ADRESS FORMS AND ADRESS FORMS AND POLITENESSPOLITENESS

Second person- used when Second person- used when the subject of the verb in a the subject of the verb in a sentence is the same as the sentence is the same as the individual to individual to

whom the speaker is addressing whom the speaker is addressing him or herself.him or herself.

Brown and Gilman(1972, discussed Brown and Gilman(1972, discussed in Fasold 1990) proposed that the in Fasold 1990) proposed that the evolution of pronominal address evolution of pronominal address forms reflects sociocultural forms reflects sociocultural change over timechange over time

American English AddressAmerican English Address

FN- first name, used among FN- first name, used among friends or acquaintancesfriends or acquaintances

TLN- title plus last name, used to TLN- title plus last name, used to address those higher in rank or address those higher in rank or olderolder

LN- last name, a less formal LN- last name, a less formal address used by superiors or address used by superiors or coworkers to show either coworkers to show either

TT- title plus title, used in very TT- title plus title, used in very formal settings or with people of formal settings or with people of very high rankvery high rank

SOCIOLINGUISTICS COMPETENCE SOCIOLINGUISTICS COMPETENCE (Ervin-Tripp)(Ervin-Tripp)

=is basically one of =is basically one of sociolinguistic competence, which sociolinguistic competence, which is the knowledge a speaker has of is the knowledge a speaker has of how to use the how to use the

language varieties in his or her language varieties in his or her linguistic repertoire, and linguistic repertoire, and involves the following involves the following components:components:

1.1. Social- these are the aspects of Social- these are the aspects of the social domainthe social domain

2.2. Place- the physical location of Place- the physical location of the interactionthe interaction

3. Context- the situational status, 3. Context- the situational status, ranging from intimate to formalranging from intimate to formal

4. Person- 4. Person- age/kin/generation/sex/marital statusage/kin/generation/sex/marital status

5. Cognitive-whether the name of the 5. Cognitive-whether the name of the addressee is known is a factor, as addressee is known is a factor, as well as the familiarity the person has well as the familiarity the person has with the rules appropriate for a given with the rules appropriate for a given socialsocial

ContextContext

6. Cultural-the identity set of titles 6. Cultural-the identity set of titles available varies from culture to available varies from culture to culture (and of course from culture (and of course from language to language)language to language)

Politeness and PragmaticsPoliteness and Pragmatics

Pragmatics- the use of context to Pragmatics- the use of context to make inference about meaning of a make inference about meaning of a linguistic structurelinguistic structure

Formality- do not impose; remain aloofFormality- do not impose; remain aloof

Hesitancy- give the addressee his or Hesitancy- give the addressee his or her optionher option

Equality- treat the addressee as equalEquality- treat the addressee as equal

Cooperative principleCooperative principle

1.1. Maxim of Quantity- Make your Maxim of Quantity- Make your contribution no less and no more contribution no less and no more informative than required by the informative than required by the purposes of the conversational purposes of the conversational exchangeexchange

2.2. Maxim of Quality- Make your Maxim of Quality- Make your contribution truthfulcontribution truthful

3.3. Maxim of relevance- Make yourMaxim of relevance- Make your

contribution relevant to the contribution relevant to the conversationconversation

4.Maxim of Manner- Make your 4.Maxim of Manner- Make your contribution perspicuous, by avoiding contribution perspicuous, by avoiding obscurity, ambiguity, prolixity and obscurity, ambiguity, prolixity and disorderliness disorderliness

Conversational implicature- The Conversational implicature- The maxims allow for interpretation of an maxims allow for interpretation of an utteranceutterance

that goes beyond literal meaningthat goes beyond literal meaning

Three expectations in Three expectations in conversational implicature that conversational implicature that allow for interpretation once the allow for interpretation once the speaker appears to have violated speaker appears to have violated the maximthe maxim

1. The speaker expects to be seen 1. The speaker expects to be seen as cooperative. as cooperative.

2. The hearer expects that the 2. The hearer expects that the violating speaker is being violating speaker is being cooperativecooperative

3. The speaker expects the hearer 3. The speaker expects the hearer to assume cooperation and to to assume cooperation and to interpret the violation on that interpret the violation on that basis.basis.

Five characteristics of Five characteristics of conversational implicatureconversational implicature

Everyone recognizes the Everyone recognizes the cooperative principlecooperative principle

Literal comprehension of an Literal comprehension of an utterance precedes the utterance precedes the interpretation of the meaninginterpretation of the meaning

Implicatures vary depending on Implicatures vary depending on the assumptions of the speaker in the assumptions of the speaker in questionquestion

Implicatures can be cancelled.Implicatures can be cancelled.Leechas Maxims:Leechas Maxims:1.tact- minimize cost and maximize 1.tact- minimize cost and maximize

benefit to otherbenefit to other2. generosity-minimize benefit and 2. generosity-minimize benefit and

maximize cost to selfmaximize cost to self3. approbation-minimize criticism 3. approbation-minimize criticism

and maximize praise of otherand maximize praise of other

4. modesty- minimize praise and 4. modesty- minimize praise and maximize criticism of selfmaximize criticism of self

Goals are related to avoiding loss of Goals are related to avoiding loss of face. Numerous acts are face-face. Numerous acts are face-threatening:threatening:

Negative face- territoriality, freedom of Negative face- territoriality, freedom of action and freedom from imposition;action and freedom from imposition;

A request impedes on another’s A request impedes on another’s freedomfreedom

Positive face- positive self image, Positive face- positive self image, desire for approval; contraction desire for approval; contraction by another calls into question by another calls into question one’s positive self image one’s positive self image

Speech ActSpeech Act

Is a technical term in linguistics Is a technical term in linguistics and the philosophy of languageand the philosophy of language

Refers to the act of successfully Refers to the act of successfully communicating an intended communicating an intended understanding to the listenerunderstanding to the listener

Some typical Speech ActsSome typical Speech Acts

WarningWarning InformingInforming PromisingPromising QuestioningQuestioning AnsweringAnswering GreetingGreeting ChallengingChallenging

Classification illocutionary actsClassification illocutionary acts

Assertives= speech acts that Assertives= speech acts that commit a speaker to the truth of commit a speaker to the truth of the expressed propositonthe expressed propositon

Directives= speech acts that are Directives= speech acts that are to cause the hearer to take a to cause the hearer to take a particular actionparticular action

Commisives= speech acts that Commisives= speech acts that commit a speaker to some future commit a speaker to some future actionaction

Expressives= speech acts that Expressives= speech acts that expresses on the speaker’s expresses on the speaker’s attitudes and emotions towards attitudes and emotions towards the propositionthe proposition

Declarations=speech acts that Declarations=speech acts that change the reality in accord with change the reality in accord with the proposition of the declarationthe proposition of the declaration

Analysis Using Searle’s TheoryAnalysis Using Searle’s Theory

Step 1: Understand the facts of Step 1: Understand the facts of the conversation.the conversation.

Step 2: Assume cooperation and Step 2: Assume cooperation and relevance on behalf of the relevance on behalf of the participantsparticipants

Step 3: Establish factual Step 3: Establish factual background information pertinent background information pertinent to the conversation.to the conversation.

Step 4: Make assumptions about the Step 4: Make assumptions about the conversation based on steps 1-3conversation based on steps 1-3

Step 5: If steps 1-4 do not yield a Step 5: If steps 1-4 do not yield a consequential meaning, then infer consequential meaning, then infer that there are two illocutionary that there are two illocutionary forces at workforces at work

Step 6: Assume the hearer has the Step 6: Assume the hearer has the ability to perform the act the ability to perform the act the speaker speaker

suggests.suggests.

••Step 7: Make inferences from 1-6 Step 7: Make inferences from 1-6 regarding possible primary regarding possible primary illocutions.illocutions.

••Step 8: Use background Step 8: Use background information to establish the information to establish the primary illocutionprimary illocution