Advanced Higher Advanced Higher Unit 3Unit 3

MedicinesMedicines

MedicinesMedicinesAny substance which alters the biochemical Any substance which alters the biochemical process of the body is known as a drug. process of the body is known as a drug. Drugs are said to be pharmacologically Drugs are said to be pharmacologically active (pharmacology involves the study of active (pharmacology involves the study of how drugs affect living organisms).how drugs affect living organisms).Substances that have a beneficial effect are Substances that have a beneficial effect are called medicinescalled medicines

Historical developmentHistorical developmentSouth American tribes discovered that chewing South American tribes discovered that chewing Peruvian bark (from the cinchona tree) relieved the Peruvian bark (from the cinchona tree) relieved the fever symptoms during bouts of malaria. fever symptoms during bouts of malaria. The substance responsible was quinine which is The substance responsible was quinine which is taken today as a standard precaution for malaria.taken today as a standard precaution for malaria.The ancient Egyptians used opium for the treatment The ancient Egyptians used opium for the treatment of pain and castor oil for the treatment of parasitic of pain and castor oil for the treatment of parasitic worms.worms.

The ancient Greeks and Romans hadThe ancient Greeks and Romans had developed a developed a system of medicines based on various plants and system of medicines based on various plants and minerals.minerals.Until the late 19th century, medicines were almost all Until the late 19th century, medicines were almost all plants or extracts of plants.plants or extracts of plants.

Where possible, the active compounds were Where possible, the active compounds were synthesized and derivatives of these compounds synthesized and derivatives of these compounds were made and tested for pharmacological were made and tested for pharmacological activity.activity.The development of aspirin can be used to The development of aspirin can be used to illustrate this point. In ancient Greece, the use of illustrate this point. In ancient Greece, the use of willow bark was recommended to relieve the pain willow bark was recommended to relieve the pain of childbirth. The Egyptians used dried leaves of of childbirth. The Egyptians used dried leaves of myrtle as a remedy for rheumatic pain. A boiled myrtle as a remedy for rheumatic pain. A boiled vinegar extract of willow leaves was a Roman vinegar extract of willow leaves was a Roman remedy for the relief of pain.remedy for the relief of pain.The active ingredient in the bark of the willow The active ingredient in the bark of the willow was called salicin and was first isolated by Leroux was called salicin and was first isolated by Leroux in 1829.in 1829.

Hydrolysis of salicin gives glucose and salicyl Hydrolysis of salicin gives glucose and salicyl alcohol which is metabolised in the body to alcohol which is metabolised in the body to produce salicylic acid. produce salicylic acid.

The sodium salt of salicylic acid was first used The sodium salt of salicylic acid was first used in 1875 for the treatment of rheumatic fever and in 1875 for the treatment of rheumatic fever and as an antipyretic agent (fever-reducing) but as an antipyretic agent (fever-reducing) but although effective, it caused serious irritation of although effective, it caused serious irritation of the stomach. the stomach.

As a result, a series of derivatives were As a result, a series of derivatives were synthesised and tested, the best of which synthesised and tested, the best of which proved to be acetylsalicylic acid better known proved to be acetylsalicylic acid better known as aspirin.as aspirin.

The chemical company Bayer released The chemical company Bayer released aspirin onto the market in 1899. aspirin onto the market in 1899.

It is now a well established painkiller It is now a well established painkiller (analgesic).(analgesic).

It is an excellent antipyretic and anti-It is an excellent antipyretic and anti-inflammatory agent used in the treatment of inflammatory agent used in the treatment of arthritis.arthritis.

It is also involved in the treatment and It is also involved in the treatment and prevention of heart disease.prevention of heart disease.

How a Medicine FunctionsHow a Medicine Functions

A receptor is part of a very large protein molecule A receptor is part of a very large protein molecule that has evolved naturally to interact with a specific that has evolved naturally to interact with a specific small, biologically active molecule. small, biologically active molecule. The shape, size and structure of the receptor site are The shape, size and structure of the receptor site are such that the biologically active molecule can bind such that the biologically active molecule can bind reversibly with the receptor. Such binding between reversibly with the receptor. Such binding between functional groups in the active molecule and functional groups in the active molecule and functional groups in the complex protein, involves functional groups in the complex protein, involves weak forces such as hydrogen bonding and weak weak forces such as hydrogen bonding and weak electrostatic attractions.electrostatic attractions.

Many different kinds of cell in the body have Many different kinds of cell in the body have receptors on the surface of the cell. receptors on the surface of the cell. If the correct natural molecule binds to the receptor If the correct natural molecule binds to the receptor site, it activates the cell and triggers a biological site, it activates the cell and triggers a biological response within the cell. response within the cell. The active molecule then leaves the site without itself The active molecule then leaves the site without itself being chemically changed. being chemically changed.

If the cell is a muscle cell, it will contract. If a If the cell is a muscle cell, it will contract. If a nerve cell (neurone) receives the correct chemical nerve cell (neurone) receives the correct chemical messenger, a nerve impulse is sent on to the next messenger, a nerve impulse is sent on to the next nerve cell. nerve cell.

Certain cells throughout the body respond by Certain cells throughout the body respond by producing secretions, e.g. in the stomach, some producing secretions, e.g. in the stomach, some cells secrete acid to aid the digestion of food cells secrete acid to aid the digestion of food while others secrete mucus, which forms a while others secrete mucus, which forms a coating over the stomach to prevent the stomach coating over the stomach to prevent the stomach wall being damaged by the acid.wall being damaged by the acid.

The situation can be compared to a car engine and The situation can be compared to a car engine and its ignition key. its ignition key. The car engine represents the cell. The car engine represents the cell. The ignition key represents the receptor The ignition key represents the receptor The key represents the biologically active The key represents the biologically active molecule. molecule. When the correct key (i.e. the small molecule) is When the correct key (i.e. the small molecule) is fitted to the lock (i.e. the receptor), it can be fitted to the lock (i.e. the receptor), it can be turned to switch on the ignition (i.e. activate the turned to switch on the ignition (i.e. activate the cell) and start the car engine (i.e. produce a cell) and start the car engine (i.e. produce a biological response). biological response). Clearly the shape of the key is critical. If it does Clearly the shape of the key is critical. If it does not fit the lock, the car won’t start. not fit the lock, the car won’t start.

Similarly, if the shape of the small molecule is Similarly, if the shape of the small molecule is such that it does not fit the receptor site, the such that it does not fit the receptor site, the cell will not be activated and there will be no cell will not be activated and there will be no response.response.

Naturally occurring human proteins are Naturally occurring human proteins are polymers made from chiral polymers made from chiral -amino acids.-amino acids.

It follows that proteins themselves will be It follows that proteins themselves will be chiral and that the receptor sites will be chiral. chiral and that the receptor sites will be chiral.

Consequently, only the optical isomer, or Consequently, only the optical isomer, or enantiomer, of the chemical messenger will be enantiomer, of the chemical messenger will be biologically active. biologically active.

Enzymes operate in a similar way. Enzymes operate in a similar way. Enzymes are large complex protein Enzymes are large complex protein molecules which act as effective catalysts molecules which act as effective catalysts for biological processes. for biological processes. Protein molecules consist of a large number Protein molecules consist of a large number of of -amino acids joined together by peptide -amino acids joined together by peptide (amide) links. (amide) links. Proteins are often referred to as Proteins are often referred to as polypeptides. polypeptides.

The polypeptide chain naturally forms itself into The polypeptide chain naturally forms itself into a helical shape held together by internal a helical shape held together by internal hydrogen bonding. The helix in turn is folded hydrogen bonding. The helix in turn is folded into a 3-D structure, part of which forms a into a 3-D structure, part of which forms a pocket known as the active site. pocket known as the active site.

• This is also known as a catalytic receptor.

The shape of the active site determines the The shape of the active site determines the function of the enzyme. A natural molecule function of the enzyme. A natural molecule (or part of a molecule) will fit into this site. (or part of a molecule) will fit into this site. This molecule is generally known as the This molecule is generally known as the substrate molecule. substrate molecule. Once in position, the substrate molecule is Once in position, the substrate molecule is changed chemically by the enzyme. changed chemically by the enzyme. The chemical change may involve cleavage The chemical change may involve cleavage of the substrate molecule (e.g. hydrolysis of of the substrate molecule (e.g. hydrolysis of sugars and proteins), or may involve the sugars and proteins), or may involve the substrate molecule linking to the other substrate molecule linking to the other molecules (e.g. protein synthesis).molecules (e.g. protein synthesis).

It may be that groups within the active sites It may be that groups within the active sites bind to the substrate molecule in such a way bind to the substrate molecule in such a way that some bonds within the substrate that some bonds within the substrate molecule are weakened, causing the molecule are weakened, causing the substrate molecule to split into fragments. substrate molecule to split into fragments. Alternatively, bonds within the substrate Alternatively, bonds within the substrate molecule may become more polarised and molecule may become more polarised and so much more susceptible to attack by so much more susceptible to attack by water, making hydrolysis easier. water, making hydrolysis easier. The product molecules are then released The product molecules are then released and this site is available to perform the and this site is available to perform the same reaction on more substrate molecules.same reaction on more substrate molecules.

Medicines work by acting on a receptor site Medicines work by acting on a receptor site either to mimic the response of the natural either to mimic the response of the natural active compound or to block the effect of the active compound or to block the effect of the natural active compound. natural active compound. Medicines can be classed as agonists or Medicines can be classed as agonists or antagonists according to the way in which antagonists according to the way in which they operate.they operate.An agonist interacts with a receptor to An agonist interacts with a receptor to produce a response similar to the body’s produce a response similar to the body’s natural active compound.natural active compound.An antagonist interacts with a receptor to An antagonist interacts with a receptor to provide no response because it prevents action provide no response because it prevents action of the body’s natural active compound.of the body’s natural active compound.

An agonist molecule is like a good copy of the An agonist molecule is like a good copy of the original ignition key. It will fit the lock and turn original ignition key. It will fit the lock and turn to switch on the engine. to switch on the engine. The agonist molecule will be similar in structure The agonist molecule will be similar in structure and shape to the natural molecule so that it binds and shape to the natural molecule so that it binds to the receptor and activates the cell.to the receptor and activates the cell.The antagonist is like a badly copied key that fits The antagonist is like a badly copied key that fits into the lock but will not turn and not switch on into the lock but will not turn and not switch on the engine. the engine. The antagonist molecule will be similar enough to The antagonist molecule will be similar enough to the natural molecule to allow it to bind to the the natural molecule to allow it to bind to the receptor but different in some way so that it is receptor but different in some way so that it is prevented from activating the cell. prevented from activating the cell. This prevents the natural molecule from activating This prevents the natural molecule from activating the cell and producing the biological response. the cell and producing the biological response.

Most medicines and drugs are complex molecules Most medicines and drugs are complex molecules containing a variety of functional groups. containing a variety of functional groups. Some of these groups may not be essential for Some of these groups may not be essential for binding to the receptor. binding to the receptor. For chemists trying to design new, more effective For chemists trying to design new, more effective medicines, it would be useful to know the minimum medicines, it would be useful to know the minimum structural requirements for a molecule to be structural requirements for a molecule to be pharmacologically active.pharmacologically active.The structural fragment of the molecule that confers The structural fragment of the molecule that confers pharmacological activity is called the pharmacological activity is called the pharmacophore. pharmacophore. The shape of the pharmacophore complements that The shape of the pharmacophore complements that of the receptor site allowing it to fit into the receptor. of the receptor site allowing it to fit into the receptor.

The functional groups on both structures are The functional groups on both structures are correctly positioned to interact and bind the correctly positioned to interact and bind the medicine molecule to the receptor.medicine molecule to the receptor.

Morphine is a highly addictive analgesic. The Morphine is a highly addictive analgesic. The structures for codeine and heroin are very similar.structures for codeine and heroin are very similar.

By comparing the structures of a number of By comparing the structures of a number of medicines with similar pharmacological activity, medicines with similar pharmacological activity, the pharmacophore can be identified. the pharmacophore can be identified.

Once the pharmacophore has been identified, Once the pharmacophore has been identified, chemists can design and synthesize potential chemists can design and synthesize potential medicines with a greater likelihood of success. medicines with a greater likelihood of success.

By selectively changing parts of the molecule By selectively changing parts of the molecule but still retaining the pharmacophore, it is but still retaining the pharmacophore, it is possible to produce compounds which have possible to produce compounds which have reduced addictive properties while still retaining reduced addictive properties while still retaining their analgesic properties. their analgesic properties.

Sulphanilamide and Penicillin as Sulphanilamide and Penicillin as AntibioticsAntibiotics

Penicillins are the most famous of the antibiotics.Penicillins are the most famous of the antibiotics.

• Discovered by Alexander Flemming in 1928,the isolation of the active compound was successfully achieved by Florey and Chain in1940.

First widely used antibiotics were the First widely used antibiotics were the sulphonamides which were discovered in the sulphonamides which were discovered in the 1930s. 1930s.

• The first of these was actually a dyestuff, prontosil which was found to be an effective antibacterial agent. The active compound was sulphanilamide.

• Sulphanilamide is a bacteriostatic agent which means that it stops further growth of bacteria.

4-aminobenzenecarboxylic acid4-aminobenzenecarboxylic acidUsed by bacteria in the Used by bacteria in the synthesis of folic acid. synthesis of folic acid.

• Very similar in structure to sulphanilamide and is able to inhibit the formation of folic acid, preventing the bacteria from reproducing.• Folic acid is an essential vitamin but it cannot be synthesised in the body and must be obtained in the diet.

Penicillins are bactericidal agents which means Penicillins are bactericidal agents which means they can kill bacteria.they can kill bacteria.

They do this by inhibiting the synthesis of the They do this by inhibiting the synthesis of the bonds that strengthen the bacterial cell wall.bonds that strengthen the bacterial cell wall.

Since both types of antibiotic operate by Since both types of antibiotic operate by blocking the effect of an enzyme, blocking the effect of an enzyme, sulphonamides and penicillins are antagonists.sulphonamides and penicillins are antagonists.

Unfortunately bacteria can evolve into strains Unfortunately bacteria can evolve into strains that are resistant to antibiotics.that are resistant to antibiotics.

Chemists are continually striving to produce new Chemists are continually striving to produce new antibiotics to control these resistant strains.antibiotics to control these resistant strains.

Nowadays doctors tend to prescribe antibiotics Nowadays doctors tend to prescribe antibiotics only when they are really necessary and they only when they are really necessary and they insist that the full course of treatment is insist that the full course of treatment is completed so that all of the bacteria are killed.completed so that all of the bacteria are killed.

If the full course is not completed then some If the full course is not completed then some partially resistant bacteria will survive and be partially resistant bacteria will survive and be able to spread and evolve.able to spread and evolve.

The situation could become very serious if the The situation could become very serious if the bacteria are able to evolve faster than the bacteria are able to evolve faster than the defences against them can be devised.defences against them can be devised.

Consequently, the search for more and more Consequently, the search for more and more effective antibiotics continues with renewed effective antibiotics continues with renewed urgency.urgency.