aircraft - wikipedia
TRANSCRIPT
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An Airbus A380, the world's largest passenger
airliner
AircraftFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
An aircraft is a machine that is able to fly by gaining
support from the air, or, in general, the atmosphere of a
planet. It counters the force of gravityby using either static
lift or by using the dynamic lift of an airfoil,[1] or in a few
cases the downward thrust from jet engines.
The human activity that surrounds aircraft is called aviation.
Crewed aircraft are flown by an onboard pilot, but
unmanned aerial vehicles may be remotely controlled or
self-controlled by onboard computers. Aircraft may be
classified by different criteria, such as lift type, propulsion,
usage, and others.
Contents
1 History
2 Methods of lift
2.1 Lighter than air aerostats
2.2 Heavier than air aerodynes
2.2.1 Fixed-wing
2.2.2 Rotorcraft
2.2.3 Other methods of lift
3 Propulsion
3.1 Unpowered
3.2 Powered aircraft
3.2.1 Propeller aircraft
3.2.2 Jet aircraft
3.2.3 Rotorcraft
3.2.4 Other types of powered
aircraft
4 Construction and design
4.1 Airframe4.1.1 Fuselage
4.1.2 Wing
4.1.3 Stabilizing and control surfaces
4.1.4 Undercarriage
4.2 Engines
4.3 Avionics
5 Flight characteristics
5.1 Flight envelope
5.2 Range
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A hot air balloon in flight
5.3 Flight dynamics
6 Impact and use
6.1 Military
6.2 Civil
6.3 Experimental
6.4 Model
7 See also
7.1 Lists7.2 Topics
8 References
9 External links
History
Main article: Aviation history
See also: Timeline of aviation
Flying model craft and stories of manned flight go back many centuries, however the first manned ascent - and saf
descent - in modern times took place by hot-air balloon in the 18th century. Each of the two World Wars led to
great technical advances. Consequently the history of aircraft can be divided into five eras:
Pioneers of flight, from the earliest experiments to 1913.
First World War, 1914 to 1918.
Inter-war, sometimes called the Golden Age, 1919 to 1938.
Second World War, 1939 to 1945.
Postwar era, also called the jet age, 1946 to the present day.
Methods of lift
Lighter than air aerostats
Main article: Aerostat
Aerostats use buoyancy to float in the air in much the same way that
ships float on the water. They are characterized by one or more largegasbags or canopies, filled with a relatively low-density gas such as
helium, hydrogen, or hot air, which is less dense than the surrounding air.
When the weight of this is added to the weight of the aircraft structure, it
adds up to the same weight as the air that the craft displaces.
Small hot-air balloons called sky lanterns date back to the 3rd century
BC, and were only the second type of aircraft to fly, the first being kites.
A balloon was originally any aerostat, while the term airship was used for
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large, powered aircraft designs usually fixed-wing[citation needed] though none had yet been built. The advent o
powered balloons, called dirigible balloons, and later of rigid hulls allowing a great increase in size, began to chang
the way these words were used. Huge powered aerostats, characterized by a rigid outer framework and separate
aerodynamic skin surrounding the gas bags, were produced, the Zeppelins being the largest and most famous.
There were still no fixed-wing aircraft or non-rigid balloons large enough to be called airships, so "airship" came to
be synonymous with these aircraft. Then several accidents, such as the Hindenburg disaster in 1937, led to the
demise of these airships. Nowadays a "balloon" is an unpowered aerostat, whilst an "airship" is a powered one.
A powered, steerable aerostat is called a dirigible. Sometimes this term is applied only to non-rigid balloons, and
sometimes dirigible balloon is regarded as the definition of an airship (which may then be rigid or non-rigid). Non
rigid dirigibles are characterized by a moderately aerodynamic gasbag with stabilizing fins at the back. These soon
became known as blimps. During the Second World War, this shape was widely adopted for tethered balloons; i
windy weather, this both reduces the strain on the tether and stabilizes the balloon. The nickname blimp was
adopted along with the shape. In modern times, any small dirigible or airship is called a blimp, though a blimp may
be unpowered as well as powered.
Heavier than air aerodynes
Heavier-than-air aircraft must find some way to push air or gas downwards, so that a reaction occurs (by Newton
laws of motion) to push the aircraft upwards. This dynamic movement through the air is the origin of the term
aerodyne. There are two ways to produce dynamic upthrust: aerodynamic lift, and powered lift in the form of
engine thrust.
Aerodynamic lift involving wings is the most common, with fixed-wing aircraft being kept in the air by the forward
movement of wings, and rotorcraft by spinning wing-shaped rotors sometimes called rotary wings. A wing is a flat
horizontal surface, usually shaped in cross-section as an aerofoil. To fly, air must flow over the wing and generate
lift. Aflexible wingis a wing made of fabric or thin sheet material, often stretched over a rigid frame. A kite is
tethered to the ground and relies on the speed of the wind over its wings, which may be flexible or rigid, fixed, or
rotary.
With powered lift, the aircraft directs its engine thrust vertically downward. V/STOL aircraft, such as the Harrier
Jump Jet and F-35B take off and land vertically using powered lift and transfer to aerodynamic lift in steady flight.
A pure rocket is not usually regarded as an aerodyne, because it does not depend on the air for its lift (and can
even fly into space); however, many aerodynamic lift vehicles have been powered or assisted by rocket motors.
Rocket-powered missiles that obtain aerodynamic lift at very high speed due to airflow over their bodies are a
marginal case.
Fixed-wing
Main article: fixed-wing aircraft
The forerunner of the fixed-wing aircraft is the kite. Whereas a fixed-wing aircraft relies on its forward speed to
create airflow over the wings, a kite is tethered to the ground and relies on the wind blowing over its wings to
provide lift. Kites were the first kind of aircraft to fly, and were invented in China around 500 BC. Much
aerodynamic research was done with kites before test aircraft, wind tunnels, and computer modelling programs
became available.
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NASA test aircraft
The first heavier-than-air craft capable of controlled free-flight were gliders. A glider designed by Cayley carried
out the first true manned, controlled flight in 1853.
Practical, powered, fixed wing aircraft (the aeroplane or airplane) were invented by Wilbur and Orville Wright.
Besides the method of propulsion, fixed-wing aircraft are in general characterized by their wing configuration. The
most important wing characteristics are:
Number of wings Monoplane, biplane, etc.
Wing support Braced or cantilever, rigid, or flexible.Wing planform including aspect ratio, angle of sweep, and any
variations along the span (including the important class of delta
wings).
Location of the horizontal stabilizer, if any.
Dihedral angle positive, zero, or negative (anhedral).
A variable geometry aircraft can change its wing configuration during
flight.
Aflying winghas no fuselage, though it may have small blisters or pods.The opposite of this is a lifting body, which has no wings, though it may
have small stabilizing and control surfaces.
Wing-in-ground-effect vehicles may be considered as fixed-wing aircraft. They "fly" efficiently close to the surface
of the ground or water, like conventional aircraft during takeoff. An example is the Russian ekranoplan (nicknamed
the "Caspian Sea Monster"). Man-powered aircraft also rely on ground effect to remain airborne with a minimal
pilot power, but this is only because they are so underpowered in fact, the airframe is capable of flying higher.
Rotorcraft
Main article: Rotorcraft
Rotorcraft, or rotary-wing aircraft, use a spinning rotor with aerofoil section blades (a rotary wing) to provide lift
Types include helicopters, autogyros, and various hybrids such as gyrodynes and compound rotorcraft.
Helicopters have a rotor turned by an engine-driven shaft. The rotor pushes air downward to create lift. By tilting
the rotor forward, the downward flow is tilted backward, producing thrust for forward flight. Some helicopters
have more than one rotor and a few have rotors turned by gas jets at the tips.
utogyros have unpowered rotors, with a separate power plant to provide thrust. The rotor is tilted backward. Athe autogyro moves forward, air blows upward across the rotor, making it spin. This spinning increases the speed
of airflow over the rotor, to provide lift. Rotor kites are unpowered autogyros, which are towed to give them
forward speed or tethered to a static anchor in high-wind for kited flight.
Compound rotorcrafthave wings that provide some or all of the lift in forward flight. They are nowadays classifie
aspowered lifttypes and not as rotorcraft. Tiltrotoraircraft (such as the V-22 Osprey), tiltwing, tailsitter, and
coleopter aircraft have their rotors/propellers horizontal for vertical flight and vertical for forward flight.
Other methods of lift
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Comparison between four of the
largest aircraft:
Hughes H-4 Hercules
"Spruce Goose" (aircraft with
greatest wingspan)
Antonov An-225
(aircraft with the greatest payload)
Airbus A380-800
(largest airliner)
Boeing 747-8
(longest passenger aircraft)
An autogyro
A lifting body is an aircraft body shaped to produce lift. If there
are any wings, they are too small to provide significant lift and are
used only for stability and control. Lifting bodies are not efficient:
they suffer from high drag, and must also travel at high speed to
generate enough lift to fly. Many of the research prototypes, such
as the Martin-Marietta X-24, which led up to the Space Shuttle,
were lifting bodies (though the shuttle itself is not), and some
supersonic missiles obtain lift from the airflow over a tubular body.Powered lifttypes rely on engine-derived lift for vertical takeoff
and landing (VTOL). Most types transition to fixed-wing lift for
horizontal flight. Classes of powered lift types include VTOL jet
aircraft (such as the Harrier jump-jet) and tiltrotors (such as the V-
22 Osprey), among others.
Propulsion
Unpowered
Main article: Unpowered aircraft
Gliders are heavier-than-air aircraft that do not employ propulsion once
airborne. Take-off may be by launching forward and downward from a
high location, or by pulling into the air on a tow-line, either by a ground-
based winch or vehicle, or by a powered "tug" aircraft. For a glider to
maintain its forward air speed and lift, it must descend in relation to the
air (but not necessarily in relation to the ground). Many gliders can 'soar'
- gain height from updrafts such as thermal currents. The first practical,controllable example was designed and built by the British scientist and
pioneer George Cayley, whom many recognise as the first aeronautical
engineer.[2] Common examples of gliders are sailplanes, hang gliders and
paragliders.
Balloons drift with the wind, though normally the pilot can control the
altitude, either by heating the air or by releasing ballast, giving some
directional control (since the wind direction changes with altitude). A
wing-shaped hybrid balloon can glide directionally when rising or falling;
but a spherically shaped balloon does not have such directional control.
Kites are aircraft[3] that are tethered to the ground or other object (fixed
or mobile) that maintains tension in the tether or kite line; they rely on
virtual or real wind blowing over and under them to generate lift and drag. Kytoons are balloon-kite hybrids that a
shaped and tethered to obtain kiting deflections, and can be lighter-than-air, neutrally buoyant, or heavier-than-air
Powered aircraft
Main article: Powered aircraft
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X-24B lifting body, specialized glider
A turboprop-engined DeHavillandTwin Otter adapted as a floatplane
Lockheed Martin F-22A Raptor
Propeller aircraft
Propeller aircraft use one or more propellers (airscrews) to create thrust in a forward direction. The propeller is
usually mounted in front of the power source in tractor configuration but can be mounted behind inpusher
configuration. Variations of propeller layout include contra-rotating propellers and ducted fans.
Many kinds of power plant have been used to drive propellers. Early airships used man power or steam engines.
The more practical internal combustion piston engine was used for
virtually all fixed-wing aircraft until World War II and is still used in many
smaller aircraft. Some types use turbine engines to drive a propeller in the
form of a turboprop or propfan. Human-powered flight has been
achieved, but has not become a practical means of transport. Unmanned
aircraft and models have also used power sources such as electric
motors and rubber bands.
Jet aircraft
Jet aircraft use airbreathing jet engines which take in air, burn fuel with itin a combustion chamber, and accelerate the exhaust rearwards to
provide thrust.
Turbojet and turbofan engines use a spinning turbine to drive one or more
fans, which provide additional thrust. An afterburner may be used to
inject extra fuel into the hot exhaust, especially on military "fast jets". Use
of a turbine is not absolutely necessary: other designs include the pulse jet
and ramjet. These mechanically simple designs cannot work when
stationary, so the aircraft must be launched to flying speed by some other
method. Other variants have also been used, including the motorjet and
hybrids such as the Pratt & Whitney J58, which can convert between
turbojet and ramjet operation.
Compared to propellers, jet engines can provide much higher thrust,
higher speeds and, above about 40,000 ft (12,000 m), greater
efficiency.[4] They are also much more fuel-efficient than rockets. As a
consequence nearly all large, high-speed or high-altitude aircraft use jet
engines.
Rotorcraft
Rotorcraft, such as helicopters, have a powered rotary wing orrotor. It
obtains forward thrust by angling the rotor disc slightly forward so that a
proportion of its lift is directed forwards. The rotor may, like a propeller, be powered by a variety of methods suc
as a piston engine or turbine. Experiments have also used jet nozzles at the rotor blade tips.
Other types of powered aircraft
Rocket-powered aircrafthave occasionally been experimented with, and the MesserschmittKometfighte
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Airframe diagram for a
AgustaWestland AW101 helicopter
even saw action in the Second World War. Since then, they have been restricted to research aircraft, such a
the North American X-15, which traveled up into space where air-breathing engines cannot work (rockets
carry their own oxidant). Rockets have more often been used as a supplement to the main power plant,
typically for the rocket-assisted take off of heavily loaded aircraft, but also to provide high-speed dash
capability in some hybrid designs such as the Saunders-Roe SR.53.
The ornithopterobtains thrust by flapping its wings. It has found practical use in a model hawk used to
freeze prey animals into stillness so that they can be captured, and in toy birds.
Construction and design
Early aircraft often employed doped aircraft fabric covering to give a smooth aeroshell stretched over a wooden
frame. Later aircraft employed trusses, and monocoque techniques, where the skin of the aircraft carries much of
the flight loads. Modern aircraft typically are a semi-monocoque, where the skin is reinforced with longerons and
stringers.
Aircraft are designed according to many factors such as customer and manufacturer demand, safety protocols and
physical and economic constraints. For many types of aircraft the design process is regulated by national
airworthiness authorities.
The key parts of an aircraft are generally divided into three categories:
The airframe comprises the mechanical structure and associated equipment.
Thepropulsion system (if it is powered) comprises the engine or engines and associated equipment.
The avionics comprise the electrical flight control and communication systems.
Airframe
Main article: Airframe
The airframe of an aircraft is its mechanical structure,.[5] Airframe design
is a field of engineering that combines aerodynamics, materials
technology, and manufacturing methods to achieve balances of
performance, reliability, and cost.
The main parts of the airframe are the fuselage, wing, stabilizing tail or
empennage, and undercarriage.
Fuselage
The fuselage is an aircraft's main body section containing the crew
cockpit or flight deck, and any passenger cabin or cargo hold. In single- and twin-engine aircraft, it will often also
contain the engine or engines. The fuselage also serves to position control and stabilization surfaces in specific
relationships to lifting surfaces, required for aircraft stability and maneuverability.
Wing
The wings of an aircraft produce lift. Many different styles and arrangements of wings have been used on heavier-
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Fuselage of a Boeing 737 shown in
brown
The empennage of a Boeing 747-200
than-air aircraft, and some lighter-than-air craft also have wings. Most early fixed-wing aircraft were biplanes,
having wings stacked one above the other. Most types nowadays are monoplanes, having one wing each side.
Wings also vary greatly in their shape viewed from above.
Stabilizing and control surfaces
Most aircraft need horizontal and vertical stabilisers[6][7] which act in a similar way to the feathers on an arrow. [8]
These stabilizing surfaces allow equilibrium of aerodynamic forces and tostabilise the flight dynamics of pitch and yaw.[6][7] They are usually
mounted on the tail section (empennage), though the canard configuration
has a foreplane, in front of the main wing, which may sometimes act as
the horizontal stabilizer. Tailless aircraft rely on other techniques to
achieve stability.
Flight control surfaces enable the pilot to control an aircraft's flight
attitude and are usually part of the wing or mounted on, or integral with,
the associated stabilizing surface. Their development was a critical
advance in the history of aircraft, which had until that point beenuncontrollable in flight.
Undercarriage
The undercarriage, or landing gear, is the structure that supports an
aircraft when it is not flying and allows it to taxi and takeoff and land
usually from a runway. Most commonly, wheels are used but skids,
floats, or a combination of these and other elements can be used,
depending on the surface. Many aircraft have undercarriage that retracts
into the wings and/or fuselage to decrease drag during flight.
Flying boats are supported on water by their fuselage or hull and hence
have no undercarriage beyond small stabilizing floats. amphibians have a
similar floating hull and also retractable wheeled undercarriage, allowing
them to take off from and alight on both land and water.
Engines
Main article: aircraft engine
Powered aircraft have one or more engines. Most aircraft engines are either lightweight piston engines or gas
turbines. In most aircraft, fuel is stored predominantly in the wings but larger aircraft also have additional fuel tanks
in the fuselage.
Avionics
Main article: Avionics
The avionics comprise the flight control systems and other electronic equipment, including the cockpit
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The Boeing 777-200LR is the longest
range airliner, capable of flights of
more than halfway around the world.
instrumentation, navigation, radar, monitoring, and communication systems.
Flight characteristics
Flight envelope
Main article: Flight envelope
The flight envelope of an aircraft refers to its capabilities in terms of airspeed and load factor or altitude. [9][10] The
term can also refer to other measurements such as maneuverability. When a plane is pushed, for instance by diving
it at high speeds, it is said to be flown "outside the envelope", something considered unsafe.
Range
Main article: range (aircraft)
The range is the distance an aircraft can fly between takeoff and landing,
as limited by the time it can remain airborne.
For a powered aircraft the time limit is determined by the fuel load and
rate of consumption.
For an unpowered aircraft, the maximum flight time is limited by factors
such as weather conditions and pilot endurance. Many aircraft types are
restricted to daylight hours, while balloons are limited by their supply of
lifting gas. The range can be seen as the average ground speed multiplied
by the maximum time in the air.
Flight dynamics
Main article: Flight dynamics (aircraft)
Flight dynamics is the science of air vehicle orientation and control in three
dimensions. The three critical flight dynamics parameters are the angles of
rotation around three axes about the vehicle's center of mass, known aspitch,
roll, andyaw (quite different from their use as Tait-Bryan angles).
Roll is a rotation about the longitudinal axis (equivalent to the rolling orheeling of a ship) giving an up-down movement of the wing tips
measured by the roll or bank angle.
Pitch is a rotation about the sideways horizontal axis giving an up-down movement of the aircraft nose
measured by the angle of attack.
Yaw is a rotation about the vertical axis giving a side-to-side movement of the nose known as sideslip.
Flight control
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Boeing B-17E in flight. The Allies of
World War II lost 160,000 airmen
and 33,700 planes during the air war
over Europe.[11]
Aerospace engineers develop control systems for a vehicle's orientation (attitude) about its center of mass. The
control systems include actuators, which exert forces in various directions, and generate rotational forces or
moments about the aerodynamic center of the aircraft, and thus rotate the aircraft in pitch, roll, or yaw. For
example, a pitching moment is a vertical force applied at a distance forward or aft from the aerodynamic center of
the aircraft, causing the aircraft to pitch up or down. Control systems are also sometimes used to increase or
decrease drag, for example to slow the aircraft to a safe speed for landing.
The two main forces acting on any aircraft are lift supporting it in the air and drag opposing its motion. Control
surfaces may also be used to affect these forces directly, without inducing any rotation.
Impact and use
In general, aircraft have positive properties as they permit long distance, high speed travel and are often reasonabl
efficient. In addition to their usefulness, they have some environmental impacts. They generate some atmospheric
pollution, are relatively noisy compared to other forms of travel and high altitude aircraft generate contrails which
experimental evidence suggests may alter weather patterns.
Aircraft are produced in several different types optimized for various uses; military aircraft, which includes not just
combat types but many types of supporting aircraft, and civil aircraft, which include all non-military types,
experimental and model.
Military
Main article: Military aircraft
A military aircraft is any fixed-wing or rotary-wing aircraft that is
operated by a legal or insurrectionary armed service of any type.[12]
Military aircraft can be either combat or non-combat:
Combat aircraft are aircraft designed to destroy enemy equipment
using its own armament.[12] Combat aircraft divide broadly into
fighters and bombers, with several in-between types such as
fighter-bombers and ground-attack aircraft (including attack
helicopters).
Non-Combat aircraft are not designed for combat as their primary
function, but may carry weapons for self-defense. Non-combat
roles include search and rescue, reconnaissance, observation,
transport, training, and aerial refueling. These aircraft are often variants of civil aircraft such as the DouglasDC-3 airliner.
Gliders and balloons have also been used as military aircraft; for example, balloons were used for observation
during the American Civil War and World War I, and military gliders were used during World War II to land
troops.
Civil
Main article: Civil aviation
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Agusta A109 helicopter of the Swiss
air rescue service
A model aircraft, weighing six grams
Civil aircraft divide into commercialandgeneraltypes, however there are some overlaps.
Commercial aircraft include types designed for scheduled and charter
airline flights, carrying passengers, mail and other cargo. The larger
passenger-carrying types are the airliners, the largest of which are wide-
body aircraft. Some of the smaller types are also used in general aviation,
and some of the larger types are used as VIP aircraft.
General aviation is a catch-all covering other kinds of private (where thepilot is not paid for time or expenses) and commercial use, and involving
a wide range of aircraft types such as business jets (bizjets), trainers,
homebuilt, aerobatic types, racers, gliders, warbirds, firefighters, medical
transports, and cargo transports, to name a few. The vast majority of
aircraft today are general aviation types.
Experimental
Main article: Experimental aircraft
An experimental aircraft is one that has not been fully proven in flight, or one that carries an FAA airworthiness
certificate in the "Experimental" category. Often, this implies that new aerospace technologies are being tested on
the aircraft, although the term also refers to amateur- and kit-built aircraft; many of which are based on proven
designs.
Model
Main article: Model aircraft
A model aircraft is a small unmanned type made to fly for fun, for staticdisplay, for aerodynamic research or for other purposes. A scale model
is a replica of some larger design.
See also
Lists
List of aircraft
List of aircraft by categoryList of civil aircraft
List of early flying machines
List of fighter aircraft
List of large aircraft
List of aircraft by date and usage category
List of altitude records reached by different aircraft types
List of aviation, aerospace and aeronautical terms
http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Glossary_of_aviation,_aerospace,_and_aeronauticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_altitude_records_reached_by_different_aircraft_typeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_aircraft_by_date_and_usage_categoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_large_aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fighter_aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_early_flying_machineshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_civil_aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scale_modelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model_aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experimental_aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cargo_aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MEDEVAChttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerial_firefightinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warbirdhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glider_(sailplane)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_racinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerobaticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homebuilt_aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trainer_(aircraft)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_jethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_aviationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_aviationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_transports_of_heads_of_state_and_governmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_aviationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wide-body_aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cargohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airmailhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commercial_aviationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MiniCeline_ultralight_aircraft.jpeghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rega_(air_rescue)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agusta_A109http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pilatus_Agusta_A109_Flug.jpg -
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Topics
Aircraft spotting
Air traffic control
Airport
Flying car/roadable
aircraftPersonal air vehicle
Powered parachute
Rocket
Spacecraft
Spaceplane
Steam aircraft
References
1. ^ dictionary.com definition of aircraft (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/aircraft)
2. ^ Dee, Richard (2007). The Man who Discovered Flight: George Cayley and the First Airplane. Toronto:
McClelland and Stewart. ISBN 978-0-7710-2971-4.
3. ^ NASA's Beginners Guide to Aeronautics (http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/airplane/guided.htm)
4. ^ "ch10-3" (http://www.hq.nasa.gov/pao/History/SP-468/ch10-3.htm) . Hq.nasa.gov.
http://www.hq.nasa.gov/pao/History/SP-468/ch10-3.htm. Retrieved 2010-03-26.
5. ^ Ed Rouen (2005).Airplane Names (http://www.marchfield.org/rouen01.html) . San Diego Aerospace Museum
http://www.marchfield.org/rouen01.html. Names and dates of more than 2,800 aircraft models produced since
1900.
6. ^ ab Crane, Dale:Dictionary of Aeronautical Terms, third edition, page 194. Aviation Supplies & Academics,
1997. ISBN 1-56027-287-2
7. ^ ab Aviation Publishers Co. Limited,From the Ground Up, page 10 (27th revised edition) ISBN 0-9690054-9-0
8. ^ http://www.airlines.org/ATAResources/Handbook/Pages/AirlineHandbookChapter5HowAircraftFly.aspx ATA
Airline Handbook Chapter 5: How Aircraft Fly
9. ^ 23.333 Flight envelope (http://ecfr.gpoaccess.gov/cgi/t/text/text-idx?
type=simple;c=ecfr;cc=ecfr;sid=a8f38006e777ba46ba8000f7c2fe6641;region=DIV1;q1=23.335;rgn=div8;view=t
xt;idno=14;node=14%3A1.0.1.3.10.3.70.8)
10. ^ Flight envelope - diagram (http://www.access.gpo.gov/ecfr/graphics/pdfs/ec28se91.001.pdf)
11. ^ Kenneth K. Hatfield (2003). "Heartland heroes: remembering World War II. (http://books.google.com/books?
id=mtxMN5NdmCsC&pg=RA1-PA91&lpg=RA1-PA91&dq=&hl=en#v=onepage&q=&f=false) ". p.91.
12. ^ ab Gunston 1986, p. 274
Gunston, Bill (1987).Jane's Aerospace Dictionary 1987. London, England: Jane's Publishing Company
Limited. ISBN 0-7106-0365-7.
External links
History
History of Aviation in Australia - State Library of NSW
(http://www.atmitchell.com/journeys/history/aviation/)
Prehistory of Powered Flight (http://www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/Prehistory/PH-OV.htm)
The Channel Crossing (http://www.doktus.de/dok/39023/the-channel-crossing.html)
The Evolution of Modern Aircraft (NASA) (http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-
http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-468/contents.htmhttp://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-468/contents.htmhttp://www.doktus.de/dok/39023/the-channel-crossing.htmlhttp://www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/Prehistory/PH-OV.htmhttp://www.atmitchell.com/journeys/history/aviation/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7106-0365-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft#cite_ref-gunston_12-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft#cite_ref-gunston_12-0http://books.google.com/books?id=mtxMN5NdmCsC&pg=RA1-PA91&lpg=RA1-PA91&dq=&hl=en#v=onepage&q=&f=falsehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft#cite_ref-11http://www.access.gpo.gov/ecfr/graphics/pdfs/ec28se91.001.pdfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft#cite_ref-10http://ecfr.gpoaccess.gov/cgi/t/text/text-idx?type=simple;c=ecfr;cc=ecfr;sid=a8f38006e777ba46ba8000f7c2fe6641;region=DIV1;q1=23.335;rgn=div8;view=text;idno=14;node=14%3A1.0.1.3.10.3.70.8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft#cite_ref-9http://www.airlines.org/ATAResources/Handbook/Pages/AirlineHandbookChapter5HowAircraftFly.aspxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft#cite_ref-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0969005490http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft#cite_ref-GroundUp_7-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft#cite_ref-GroundUp_7-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1560272872http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft#cite_ref-Crane_6-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft#cite_ref-Crane_6-0http://www.marchfield.org/rouen01.htmlhttp://www.marchfield.org/rouen01.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft#cite_ref-5http://www.hq.nasa.gov/pao/History/SP-468/ch10-3.htmhttp://www.hq.nasa.gov/pao/History/SP-468/ch10-3.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft#cite_ref-hist8_4-0http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/airplane/guided.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft#cite_ref-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7710-2971-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Richard_Dee&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft#cite_ref-2http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft#cite_ref-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spaceplanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spacecrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rockethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Powered_parachutehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_air_vehiclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_car_(aircraft)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_traffic_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft_spotting -
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468/contents.htm)
Virtual Museum (http://invention.psychology.msstate.edu/Tale_of_Airplane/taleplane.html)
Smithsonian Air and Space Museum (http://www.nasm.si.edu/) Online collection with a particular focus o
history of aircraft and spacecraft
New Scientist's History of Aviation (http://www.newscientist.com/movie/aviation-timeline)
Amazing Early Flying Machines (http://www.life.com/image/first/in-gallery/36582/amazing-early-flying-
machines) slideshow byLife magazine
Aircraft Types (http://flightfield.com/index.php/aeronautical-data/aircraft-types)
Information
Airliners.net (http://www.airliners.net/info/)
Aviation Dictionary (http://www.aviationdictionary.org/) Free aviation terms, phrases and jargons
New Scientist's Aviation page (http://www.newscientist.com/topic/aviation)
Aircraft Components Technology (http://aircraftcomponent.net)
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