Afghanistan

Labor Market Information Survey

Conducted by

Matthew Agnew International Rescue Committee In association with: The Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs

September 2003

Acknowledgments

Survey Support by: Stephen Vardigans Program Coordinator

Survey Team Leaders: Mohammad Asif Central region Abdullah Aziz Northern region Fazal Sabir Eastern region Ahmad Jawid Nazemy Western region Mohammad Ayaz Western region Ministry of Labor & Social Affairs member participation in all survey teams Administrative support: Nilofar Raheem Mohammad Tameem Database entry: Mohammad Bashir Stoor

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Index Foreword ............................................................................................................................. 7 Executive Summary ............................................................................................................ 9

Educational Status........................................................................................................... 9 Economy ......................................................................................................................... 9 Incomes ......................................................................................................................... 10 Unemployment.............................................................................................................. 11 Vocational Training ...................................................................................................... 11 Women.......................................................................................................................... 12 Disability....................................................................................................................... 12

Need for Labor Market Information ................................................................................. 13 Collection of LMI ......................................................................................................... 13

Research Process............................................................................................................... 15 Survey Methodology..................................................................................................... 15 Questionnaires............................................................................................................... 17 Sample Size................................................................................................................... 17 Data Collection ............................................................................................................. 18 Reliability and Validity................................................................................................. 18

Survey Locations .............................................................................................................. 20 Findings............................................................................................................................. 24

Ethnicity........................................................................................................................ 24 Educational Status......................................................................................................... 25 Economy ....................................................................................................................... 27

Informal Sector Employment.................................................................................... 27 Bazaars Surveyed...................................................................................................... 27 Types of Businesses.................................................................................................. 28 Incomes ..................................................................................................................... 28 Livelihood Supplements ........................................................................................... 30 Unemployment.......................................................................................................... 31 Credit Availability .................................................................................................... 32

Vocational Training ...................................................................................................... 32 Vulnerable Groups ........................................................................................................ 34

Women...................................................................................................................... 34 Current Economic Activities Undertaken by Women .............................................. 34 Income Earned by Women........................................................................................ 35 Vocational Training Opportunities for Women........................................................ 35 Access for and participation of Women.................................................................... 37 Disability................................................................................................................... 37

Demographics ................................................................................................................... 39 Ethnicity........................................................................................................................ 39 Educational Status......................................................................................................... 40 Location Analysis ......................................................................................................... 42 Vulnerable Groups ........................................................................................................ 44

Disabled .................................................................................................................... 44 Women...................................................................................................................... 46

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Economy ........................................................................................................................... 48 Bazaars Surveyed.......................................................................................................... 48 Types of Businesses...................................................................................................... 49 Background of Businesses ............................................................................................ 52 Occupations................................................................................................................... 54 Educational Status to Occupation ................................................................................. 55 Rural and Urban Income Variations ............................................................................. 57 Regional Income Variations ......................................................................................... 59 Seasonal Income Variations.......................................................................................... 61 Business Income to Family Income.............................................................................. 62 Farmers Income ........................................................................................................... 63 Supplementary Income Sources.................................................................................... 65 Womens Income .......................................................................................................... 67

Labor Market .................................................................................................................... 69 Unemployment Rate ..................................................................................................... 69 Under-employment ....................................................................................................... 69 Labor demand ............................................................................................................... 71 Business Supplies.......................................................................................................... 73 Future Business Prospects............................................................................................. 74 Womens Economic Activities ..................................................................................... 75 Finance.......................................................................................................................... 77 Existing Traditional Skills ............................................................................................ 78 Business - Service / Product Requests .......................................................................... 79 Shora - Service / Product Requests............................................................................... 80 Family - Service / Product Requests............................................................................. 81 Women - Service / Product Requests............................................................................ 82 All Surveyed Groups Service/Product Requests Comparison ................................... 83 Self-employment opportunities..................................................................................... 84

Vocational Training .......................................................................................................... 86 Types of Skills Training................................................................................................ 87 Training Environment................................................................................................... 88 Trainee Attendance ....................................................................................................... 90 Businesses View on Training........................................................................................ 91 Community Involvement .............................................................................................. 93 Family Training Requests ............................................................................................. 94 Womens Training Requests......................................................................................... 95 Disabled Training Requests .......................................................................................... 96

References......................................................................................................................... 97 Annex 1: Central Region Information .......................................................................... 99

Ethnicity.................................................................................................................... 99 Bazaars Surveyed...................................................................................................... 99 Shops Identified in Bazaar ...................................................................................... 100 Incomes ................................................................................................................... 101 Local Economy ....................................................................................................... 102 Goods and Services Requested ............................................................................... 102 Self-employment Opportunities.............................................................................. 103

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Women.................................................................................................................... 104 Disabled .................................................................................................................. 104 Vocational Training ................................................................................................ 105

Annex 2: Eastern Region Information ........................................................................ 106 Ethnicity.................................................................................................................. 106 Bazaars Surveyed.................................................................................................... 106 Shops Identified in Bazaar ...................................................................................... 107 Incomes ................................................................................................................... 108 Local Economy ....................................................................................................... 109 Goods and Services Requested ............................................................................... 109 Self-employment Opportunities.............................................................................. 110 Women.................................................................................................................... 111 Disabled .................................................................................................................. 111 Vocational Training ................................................................................................ 112

Annex 3: Northern Region Information...................................................................... 113 Ethnicity.................................................................................................................. 113 Bazaars Surveyed.................................................................................................... 113 Shops Identified in Bazaar ...................................................................................... 114 Incomes ................................................................................................................... 115 Local Economy ....................................................................................................... 116 Goods and Services Requested ............................................................................... 116 Self-employment Opportunities.............................................................................. 117 Women.................................................................................................................... 118 Disabled .................................................................................................................. 118 Vocational Training ................................................................................................ 119

Annex 4: Western Region Information....................................................................... 120 Ethnicity................................................................................................................. 120 Bazaars Surveyed.................................................................................................... 120 Shops Identified in Bazaar ...................................................................................... 121 Incomes ................................................................................................................... 122 Local Economy ....................................................................................................... 123 Goods and Services Requested ............................................................................... 123 Self-employment Opportunities.............................................................................. 124 Women.................................................................................................................... 125 Disabled .................................................................................................................. 125 Vocational Training ................................................................................................ 126

Annex 5: Survey Questions ........................................................................................ 127 Annex 6: Issue Focused Question Collation............................................................... 131 Annex 7: Examples of LMI Survey Excel Database .................................................. 134 Annex 8: Excel Database Final Collation (example)............................................... 135 Annex 9: Key Indicators of the Labor Market............................................................ 136 Annex 10: The International Standard Classification Of Occupations I.S.C.O. 1987 137 Annex 11: All Regions Combined Types and Number of Shops ............................... 139 Annex 12: All Regions Combined Family Occupations & Numbers Interviewed..... 140 Annex 13: All Regions Combined Rural Traditional Professions Identified - Shora. 141 Annex 14: All Regions Combined Services Requested by Businesses ...................... 142

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Annex 15: All Regions Combined Services Requested by Shora .............................. 143 Annex 16: All Regions Combined Services Requested by Families.......................... 144 Annex 17: All Regions Combined Services Requested by Individual Women.......... 145

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Foreword In October 2002, the US Department of Labor released the first allocation of funding to the International Rescue Committee to commence the IRC Vocational Training Program. The project proposal, and subsequent project framework, identified more and more worthwhile employment as an immediate objective for the program. Implicit in this objective is the understanding that no vocational training should be undertaken unless there is a very high likelihood that it will lead to sustainable employment and improved livelihoods for the trainees. In other words, all training funded by the program has to be labor market driven. In order to ensure that training will lead to jobs, and to provide some degree of confidence in selecting skills training for which there is a market, it is necessary to have objective labor market information. This report contains such information and is the result of an extensive labor market survey covering the Central, Eastern, Northern and Western regions of Afghanistan. It was carried out during March and April 2003. Although there have been a number of surveys relating to world-of-work issues carried out in recent years, most have been narrowly focused on specific areas of employment, and on specific regions. None have taken a particularly broad view of the diverse but interrelated factors concerning employment and the market, nor have they looked in detail at the linked sociological and developmental issues which impact greatly on the economic development of Afghanistan. This survey attempted to do both and has, I believe, succeeded. Key information ranges from the kind of businesses that generate high levels of income, to the number of women and disabled people working directly in the Bazaar. It tells us, perhaps unsurprisingly to many women in Afghanistan, that women contribute a very significant proportion of total family income, and it reconfirms the close correlation between education levels, occupational grouping and incomes. It also reconfirms that overall literacy rates are shockingly low and that there is a huge unemployment burden throughout the country. For those who attempt to look at economies in terms of standardized key labor market indicators, it will be difficult to draw comparisons. There is almost no formal-sector present in Afghanistan at the moment, and many indicator and occupational groupings are simply not represented in the country. Although the main rationale for undertaking this study was to provide programs such as our own with reliable and valid data on which to base decisions regarding supporting appropriate kinds of training, the breadth of coverage should make it useful for planners in many other fields. We also hope that it can serve to inform the general development debates going on around Afghanistan, and lead to more consultation, cohesion and rationalization.

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I convey my sincere thanks to M. Ghaus Bashiri, Deputy Minister of Labour and Social Affairs, who has provided full support and encouragement for this study. Thanks also to the many Ministry staff and the IRC Vocational Training Program staff, who trained and worked together in order to complete the extensive range of fieldwork. It is hoped that the research methodology, and the information processing and analysis techniques used, will be helpful to the Ministry in developing their own labor market information systems in the future. Finally, I wish to convey special thanks and congratulations my friend and work colleague, Matthew Agnew, who has worked tirelessly to design, test, implement and analyze this extensive study. I know that for him, this has been both a labor of love and, when triple checking the thousands of items of original data, simply hard labor. For us, and Afghanistan, what he has produced is one of the most useful and worthwhile pieces of labor market research currently available. Stephen Vardigans Kabul, September 2003.

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Executive Summary

Educational Status

Literacy rates were found within the general household survey to be 21%. A significant difference of 23% was found between the rural areas at 11% and the urban areas at 34%.

Survey respondents, who had commenced and completed primary education

(Grade 6), were recorded at 52% amongst household respondents and 34% amongst individual women respondents.

78% of all women stated that they had never attended schooling. (25% of women

directly requested literacy training.)

Correlation between educational achievement and occupation was clearly identified. In the household survey, farmers and the unskilled workers had a literacy rate of 5%, whereas craft/trade & service/shop workers had a 24% literacy rate. The business owners literacy rate is 43%, with an associated average income earnings differential of 105% above the average family income.

Economy The majority of urban bazaars (37%) serve 40 to 60 villages in the surrounding

area. This compares to 48% of rural bazaars supplying only 5 to 10 villages.

The typical business is owned by the family (55%), and employs 1 to 2 workers (69%)

Most businesses have been established for 5 years-plus (63%).

The craft & trade major group is the main type of business, in both the urban and

rural economies. This is in terms of both actual numbers (48%) and the range of business types (41%). The Service/Shop category was the second most prevalent; 22% by number and 32% by the range of business types.

On average, rural businesses generated 3,984 Afghanis ($83US) per. month, 63%

of the income being earned by urban businesses 6,293 Afghanis ($131US) per. month.

Business expectations were very high, with 97% stating that they expected their

businesses to grow over the coming year.

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A constant request from businesses was for financial credit services, which were

generally unavailable.

Incomes

The average family occupational earnings per month, were calculated at 2,296 Afghanis ($48 US), 206% above that of the average family.

The average business income, per month, was calculated at 5,139 Afghanis ($107

US), across all major-group occupations.

Using the craft/trade results as an indicator, the Central and Eastern regions business income is the highest; the Northern region is second and the Western region the lowest.

Farmers income levels were identified at an average of 2,334 Afghanis ($49 US)

per month, with the Northern farmers showing the highest average earnings and Western farmers the lowest.

A combination of the average business, family and farmers incomes, yields an

occupational income of 3,256 Afghanis ($68 US) per month. However, with the vast majority of Afghans engaged in agricultural occupations, the truer figure is probably somewhere between the farmer and family occupational income, at 2,315 ($48 US) Afghanis per month.

In the major urban centers, there is an overall percentage increase in the average

business income of 60%. However, the family earnings show only a 12% increase above the average.

70% of families rely upon a second or third source of income.

The most common sources of secondary income were; money from relatives

(72%), unskilled labor (41%), specific occupations (29%) and securing work abroad (11%).

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Unemployment

The overall unemployment rate, described across all regions and age groups, is 32%.

Central region identified the highest unemployment rate at 42%.

Youth (1625 age group) unemployment is identified at 26% across all regions.

The 25-60 age range group has the highest rate of unemployment, at 42%.

Under-employment, amongst the businesses was identified at 33%.

62% of businesses stated that they required additional employees. 40% of the

demand was for skilled labor and 22% for unskilled.

Vocational Training

The majority of the training centers are operated by NGOs (57%). Private organizations account for 24% and Government (19%).

51% of training centers have only been operating for one year, however 35% had

been operating for five or more years.

Craft and trade type occupational courses were the most common being delivered.

The average length of course delivery time was 8 months.

70% of all vocational training is for women.

Attendance on the courses was overwhelmingly for only half of the day.

The majority age range of trainees was 16-25, with trainee stipends paid by 97% of training centers.

All of the trainers delivering courses were skilled workers, many secured from

local bazaars but none having had any formal teacher training.

Literacy is taught in 61% of the training centers.

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65% of businesses are currently offering on-the-job training, a 24% increase on previous years.

Women 13% of the female population, are widows

Womens current income generating occupations are carpet weaving (49%),

tailoring (19%), embroidery (8%), mora weaving/sewing (7%), and gleam weaving (5%).

41% of women identified themselves as earning income and directly contributing

towards their familys income.

The average income being earned by women was 754 ($16 US) Afghanis per month, representing a potential average contribution of 32% towards the families average income.

30% of the urban businesses owners interviewed stated that they would consider

employing a woman

The range of skill training being offered to women was very narrow and gender-specific; tailoring, carpet weaving, embroidery and handicrafts (generally low-profit and labor-intensive).

98% of women stated that they would be interested in attending a vocational

training course.

Reasons given as barriers to participation were; families not allowing (18%), family work needs (16%) and mobility issues 8%.

Disability An overall rate of 2.88% disability amongst the population surveyed.

An unemployment rate for disabled people of 84%.

The predominant types of impairments are; loss of a leg (51%), loss of an arm

(14%), mental health (14%), deafness (11%), blindness (10%), inability to speak (8%) and head injury (5%).

87% of vocational training for disabled was located in the Central region.

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Need for Labor Market Information A central economic development problem throughout the world is that of improving the linkages between training providers and businesses and industry. Economic development demands that the labor market is supplied with new skills as the economy grows and industry is re-structured. This places demands on the public and private sector organizations responsible for skill development. Cost-effective technical/vocational education and training therefore requires both an understanding of and involvement with; local businesses and industry. Therefore training providers must deliver skills training required by being responsiveness to the industrial and commercial needs of business and industry. This is especially so in Afghanistan where resources are limited. Therefore, the principal purpose of labor market surveys is to provide information for use within the government to aid policy decision-making regarding the current training requirements. This in terms of:

Skills required by businesses/industry (with associated potential labor requirements).

Occupational standards reflecting ongoing economic and technical changes in the

economy, which result in changing skill demands.

Collection of LMI An identification of the method for securing relevant, but cost-effective, Labor Market Intelligence is vital. Gray et al (1993) recommends that attention be paid to simple, locally applied approaches using labor market signals and indicators as a basis for steering reform. Labor market signals constitute the actual data collected, whether quantitative or qualitative. When collated and analyzed this offers an indication on employment and/or skill trends within differing occupations. Key requirements are:

Inclusion of all relevant stakeholders at a local level; industry/businesses, vocational training providers, funding organizations (NGOs) and local government.

Effective uses of key informants; individuals within the community who are in a unique position to offer a perspective on changes in the local economy.

Simple, clear and concise operational procedures identified, with relevant staff trained at the local level.

Provision of analysis technologies (computers & data analysis packages), accompanied by relevant training.

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Of course the ultimate aim of a functioning LMI system is that it leads people to skills training that lead to real work and income generating opportunities, thereby stimulating local growth in markets - and the economy as a whole.

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Research Process

Survey Methodology The survey is a piece of descriptive research on the current state of local economies within Afghanistan. It was carried out during March and April 2003 and utilized a multi-step sampling approach. With no sampling frame list available, as with an electoral role, maps were used to identify a range of locations based upon the concept of maximum diversity, across the IRC operational regions; Central, Eastern, Northern and Western. The non-random purposive sampling nature of the maximum diversity approach sought to secure representation of the population, through equal probability, by including the greatest variety of geographical locations, economic market activities and household respondents. Thus identifying the norm. The principle is that if you deliberately try to interview a very different selection of people, their aggregate answers will be close to the average. The first stage involved selecting a sample of forty-two districts from within thirteen provinces across the four IRC regions in Afghanistan. Selection was based on including, and maximizing, all the extremes within the population - whilst accommodating security and logistical concerns. The districts chosen within the thirteen provinces offered geographical (rain-fed to irrigated agriculture), and economical, variance (gas to timber producers) thought to be representative of the provinces populations as a whole. Another major aspect in the selection of locations involved identifying representative locations in both rural and urban areas, and to include the economical variances that the geographical situation imposes. The major factors identified and utilized to select the actual locations are identified below: URBAN RURAL

CITIES / TOWNS

Demographics:

Size of population Returnee area Displaced persons % of women/widows % of disabled % youth (16 25)

MARKETLINKAGE

Preferable that rural product will market in town to analyze

economic relationship

Geographical location:

Ethnicity Access to supply Existing IRC

programs Ease of monitoring

access Existing VT

programs we can expand

Economy:

Type of industries Range of services /

trades Family survival

strategy Work migration Size of market Degree of war

destruction Degree of debt

Common CriteriaGeographical location:

Ethnicity Access to

marketplace Access to supply Existing IRC

programs Ease of monitoring

access No existing VT

programs Economy:

Type of agriculture Family survival

strategy Work migration Drought affected Seasonal work

activities Degree of debt Existing services

DISTRICTS

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For each of the selected districts the estimated population of each was then identified from the VAM (WFP 2002) survey. Utilizing this information the number of populace locations (clusters) to be surveyed in each district was identified. In order to make sure that the number of towns and villages surveyed in each district was proportional to its population representation within the region being surveyed, a stratified sample design was used (List, 2002). The basic principle of stratification is that if an area has X% of the population, it should also have X% of the interviews. An example of this sample design methodology from the Central region provinces is described in the table below. Due to the aforementioned logistical and security issues, it was not always possible to accommodate these identified proportions exactly, in the field. In comparing the resulting actual number of locations surveyed with those expected in column D, it can be seen that the percentage variance never exceeded 6%.

Clusters Population 000s

% of total population exact rounded

% of clusters Province District

A B C D E ACTUAL % Variance

Gardez 64 16.1 5.3 5 15.2 6 3 Paktia

Zurmat 93 23.4 7.7 8 24.2 6 -6 Maidan 32 8.0 2.7 3 9.1 3 0

Said Abad 78 19.6 6.5 6 18.2 4 -6 Wardak Check 32 8.0 2.7 3 9.1 4 3 Khost 70 17.6 5.8 6 18.2 5 -3 Nadir

Shah Kot 16 4.0 1.3 1 3.0 3 6 Khost Gurbaz 13 3.3 1.1 1 3.0 2 3

33 towns/villages 398 100 33 33 100 33 0 Having identified the number of required locations by district the towns and villages, associated dwellings were selected. Again, this was carried out according to the principle of maximum diversity. In this stage of the methodology the dwellings were selected by randomly assessing the households relative wealth and location within the town or village. The final selection was within the households themselves, where a quota sampling method was used maintaining a 50:50 gender ratio respondent rate as the control variable.

Provinces identified

Districts identified

Proportional samples by district identified

Dwellings selected

Households interviewed

maximum diversity stratification maximum diversity

quota

Multi-stage Sampling Methodology Utilized

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Questionnaires The questionnaires were aimed at all stakeholders within local markets, to obtain as wide a perspective as possible on the current economic situation. 6 questionnaires were prepared for the survey; (i) local government offices (Ministry of Martyrs and Disabled & Ministry of Woman Affairs), (ii) local businesses, (iii) families (heads of households), (iv) local Shoras, and (v) vocational training centers. In addition, a direct observation survey was produced to record marketplace activity, and a womens focus group questionnaire. The questions formulated for all groups were closed in nature with fixed-alternative answers, some questions allowed for multiple answers. All questionnaires were then translated into Dari. A group of five team leaders were then hired, from each of the regions to be surveyed, and trained for a week in research methodologies and the specific purpose of Labor Market Information. The survey team leaders then piloted the questionnaires in Logar province for a week. On the basis of field experience changes were made to reflect more accurately local economic (changes to types of businesses in the bazaar observation format), and cultural realities (identification of families ethnicity by surveyor). A major change was made in an attempt to create womens focus groups. Cultural mobility issues prevented their use so an individual woman questionnaire was produced. (See Annex 5)

Sample Size Stakeholder Group Total No

Family 992 Vocational Training Centers 100

Local Business 637 "Shora" - Local Community 77

Individual woman 917 Bazaar 65

Ministry of Woman Affairs 16 Ministry of Martyrs and Disabled 18

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Data Collection The survey team leaders returned to their regions of responsibility with the revised sets of questionnaires, along with a schedule of survey locations and respondents required. 82 staff were then hired, equal teams of men and women; 24 in Central region, 20 in the Northern Region, 22 in the Western region and 16 in the Eastern region. The teams were then trained by the team leaders in survey approach, methodology and interpretation of questions. The actual survey was then carried out by teams using allocated schedules of activities (locations and numbers and types of respondents), This field work lasted for 2 to 3 weeks. The team leaders acted as roving quality controllers, visiting all teams regularly to ensure compliance with the identified methodologies and to solve logistical issues. All survey forms completed had to be signed by the responsible surveyor and then counter-signed by the team leader. The information was then disaggregated into issue focuses (see Annex 6), and then collated onto English formats. Data Collation The survey data was then inputted into an Excel database (see Annex 7). This database was password protected, with all input cells validated to relevant look-up lists. Total numbers were then transferred to a final Excel sheet, disaggregated by region, where averages etc. were calculated automatically (see Annex 8).

Reliability and Validity There were many points during all stages of the survey where reliability and validity concerns were identified. The principle points are identified below: Lack of Triangulation in methodology: All data was quantitative in nature. Qualitative methods would have required much more extensive training of surveyors, and there would also be major issues with translation and interpretation of results. In order to provide some form of triangulation, different stakeholder groups were asked the same question in order to verify the results. Translation and interpretation:

Problems with translation from English to Dari arose throughout the survey. Difficulties with semantics meant that there were interpretation difficulties amongst survey staff. There were also some interpretation difficulties between interviewer and respondent. The interpretation curtains, covering precise meaning when going from English to Dari, and then back into English, was a major concern. The collation of the field data back into English involved the actual field staff, allowing for verification of any unclear results.

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Methodical approach to handling data:

Ensuring that the survey staffs approach to data and its collection was methodical. By providing a clear procedure (developed and piloted with the team leaders) with relevant formats, made this possible.

The inputting of large amounts of data highlighted issues of reliability.

Quality controls, through sampling processes, allowed for the identification of invalid data and for corrections to be made. All field data forms were transported to Kabul. Any issues or queries, raised during the database inputting process, were crosschecked against the actual field data.

Motivation:

Maintaining the motivational factors to ensure accurate recording of a large amount of data was important. All staff were informed that good performance could lead to permanent positions within the program. Certificates were issued on the basis of performance. (Four of the five team leaders, along with other survey officers, continue to work on the Vocational Training Program and have a much clearer understanding of market driven training.)

NGO affect:

When an NGO arrives to survey a business or community, it creates an expectation that some form of financial return may be secured. There is no doubt that this will have influenced the results.

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S

Central Region S Principal urban locations

Provinces identifying Districts with associated towns and villages

Kabul Kabul City - Districts (4/6/8/9/2/7/4/5/15/10) Bagrami Shawaki, Kamari, Phagman Paracha, Zargar

Khost Khost Bashakhil, Mandabhil, Chagabhil, Laken, Kundikala Gorbaz Borikhil, Shaleh Amir Nader Shakat Shambawat, Kaprabala, Jamikhil

Logar Pul-i-Alam Walait, Babus, Hesark, Khaga Khoshi Khoshi, Kariz

Wardak

Maidam Shahr - Nahr Lolad, Kota Asro, Dan Afghanan

rbhil, Granibhil,

Paktia

Gardez Gardez, KhagTara, Ahangray, RubatZurmat Tameir, MarKhil, Niknam, Shak, Ha

Chack - Mohmad Ya Hasan, Shikahn, ga Bala, Adin satagan urvey Locations

urvey Locations Kala Baba, Chack Sayad Abad - Kular Amir, Oukhi, Salar, Rhmankhi

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Eastern Region Survey Locations

Principal urban locations Provinces identifying Districts with associated towns and villages

NANGRAHAR Jalalabad Jalalabad City, Kariz-Kabir, Ghauchaq, Zrani, Qasaba, Jui 7 Batikot Batikot Bazaar, Barikaw, Akhen Zadagan, Amber Khan Kuz-Kuner Khiwa Bazaar, Malakzai, Bazarak, Shigi

LAGHMAN Qayghaee Mihtalam, Gulkari, Dezaiyat, Demuslim, Charghaee Bazaar, Char-Bagh, Mandrawer

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Survey Locations

Principal urban locations

Provinces identifying Districts with associated towns and villages

HERAT Herat City - Districts 2 - 9 inc, Karta, Qala-i-Shafar Adraskan Adraskan, Kham Sahib Khan, Sarpushta Marad Khan, Sheerzaad, Calsurkh, Mir Abadi, Zohrak Cheshtsharif Tasabsony, Beh Khan, Paee Chenar Kushak-kohana - Kushak-kohana, Coklam Sofla, Coklam Ulia, Cal Coklam, Panam Qul, Zenda

BADGHIS Ab-kamary Kokchaeel, Roji, Padah Qadis Gharchaghai, Zahershahi Qala-naw - Qala-naw, Aeedgah, Kharestaan Muqur Khalifa, Muqur, Abshara Ab-Kamari - Ab-Kamari, Kargas-qal, Dizangai Qala-i-naw Chishmadozak, Sangitak, Takabesmail, Laman-Mansori

H Principal urban locatiasham, Shal Baaf

ons identified Western Region22

Northern Region Survey Locations

Principal urban locations

Provinces identifying Districts with associated towns and villages

BALKH Dahdadi Mazar Dawlathabad Shirha bad Sholgara Dawlathabad Alborz Sholgara Charkant Chaganaq, Sher Shar

KONDUZ Konduz Konduz Imam Sahib Imam Sahib

JAWOZJAN Shibirghan Shibirghan And Khoy And Khoy Khoja doko Khoja doko Aqcha - Aqcha

SARIPUL Tashgazart Tashgazart Sayedhabad Sayedhabad Sozmaqala Sozmaqala

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Findings You will find reference to a selection of 20 KILM indicators (see Annex 9) throughout this section. The indicators were designed to respond to the ever-increasing demands of governments and the social partners (workers and employers organizations) for timely, accurate and accessible information on the worlds labour markets. The initial indicators were chosen in a collaborative effort involving the ILO Employment Sector and the Bureau of Statistics in consultation with experts from ILO field offices, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and several national representatives from Ministries of Labour and national Statistical Offices. The selection of the indicators was based on the following criteria: (a) conceptual relevance; (b) data availability; and (c) relative comparability across economies and regions.

Ethnicity The estimated population of present day Afghanistan varies between 22.2 million (Central Statistics Office, Afghanistan, 2003) and 23.5 million (WFP, 2001) (all figures are however based on probability coefficients or growth rate expectations - no formal census statistics are available). The Central Statistics Office (2003) identifies 77.6% (16 million) of the population living in rural areas and 22.4% (4.6 million) in urban areas (C.S.O. 2003). As the families surveyed (n=1,119) were divided between perceived urban and rural locations. The urban locations represented 58% (n=654) of the total respondents, as opposed to a rural figure of 42% (n=465). The ethnic breakdown of the population is again an estimation, with Wardak (1998) identifying; Pashtun (41%), Tajik (20%), Hazara (9%), Uzbek (8%) and other ethnic groups totaling 22%. In comparison to Wardaks estimations, the family survey results sample represented a 3% Pashtun increase (44%), a 23% Tajik increase (43%), a 6% Hazara decrease (3%) and a 1% Uzbek reduction (7%), with other ethnic groupings under represented by 19%. The variances are therefore highest amongst the Tajik, Hazara and other ethnic groupings. Wardak (1998) identified that whilst Tajiks are mainly farmers by occupation, many have migrated to urban areas to benefit from the increased educational and economic opportunities offered. The urban family survey results showed a 10% rise in Tajik ethnic representation. This fact, when considered alongside the locations selected for surveying, perhaps offers some explanation for the apparent over-representation of Tajik ethnicity. Survey location also offers an explanation for the other anomalies. The Hazara live predominantly in the central mountainous region of Afghanistan, known as Hazarajat, which was not surveyed. The other ethnic groups are either also geographically specific, as with the Nuristani, or alternatively nomadic as with the Kuchi. The individual woman survey (n=897) concurred generally with all of the results identified above except in the rural other ethnic groups (10%). The reason for this increase was a 39% other representation in the more ethnically mixed Northern region.

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However, the results should not be taken from purely an essentialist view of ethnicity. In Afghanistan a strong local identity relating to family, clan and village is as much a source of identity for Afghans, as the national ethnic picture (Pain & Goodhand, 2002). Wardak concurs from the urban perspective stating:

Trade and commerce..and employment opportunities have pulled hundreds of Afghans from different ethnic/tribal backgrounds to live and work side by side for generations in the larger towns and cities.

(1998:79)

The overall business owner ethnicity results were again similar. In the urban results a 12% increase in Pashtun business ownership was noted, in comparison to the family results. This increase was directly reflected in an 18% reduction in Tajik representation amongst business owners in urban localities. The ethnic occupational specificity results were inconclusive, appearing to merely reflect the general ethnic dominance within a given geographical area.

Educational Status Key Indicators of the Labor Market

11. Unemployment by educational attainment 14. Educational attainment and illiteracy

The two indicators identified above are both concerned with identifying any relationship existing between education and employment within a socio-economic climate. This attempt to identify relationships, and then to utilize the information gathered in a meaningful manner at the macro-policy making level or at the micro-individual career choice level, is an on-going socio-economic debate. This attempt to measure the macro/micro impact of education led to the development of measurement toolkits such as the Human Development Index (HDI) proposed by the United Nations Development Program (UNDP, 1990). The UNDP chose literacy levels, and primary school completion levels at a national level, as indicators - which would begin to allow a population to have economic command over resources, and to make a decent living. However in order to ascertain the impact education has on employment, and the economy as a whole, a measurement is required for policy makers to establish where finite resources should be allocated. The Rate of Return approach is often used for this measurement. It calculates the net returns on educational expenditure, measured as the increase in net income that an individual will be able to command throughout his/her life in relation to the income he/she would have received if he/she had not reached that

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educational level (DIFID, 1999). The more recent Sustainable Livelihoods Model approach, developed by DFID, continues to see education as a key component within the individuals livelihood assets set. Education is a principle human capital item which allows individuals to function and thereby achieve their economic goals (Paine & Lautze, 2002). The results of this survey show an overall self-identified literacy rate within the households survey (n=208) of 21%. The literacy rate difference between urban (34%) and rural (11%) locations was significant. Previous surveys conducted in Afghanistan have indicated a literacy rate of 47% for men and 15% for women (1995) and 45% for men and 15% for women in 1998, (Girardet & Walter; UNESCO). Levels of actual educational attainment, of survey respondents who had commenced and completed primary education (Grade 6), were recorded at 52% amongst household respondents and 34% amongst individual women respondents. Only 22% of all women (n=828) stated that they had attended any form of schooling. The United Nations country indicator tables places the literacy rate of women in Afghanistan as the 3rd lowest in the world. The individual women survey identified a direct request of 25% across the regional results, for literacy class provision for women. In terms of a direct relationship between the level of education achieved and an increase in occupational income produced, the family survey indicated that, amongst the unskilled and farmer occupational groups, only a 5% literacy rate was identified. Amongst the craft/trade and service/shop occupations there was an average literacy rate of 24%. A more direct correlation between educational achievement and individual fiscal contribution to the economy is seen within the business owners survey (all men). They recorded an overall literacy rate of 43%, with an associated average percentile income earnings differential of 105% (5,139 Afghanis ($107 US) per. month), above the identified average family income of 2,508 Afghanis per month ($48 US). Internally within this group, the average rural business owner has a literacy level of 29% and an average income of 3,984 Afghanis per month ($83US). This compares to the average urban business owner who has a literacy rate of 56% and an average income of 6,293 Afghanis per month ($131US). There is, and has always been, unequal access to education between the urban (22%) and rural population (78%) (UNICEF, 2002).

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Economy Informal Sector Employment Key Indicators of the Labor Market

7. Employment in the informal sector The concept of the informal economy is often spoken of, but no internationally agreed definition of the concept exists. Characteristics used to describe the idea include;

an aggregate of (economic) activities that result from the need for generating one's own employment to earn a living because other sectors of the economy - agriculture, large modern firms and the public service - are unable to provide a sufficient number of adequate employment and income opportunities for a rapidly growing labor force and there are no - or only rudimentary - social benefits from the state to fall back on

Meeting of Experts on Labor Statistics (1993) The business activities of this economic sector are estimated at 300 million in developing countries (ILO, 1991). The informal sector in developing countries typically consists of very small-scale units established and owned by self-employed persons either alone or in partnership with others. They often have very little capital, equipment, technical know-how or managerial skills, and use simple, labor-intensive technology. As a result, most of these units work at low levels of organization, productivity and income. They tend to have little or no access to organized markets, credit institutions, formal education and training, or public services and amenities. (Gray et al,1996). Across Afghanistan, the formal regulation of operating businesses is still awaiting finalization. Most businesses are registered with the local municipality but paying only minimal taxation towards local services i.e. road cleaning. It is therefore difficult to make any comparison between the formal and the informal income generating activity, at this time.

Bazaars Surveyed The 63 bazaars surveyed were across all regions and locations (urban & rural). The average number of businesses identified in urban bazaars was 528, in the rural bazaars 43. The majority of urban bazaars (37%) were identified as serving 40 to 60 villages in the surrounding area. This compared to 48% of rural bazaars supplying only 5 to 10 villages. Road conditions to the bazaars were described as difficult by 22% during the summer months, rising to 43% during the winter months. Only 3 bazaars identified road conditions as impassable during the winter. However, there was a general request by business owners for an increase in the construction of formal market areas.

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Types of Businesses Key Indicators of the Labor Market

3. Status in employment 4. Employment by sector

The top 20% of business types, identified in the urban bazaars by occurrence, were; cloth shops (10%), grain retailers (8%), general shops (7%), fruit/vegetable retailers (6%), general mechanic (9%), tailors (6%), carpenters (5%) and drugstores (5%). The top 20% of business types, identified in the rural bazaars by occurrence, were; fruit / vegetable retailers (21%), bakeries (8%), general shops (7%), butchers (6%), carpenters (6%), tailors (6%) and carpet shops (6%). Overall economic supply relationships between the rural and urban locations can begin to be seen. Cloth retailers dominate supply in the urban areas, whereas tailors are one of the principle manufacturing groups in the rural areas. The predominant ownership status of business was by the family (55%), employing 1 to 2 worker/owners (69%). Most businesses have been established for 5 years plus (63%). The Craft/Trade major group represents the majority business type, in both the urban and rural economies. This higher representation is by both actual numbers in the bazaars (48%) and the range of occupational type (41%). The Service/Shop category was the second most prevalent; 22% by number and 32% by occupational type.

Incomes Key Indicators of the Labor Market

15. Manufacturing wage indices 16. Occupational wage and earning indices 17. Hourly compensation costs 20. Poverty and income distribution

The average business income, per month, was calculated at 5,139 Afghanis ($107 US). The Professional major group was the highest earning income sector at 7,614 Afghanis per month ($159 US). The Craft/Trade major group represented the sector closest to average earnings at 5,390 Afghanis per month ($112 US). This is to be expected due to the general dominance of this group economically. The lowest earning sector was the Agriculture major group of businesses, with 2,922 Afghanis per month ($61 US), a 43% reduction in income from the average remuneration. A significant variance was demonstrated between the rural business income (78% of population) and the urban (22% of population). On average, rural businesses generated 3,984 Afghanis ($83US) per month, 63% of the income being earned by urban businesses 6,293 Afghanis ($131US) per month.

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Across all economic sectors, the average business income deviation by region showed Central and Northern regions 10% above the country average. The Western region generated income equal to the average, whilst the Eastern region showed a 14% reduction. However, major groups whose business in terms of numbers and types are not representative of the majority types or numbers of businesses, e.g. Managers, influence these results. If we focus on the principle major group within the economy as a whole as a more reliable indicator, Craft/Trade, results are somewhat different. Central and Eastern regions now predominate with an income 14% above the average The Northern region is second at 4% above, and the Western region is now the only region below the country average, at 14%. This alternative view is substantiated by analyzing (regionally) the lowest of the major group average incomes, where the Western region represents 4 of the 7 lowest regional incomes. Seasonal influence upon business income shows an average 10% increase in earnings during the summer period, across all major groups. The average family occupational earnings per month were calculated at 2,296 Afghanis ($48 US) per month across all major group occupations. This shows the average business owner generating an income 206% above that of the average family. The average family occupational earnings per month were calculated at 2,296 Afghanis ($48 US) per month across all major group occupations. The highest earning major group is the Armed forces at 2,798 Afghanis ($58 US) per month, followed by Professionals at 2,620 Afghanis ($55 US) per. month. All remaining major groups were within a narrow 5% monthly earning differential (1,941 Afghanis ($40 US) to 2,042 Afghanis ($42 US)). The Shoras corroborated these finding for the family earnings, identifying an average family wage as 2,355 Afghanis ($49 US) per month Farmers income levels were identified at an average of 2,334 Afghanis ($49 US) per month. Regionally the North showed the highest average earnings at 2,528 Afghanis ($53 US) per. month. This is 7% above the average families income level. Central and Eastern regions register comparable results, with earnings at 2,332 Afghanis ($48 US) per month, and 2,382 Afghanis ($50 US) per month, respectively. Western region farmers, fair poorly in comparison, with an average income of 2,092 Afghanis ($43 US), 10% less income than the farmer average, and 9% less than the family average. When looking to identify an average overall occupational income, across the regions surveyed, a combination of average business, family and farmers results yields an occupational income of 3,256 Afghanis ($68 US) per month. However, with the vast majority of Afghans engaged in agricultural occupations, the truer figure is probably somewhere between the farmer and family occupational income; 2,315 ($48 US) Afghanis per month. A survey conducted by Sloane (2000), in Nangahar province, identified an average income of 42$ per month, across 21 occupations (n=120). However, when comparing his results - using only similar family occupations (n=12) identified for both surveys -

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Sloane found an average of $43 per month compared to $52 per month for this survey . This represents an increase of 21% in occupational earnings (no account taken for fluctuation in the US dollar exchange rate). A survey conducted, only in Kabul, by Relief International (2002) identified a median income of $90 US per month (n=176). In comparison, the median of the business and family survey results found in this survey, specifically in Kabul, was $128 US per month (n=44). Some reason for the variance may be due to the representation of business owners between the two samples. The Relief International survey included 19% small business/trade incomes, whereas results from this survey had a 54% business income representation. Interestingly, when focusing on the major urban centers in the regions surveyed, the following average business incomes per month were identified; Central region (Kabul and Khost) at $262 US (145% above average business income), Northern region (Mazar and Konduz) $161 US (51% above average business income), Eastern region (Jalalabad) $131 US (31% above average business income) and the Western region (Herat) $115 US (15% above average business income). Overall a percentage increase in the average business income of 60% is noted. Similarly, whilst the average family earnings also show an increase in these major urban areas, to $54 US, it represents only a 12% increase above the overall family average.

Livelihood Supplements Chambers & Conway (1992) define a livelihood within the developmental context as:

A livelihood comprises the capabilities, assets (including both material and social resources) and activities required for a means of living.

In a country blighted, sociologically and economically, by the affects of conflict, and regularly facing natural disasters of drought, earthquake and pestilence the concept of a single occupation providing a sustainable livelihood, for the majority of Afghan families, is not valid. The survey shows that 70% of the families questioned relied upon a second or third source of income, in some form. The most common secondary occupation identified was unskilled labor at 41%. 29% identified a specific occupation, or described their alternative activity as skilled. Other significant sources of additional income were; money from relatives (72%), and securing work abroad (11%).

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Unemployment Key Indicators of the Labor Market

2. Employment-to-population ratio 8. Unemployment 9. Youth unemployment 10. Long-term unemployment

The Shoras were asked to estimate the unemployment rates within their communities. The interpretation of the term unemployed, by the Shoras, must be placed within the context of Afghanistan. No welfare support is available except through the family or community, and strategies for the individuals, families and communities survival are paramount. The overall unemployment rate, described across all regions and age groups, is 32%. By region, at 42%, the consistently highest unemployment rate was identified in Central region (across all age groups). Differentiated by age, youth (16 25 age group) unemployment was identified at 26% across all regions and locations. By region, youth unemployment ranged from 39% in the Central region to 19% in Western region. The highest rate of unemployment, in all of the regions, was found within the 25-60 age range (42%). Under-employment, amongst all of the businesses questioned and measured by the annual time spent waiting for customers, is 33%. By season, 37% under-employment was identified in the winter and 29% in the summer. To verify business activity patterns, the business owners were also asked to confirm their busiest months during the year. Across all of the major group occupations, there was significant variance between the urban and rural results. In the urban areas a diverse work pattern was described throughout the year, whilst in the rural area a clear bell-chart pattern appeared, peaking during the summer season. With regards labor demand, 38% of businesses stated that they did not require any additional employees (27% in urban areas and 48% in rural areas). Where additional labor was requested, 40% of the demand was for skilled labor and 22% for unskilled. As a result of these labor shortages, the businesses identified the following impacts upon their production. 41% stated meeting the needs of customers, 31% stated that their businesses lost income, and 21% stated that they had to stop providing the product or service. This last consequence, when combined with the loss of business statistic, implies that 52% of businesses suffer a direct loss of income due to labor shortages. Overall, across all regions and locations, every major business grouping expressed confidence in their enterprise. Business expectations were very high, with 97% stating that they expected their businesses to grow over the coming year.

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Credit Availability Only 1 regional Government office stated that they were aware of micro-credit being generally available in their area. Comments made by the business owners, across all regions, described the need to access credit in order to build the capacity of their enterprises. Businesses were also surveyed as to whether they had currently taken out a loan to facilitate growth. The respondent rate was very low (n=59) concerning the borrowing of money, but of those that did reply, seven (12%) stated that they had currently borrowed money, with 25% stating that the loan would be difficult to repay.

Vocational Training The survey interviewed 91 vocational training centers, across the regions It identified the current types of courses and methods of delivery currently being utilized (88% in urban and 12% in rural locations). A majority (57%) of the training centers were being operated directly by NGOs, 24% had private status and 19% were Government owned. Of the centers surveyed, 51% had only been operating for one year. However, 35% of the training centers had been operating for a significant amount of time - five or more years. The most prevalent type of occupational courses being delivered, by major group, was within Craft/Trade, at 75%. This reflects the current standing this major group has within the economy. The average length of course delivery, across all skills, was 8 months. However, student attendance on the courses was predominantly for only half of the day (90%). (This reduces the actual student contact time to 4 months, and represents a poor utilization of potential training resources.) The majority age range of trainees was 16-25 (83%), with trainee stipends paid by 97% of training centers. All of the trainers delivering courses were secured from local bazaars, with none having any formal teaching qualifications. (21% of centers requested teacher training support). 78% of the centers stated that curse curricula and technical resource material was available. However, experience shows that most training providers have a limited concept as to what constitutes a formal training curriculum. Development concepts, such as competency-based approaches and assessment using industrial standards, have certainly not been introduced. Delivery methodology can therefore be generally characterized as being weak and dependant on the quality of individuals rather than the quality of content and process. Additional life-skills taught at the centers included; literacy (61%), business skills (73%) and job search (70%). However, when questioned further as to how the skills in business and job search were delivered, vague comments such as; we encourage them and we tell them to get a job were made. Once again, no formalized or standardized approach to delivery was evident. Businesses were also questioned, as to their experiences and perceptions with regards vocational training. Those currently offering on-the-job training (65%) represented a 24% increase on previous years (73% in urban and 27% in rural locations). Trainees currently

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receiving training (n=763), represent a 9% increase in urban areas and a 7% increase in rural areas, on all numbers previously trained by the businesses surveyed. The businesses also ranked the skills they considered most necessary for trainees to open their own micro-enterprise. Generic business acumen and skills (54%) were identified as the most important. At 28%, literacy was identified as the second most important, followed by communication skills (9%) and numeracy (7%).

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Vulnerable Groups Women From the 1980s onwards, there has been increasing interest in training for the informal sector. However, this focus has failed to recognize the involvement of women, and therefore to develop programs and strategies which distinguish between women and men as economic producers. Examples of actions demonstrating this lack of focus are; NGOs providing training to women which is not within the context of existing or potential markets, and training/employment opportunities not geared to the circumstances of women's lives, along with projects being run by generalist development workers with limited technical and managerial skills (Goodale,1989). The ILO (1998) identifies three potential major impacts on womens lives in post-conflict areas; an increase in female-headed households, womens loss of access to land (with the absence of men) and single, widowed or divorced women finding it much more difficult to find a marriage partner and hence the means, as perceived by some, to a more secure livelihood. Afghanistans current political and economic situation has particular echoes to these previous observations regarding the current standing of women. The status of women within Afghan society has to a large extent been governed by conservative social norms.with a strong division of roles and segregation [known as purdah] between men and women (Barakat and Wardell 2001: 10). This cultural, gender-role segregation has led to a very clear division between potential economic and income generation activities available to women. This has in turn created a clear focus on the provision of vocational training activities for Afghan women, based upon opportunities within the informal economic sector.

Current Economic Activities Undertaken by Women Activities undertaken by women in the bazaars were either in the selling/manufacture of agricultural produce or needlework/weaving of products. Principle activities were carpet weaving (24%) and tailoring (24%), although it was unclear whether this activity was manufacture or actually the selling of the product. Agriculture products were, however, being sold by women from their houses, with egg production and handicrafts at 10%. Handicrafts were the only activity with greater representation in rural areas. In terms of occupations in which women are active, carpet weaving represents 49% of all income generating activities being undertaken (rural areas only). Tailoring was identified next, at 19%, (across all regions and locations). Others of any significance are embroidery (8%), mora weaving/sewing (7%), and gleam weaving (5%). However mora weaving/sewing was seen predominantly in the Central region, gleam weaving in the rural Western region and embroidery represented in all except the Eastern region.

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Income Earned by Women 41% (n=343) of women identified themselves as earning income and directly contributing towards their familys income. A variety of income generating activities were identified, with the traditional craft skills of embroidery, carpet weaving, etc. dominant (these types of revenue earning activities being consustet with production being carried out in the family home). A greater variety of occupations was found in urban areas (20) as opposed to rural (16) areas. The average income being earned by women, across all regions, was 754 ($16 US) Afghanis per month, an average contribution of 32% towards the families average income. On average, 14% less was earned in rural areas than in the urban, this compares with the Shoras 10% overall family income variance. More interesting was the correlation between womens economic participation and the amount of income earned. Overall, the Northern region represented the highest rate of income for women, followed by Western, Central and Eastern regions. (Womens regional economic participation rates followed a similar pattern.) However, the financial contribution by women to the economy of Afghanistan is not generally or formally recognized. As Leach et al ( 2000) identified, women generally have an invisibility within the labor market, especially when their contribution is associated with the informal economic sector.

Vocational Training Opportunities for Women Vocational training presents an opportunity for the individual to build on or develop skills in order to enhance their prospects for employment and increase income earnings. This fact is recognized in the survey results with 98% of women stating that they would be interested in attending a vocational training course. Yet, training opportunities for women are often narrowly constrained to low-paid gender-typed occupations. In Afghanistan, because of womens lower levels of education and the discrimination and gender bias barring their entry and advancement in the formal sector, income generating opportunities predominate in the informal sector. The informal sector also offers more flexible working conditions which can be combined with domestic obligations (ILO,1998). In terms of the actual number of vocational training courses presently being delivered in Afghanistan, women are well catered for. The survey found that 41% of course skill types were directly aimed at women (traditional women focused occupations) and a further 30% aimed at a potential mixed gender group. (In comparison men had targeted skills training of 30%). It was in the rural areas that greatest significance was identified with 91% of courses being attended by women compared to 50% in the urban areas. However, the types of skill training being offered were very narrow and gender-specific; tailoring (19%), carpet weaving (15%), embroidery (7%) and handicrafts (5%). When women were asked whether they had been offered any type of skills training in the past, 35% said yes. 100% also stated that the training had been a success, even when they had attended 3 different types of courses. The types offered were similar to existing course provision;

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tailoring (22%), carpet weaving (15%), poultry (8%), and gleam weaving and embroidery at 4%. The regional Ministry of Women offices were also asked to identify existing vocational training courses being offered to women. They were similar with; tailoring (38%), carpet weaving (24%), handicrafts (22%) and embroidery (9%). To measure the cultural acceptability of occupations being offered to women, the male heads of household and the Shoras were questioned as to which types of skills training would be preferred skills training for women. The traditional craft skills were again identified; tailoring at 26% and 22%, embroidery at 22% and 19% and carpet weaving at 20% and 78%, respectively. The regional Ministry of Women Affairs representatives, when asked to identify suitable courses for women, the most requested training was for tailoring and embroidery at 17%, followed by carpet weaving and poultry at 13%. Out of the 18 types of training identified by the Ministry, only 1 office identified a none-gender specific training course that of welding. Women were asked to identify the type of occupational skill that they wished to receive training in. Gender-specific requests, reflective of existing training opportunities, were identified. Tailoring (36%), embroidery (18%), carpet weaving (16%), gleam weaving (5%) and poultry (4%). Goodale (1989) states that women have been given limited awareness of alternatives to traditional female occupations and that their perception of their own employment potential has been extremely narrow. Lack of confidence and social/ cultural barriers erected to discourage women from trying new skills may also be a contributable factor (Mansell, 2003). Goodale (1998) goes on to identify that the training usually provided to women is in areas such as sewing, embroidery, cooked foods and vegetable gardening. All of these economic activities, being low-profit and labor-intensive, will have a limited effect in helping women out of poverty. For real economic empowerment of women to take place, Carr, Chen and Jhabvala (1996: 198) identify the following necessary strategies:

financial interventions including an increase in access to credit enterprise development focusing on an increase in access to skills, business and

management training, improved technologies and better production packages marketing strategies including increased access to markets bargaining particularly for higher wages, better working conditions and job

security socio-political strategies

Awori (1995) suggests that any vocational training program aimed at low-income women, must have three essential components; business skills, technical skills and what she calls 'counseling in family life education' which covers nutrition, child care, leadership training and group maintenance. If technical inputs alone are offered, without the empowerment and confidence-building component, the effectiveness of the training will be dramatically reduced (Leach et al, 2000).

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Access for and participation of Women The survey identified the following key issues that act as barriers to women participating in vocational training activities. Childcare issues were seen as the principle issue, being identified by 40% of the individual womans survey. The families not allowing the women to attend vocational training courses were identified at 18% (demonstrating their lack of decision-making within the household). Alternative responsibilities of housework, family work needs and animal husbandry were identified by a total of 16%. Lack of transportation, and mobility issues for cultural reasons, were identified by 8%. Only 13% anticipated no problems with attending a vocational training course. The conflicting pressures between a womans role (productive, reproductive and community), create additional barriers to accessing training opportunities, than those faced by men in similar economic conditions. Current drop-out rates from existing training centers concur, with over 60% of early leavers being women. As the problems identified above are compounded for female-headed household, the survey identified the proportion of widows by population. The individual womens survey self-identified a significant overall representation of 13%. (Within the female population.). The Eastern region, at 23%, and the Western region at 18%, identified a far greater incidence. However, only a 1% variance was noted between the urban (13%) and rural areas (14%). Influences on these statistics include survey methodology, where maximum diversity sought the representation of widows views, and the cultural assessment of widow status (the deceased husbands family traditionally takes responsibility for widow). In terms of the training delivery itself, 84% of women requested a female trainer (89% in rural areas / 79% in urban areas) and 100% requested that the training be delivered in the locality. The summer time (41%) was identified as the best time of year for delivery and promotion of attendance on a training course, with winter at 27% and either season at 33%. The desired methods of training delivery for women, was also asked of the male heads of household. 100% agreed that the training must be delivered in the locality, but at 76% there was an 8% reduction in the request for a female trainer (83% in rural areas / 69% in urban areas).

Disability With regards to disabled people in Afghanistan, the survey addressed only the issues of; percentage of population, types of impairments, unemployment rate and types of occupational training being offered. The groups surveyed for labor market intelligence were the regional offices of the Ministry of Martyrs and Disabled, and the local Shoras. Individual disabled persons views were included only as part of the woman, family and business surveys. The Shoras were asked to identify the percentage of disabled within their communities. The results showed an overall rate of 2.88% disability amongst the population surveyed. This compares with the Comprehensive Disabled Afghans' Program and the Sandy Galls

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Afghanistan Appeal estimates of 3%. The data collected was deemed to be somewhat unreliable for the larger populations due to problems of estimation. However, it was possible with the data to cross-check against overall estimates, to determine the data to be utilized1. Disaggregating the data by location and gender the following results are noted. There is an overall urban rate of 3.16% (1.66% disabled men and 1.50% disabled women), and an overall rural rate of 2.36% (1.91% disabled men and 0.45% disabled women). There appears, therefore, to be a significant increase of disabled women in urban areas and a slight increase of disabled men in rural areas. Shoras were also asked to identify the types of impairments within their communities. The loss of a leg was identified, in all regions, as the major impairment; Northern region 58%, Western region 49%, Eastern region 44% and Central region 24%. The other impairment percentages, identified across all regions, were identified as; loss of an arm and mental health at 14%, deafness at 11%, blindness at 10%, inability to speak at 8% and head injury at 5%. The Ministry of Martyrs and Disabled regional offices gave not too dissimilar results; loss of a leg (60%), blindness and mental health (10%), head injury (8%), deafness (6%), inability to speak (5%) and loss of an arm (2%). The Ministry offices also indicated an unemployment rate for disabled people at 84%. This is 52% higher than the 32% identified across the whole population. The bazaar observation survey showed that 66% of bazaars had disabled persons involved in the economic activity. The issue of health services was also raised, with all regional offices stating that provision was inadequate. Comments made include; a lack of hospital facilities, drug availability, general lack of focus on the issues faced by disabled people. Current vocational training courses available, and recognized by the Ministry offices as being aimed at disabled persons and widows, ranged from; tailoring (41), embroidery (12), carpentry (5), computer (2) and sign language (1). However, a clear regional bias in provision was noted, with 87% being located in the Central region, 11% in the Eastern region, 2% in the Northern region and none in the Western region. Previous courses delivered in the regions, for the disabled, included; bicycle repair, memorizing of the Holy Quran, poultry, radio repair, soap making and watch repair. The recommendations by the Ministry offices, for training to be offered to the disabled person, were generally similar to those already identified. A survey was conducted by the Employment Support Working Group, on behalf of the National Comprehensive Disability Policy and Strategy (2003), which was based upon interviews with disabled people (n=71). The principle obstacles to employment were identified as being; a lack of financial assistance during the training period (93%), difficulty in accessing transportation (90%), low wages (89%), unfair recruitment practices (79%) and a lack of access to training (72%). Any reference to the difficulties imposed upon the respondents by their impairments, rather than by society, was ninth on the list, at 59%. 1 (number of families) x (average number of family members) compared to (total population estimate) = less than 1% variance.

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Demographics

Ethnicity The ethnic breakdown of the populations surveyed within Afghanistan is best demonstrated by the results of the surveyors identification of family ethnicities (n = 992). The results indicate a higher percentage of Tajik and fewer Hazara than population ethnicities estimated by Wardak in 1998. Pashtun 44%, Tajik 24% (survey 43%), Hazara 10% (survey 3%), Uzbek 9%. The locations of the survey inevitably influenced the percentage of ethnic groups interviewed. (See survey location maps) A comparison between rural and urban areas surveyed by ethnicity indicates that within the rural areas there was a 12% increase in Pashtun representation with an almost equal decrease in Tajik representation. The results from the individual women survey (n = 917) concur with the family results indicating a 6% increase in Pashtun representation from urban to rural. There was also a significant increase in the minority ethnic groups interviewed within the rural areas. With a focus on ethnic representation within the economic activities of the locations surveyed, the Pashtun representation increased overall within the business owners surveyed to 50% (n = 540). Uzbek and other minority ethnic groups increased from urban to rural locations with Tajik and Hazara decreasing their representation in consequence. Occupational segregation by ethnicity was also investigated. The Eastern region registering the largest range of occupations (17) in both rural and urban locations, with most involving the Pashtun ethnic group. In the Central rural region 7 occupations were identified as Pashtun specific. However in the urban areas 6 of the 7 occupations identified were Tajik-specific. In the Northern region all 7 rural occupations recognized as ethnic specific were Uzbek, whilst in the urban areas 4 of the 5 were Tajik. In the

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Western region only 4 occupations were mentioned in both urban and rural locations; 3 being Tajik and 1 Pashtun.

Educational Status The data collected from the family head of household on all family members (n=208) will act as a generic demographic baseline for specific group data to be compared against. This household survey represented regional considerations, with 21% from Central region, 27% from Eastern region and 22% and 30% from Northern and Western regions respectively. The results indicate an overall illiteracy rate of 78% amongst the surveyed population. A further 12% of the surveyed group had only attended school for 3 6 years. Given the recent historical background of

Afghanistan there is potential for a significant proportion of this 12% to be functionally illiterate. The remaining 10% achieved Grade 6 to 12 or above and potentially represent the level of functional literacy amongst the surveyed families. Breaking down the household survey results into rural and urban locations it can be seen that in rural areas 89% of family household heads self-identified as illiterate, compared to 66% in urban areas. In rural areas 5% stated that they had achieved Grade 3 to 6 at school This contrasts with 20% in urban areas. The remaining Grade 6 to 12 respondents echoed the trend with 6% occurring in rural locations as opposed to 14% in urban areas. In comparison to the baseline household survey, the individual survey of women (n=828) suggests a decreased illiteracy rate in rural areas of 11% (78% illiteracy) and an increased rate in urban areas of 4% (70% illiteracy). In the womens survey, 73% stated that they had never attended school. There was a drop-out rate in the early years of schooling where 8% of women had only attended school for 1 to 3 years.

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Looking at the percentages of those who did continue with their education, only 36% of women went beyond Grade 6. This compares with 48% in the household survey. Rural women were worse off by 32% when compared with the rural household survey. Urban women had 8% more achievers beyond Grade 6 than the urban household survey.

In contrast the educational status of business owners surveyed demonstrates an overall higher educational achievement level than any other of the base-line groups. Illiteracy was represented at a mean average of 57% amongst those business owners surveyed, with 18% achieving Grade 3 to 6 schooling. Those attaining higher levels of education represented 23% of all respondents. There was, however, a marked difference between the business owners lower levels of educational completion levels in rural and urban locations. Illiteracy increased i