air quality in europe-2011

8/2/2019 Air Quality in Europe-2011

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ISSN 1725-2237

EEA Technical report No 12/2011

Air quality in Europe 2011 report


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Air quality in Europe 2011 report

EEA Technical report No 12/2011


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European Environment AgencyKongens Nytorv 61050 Copenhagen K

DenmarkTel.: +45 33 36 71 00Fax: +45 33 36 71 99Web: eea.europa.euEnquiries: eea.europa.eu/enquiries

Cover design: EEALayout: EEA/Henriette Nilsson

Legal not i ceThe contents of this publication do not necessarily reflect the official opinions of the EuropeanCommission or other institutions of the European Union. Neither the European Environment Agencynor any person or company acting on behalf of the Agency is responsible for the use that may bemade of the information contained in this report.

Copy r i gh t no t i ce EEA, Copenhagen, 2011Reproduction is authorised, provided the source is acknowledged, save where otherwise stated.

Information about the European Union is available on the Internet. It can be accessed through theEuropa server (www.europa.eu).

Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2011

ISBN: 978-92-9213-232-3

ISSN Annual report series: 1977-284X

ISSN EEA Technical report series: 1725-2237

doi:10.2800/83213
http://www.europa.eu/http://www.europa.eu/


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Conten ts

A i r qua l i t y i n Eu rope 2011 repo r t

Conten ts

Ack no w led gem ent s .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. 5

Execu t i ve summ ary ................. ................. ................. ................. .................. .............. 6

1 I nt ro du ct ion ... . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . 11

1.1 European air pollution today ..............................................................................11

1.2 Report objectives and coverage .........................................................................11

1.3 Effects of air pollution .......................................................................................11

1.4 Air quality as a European environmental issue .....................................................14

1.5 Relevant policy instruments and legislation ..........................................................15

2 Part icu lat e m at t er, PM ... . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 18

2.1 Sources and effects of PM .................................................................................18

2.2 European air quality standards for PM .................................................................18

2.3 Europe-wide survey of PM ................................................................................19

2.4 Exposure to PM pollution in Europe.....................................................................27

2.5 Responses ......................................................................................................27

3 Ozone, O3 . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 30

3.1 Sources and effects of ozone .............................................................................30

3.2 European air quality standards for ozone.............................................................30

3.3 Europe-wide survey of ozone ............................................................................31

3.4 Exposure to ozone pollution in Europe ................................................................35

3.5 Responses ......................................................................................................37

4 N i t r ogen d iox ide , NO2 . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . 39

4.1 Sources and effects of NO2 ................................................................................39

4.2 European air quality standards for NO2 and NOX ...................................................39

4.3 Europe-wide survey of NO2 and NOX ...................................................................40

4.4 Exposure to NO2 pollution in Europe ...................................................................44

4.5 Responses ......................................................................................................47

5 Su lphu r d iox ide , SO2 . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . 48

5.1 Sources and effects of SO2 ...............................................................................48

5.2 European air quality standards for SO2 ...............................................................48

5.3 Europe-wide survey of SO2 ...............................................................................49

5.4 Exposure to SO2 pollution in Europe ...................................................................51

5.5 Responses ......................................................................................................52


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Conten ts

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6 Car bon m on ox ide, CO ... . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . 53

6.1 Sources and effects of CO .................................................................................53

6.2 European air quality standards for CO ...................................................................... 53

6.3 Europe-wide survey of CO ................................................................................53

6.4 Exposure to CO pollution in Europe ....................................................................55

6.5 Responses ......................................................................................................55

7 Heav y m et als .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. 56

7.1 Sources and effects of heavy metals ...................................................................56

7.2 European air quality standards for heavy metals ..................................................58

7.3 Europe-wide survey of heavy metals ..................................................................59

7.4 Trends in concentrations and emissions of heavy metals........................................59

7.5 Exposure to heavy metal pollution in Europe .......................................................63

7.6 Responses ......................................................................................................64

8 Benzen e and ben zo( a) py ren e ... . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . 65

8.1 Emissions and effects .......................................................................................65

8.2 European air quality standards for benzene and benzo(a)pyrene ............................65

8.3 Europe-wide survey of benzene and benzo(a)pyrene ............................................66

8.4 Exposure to benzene and benzo(a)pyrene pollution in Europe ................................69

8.5 Responses ......................................................................................................69

Refer ences ... . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . 70

Ann ex 1 Air Base ... . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . 74

Annex 2 European po l ic ies and m easures on a i r po l lu t an t emiss ions . . .. . .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. . . 80


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A c k n o w l e d g e m e n t s


This report was prepared by the EuropeanEnvironment Agency's Topic Centre for Air andClimate Change Mitigation (ETC/ACM). Thecoordinator of input from the ETC/ACM wasCristina Guerreiro of the Norwegian Institute for AirResearch (NILU).

The authors of the report were Cristina Guerreiro(NILU, Norway), Steinar Larssen (NILU, Norway),Frank de Leeuw (RIVM, the Netherlands) andValentin Foltescu (EEA). The ETC/ACM reviewerswere Susana Lopez-Aparicio (NILU, Norway) andXavier Querol (CSIC, Spain). The EEA reviewerswere Valentin Foltescu, Anke Lkewille, AphroditeMourelatou, Martin Adams, Paul McAleavey,

Johannes Schilling and John Van Aardenne.

Thanks are due to Jean-Paul Hettelingh,Coordination Centre for Effects (CCE at RIVM,the Netherlands) for providing the EEA withthe background data for the critical loads mapspresented in this report, and to the EuropeanMonitoring and Evaluation Programme (EMEP).

The EEA project manager was Valentin Foltescu.EEA acknowledges comments received on the draftreport from the national reference centres of EEAmember countries and the European Commission(DG Environment). These comments were includedin the final version of the report as far as possible.

A c k n o w l e d g e m e n t s


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Execu t i ve summary

Ex ecu t i ve sum m ary

Figur e ES.1 Major a i r po l lu tan ts in Euro pe,

c lus te red acco rd ing to im pac ts on

hum an hea l th , ecosys tems and

t h e c l i m a t e

Note : From left to right the pollutants shown as follows:

sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOX), carbonmonoxide (CO), ammonia (NH3), particulate matter(PM), volatile organic compounds (VOC), polycyclic

aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), heavy metals (HM).

The present report provides an overview andanalysis of air quality in Europe. The analysis coversup to 38 European countries (EEA-38) (1) and spansthe two decades of data that countries have madeofficially available up to 2009. The evaluation of thestatus and trends of air quality is based on ambient

air measurements and data on anthropogenicemissions and trends.

Emissions of the main air pollutants in Europedeclined significantly in the period 19902009, inparticular sulphur dioxide (SO2) and lead (Pb),resulting in improved air quality across the region.These results notwithstanding, many Europeancountries do not expect to comply with one ormore pollutant-specific (2) emission ceilings setunder EU and United Nations (UN) agreements for2010. Furthermore, due to complex links betweenemissions and ambient air quality, as well as a

number of uncertainties associated with estimatingemission data, emission reductions have not alwaysproduced a corresponding drop in atmosphericconcentrations, especially for particulate matter(PM) and groundlevel ozone (O3).

At present, PM (3) and O3 are Europe's mostproblematic pollutants in terms of harm to health.Air pollution's most important effects on Europeanecosystems are eutrophication, acidification andvegetation damage resulting from exposure toO3. As sulphur emissions have fallen, ammonia

(NH3) emitted from agricultural activity andnitrogen oxides (NOX) from combustion processeshave become the predominant acidifying and

eutrophying air pollutants. Several air pollutants arealso climate forcers, having a potential impact onthe planet's climate. Figure ES.1 shows the major airpollutants in Europe and their potential impact onhuman health, ecosystems and the climate.

Table ES.1 gives an overview (4

) of the proportionof the EU urban population exposed to pollutantconcentration levels above the limit and target

(1) The EEA-38 countries are the EEA-32 member countries (the EU Member States: Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Czech

Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta,

Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden and the United Kingdom; and the remaining five

EEA member countries: Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, Switzerland and Turkey), as well as EEA-6 cooperating countries (Albania,

Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Montenegro, and Serbia).

(2) These pollutant emission ceilings address sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOX), volatile organic compounds (VOC), ammonia

(NH3).

(3) Particulate matter (PM) is the general term used for particles with a wide range of sizes and chemical compositions. PM2.5 refers to

'fine particles' with a diameter of 2.5 micrometres or less. PM10 refers to the particles with a diameter of 10 micrometres or less.

(4) This estimate refers to a recent three-year period (20062008) and includes variations due to meteorology, as dispersion and

atmospheric conditions differ from year to year.


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7A i r qua l i t y i n Eu rope 2011 repo r t

Tab le ES.1 Percen tage o f t he u rban popu la t i on i n t he EU exposed to a i r po l l u tan t

concen t r a t i ons above t he EU and W HO re fe rence leve ls

Note : The reference levels included comprise EU limit or target levels and WHO air quality guidelines (AQG). The averaging period

is shown and the reference levels in brackets are in g/m3 except for CO which is in mg/m3.

For some pollutants EU legislation allows a limited number of exceedances. This aspect is considered in the compilation of

exposure in relation to EU air quality limit and target values.

The comparison is made for the most stringent EU limit or target values set for the protection of human health. For PM10 themost stringent standard is for 24-hour mean concentration.

This estimate refers to a recent three-year period (20062008) and includes variations due to meteorology, as dispersion and

atmospheric conditions differ from year to year.

Po l lu t an t EU r efer en ce v alu e Ex posur e est im at e( % )

W HO AQG Ex posu r e est im at e( % )

SO2 Day (125) 0.32.3 Day (20) 6885

NO2 Year (40) 719 Year (40) 719

PM10 Day (50) 1840 Year (20) 8090

Pb Year (0.5) < 1 Year (0.5) < 1

CO 8-hour (10) 02 8-hour (10) 02

O3 8-hour (120) 1650 8-hour (100) > 95

Colour coding of exposure estimates, fraction of urban population exposed to concentrations above the reference level:

< 10 % 1050 % 5090 % > 90 %

values (5) set in the EU legislation and the airquality guidelines (AQG) set by the World HealthOrganization (WHO) (de Leeuw and Ruyssenaars,2011). Current pollution levels clearly impact

on large parts of the urban population. This isparticularly evident in the population exposureestimates based on the WHO air quality guidelines,which in some cases are more stringent thancorresponding standards in the EU legislation.

Par t i cu la te m a t te r

Significant reductions in emissions of some PMprecursors in the period 19992009 are onlypartly reflected in observed PM10 concentrations,

which only fell slightly.

Twenty per cent of the EU urban population livesin areas where the EU air quality 24-hour limitvalue for particulate matter (PM10) was exceededin 2009 (Figure ES.2). For EEA-32 countries theestimate is 39 %.

EU urban exposure to PM10 levels exceeding theWHO AQG is significantly higher, comprising8090 % of the total urban population(Table ES.1).

Epidemiological studies indicate that the mostsevere health effects from exposure to air pollutionare associated with particulate matter and, to alesser extent, ozone.

Particulate matter in the atmosphere originatesboth from direct emissions (primary particles) andas a product of oxidation (secondary particles) ofso-called PM precursor gases: sulphur dioxide (SO2),nitrogen oxides (NOX), ammonia (NH3) and volatileorganic compounds (VOC). PM precursor emissionsdecreased considerably between 1999 and 2009 inthe EU; SOX emissions fell by 56 % and NOX by 28 %.NH3 fell less, by 11 %. Emissions of primary PM 10and PM2.5 decreased by 16 % and 21 % respectivelyin the same period. The corresponding emission

reductions in the EEA-32 countries were as follows:SOX 54 %, NOX 27 %, NH3 11 %, primary PM10 16 %,primary PM2.5 21 %.

Despite these emission reductions, 1849 % (6) of theEU urban population was exposed to ambient airconcentrations of PM10 in excess of the EU air qualitydaily limit value in the period 19972009 and therewas no discernible downward trend (Figure ES.2).Between 21 % and 50 % of the urban population inEEA-32 countries was exposed in this period.

(5) A 'limit value' is a level to be attained within a given period and not to be exceeded once attained; a 'target value' is a level to be

attained where possible over a given period.

(6) The range partly reflects variations caused by meteorology, as dispersion and atmospheric conditions differ from year to year.


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Figu re ES.2 Percen tage o f t he EU u rban popu la t i on po t en t ia l l y exposed to a i r po l l u t i on

exceed ing accep tab le EU a i r qu a l i t y s t andards

Source: EEA, 2011c (CSI 004).

0

20

40

60

80

100

1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

% of urban population

NO2

PM10

O3

SO2

The EU limit and target values for PM wereexceeded widely in Europe in 2009. The WorldHealth Organization (WHO) guidelines for PM10and PM2.5 annual mean concentrations were likewise

exceeded at a large number of monitoring stationsacross continental Europe, although to a lesserextent in the Nordic countries.

Ozone

Substantialreductionsinemissionofmostanthropogenic ozone precursors are notreflected in observed annual average ozoneconcentrations, which do not show a downwardtrend in Europe between 1999 and 2009.

Thenumberofexceedancesofthe120g/m3target value (7) threshold (daily maximum 8-hourmean values) has gone down since 1992 but hasremained at sustained levels in recent years.

SeventeenpercentoftheEUurbanpopulationlives in areas where the EU ozone target value (7)

for protecting human health was exceeded in2009 (Figure ES.2). For EEA-32 countries theestimate is also 17 %.

TheEUurbanpopulationexposedtoO3 levelsexceeding the WHO AQG is significantly higher,comprising more than 95 % of the total urbanpopulation (Table ES.1).

Europe'ssustainedambientO3 concentrationscontinue to cause considerable damage tovegetation growth and crop yields.

Ozone is a strong oxidising agent and a greenhousegas. In Europe it is currently one of the air pollutantsposing greatest threats to human health and

vegetation.

Ozone is not directly emitted into the atmospherebut formed from a chain of photochemical reactionsfollowing emissions of precursor gases: nitrogenoxides (NOX), carbon monoxide (CO) and volatileorganic compounds (VOC). Although ozoneprecursor gas emissions decreased considerably

(7) Directive 2008/50/EC on ambient air quality and cleaner air for Europe sets out the target value for the protection of human health

from ozone. Specifically, the maximum daily 8-hour mean concentration of ozone should not exceed 120 g/m3 on more than

25 days per calendar year averaged over three years. It further specifies that the target value will first be calculated using validated

data from 2010 and following years. As such, it will not be possible to assess exceedance of the target value fully until data for

2010, 2011 and 2012 have been compiled.


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between 1999 and 2009 in the EU (NOX by 28 %,NMVOC by 34 % and CO by 44 %) and in theEEA-32 (NOX by 27 %, NMVOC by 31 %, CO by44 %), exposure to ozone has not decreased since

measurements commenced in around 1997.

Between 13 % and 61 % (6) of the EU andEEA-32 urban population was exposed to ozoneconcentrations in excess of the EU target value forprotecting human health in the period 19972009(Figure ES.2). Furthermore, between 30 % and69 % (6) of agricultural crops in the EEA-32 wereexposed to ozone levels in excess of the EU targetvalue for protecting vegetation from 1996 to 2008.High ground-level ozone concentrations are mostpronounced in southern Europe.

Ni t r ogen d iox ide

NO2 ambient air concentrations have generallydeclined as NOX emissions decreased. However,the decrease in NOX emissions (28 % between1999 and 2009) is considerably greater than thefall in NO2 concentrations, which was about 15 %during the same period.

Some cities show an increase in roadsideconcentrations of NO2. This reflects the increased

fraction of NO2 in NOX emissions from trafficresulting from increasing market penetration ofnewer diesel vehicles. Exhaust after-treatmentsystems in such vehicles reduce emissions ofcarbon monoxide, hydrocarbons and particulatematter but may increase NO2 emissions.

Twelve per cent of the EU urban population livesin areas where the annual EU limit value andthe WHO AQG for NO2 were exceeded in 2009(Figure ES.2). For EEA-32 countries the estimateis also 12 %.

Exceedances at hot-spot locations (e.g. mainroads) are observed all over Europe.

NOX and NH3 emissions continue to causesignificant impacts in European ecosystems.Projections for 2010 show that 69 % of thetotal sensitive ecosystem area in the EU was atrisk of eutrophication and 11 % was at risk ofacidification (Hettelingh et al., 2008).

Nitrogen (N) compounds, emitted as NOX and NH3,are now the principal acidifying components in ourair and cause eutrophication of ecosystems. Thesensitive ecosystem area affected by eutrophication

due to excessive atmospheric N has only diminishedslightly over the last two decades. On the otherhand, the sensitive ecosystem area affected byexcessive acidification from air pollution has fallen

considerably since 1990 (mainly due to the strongreduction in SO2 emissions).

Su lphu r d iox ide

Ambient SO2 concentrations in Europe havedeclined, as EU Member States cut their SOXemissions by 56 % in the period 19992009. Thecorresponding emission reduction in the EEA-32countries was 54 %.

Large areas of Europe have seen clear declines inacid deposition from 1990 to 2009, due mainly toreductions in sulphur emissions.

The percentage of the EU urban populationexposed to SO2 concentrations above the EU24-hour limit value has been reduced from11 % in 1997 to 0.1 % in 2009 (Figure ES.2). Thecorresponding reduction in the EEA-32 countriesis from 11 % of the urban population in 1997 to2.4 % in 2009.

The EU urban population exposed to SO2

levels exceeding the WHO AQG is significantlyhigher, amounting to 6885 % of the total urbanpopulation (Table ES.1).

Carbon m onox ide

The observed reduction in CO concentrationssince 1999 (50 % at traffic stations, 35 % at urbanstations and 25 % at rural stations) is in line withthe reported 44 % reduction in total EU andEEA-32 emissions of CO over the same period.

Exposure of the European population to COambient concentrations above the EU limit valueand WHO AQG is very localised and sporadic,limited to very few restricted areas (Table ES.1).

Heavy m e ta l s

The atmospheric levels of arsenic (As), cadmium(Cd), lead (Pb) and nickel (Ni) are generally lowin Europe with few exceedances of limit or targetvalues. However, these pollutants contribute tothe deposition and build-up of heavy metal levelsin soils, sediments and organisms.


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Despite considerable cuts in emissions of heavymetals since 1990 in the EU (As reduced by64 %, Cd by 70 %, Hg (mercury) by 67 %, Ni

by 57 % and Pb by 91 %), a significant share of

the EU ecosystem area was still at risk of heavymetal contamination. Exceedances of Hg criticalloads (8) were projected to occur at 54 % ofsensitive ecosystems areas in 2010 under currentlegislation, while for Pb the projected exceedancearea is 12 % of sensitive ecosystem areas.

A relatively small number of stations measureatmospheric concentrations of As, Cd, Pb and Niin Europe, since levels are often below the lowerassessment threshold set by EU legislation. An evensmaller number have been operating for five or more

years. In the case of Hg, only a few stations reportconcentrations of different forms of Hg, making ananalysis of airborne concentrations at the Europeanlevel very difficult.

Benzene and benzo (a )py rene

Exceedances of the benzene limit value werelimited to a few locations in Europe, primarily

situated close to traffic.

The average benzene concentration measured attraffic stations in 2009 has declined to less thanhalf of the 2001 level.

Exposure of the European population to benzo(a)pyrene (BaP) concentrations above the targetvalue is quite significant and widespread incentral and eastern Europe.

No trends in BaP concentrations can be seen in the

few (45) stations in operation since 2005. However,measurements clearly show that exceedances of thetarget value are persistent in central Europe.

(8) The general definition of a critical load is 'a quantitative estimate of an exposure to pollutants below which significant harmful

effects on specified sensitive elements of the environment do not occur according to present knowledge' (UNECE, 2004).


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1 I n t r o d u c t i o n

1.1 European a i r po l lu t ion tod ay

Emissions of the main air pollutants in Europehave declined significantly in recent decades, inparticular sulphur dioxide (SO2) and lead (Pb)emissions. Despite these changes, many European

countries do not expect to comply with one or morepollutant-specific emission ceilings set under EUand UN agreements for 2010. Furthermore, dueto complex links between emissions and ambientair quality, emission reductions have not alwaysproduced a corresponding drop in atmosphericconcentrations.

Many EU Member States do not comply with legallybinding air quality limit and target concentrationvalues, especially for particulate matter (PM),groundlevel ozone (O3) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2).PM and O3 are Europe's most problematic pollutants

in terms of harm to health, with effects rangingfrom minor respiratory irritation to cardiovasculardiseases and premature death.

The ecosystem area affected by excess acidificationfrom air pollution shrank considerably between1990 and today. Whereas sulphur oxides previouslydominated, nitrogen (N) compounds, emitted asnitrogen oxides (NOX) and ammonia (NH3), arenow the principal acidifying components in ourair. In addition to its acidifying effects, N alsocontributes to eutrophication of ecosystems, and the

area of sensitive ecosystems affected by excessiveatmospheric nitrogen has only diminished slightlyover the last two decades. Europe's sustainedambient O3 concentrations continue to causeconsiderable damage to vegetation growth and cropyields.

1.2 Repor t ob ject iv es and coverage

The present report provides an overview andanalysis of air quality in Europe. This analysisspans the two decades of data that have been madeofficially available by European countries up to2009. The evaluation of the status and trends of air

quality is based on ambient air measurements, inconjunction with anthropogenic emissions and theirtrends. An overview of policies and measures atEuropean level is also given for each pollutant.

The links between emissions and ambient

concentrations can only become evident and fullyunderstood by means of air quality modelling. Thisreport does not include analysis of modelled data,owing to the scarcity of such data officially madeavailable by European countries through the currentreporting and data exchange mechanism.

This report reviews progress towards meetingthe requirements of the two air quality directivesin force (EU, 2004b; EU, 2008c) and describes thepolicies and measures introduced at European levelto improve air quality and minimise air pollutionimpacts on public health and ecosystems.

This report is produced in support of European andnational policy development and implementationin the field of air quality. It also supports air qualitymanagement and informs the general public on thecurrent status and trends of air quality in Europe.

1.3 Ef fects o f a i r po l lu t ion

Air pollution in Europe is a local, regional andtransboundary problem caused by the emission of

specific pollutants, which either directly or throughchemical reactions lead to negative impacts. Asexplained in more detail below, these include:

effectsonhumanhealthcausedbyexposuretoair pollutants or intake of pollutants transportedthrough the air, deposited and accumulated inthe food chain;

acidificationofecosystems,bothterrestrialandaquatic, which leads to loss of flora and fauna;

eutrophicationinecosystemsonlandandinwater, which can lead to changes in speciesdiversity;


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damageandyieldlossesaffectingagriculturalcrops, forests and other plants due to exposure toground-level ozone;

impactsofheavymetalsandpersistentorganic pollutants on ecosystems, due totheir environmental toxicity and due to

bioaccumulation;

effectsonclimateforcing;

reductionofatmosphericvisibility;

damagetomaterialsandculturalheritageduetosoiling and exposure to acidifying pollutants andozone.

Healthimpacts

Air pollution is a major environmental risk tohealth. Numerous scientific studies have linked airpollution to health effects including:

harmtotherespiratorysystem,leadingtothedevelopment or aggravation of respiratorydiseases, decreased lung function, increasedfrequency and severity of respiratory symptomssuch as coughing and difficulty breathing, or

increased susceptibility to respiratory infections;

harmtothecardiovascularsystem;

harmtothenervoussystem,affectinglearning,memory and behaviour;

harmtothereproductivesystem;

cancer.

Some of these impacts may result in premature

death. Sensitive individuals, such as older adultsand children and people with pre-existing heart andlung diseases or diabetes, appear to be at greaterrisk of air pollution-related health effects. In 2005,an estimated 5 million years of lost life were caused

by fine particulate matter pollution (PM2.5) alone inthe EEA-32 countries (EEA, 2010a). The status andtrends of the European population's exposure to thedifferent air pollutants is presented and discussed inthe following chapters.

Ecosystemimpacts

Air pollution also damages the environment.For example, ozone can damage crops and other

vegetation, impairing growth. These impacts canreduce the ability of plants to take up CO2 from theatmosphere and indirectly affect entire ecosystemsand the planet's climate. The atmospheric deposition

of sulphur and nitrogen compounds has acidifyingeffects on soils and freshwaters. Acidificationcauses disturbances in the function and structureof ecosystems with harmful ecological effects,including biodiversity loss. Likewise, depositionof nitrogen compounds can lead to eutrophication,which constitutes an oversupply of nutrient nitrogenin terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Consequencesinclude changes in species diversity, invasions ofnew species and leaching of nitrate to groundwater.

The impacts on the environment depend not only

on the air pollutant emission rates but also on thelocation and conditions of the emission and thelocation of the receptor point. Factors determiningthe transport, chemical transformation anddeposition of air pollutants, including meteorologyand topography, are also important. Further, theenvironmental impacts of air pollution also dependon the sensitivity of ecosystems to acidification,eutrophication, heavy metal deposition and directecosystem exposure to pollutant concentrations.

Climateimpacts

Air pollution may also impact the Earth's climate.Some air pollutants interfere with the Earth's energy

balance and are therefore known as 'climate forcers'.These can either be gases (e.g. ozone) or airborneparticulate matter (aerosols). Some climate forcersreflect solar radiation (e.g. sulphate aerosols) leadingto net cooling, while others (e.g. black carbonaerosols) absorb solar radiation, thereby warmingthe atmosphere. In addition, aerosols influence theformation, microphysics and optical properties ofclouds, resulting in indirect climatological effects.

Deposition of certain aerosols (e.g. black carbon)may also change the Earth's surface reflectivity(albedo), especially on ice- and snowcoveredsurfaces, thereby accelerating melting.

Materialimpacts

Air pollution damages materials. It is generallyrecognised that air pollutants have greatlyaccelerated the degradation of buildings andphysical cultural heritage, such as historic buildings,works of art and archaeological treasures. The twomain forms of damage are corrosion or erosion(caused by acidifying and oxidising compounds)and soiling (caused by particulate matter).


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Tab le 1 .1 Ef fec ts o f a i r po l l u tan t s on hum an hea l th , t he env i ronm en t and the c l ima te

Po l lu t an t Heal t h e f fect s En v i r on m en t a l ef fect s Cl im at e ef fect s

Par t i cu la te ma t t e r (PM) Can cause or aggravatecardiovascular and lungdiseases (e.g. reduced lungfunction, asthma attacks,chronic bronchitis, susceptibilityto respiratory infections), heartattacks and arrhythmias. Canaffect the central nervoussystem, the reproductivesystem and cause cancer. Theoutcome can be premature

death.

Can affect animals in thesame way as humans. Affectsplant growth and ecosystemprocesses.Can cause damages andsoiling of buildings, includingmonuments and objects ofcultural heritage.Reduced visibility.

Climate effect variesdepending on particle sizeand composition: some arereective and lead to netcooling, while others absorbsolar radiation leading towarming. Can lead to changedrainfall patterns. Depositioncan lead to changes in surfacealbedo.

Ozone (O3) Irritates eyes, nose, throatand lungs. Can destroy throatand lung tissues, leading todecrease in lung function;respiratory symptoms, suchas coughing and shortness ofbreath; aggravated asthma andother lung diseases. Can leadto premature mortality.

Damages vegetation byinjuring leaves, reducingphotosynthesis, impairing plantreproduction and growth, anddecreasing crop yields. Ozonedamage to plants can alterecosystem structure, reducebiodiversity and decrease plantuptake of CO2.

Ozone is a greenhouse gascontributing to warming of theatmosphere.

Ni t rogen ox ides (NOX) NO2 can affect the liver,lung, spleen and blood. Canaggravate lung diseases leadingto respiratory symptoms andincreased susceptibility torespiratory infection.

Contributes to the acidicationand eutrophication of soil andwater, leading to changes inspecies diversity. Enhancessensitivity to secondarystress (such as drought) onvegetation. Acts as a precursorof ozone and, particulatematter, with associatedenvironmental effects. Canform nitric acid and damagebuildings by surface recession.

Contributes to the formation ofozone and particulate matter,with associated climate effects.

Sulphur ox ides (SOX) Aggravates asthma and canreduce lung function andiname the respiratory tract.Can cause headache, generaldiscomfort and anxiety.

Contributes to the acidicationof soil and surface water.Contributes indirectly to thetransformation of mercury tothe bioaccumulative methyl-mercury, which is toxic.Causes injury to vegetationand local species losses inaquatic and terrestrial systems.Contributes to the formationof inorganic particulate matterwith associated environmentaleffects. Damages buildingmaterials.

Contributes to the formation ofsulphate particles, cooling theatmosphere.

Carbon m onoxid e (CO) Can lead to heart disease anddamage to the nervous system(e.g. personality and memorychanges, mental confusionand loss of vision). Can causeheadache, dizziness andfatigue.

May affect animals in the sameway as humans, althoughconcentrations capable ofcausing these effects areunlikely to occur in the naturalenvironment, except inextreme events such as forestres.

Contributes to the formation ofgreenhouse gases such as CO2and ozone.

Arsenic Inorganic arsenic is a humancarcinogen. May causedecreased production of redand white blood cells, damageto blood vessels, abnormalheart rhythms, and liver and

kidney damage. May damagethe peripheral nervous system.

Highly toxic to aquatic life,birds and land animals. Wheresoil has high arsenic content,plant growth and crop yieldsmay be reduced. Organicarsenic compounds are very

persistent in the environmentand subject to bioaccumulation.

No specic effects.

Table 1.1 summarises the main effects of differentair pollutants on human health, the environmentand the climate. Each pollutant produces a range of

effects, ranging from mild to severe as concentrationor exposure increases.


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Po l lu t an t Heal t h ef fect s En v i r on m en t a l ef f ect s Cl im at e ef fect s

Cadmium Cadmium, especially cadmium

oxide is likely to be acarcinogen. It may also causereproductive damage and istoxic to the respiratory system.Exposure can cause permanentkidney damage, anaemia,fatigue and loss of the senseof smell. It can also cause lungdamage, shortness of breath,chest pain and accumulation ofuid in the lungs.

Toxic to aquatic life, as it is

absorbed by organisms directlyin water. It interacts withcytoplasmatic componentssuch as enzymes, causingtoxic effects in cells.Cadmium is highly persistentin the environment andbioaccumulates.

No specic effects.

Lead Can affect almost every organand system, especially thenervous system. Can causepremature birth, impairedmental development andreduced growth. It can also

have cardiovascular and renaleffects in adults and effectsrelated to anaemia.

Bioaccumulates and adverselyimpacts both terrestrial andaquatic systems. Effects onanimal life include reproductiveproblems and changes inappearance or behaviour.

No specic effects.

Mercu ry Can damage the liver, thekidneys and the digestive andrespiratory systems. It can alsocause brain and neurologicaldamage and impair growth.

Bioaccumulates and adverselyimpacts both terrestrial andaquatic systems. Can affectanimals in the same way ashumans. Very toxic to aquaticlife.

No specic effects.

Nicke l Several nickel compoundsare classied as humancarcinogens. Non-cancer effectsinclude allergic skin reactions,effects on the respiratorytract, the immune and defencesystem and on endocrine

regulation.

Nickel and its compounds canhave highly acute and chronictoxicity to aquatic life.Can affect animals in the sameway as humans.

No specic effects.

Benzene A human carcinogen, whichcan cause leukaemia and birthdefects. Can affect the centralnervous system and normalblood production, and can harmthe immune system.

Has an acute toxic effect onaquatic life. It bioaccumulates,especially in invertebrates.Leads to reproductive problemsand changes in appearanceor behaviour. It can damageleaves of agricultural crops andcause death in plants.

Benzene is a greenhouse gascontributing to the warmingof the atmosphere. It alsocontributes to the formation ofozone and secondary organicaerosols, which can act asclimate forcers.

Benzo-a-pyrene (BaP) Carcinogenic. Other effectsmay be irritation of the eyes,nose, throat and bronchialtubes.

Is toxic to aquatic life andbirds. Bioaccumulates,especially in invertebrates.

No specic effects.

Tab le 1 .1 Ef fec ts o f a i r po l l u tan t s on hum an hea l th , t he env i ronm en t and the c l ima te ( con t . )

1.4 A i r qua l i t y as a Europ eanenv i r onm en ta l i ssue

Despite significant progress made across Europe inreducing anthropogenic emissions of the main airpollutants, human health and the environment arestill affected by poor air quality. As noted above,air pollution has adverse impacts on health and onecosystems, influences atmospheric visibility andcontributes to climate change and to the degradationand soiling of materials and cultural heritage.

The need to improve air quality in Europe hasbeen long recognised. In modern times the disasterin the Meuse Valley in 1930 and London's deadlysmog in 1952 prompted the adoption of air qualitylegislation. In more recent decades a variety oflaws have been enacted and action has been takenat the local, regional, national and EU levels, aswell as through international conventions, such asthe Convention on Long-range Transboundary AirPollution (UNECE, 1979).


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In recent years decision-makers have increasinglyrecognised the links between air pollution andclimate change and the benefits in making policyresponses more integrated and coherent. Air

pollutants can affect climate change, just as climatechange can influence air pollution's dispersion,chemical and physical formation and transformationin the atmosphere, and deposition. The energy,transport and agricultural sectors are majoremitters of greenhouse gases and air pollutants.The transport sector is largely responsible for noisepollution.

Policies combating climate change or noise maycontribute substantially to reducing air pollution

but some measures combating climate change can

worsen air quality. Likewise, air quality policiesand measures can have both positive and negativeclimate change impacts. European policies andmeasures increasingly seek to maximise co-benefits,managing air pollutant and greenhouse gasemissions at the lowest cost to society. Integratedmodels are emerging, which explore the effectsof policies by coupling economics with ourunderstanding of atmospheric transport andchemistry, climate and ecosystems.

Air pollution impacts occur at all scales, meaningthat policies and air quality management must be

implemented and coordinated across the local,regional, national, European and intercontinentallevels. Within the European Union, the conceptof subsidiarity is applied in the area of air qualitymanagement, meaning that decisions are taken atthe most appropriate level of governance. Actionsshould aim to minimise exposure and impacts of airpollution as effectively and efficiently as possible,using three main types of measures:

reducingemissionsatsource;

structuralmeasures,forexampleurbanplanning,which can both reduce emissions and minimiseexposure;

behaviouralmeasures,includingminimisingpressures by changes to life style and energy use,and steps to reduce exposure such as staying athome on highly polluted days.

Policies and management programmes at alllevels should aim to minimise risks and impacts

by progressively adopting a multi-pollutant ormulti-risk and multi-effect approach, integratingair quality, climate change and noise reductionmanagement as far as possible.

1 .5 Re levan t po l i cy i ns t r um en ts andleg is la t ion

Thematicstrategyonairpollution

Within the European Union, the Sixth EnvironmentAction Programme (EU, 2002) called for thedevelopment of a thematic strategy on air pollutionwith the objective of achieving levels of air qualitythat do not result in unacceptable impacts on,and risks to, human health and the environment.Formulated in 2005, the thematic strategy(EC, 2005b) sets specific long-term objectives forimprovements in 2020 relative to the situation in2000, specifically (EC, 2005c):

a47%reductioninlossoflifeexpectancyasaresult of exposure to particulate matter;

a10%reductioninacutemortalitiesfromexposure to ozone;

a74%reductioninexcessaciddepositioninforest areas and a 39 % reduction in surfacefreshwater areas;

a43%reductioninareasorecosystemsexposedto eutrophication.

To achieve these objectives, it was estimated that SO2emissions need to decrease by 82 %, NOX emissions

by 60 %, volatile organic compounds (VOC) by 51 %,ammonia by 27 % and primary PM2.5 (fine particlesemitted directly into the air) by 59 % in the period20002020.

In the 'Roadmap to a Resource Efficient Europe' theEuropean Commission has recently proposed thefollowing milestone for the policy: 'By 2020, the EU'sinterim air quality standards will have been met,

including in urban hot spots, and those standardswill have been updated and additional measuresdefined to further close the gap to the ultimate goalof achieving levels of air quality that do not causesignificant impacts on health and the environment'(EC, 2011).

Legalinstruments

Over recent decades, the EU has introduced andimplemented various legal instruments to improveair quality. The different legal mechanisms for airquality management comprise limits or targets forambient concentrations; limits on total emissions


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(e.g. national totals); and regulating emissions fromspecific sources or sectors either by setting emissionstandards (for e.g. vehicle emissions) or by settingrequirements on product quality (e.g. sulphur and

benzene in fuel).

The European directives currently regulatingambient air concentrations of main pollutantsare designed to avoid, prevent or reduce harmfuleffects of air pollutants on human health and theenvironment. They comprise:

Directive2008/50/EConambientairqualityandcleaner air for Europe, which regulates ambientair concentrations of sulphur dioxide (SO2),nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and oxides of nitrogen

(NOX), particulate matter (PM10 and PM2,5),lead, benzene, carbon monoxide and ozone(EU, 2008c);

Directive2004/107/ECrelatingtoarsenic,cadmium, mercury, nickel and polycyclicaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), (including

benzo(a)pyrene, BaP) in ambient air (EU, 2004b).

In the case of non-compliance with the air qualitylimit and target values stipulated in Directive2008/50/EC, local and regional administrations mustdevelop and implement air quality management

plans in the areas where exceedances occur. Theplans aim to bring concentrations of air pollutants tolevels below the limit and target values.

Several EU directives regulate anthropogenicemissions of pollutants to air, including precursorsof key air pollutants such as ozone and particulatematter. The National Emission Ceilings Directive(EU, 2001b) and the Gothenburg Protocol (UNECE,1999) to the UN Convention on Long-rangeTransboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP) set nationalemission limits for SO2, NOX, NMVOC and NH3

in order to abate acidification, eutrophication andground-level ozone.

Likewise, several directives and internationalconventions regulate emissions of the main airpollutants from specific sources and sectors, either

by setting emission standards, by requiring theuse of the best available technology, or by settingrequirements on fuel composition. These include:

Directive2010/75/EUonindustrialemissions(integrated pollution prevention and control)(EU, 2010), targets certain industrial, agricultureand waste treatment installations. The directiveregulates emissions to air of SO2 and other

sulphur compounds, NOX and other nitrogencompounds, CO, VOC, metals and theircompounds, dust, asbestos, chlorine and itscompounds, fluoride and its compounds, arsenic

and its compounds, cyanides, other carcinogenicand mutagenic compounds, and polychlorinateddibenzodioxins and polychlorinateddibenzofurans.

TheEuroDirectivesforroadvehicleemissionsset standards for emissions of NOX, hydrocarbons(HC), non-methane hydrocarbons (NMHC),CO and PM for most vehicle types. The Euro4 standards are addressed in Directive 98/70/EC (EU, 1998a, 1998b) and Directive 2005/55/EC (EU, 2005). The Euro 5 and 6 standards are

covered in Regulation (EC) No 692/2008 (EU,2008a) and Regulation (EC) No 595/2009 (EU,2009b).

Directive 94/63/EC on the control of VOCemissions resulting from the storage of petroland its distribution from terminals to servicestations (EU, 1994) and Directive 2009/126/EC onStage II petrol vapour recovery during refuellingof motor vehicles at service stations (EU, 2009a).

Directive 1999/13/EC on the limitation ofemissions of VOC due to the use of organic

solvents in certain activities and installations (EU,1999a).

Directive91/676/EECconcerningtheprotectionof waters against pollution caused by nitratesfrom agricultural sources (EU, 1991).

Directive1999/32/EConreductionofsulphurcontent of certain liquid fuels (EU, 1999b) andDirective 2003/17/EC (amending Directive 98/70/EC) relating to the quality of petrol and dieselfuels (EU, 2003).

TheMarinePollutionConvention,MARPOL73/78 (IMO, 1973), which is the maininternational convention on preventing pollution

by ships from operational or accidental causes.Annex VI sets limits on air pollution from shipsfor SOX, NOX, VOC and PM from ship exhaustsand prohibits deliberate emissions of ozone-depleting substances.

Table 1.2 summarises the coverage of the Europeandirectives and international conventions regulatingair pollutant emissions (either directly or indirectly

by regulating emissions of precursor gases). The listis not exhaustive.


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Tab le 1 .2 Leg is la t i on i n Eu rope regu la t i ng em iss ions and amb ien t concen t r a t i ons o f a i r

p o l l u t a n t s

Note : (a) Directives and conventions limiting emissions of particulate matter precursors, such as SO2, NOX, NH3 and VOC, indirectlyaim to reduce particulate matter ambient air concentrations.

(b) Directives and conventions limiting emissions of ozone precursors, such as NOX, VOC and CO, indirectly aim to reducetroposphere ozone concentrations.

Methane (CH4), which is not listed explicitly in Table 1.2, is an important ozone precursor. Methane is a well-mixed pollutantglobally, with the consequence that isolated local and regional abatement of emissions has a limited impact on ambientconcentrations. European countries have legally binding emission reduction commitments for CH4 under the Kyoto Protocol to

the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).

Po l lu tan ts

Pol icies

PM O3 NO2NOX

NH3

SO2SOX

CO Heav ymeta l s

Ba PPA H

VO C

Direct ivesregu la t i ngamb ien t a i rqua l i t y

2008/50/EC PM O3 NO2 SO2 CO Pb Benzene

2004/107/EC As, Cd,Hg, Ni

BaP

Direct ivesregu la t i ngemiss ions ofa i r po l l u tan ts

2001/81/EC (a) (b) NOX, NH3 SO2 NMVOC

2010/75/EU PM (b) NOX, NH3 SO2 CO Cd, Tl, Hg,Sb, As,

Pb, Cr, Co,Cu, Mn,

Ni, V

VOC

Euro standardson road vehicleemissions

PM (b) NOX CO HC, NMHC

94/63/EC (a) (b) VOC

2009/126/EC (

a

) (

b

) VOC1999/13/EC (a) (b) VOC

91/676/EEC NH3

Direct ivesregu la t i ng fue lqua l i t y

1999/32/EC (a) S

2003/17/EC (a) (b) S Pb PAH Benzene,hydro-carbons,VOC

I n t e r n a t i o n a lconven t i ons

MARPOL 73/78 PM (b) NOX SOX VOC

LRTAP PM (a) (b) NO2, NH3 SO2 CO Cd, Hg, Pb BaP NMVOC

Annex 2 provides a more detailed description ofthe directives regulating emissions to air and fuelquality.

The 2004 and 2008 air quality directives do notspecify an air quality objective for ammonia(NH3). The Gothenburg Protocol (UNECE, 1999)under the LRTAP convention and the National

Emission Ceilings Directive (EU, 2001b) set emissionreduction targets for NH3 with the aim of reducingthe acidification and eutrophication. Abatement ofNH3 emissions is also required under the Integrated

Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC) Directive(EU, 2008b), now replaced by Directive 2010/75/EUon industrial emissions (EU, 2010).


20/88A i r qua l i t y i n Eu rope 2011 r epo r t18

Par t i cu la te ma t te r

2 Pa r t i cu la te m a t t e r , PM

2.1 Sources and e f fec ts o f PM

2.1.1 OriginsofPMinair

Particulate matter (PM) is the general term used for

a mixture of aerosol particles (solid and liquid) witha wide range in size and chemical composition. PM2.5refers to 'fine particles' that have a diameter of 2.5micrometres or less. PM10 refers to the particles witha diameter of 10 micrometres or less. PM10 includesthe 'coarse particles' fraction in addition to the PM2.5fraction.

PM is either directly emitted as primary particlesor formed in the atmosphere from oxidation andtransformation of primary gaseous emissions. Thelatter, formed from condensed material, are calledsecondary particles. The most important precursors

for secondary particles are sulphur dioxide, nitrogenoxides, ammonia and volatile organic compounds(VOC). The main precursor gases SO2, NOX andNH3 react in the atmosphere to form ammoniumand other forms of sulphate and nitrate compoundsthat condense and form particles in the air, calledsecondary inorganic aerosol (SIA). VOC are oxidisedto less volatile products, which form secondaryorganic aerosol (SOA).

PM is either of natural origin (e.g. sea salt, naturallysuspended dust, pollen, volcanic ash) or from

anthropogenic sources, mainly from fuel combustionin e.g. thermal power generation, incineration,households for domestic heating and vehicles. Incities vehicle exhaust, road dust re-suspension, and

burning of wood, fuel or coal for domestic heatingare important local sources.

2.1.2 EffectsofPM

Epidemiological studies attribute the most severehealth effects from air pollution to PM and, to alesser extent, ozone. For both pollutants, no safelevel has been identified. Even at concentrations

below current air quality guidelines they pose ahealth risk (WHO, 2006).

Health effects of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) arecaused after their inhalation and penetration intothe lungs. Both chemical and physical interactionswith lung tissues can induce irritation or damage.The smaller the particles, the further they penetrateinto the lungs. PM's mortality effects are clearly

associated with the PM2.5 fraction, which in Europerepresents 4080 % of the PM10 mass concentrationinambientair.However,thecoarser2.510mfraction of PM10 also has health impacts and affectsmortality. Although evidence is growing that PM2.5 isperhaps a greater health concern, ambient air qualitymeasurements and emissions data are often onlyavailable for PM10 at present.

The current levels of PM exposure experienced bymost urban and rural populations have harmfuleffects on human health. Chronic exposureto particulate matter contributes to the risk of

developing cardiovascular and respiratory diseases,as well as lung cancer. Mortality associated withair pollution is about 1520 % higher in cities withhigh levels of pollution compared to relativelycleaner cities. In the European Union, average lifeexpectancy is 8.6 months lower due to exposure toPM2.5 resulting from human activities (WHO, 2008).

In addition to effects on the human health, PMcan also have adverse effects on climate changeand ecosystems, as indicated in Table 1.1. PM alsocontributes to soiling and can have a corrosive effect

on material and cultural heritage, depending on thePM composition.

2.2 European a i r qua l i t y s tandar dsfo r PM

The EU PM10 and PM2.5 limit and target valuesfor health protection are shown in Table 2.1. Thedeadline for Member States to meet the PM10 limitvalues was 1 January 2005. The deadline for meetingthe target value for PM2.5(25g/m3) was 1 January2010, while the deadlines for meeting the other limitand 'obligation' values for PM2.5 (20g/m3) are 2015or 2020.


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Tab le 2 .1 A i r qua l i t y l im i t and ta rge t va lues fo r PM10 and PM 2 .5 as g i ven in t h e A i r Qua l it y

D i rec t i ve

Note : (a) Indicative limit value (Stage 2) to be reviewed by the Commission in 2013 in the light of further information on health and

environmental effects, technical feasibility and experience of the target value in Member States.

(b) Based on a three-year average.

Source: EU, 2008c.

Size f r act ion Aver ag in g per iod Valu e Com m en t s

PM10, limit value One day 50 g/m3 Not to be exceeded on more

than 35 days per year. To bemet by 1 January 2005

PM10, limit value Calendar year 40 g/m3 To be met by 1 January 2005

PM2.5, target value Calendar year 25 g/m3 To be met by 1 January 2010

PM2.5, limit value Calendar year 25 g/m3 To be met by 1 January 2015

PM2.5, limit value (a) Calendar year 20 g/m3 To be met by 1 January 2020

PM2.5, exposure concentrationobligation (b)

20 g/m3 2015

PM2.5 exposure reduction target (b) 020 % reduction in exposure (depending on the average exposure indicator in the

reference year) to be met by 2020

Tab le 2 .2 WHO a i r qua l i t y gu ide l i nes

g/ m 3 2 4- h ou r mean Ann u al mean

PM2.5 25 10

PM10 50 20

For PM10 there are limit values for short-term(24-hour) and long-term (annual) exposure, whilefor PM2.5 there are only values for long-term (annual)exposure. In Europe the short-term limit value forPM10 (i.e. not more than 35 days per year with adailyaverageconcentrationexceeding50g/m3)is the limit value most often exceeded in Europeancities and urban areas.

The World Health Organization (WHO) Air Quality

Guidelines (AQG), shown in Table 2.2, are stricterthan the EU air quality standards. The WHO (2008)explains the reasoning behind its limit values asfollows:

'The 2005 AQG set for the first time a guidelinevalue for particulate matter (PM). The aim isto achieve the lowest concentrations possible.As no threshold for PM has been identified

below which no damage to health is observed,the recommended value should represent anacceptable and achievable objective to minimisehealth effects in the context of local constraints,capabilities and public health priorities.'

2.3 Europe-w ide survey o f PM

2.3.1 Exceedancesoflimitandtargetvalues

The EU limit and target values for PM wereexceeded widely in Europe in 2009, as evidenced

by the monitored data reported to the European airquality database, Airbase (see Annex 1), and shownin Map 2.1, Map 2.2 and Figure 2.2.

The annual limit value for PM10 was exceeded mostoften (dark orange dots in Map 2.1) in Poland, Italy,Slovakia, several Balkan states and Turkey. Thedaily limit value was exceeded (light orange dots inMap 2.1) in other cities in those countries, as wellas in many other countries in central and westernEurope. Cities in Sweden and Latvia also exceededthe daily limit value. In the United Kingdom,

exceedances of the daily limit value were recordedonly in London.

Monitoring station spread is less comprehensive forPM2.5 than for PM10. For 2009 there were 595 stationsfulfilling the criterion of more than 75 % datacoverage. (The data coverage gives the fractionof the year for which valid concentration data areavailable at each location). That was an increase ofmore than 250 stations compared to the precedingyear and the number of stations is still increasing.The 2009 PM2.5 concentrations were higher than theannual target value to be met by 2010 (dark and lightorange dots in Map 2.2) at several stations in Polandand Italy, and at a few stations in other countries.


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70605040

30

30

20

20

10

10

0

0-10-20-30

60

50

50

40

40

30

30

0 500 1000 1500 km

-20

30

Canary Is.-30

40

Azores Is.

Madeira Is.

30

20

20

10

100Annua l m ean , pa r t i cu la tem a t t e r ( PM 10 ) , 20 09, based

on da i l y ave rages w i t h

pe rcen tage o f va l i dm e a su r e m e n t s 7 5 %

i n g / m 3

20

2031

3140

40

Outside datacoverage

Map 2 .1 Annua l m ean concen t r a t i ons o f PM10 i n 2 0 0 9

Note : The dark orange dots indicate stations reporting exceedances of the 2005 annual limit value (40 g/m3), as set out in the Air

Quality Directive (EU, 2008c).

The light orange dots indicate stations reporting exceedances of a statistically derived level (31 g/m3) corresponding to the

24-hour limit value.

The pale green dots indicate stations reporting exceedances of the WHO air quality guideline for PM10 of less than 20 g/m3.

The dark green dots indicate stations reporting concentrations below the WHO air quality guideline for PM10.

Source: Mol et al., 2011.

The WHO guidelines for annual mean PM wereexceeded (pale green, light and dark orange dotsin Map 2.1 and Map 2.2) at most of the AirBasemonitoring stations across continental Europe but

less commonly in Nordic countries.

2.3.2 RuralPMbackgroundlevelandsecondaryPMfromprecursorgases

The concentration of PM in rural areas representsthe rural background PM concentration.Contributions from urban emissions buildon the rural background level to produce the

concentrations occurring in urban areas (moregenerally called urban background concentrations).Local control efforts can reduce the urban addition

but will have limited effects on the rural background

level.

The rural background concentration level ofPM constitutes a substantial part of the PMconcentrations measured in the cities. Ruralconcentrations vary across Europe (Figure 2.1),decreasing from eastern and southern Europetowards western and northern Europe. It is also highat coastal sites for PM10 due to the contribution ofsea salt (EMEP, 2010).


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Map 2 .2 Annua l m ean concen t r a t i ons o f PM2 .5 i n 2 0 0 9

Note : The dark orange dots indicate stations reporting exceedances of the 2010 annual target value (25 g/m3), as set out in theAir Quality Directive (EU, 2008c).

The light orange dots indicate stations reporting exceedances of the 2020 indicative annual limit value (20 g/m3), as set out

in the Air Quality Directive (EU, 2008c).

The pale green dots indicate stations reporting exceedances of the WHO air quality guideline for PM2.5 of less than 10 g/m3.

The dark green dots indicate stations reporting concentrations below the WHO air quality guideline for PM2.5.

Source: Mol et al., 2011.

70 60 50 40

30

30

20

20

10

10

0

0- 10- 20- 30

60

50

50

40

40

30

30

0 50 0 10 0 0 1 5 0 0 km

- 20

30

Canary Is .- 30

40

Azores Is .

Madeira Is.

30

20

20

10

10 0Annua l mean , pa r t i cu la te

m a t t e r ( P M2 .5 ) , 2 0 0 9 ,

based on da i ly averagesw i th da ta coverage

7 5 % i n g/ m 3

10

1020

2025

25

No data

Outside datacoverage

In addition to primary PM emissions, rural PMconcentrations are determined by contributionsfrom secondary particles, both secondary inorganicaerosols (SIA) and secondary organic aerosols(SOA). The latter are partly formed from organicgases emitted from anthropogenic sources andnatural sources relating to terrestrial vegetation andmarine biota.

The SIA and SOA contribution varies substantiallyacross Europe and with season. The SIA contributionis higher in winter, due to increased emissions fromcombustion in the cold season, and SOA is generallyhigher in summer, when biogenic emissions arelarger, with an increasing north-south gradient.Based upon the chemical speciation measurementsof PM within the EMEP station network (9), it

(9) The EMEP (European Monitoring and Evaluation Programme) station network provides parties in the LRTAP convention with

information on concentration and deposition rates of air pollutants transported across Europe and reaching rural background

monitoring sites.


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Figu re 2 .1 Annua l m ean concen t r a t i ons o f PM10 ( l e f t ) a n d PM 2 .5 ( r i g h t ) f o r v a r i o u s r e g io n s o f

t h e EM EP d om a i n i n 2 0 0 8 ( g / m 3)

Note : Annual mean concentrations of PM10 and PM2.5 for all European urban background sites (from AirBase) are included forcomparison.

Source: EMEP, 2010. Data from 2008.

Eastern

Eur

ope

Urba

nback

ground

Weste

rnEur

ope

Southe

rnEur

ope

Northe

rnEur

ope

TheBr

itish

Isles

Elevated

site

s

Coastals

ites

Eastern

Eur

ope

Urba

nback

ground

Weste

rnEur

ope

Southe

rnEur

ope

Northe

rnEur

ope

TheBr

itish

Isles

Elevated

site

s

Coastals

ites

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Concentration of PM10

(g/m3)

0

5

10

15

20

Concentrat ion of PM2.5

(g/m3)

can be inferred that on average SIA currentlycontributes about 30 % to annual average rural PM10concentrations in Europe. The contribution to PM2.5is larger than 30 % but not as precisely determined

as for PM10 due to less data being available (EMEP,2010).

2.3.3 Distancetotarget

To indicate the 'distance to target' to meeting theEU limit value (LV) and target value (TV) for PM,Figure 2.2 shows the extent of the exceedances in2009 of the 24-hour limit value for PM10 (to be met

by 2005) and of the annual target value for PM2.5(to be met by 2010) within the EU. The analysis here

is based on measurements at fixed sampling points.

Fixed sampling points in Europe are situated at fourtypes of sites:

traffic-relatedlocations;

urbanandsub-urbanbackground(non-traffic)locations;

industriallocations(orotherlessdefinedlocations);

ruralbackgroundsites.

In 2009, the PM10 24-hour LV was exceeded at 30 %of traffic sites, 31 % of urban background sites, 18 %of 'other' sites (mostly industrial) and even at 6 % ofrural sites. The highest concentration measured in

the EU was almost three times the LV, and in EEA-32countries almost four times the LV.

The PM2.5 annual TV was exceeded at 7 % of trafficsites, 9 % of urban background sites, 6 % of 'other'(mostly industrial) sites and at 3 % of rural sites. Thelimitvalueplusamarginoftolerance(29g/m3 for2009) was exceeded at 3 % of all stations. For PM2.5there were sites where the concentration was close todouble the target value.

These findings demonstrate that PM concentrations

must be reduced substantially in large areas ofEurope (focusing on traffic and urban locations) forthe limit and target values to be met.

2.3.4 TrendsinPMconcentrations

The average change in PM10 concentrations since1999 is presented in Figure 2.3, for traffic, urban

background and rural stations. In total 459 stationswere operational for at least nine years between 1999and 2009 and were included in this analysis.

At 83 % of the stations a small negative trend oflessthan1g/m3 per year is apparent. The trendis estimated to be statistically significant at 42 %


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Figu re 2 .2 D is tance- to - t a rge t g raphs fo r da i ly lim i t va lue o f PM10 and fo r annua l t a rge t va lue

of PM 2 .5 , 2 0 0 9

Note : The graphs show the percentage frequency distribution of stations in various concentration classes (g/m3) The vertical redline designates the PM10 daily mean LV (50 g/m

3) in the left graph and the PM2.5 annual mean TV (25 g/m3) in the right

graph.

Source: de Leeuw and Ruyssenaars, 2011.

0

25

50

0 25 50 75 100

Percentage of stations

Concentration

PM10

d a i ly m e a n LV = 5 0 g / m 3

Rural Urban Traffic Other

0

25

50

0 10 20 30 40 50

Concentration

PM2. 5

a n n u a l m e a n TV = 2 5 g / m 3

Percentage of stations

Rural Urban Traffic Other

Figur e 2 .3 Trend in PM10 ( l e f t , 1 9 9 9 2 0 0 9 ) a n d PM 2 .5 ( r i g h t , 2 0 0 5 2 0 0 9 ) c o n ce n t r a t i o n s p e r

s t a t i o n t y p e

Note : The data presented were derived from a consistent set of stations in all years. In 2006 France introduced a nation-widesystem to correct PM measurements. As a result, the time series data from France used in this aggregation are not

homogeneous.

of these stations. Traffic stations recorded a steadydecrease of average levels since 2006, while atrural and urban non-traffic stations an increase isobserved in 2009 (Mol et al., 2011).

The number of PM2.5 stations operational throughout

the last five years is still limited (151 stations).Concentrations tended to decrease during the firstfour years (20052008) and a small increase is seen in2009 for all station types (Figure 2.3). The available

data are too limited to draw firm conclusions abouttrends (Mol et al., 2011).

In contrast to the PM10 data and expectations,the overall average PM2.5 concentrations at urbannon-traffic sites exceed those at traffic sites.

Differences in the spatial distribution of urban andtraffic stations over Europe may have influenced theaggregated trends. This is a further indication thatthe PM2.5 station set is not sufficiently representativeat present to underpin a trend analysis.

0

10

20

30

40

50

1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010

PM10

annual mean (g/m 3)

Urban TrafficRural Urban TrafficRural

0

5

10

15

20

25

2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

PM2.5

annual mean (g/ m 3)


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Secondary inorganic PM

The 2035 EMEP rural stations measuring secondaryinorganic PM (SIA), located mostly within the EU

area, recorded a downward trend in concentrations.The stations reported the following changes in theperiod 19902008 (Larssen, 2011):

sulphateaerosolconcentrationsfellby58%(based on data from 31 sites, all reporting adecrease);

nitrateaerosolconcentrationsfellby14%(basedon data from 20 sites, 35 % of which reported adecrease);

ammoniumaerosolconcentrationsfellby7%(based on data from 20 sites, 70 % of whichreported a decrease).

The SIA mass concentration in 1990 wasapproximately10g/m3 as an average acrossthese sites. The measured reductions noted abovecorrespond to a reduction in SIA mass of about3g/m3 by 2008. This finding is supported bythe slight downward trend in the PM10 massconcentration at rural stations shown in the AirBasedata (Figure 2.3).

Emissions of primary PM and precursor gases

When explaining trends in PM concentrationsin air, emission trends in both primary PM andprecursor gases must be considered. In additionto emissions, meteorology plays an importantrole. A certain fraction of the emitted precursorgases forms particles in the air, depending onatmospheric conditions (temperature, sunlight,humidity, reaction rate). As dispersion andatmospheric conditions differ from year to year, thetrend includes a year-to-year variability. This is not

adjusted for in the present analysis.

The inventory of European emissions of primaryPM has been fairly complete since 2000, althoughnon-exhaust emissions (tyre and road wear) arenot fully reported by all countries. Natural primaryemissions of PM (primarily sea salt and naturallysuspended soil dust including desert dust) arenot part of this inventory. The inventory of the EUemissions in 19902009 is reported by EEA (2011b).

Emissions of primary PM fell in the EU between1999 and 2009, by 16 % for PM10 and 21 % for PM2.5(Figure 2.4). The reductions from 1990 to 2009 were27 % for PM10 and 34 % for PM2.5 Emissions of the

precursor gases SOX and NOX declined by 80 % and44 % respectively in the period 19902009, and by56 % and 28 % in the period 19992009. Emissions ofammonia (NH3), another precursor gas, have fallenless: only about 11 % between 1999 and 2009 (10).

Organic precursor gases of secondary organicaerosol (SOA) are dominated by natural organicemissions but also include an anthropogeniccomponent. Natural VOC emissions are notincluded in the present emission inventories.

Depending partly on the atmospheric conditions,SIAs contribute on average about 30 % of the PM10mass in rural air in central Europe (EMEP, 2010).They account for a lower percentage of PM in urbanair because local emissions of primary particles addto the urban PM mass concentrations.

Sectoral output of primary PM and precursor gases

Various source sectors contribute to the primaryanthropogenic PM and precursor gases (Figure 2.5).Commercial, institutional and household fuelcombustion dominates emissions of primary PM10

and PM2.5, and has reduced very little since 1990,especially for PM10.

The second largest emission sector of primaryPM10 and PM2.5 is industry, followed by transport.Non-exhaust emissions from road traffic, whichare not included in Figure 2.5, add to the totalroad traffic emission contribution. Non-exhaustemissions are estimated to equal about 50 % ofexhaust emissions of primary PM10 and about 22 %of exhaust emissions of primary PM2.5 (Hak et al.,2009). With that contribution added, the transport

sector becomes the second largest PM2.5 emitter.

The transport sector is clearly the largest contributorto NOX emissions, while the energy productionand industry sectors dominate the SOX emissions.The agricultural sector was responsible for 94 % ofthe total NH3 emissions in the EU in 2009 and hasdecreased its NH3 emissions by 27 % between 1990and 2009. In EEA-32 the decrease was 26 %.

(10) EEA-32 countries registered the following emission reductions between 1999 and 2009: 16 % for primary PM10, 21 % for primary

PM2.5, 54 % for SOX, 27 % for NOX, 11 % for NH3.


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Figu re 2 .4 EU em issions o f p r imary PM and o f PM and ozone p recu rso r gases no t i nc lud ing

c ar b o n m o n o x i d e ( a) , 1 9 9 0 2 0 0 9

Note : (a) Emissions of CO, a precursor for ozone, are shown in Figure 6.3.

0

5 0 0 0

1 0 0 0 0

1 5 0 0 0

2 0 0 0 0

2 5 0 0 0

1 9 9 0 1 9 9 5 2 0 0 0 2 0 05

Gg/year

SOX

NOX

NH3

PM10

PM2. 5

NMVOC

2 0

3 0

4 0

5 0

6 0

7 0

8 0

9 0

1 0 0

1 1 0

1 99 0 19 9 5 2 0 0 0 2 0 05

I n d e x = 1 9 9 0 ( % )

SOX

NOX

NH3

PM10

PM2. 5

NMVOC

European policies have cut PM precursor gasemissions significantly. It is estimated that currentEuropean policies cut NOX emissions from roadvehicles by 55 % and from industrial plants by

68 % in the period 19902005, compared to ahypothetical situation with no directives in force.The policy-induced reduction in SOX emissionsfrom the industrial plant sector is estimated at 70 %(EEA, 2010b). These sources also dominate the totalemissions of NOX and SOX (Figure 2.5).

Relationship of emissions to ambientPM concentrations

Emissions of primary PM from commercial,institutional and households fuel combustion are not

declining (Figure 2.5), meaning that the sector willcontinue to sustain PM concentrations in both ruraland urban areas. Contrastingly, diminishing primaryPM emissions from transport will tend to reduce theurban PM concentrations.

The reductions in emissions of the PM precursorsNOX and SOX were much larger than the primaryPM reductions. Meanwhile the reduction of NH3emissions was small (about 11 % between 1999 and

2009 in the EU and EEA-32). The combined effectwas a reduction of the SIA contribution to totalconcentrations. As noted above, the 2035 EMEPstations recording SIA mass concentration datareportedafallofabout3g/m3 between 1990 and2008. The slight downward trend observed in PM10concentrations at rural sites (Figure 2.3) is in linewith such a reduction in SIA, which is an integralpart of PM10. According to Erisman and Schaap(2004) SIA concentrations can only be reducedeffectively if all three precursor gases NOX, SOX andNH3 are reduced to the same extent.

The small reductions observed in ambientPM concentrations over the period 19992009(Figure 2.3) partly reflect the declining emissions ofprimary PM and precursor gases. Slowly decreasingprimary PM and agricultural NH3 emissionsare expected to contribute to a baseline PM10concentration that is only declining slowly.


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Figu re 2 .5 Con t r i bu t i ons to EU emiss ions f r om m a in sou rce secto rs

( G g/ y e ar = 1 0 0 0 t o n n e s/ y e ar ) o f p r i m a r y P M, NOX, SO X, NMVOC and NH 3,

1 9 9 0 2 0 0 9

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

Gg

NH3

Total

0

1 000

2 000

3 000

4 000

5 000

6 000

7 000

8 000

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

199

8

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

200

8

2009

Gg NOX

0

2 000

4 000

6 000

8 000

10 000

12 000

14 000

1990

1991

199

2

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

199

8

1999

2000

200

1

2002

2003

2004

200

5

2006

2007

2008

2009

Gg SOX

0

10 0

20 0

30 0

40 0

50 0

60 0

70 0

80 0

90 0

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

Gg PM10

0

10 0

20 0

30 0

40 0

50 0

60 0

70 0

80 0

90 0

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

199

5

1996

1997

1998

199

9

2000

2001

200

2

2003

2004

200

5

2006

200

7

200

8

200

9

Gg PM2, 5

0

1 000

2 000

3 000

4 000

5 000

6 000

7 000

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

Gg NMVOC

Transport

Commercial, institutional and household fuel combustion

Industry

Solvent and product use

Agriculture

Energy ex. industry

Waste

0

1 000

2 000

3 000

4 000

5 000


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Figu re 2 .6 Percen tage o f popu la t i on residen t i n EU u rban a reas po ten t ia l l y exposed to PM 10

concen t r a t i on l eve ls exceed ing the da i l y l im i t v a lue , 1997 200 9

Source: EEA, 2011c (CSI 004).

0

25

50

75

10 0

1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

% of urban population

0 days 07 days 735 days > 35 days

2.4 Exposur e to PM po l lu t ion in Europ e

The PM10 monitoring data in AirBase provide thebasis for estimating the exposure of the European

population to exceedances of the PM10 daily limitvalue(50g/m3 not to be exceeded on more than35 days a calendar year). This estimation is shownin Figure 2.6 for the period 19972009. The exposureis estimated based upon PM10 measured at all urban

background (non-traffic) monitoring stations. Foreach city an average concentration is calculated. Itis considered that the whole population in cities ispotentially exposed to these concentrations, sincepeople move freely within the city.

In 2009 about 20 % of the urban population in the

EU was exposed to PM10 above the limit value.The extent of exposure above the LV has variedbetween 18 % and 49 % since 1997 and there isno apparent trend over this period. For EEA-32countries the estimate is 39 % in 2009 and thevariation was between 21 % and 50 % duringthe period 19972009. The range partly reflectsvariations caused by meteorology.

For PM2.5, the 2008 Air Quality Directive (EU, 2008c)has introduced a target value for human exposure

based on the average exposure indicator (AEI) setat the national level. The AEI is the averaged level

measured at urban background (non-traffic andnon-industrial) monitoring stations over a three-year

period. Figure 2.7 indicates that in at least sevenmember states the average urban concentrations in20072009wereabove20g/m3, the legally bindinglevel in the EU in 2015. The presented levels are

not based on a stable set of stations. For a numberof countries results are based on data for less thanthree years.

De Leeuw and Ruyssenaars (2011) present anoverview of the most stringent EU limit or targetvalues set for the protection of human health,including those for PM, in comparison with theair quality guidelines (AQG) set by the WHO.The study, referring to the situation in the period20062008, gives a rough estimate of the fractionof EU urban population currently exposed to

concentrations above the EU limit value and theAQG level. Between 18 and 40 % of the urbanpopulation is exposed to PM10 concentrationsexceeding the EU daily limit value while up to8090 % of the same urban population is exposed toconcentrations exceeding the WHO AQG for PM10(Table ES.1). Also here, the range partly reflectsvariations caused by meteorology.

2.5 Responses

As both primary and secondary PM make up

significant parts of PM concentrations, Europeanefforts to reduce rural and urban concentrations


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Figur e 2 .7 Urban PM2 .5 concen t ra t i ons

p resen ted as m u l t i - ann ua l

average in se lec ted European

coun t r i es , 20072009

Note : The three-year running mean (20072009)resembles the average exposure indicator. Thecompilation considers the background (non-trafc and

non-industrial) urban stations.

* Results for countries marked with an asterisk are

based on less than three years of data.

0 10 20 30 40

FinlandEstonia

Ireland *SwedenPortugal

LithuaniaDenmark

United KingdomSpain

GermanyFrance

HungaryNetherlands

LatviaBelgium

Romania *Austria

Cyprus *Czech Republic

SloveniaItaly

GreeceSlovakia

PolandBulgaria

PM2.5

(three-year running mean, g/m3)at urban non-traffic stations

must address emissions of both primary PM andalso precursor gases. The key anthropogenic sourcesof these compounds are road vehicles and industrialinstallations. Annex 2 contains more information oneach of the policy instruments discussed below.

2.5.1 Roadtransportsector

For the road transport sector, the Euro standards

regulate exhaust emissions of CO, NOX, NMVOCand primary PM. NOX and PM emissions aredirectly relevant for PM concentrations in air.

The impacts of the Euro standards on the averageemission factors of the vehicle fleet on the roads areas follows:

forPM,theEuro4emissionfactors(inforcesince2005) are 69 % lower than the Euro 2 emissionfactors (from 1996) for light duty (passenger)vehicles and 92 % lower for heavy duty dieselvehicles;

forNOX, the Euro 4 emission factors are about50 % lower than the Euro 2 emission factors for

passenger cars and 70 % lower for heavy dutydiesel vehicles;

Euro5(from2009)requiresafurthersubstantial

drop in emission factors.

These reductions in permissible emission limitshave resulted in substantial declines in NOX andPM emissions from vehicles over the last decade(Figure 2.5) despite the large i

air quality in europe-2011

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