate

Some women interrupt careers to rear children – lose opportunity for promotions and salary increases.

Men and women may differ in ambition.Women may be taught by society to set

different goals.