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College of Science & Technology School of the Built Environment

Declaration on Conduct of Assessed Work

Assessed work which does not have this form attached will be returned unmarked. Module: MSc Dissertation. Assignment title: Renewable Energy Systems in New-Build Residential Development. Briefly, unfair means in assessed work is likely to fall into one or more of the following categories:

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someone else in full or in part by a fellow student, a friend or family member. It includes sitting an examination for someone else. It also covers obtaining material from internet ‘cheat sites’ or other sources of work. Penalties for this type of unfair means will normally apply both to a student of the University who does work on behalf of another and a student of the University who has work done for him/her.

Copying from, or communicating with, another examination candidate during an examination

Bribery This involves giving money, gifts or any other advantage to an academic member of staff which is intended to give an unfair advantage in an assessment exercise. I declare that

this work is my own

if this is a group project, each student has contributed to the work in accordance with the set criteria

the work of others used in its completion has been duly acknowledged

experimental or other investigative results have not been falsified

I have read and understood the University Academic Misconduct Procedure* http://www.governance.salford.ac.uk/cms/resources/uploads/File/policies/Academic_Misconduct_Procedure.pdf It is the student’s responsibility to be aware of this policy and procedure. Signature OLUFEMI ISAAC AKINJIYAN Name (print) OLUFEMI ISAAC AKINJIYAN ID Number @00333369 Date 09/09/2016

In the event of any uncertainty, students should consult the lecturer who set the assignment

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University of Salford

School of the Built Environment

MSc. Project Management in Construction.

Dissertation Topic:

Renewable Energy Systems in New-Build Residential

Development.

Olufemi Isaac Akinjiyan.

2015/2016.

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Abstract.

The use of Renewable Energy Systems (RESs) in the built environment particularly the building sector has become increasingly in used today influenced by the clamour for climate change leading to reduction in carbon dioxide emission, energy cost reduction and building efficiency. This research focuses on implementing RESs into new-build residential development in the area of power, water and space heating being the essential necessity of building occupants. To achieve this, four objectives were outlined; to critically appraise RESs, determine its influence on climate change, examine cost reduction of energy consumption and to evaluate RESs in existing and new-build residential development. Qualitative research approach was used to derive a conclusion and the research method employed was the use of three existing and proven case studies carried out by housing association, local council and renewable energy manufacturers. Also carried out was a case study comparing carbon emission, cost of energy consumption and building efficiency between an existing and a new-build building, using the Home Energy Trust tool. The findings from the data collected illustrates that, implementing RESs into New-Build residential development will contribute to the reduction of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, reduce the cost of energy consumption by householders and buildings will achieve better efficiency compared to existing buildings utilising them. In conclusion, if new-build residential development are designed with renewable energy system implemented in them, reduction in the effects of climate change is certain and the generation of energy using fossil fuel will be minimised.

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ACKNOWLEGMENT

First and foremost, I give glory to Almighty God for his goodness, mercies, favour and preservation of life. God who

gave me the will power, wisdom and understanding by seeing me through the programme with his continuous

guidance and provisions. I say thank you God for everything from the depth of my heart.

I express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor, DR. Justine Cooper for excellently guiding me through and ensuring

the success of this research work. I would like to say a big thank to the lecturers, staffs and my colleagues in the

class of Project Management in Construction and those of the School of Built Environment for their support.

I appreciate my mother Mrs Grace A. Akinjiyan for her motherly prayers and encouragement. To my siblings, in-

laws and the entire family members.

To my better half, my brilliant and excellent wife Abimbola B. Akinjiyan for her never ending prayers, support and

encouragement. Thank you for words cannot express how much I appreciate and love you.

To my lovely ladies Miss Oluwafifehanmi and Miss Oluwafikayomi Akinjiyan, not forgetting my charming gentle man

Olufemi Isaac Jnr. I appreciate your prayers; you mean the world to me.

Lastly to the United Kingdom Government for making this a reality through their contributions towards the course

financially, this gesture is greatly appreciated.

Thank you all and God bless.

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Declaration 1.

Acknowledgement 2.

Abstract 3.

Table of content.

List of Figures.

Figure 1. World energy demand 17

Figure 2. Greenhouse effect 19

Figure 3. Energy consumption by sector in the United Kingdom 20

Figure 4. Energy Performance Certificate 21

Figure 5a. Global energy supply 23

Figure 5a. Fuel share by global energy demand 23

Figure 6. Regional energy supply 24

Figure 6b. Regional share by fuel splay 24

Figure 7. Global and regional share crude oil production 24

Figure 8. Global and regional share natural gas production 25

Figure 9. Global and regional share nuclear power production 25

Figure 10. Global and regional share coal production 25

Figure 10a. Electricity generated by fossil fuel 26

Figure 10b. CO2 emission by fossil fuel production 26

Figure 11. Photovoltaic system assembles 29

Figure 11b. Photovoltaic cell connection 29

Figure 11c. Typical photovoltaic connected to grid 30

Figure 12. Solar thermal technology 31

Figure 13. Hydropower technology 31

Figure 14. Hydropower production 32

Figure 15. Typical wind power connected to grid 32

Figure 16. Up wind and downwind horizontal axis 33

Figure 17. Global capacity of geothermal technology 34

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Figure 18. Biomass technology 34

Figure 18a. Biomass resources 35

Figure 19. Sources of biomass technology 35

Figure 20. Energy system design 37

Figure 21a. Global energy demand 38

Figure 21b. Coal energy demand by sector 38

Figure 21c. Crude oil energy demand by sector 39

Figure 21d. Natural gas energy demand by sector 39

Figure 22. Relationships between theories 42

Figure 23. Process of deductive and inductive approach 43

Figure 24. Combining deductive and inductive approach 43

Figure 25. Research strategies illustrated 44

Figure 26a. Cost comparison of GSHP 53

Figure 26b. CO2 comparison of GSHP 54

Figure 27. Existing home improvement result 57

Figure 28a. Cost benefit of energy savings 58

Figure 28b. Carbon emission saving 59

Figure 28c. EPC rating existing building 59

Figure 29. New-Built result 60

Figure 30a. 61

Figure 30b. Carbon emission saving 61

Figure 30c. EPC rating existing building 61

List of Tables.

Table 1. Characteristics of greenhouse gases 20

Table 2. Global energy demand 21

Table 3. Source of renewable energy and their application 27

Table 4. Differences between qualitative and quantitative approach 44

Table 5. Household take up and installation type 51

Table 6. Saving achieved 51

Table 7. Solar energy result 56

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Table 8. Proposed home improvement in existing building 58

Table 9. Home improvement for New-Build 60

Table 10. analysis of case study findings 62

List of Abbreviations 67

References 68

Appendix 72

Chapter One. Introduction.

1.0. Introduction 12

1.1. Research rational 12

1.2. Dissertation Aims and Objectives 12

1.2.1. Aims 13

1.2.2. Objectives 13

1.3. Dissertation Structure, Layout and Chapter Summary 13

1.3.1. Chapter 1—Introduction 13

1.3.2. Chapter 2—Literature Review 14

1.3.3. Chapter 3—Research Methodology 14

1.3.4. Chapter 4—Case Study Analysis and Findings 14

1.3.5. Chapter 5—Discussion, Conclusion &Recommendations 14

1.4. Chapter Summary 14

Chapter Two. Literature Review.

2.0. Introduction 15

2.1. Background 15

2.2. Definitions and Meanings 16

2.3. Energy Evolution 16

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2.4. Climate Change 18

2.4.1. Climate Change Control 18

2.4.2. Greenhouse Effect 19

2.4.3. Green Deal 20

2.4.4. Energy Performance Certificate 21

2.5. Energy Sources 22

2.5.1. Fossil fuel 23

2.5.1.1. Fossil Fuel Reservation 26

2.5.2. Nuclear Power/Energy 27

2.5.3. Renewable Energy Resources 27

2.5.3.1. Solar energy technology 28

2.5.3.2. Hydropower energy technology 31

2.5.3.3. Wind energy technology 32

2.5.3.4. Geothermal energy technologies 33

2.5.3.5. Biomass energy technologies 34

2.5.3.6. Clean coal technology 35

2.5.3.7. Waste-to-energy technology 35

2.6. Other Low Carbon Technologies 36

2.7. Designing Energy Systems 36

2.8. Selection of Renewable Energy Systems 37

2.9. Energy Demand 37

2.10. Energy Management 39

2.10.1. Pre-design considerations 40

2.10.2. Low energy building design 40

2.10.3. Building regulation 41

2.10.4. Behaviour change 41

2.11. Chapter Summary 41

Chapter Three. Research Methods.

3.0. Introduction 42

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3.1. Research Design Theories. 42

3.2. Research Approach. 44

3.3. Qualitative Approach 45

3.3.1 Advantages of Qualitative Approach 45

3.3.2 Disadvantages of Qualitative Approach 45

3.4. Quantitative Approach 45

3.4.1. Advantages of Quantitative Approach 46

3.4.2. Disadvantages of Quantitative Approach 46

3.5. Research Method - Case study 46

3.5.1. Advantages of Case study 46

3.6. Approach and Methodology Choice. 46

3.6.1. Justification of case study. 47

3.7. Summary of Research Methodology 47

3.8. Chapter Summary 48

Chapter Four. Case Study Analysis and Findings.

4.0. Introduction 49

Case study 1: Solar water heating.

4.1. Background Information 49

4.1.1. Context 49

4.1.2. Objective 50

4.1.3. Method 50

4.1.4. Financial resources and partners 50

4.1.5. Results 50

4.1.6. Lessons learned 51

4.2. Analysis and Findings 51

Case study 2: Geothermal (GSHP).

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4.3. Background Information 52

4.3.1. Context 52

4.3.2. Objective 52

4.3.3. Method 53

4.3.4. Financial resources and partners 53

4.3.5. Results 53

4.3.6. Lessons learned 54

4.4. Analysis and Findings 54

Case study 3: Solar power.

4.5. Background Information 55

4.5.1. Context 55

4.5.2. Objective 55

4.5.3. Method 55

4.5.4. Financial resources and partners. 55

4.5.5. Results 55

4.5.6. Lessons learned 56

4.6. Analysis and Findings 56

Case study 4

Comparison between an existing and new-build building.

4.7. Background information 56

4.7.1. Selection Criteria for existing building 57

4.7.2. Quantifying energy cost and CO2 emission of existing building 57

4.7.3. Selection Criteria of new-build building 59

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4.7.5. Quantifying energy cost and CO2 emission of new-build building 60

4.8. Analysis of Findings between existing and new-build building 62

4.9. Chapter Summary 63

Chapter Five. Discussion, Recommendations and Conclusions.

5.0. Introduction 64

5.1. Conclusion 64

5.1.1 Aim 64

5.1.2 Objective 1 64

5.1.3. Objective 2 65

5.1.4. Objective 3 65

5.1.5. Objective 4 65

5.2. Recommendations 66

5.3. Limitations to the research 66

5.4. Future research 66

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CHAPTER ONE.

Introduction.

1.0. Introduction.

The intent of this chapter to give a general overview of this research work by explaining the background of

renewable energy systems, climate change and their effect on the built environment, particularly the housing

sector. The rationale behind the selection of the research topic will also be established, as well as highlighting the

aim and objectives of this study. Finally, the dissertation structure will be outlined.

1.1. Background of Renewable Energy Systems.

Recently, there is great emphasis on achieving a sustainable environment in relation to global warming, reduction

in energy consumption and Carbon Dioxide (CO2) emission in the built environment. This is because

environmentalist, Government Agencies and construction professionals are of the opinion that, the current energy

sources used to generate energy supply is responsible for the acid rain, Greenhouse Gases (GHGs) effect, the

negative impacts on human health and the environment at large (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

(IPCC), (2007). Quaschning (2016), pointed out that the current production and consumption of energy is not

sustainable enough, considering the huge energy demand predicted for the nearest future. Similarly, Maczulak,

(2009), highlighted the consequences of continuing at this rate. The former and the latter researchers explore

alternative sources of energy which has no adverse effect on the built environment, human health and nature.

According to Twidell & Weir, (2015), these alternative sources of energy include wind and solar power. They are

known as Renewable Energy Systems (RESs) as they are not depleted when used. Moreover, the fuel they use are

replenishable by nature, naturally and realistically the only option that can provide the energy demand of the built

environment in a climatically sustainable way as opposed to nuclear fission power and the convectional use of fossil

fuel sources. RESs are inexhaustible within human existence and usually presented as solar, planetary and

geothermal energy. Theoretically, RESs can supply the global energy demand conveniently with minimal problem.

However, to achieve this the infrastructure must be totally restricted to replace the previous infrastructure used by

the conventional methods of energy sourcing.

1.2. Research rational.

Despite the harmful effects of using the conventional energy sources as highlighted by Maczulak (2009),

there is little evidence that RESs is generally adopted in new builds. The author’s intension is to showcase

that RESs can be implemented into New-Build residential development and overall contribute to CO2

emission, energy consumption reduction and achieving an efficient building. Likewise, the author

identified a gap in the plan by the United Kingdom (UK) government to lack interest in new-build

residential buildings and decided to explore the gap by researching into how RESs can be implemented

into new-build residential building. Once this is achievable, it will contribute towards the vision of cutting

GHGs emission to 34% and 80% by 2020 and 2050 respectively. While CO2 is reduced 26% by 2020. This

research will adopt the strategy of implementing RESs into new-built in the area of lighting, heating and

ventilating, being the most essential necessities used by occupants. Systems such as Solar Power, Solar

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Hot Water Heating (SHWH) and Geothermal (Ground Source Heat Pump (GSHP)) will be considered,

assuming that the overall building envelope meets the stipulated building control requirements and other

recent building methods such as Code for Sustainable Homes and Passivhaus principles that contribute to

energy efficiency in residential buildings. The author believes that with the introduction of RESs into new

build, the target set by the UK government can be further reduced if the systems are appropriately

implemented.

This research is aimed mainly at construction professionals willing to acquire knowledge in understanding how to

implement RESs into residential building designs. Where emphasis will be laid on the technology and how to

implement the appropriate RESs for this research. The Department of Trust and Industry (DTI), (2006), stressed the

fact that several RESs can be integrated into building developments successfully if considered at the initial stages

of planning and designing process before building forms, orientation, heating, ventilation and other design factors

are considered or established.

This research will study Geothermal, Solar energy (Direct and Indirect use of solar energy), Hydro-electric power,

Biomass and Combined Heat Pump. To achieve this, various case studies will be critically analysed to determine the

influences and usefulness of implementing RESs in other to comply with climate change, building efficiency,

reduction in energy consumption and cost.

1.3. Aim.

The aim of this research is to incorporate renewable energy systems into new-build residential development.

1.4. Objectives.

The following objectives will be addressed to achieve the aim of this research;

To critically appraise renewable energy systems such as solar power, solar hot water heating and

geothermal (ground source heat pump) in new-build residential development.

To determine the influence of renewable energy systems on climate change.

To examine reduction in cost of energy consumption.

To evaluate renewable energy systems in existing and new-build residential development.

1.5. Dissertation Structure, Layout and Chapter Summary.

The research approach selected for this research is qualitative approach, employing case study as the

main source of data collection. The data collected will be critically analysed to draw a recommendation

and conclusion in line with the set out objectives.

The summary of this dissertation is outlined by chapters as follows;

1.5.1. Chapter 1. Introduction.

This chapter provides the background information of the subject area, justification of the research topic, aim and

objectives.

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1.5.2. Chapter 2. Literature Review.

This chapter will focus on literature review of the subject area, discussing and highlighting all aspects of energy,

renewable energy, CO2 emission, control of GHGs and design considerations amongst others. It is intended to give

readers a general understanding of the subject area.

1.5.3. Chapter 3. Research Methodology.

The various types of research methods, their uses, pros and cons are analysed in this chapter. Within this chapter,

the author decides on an appropriate research approach to use, the advantages and disadvantages of the chosen

research approach will be evaluated. The research work is justified and difficulties encountered are discussed.

1.5.4. Chapter 4. Case Study Analysis and Findings.

In this chapter, a concise understanding of the case studies used in relation to each renewable energy system is

explained. The objectives, target audience, method and results of the chosen case studies will be highlighted and

critically analysed.

1.5.5. Chapter 5. Discussion, Conclusion &Recommendations.

This chapter derive a conclusion by using the aim and each objective as a sub-heading to explain how they

have been achieved. Recommendations will be discussed to propose possible suggestions. In addition,

research limitations faced by the author will be explained and areas requiring future research work will

be highlighted.

1.6. Chapter Summary.

The main purpose of this chapter is to provide an extensive over view of the research work. Introducing

the research topic, aim and objectives of the dissertation. Having done this, an intensive literature review

will be carried out in the following chapter to achieve the aim by reviewing several literatures in the

chosen field.

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CHAPTER TWO.

Literature Review.

2.0. Introduction.

This chapter will review several literatures to give a broad background and understanding of energy, energy

systems, climate change, GHGs emission and other issues related to RESs in buildings in general. The literature

review will be focused on the definitions, history, evolution of energy, climate change, energy sources and related

issues. However, the importance of climate change, cost of energy consumption, GHGs emission and RES will be

emphasised. In addition, overall energy consumption/management, design considerations, behaviour change of

occupants are selection criteria for appropriate RESs will also be discussed.

2.1. Background.

Recently, considerable amount of literature has been published on climate change to ensure zero carbon emission

to the environment is obtained and maintained. This led to the clamour by environmentalist, government agencies

and construction professionals that the construction industry should adhere to the climate change emphasis.

Sadineni et al. (2011), points out that due to environmental concerns and rising cost of energy in recent years there

has been massive interest in constructing energy efficient buildings. While Business and Biodiversity (2015), states

that the construction industry amounts for 40% of the total flow of raw materials into the global economy yearly.

Invariably, Envest2 (2015), concur that the environmental impact of the construction industry amounts to 10% of

the UK CO2 emissions arising from production and use of building materials. The industry uses six tonnes of building

materials and accounts for an estimated 122 million tonnes of waste. Explains further, that buildings in the UK

accounts for between 50% - 70% of energy consumption apart from transportation and 50% of carbon emissions.

Moreover, Pacheco et al. (2012), reports that the residential sector of the built environment is responsible for high

energy consumption where majority of the energy used is on artificial ventilation (heating and cooling) of interior

spaces. Consequently, this led to the decision of the author to explore the implementation of RESs into new-build

residential development in other to reduce CO2 emission and making them energy efficient.

In view of this, Sadineni et al. (2011), explains that energy consumption can be reduced significantly by adopting

energy efficiency strategies such as the use of RESs, reviewing building envelope components i.e. walls,

fenestration, thermal insulation, energy efficient roofs etc. and occupants’ behaviour change (which simply means

the behaviour of occupants in terms of how they consume energy, use of appliances etc.). Whereas, Pacheco et

al. (2012), suggested a strategy that reviewing of building design criteria can lead to reduction in energy demand

for heating and cooling residential buildings. The strategy includes the adoption of appropriate parameters for

building such as envelope systems, orientation, passive heating and cooling mechanisms, shape and glazing.

Furthermore, Luna-Rubio et al. (2012), emphasises that population increase, oil depletion and increasing energy

demand influenced the climate change clamour and the introduction of alternative energy sources apart from

hydro power is considered. Erdinc and Uzunoglu (2012), agrees with Luna-Rubio et al. that price increase of

conventional energy sources have encouraged various countries to introduce policies that promotes RESs which

are environmentally friendly. This falls in line with the recent policy by the UK Government that existing residential

buildings should be upgraded in order to improve the overall CO2 emission to the atmosphere and making them

energy efficient. This is mainly because energy demand and consumption is on the increase and it contributes to

environmental pollution. As a result, a legislation was passed by the UK government which introduced the world’s

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first long term legally binding framework to tackle the dangers of climate change. Sustainable Design Unit (SDU)

(2008), explained that a Climate Change Bill was introduced in November 2007 and became law on 26th November

2008. The Committee on Climate Change (CCC) (2008), highlighted that the following provisions in relation to

climate change;

i. To cut GHGs emission by 80% by 2050, 34% by 2020 and a reduction in CO2 emission by at least 26% by

2020 against 1990 baseline.

ii. A carbon budget of capping the amount of GHGs emitted in the UK over a five-year period.

To achieve the provisions above, the Energy Act 2011 was set up paving way for a scheme called the Green Deal.

This was designed to improve energy efficiency and cut CO2 emission in existing residential buildings at no cost to

householders.

2.2. Definitions and Meanings.

It is important to understand the meaning of energy since the main background of this research work deal with

energy. According to Quaschning (2005), the term energy can be defined as the ability of a system to exert a force

in order to create an impact. Energy can be found in different forms such as mechanical, thermal, nuclear, chemical,

magnetic energy to mention a few.

Also apparent is understanding what Renewable Energy (RE) entails, according to DTI (2006), RE is defined as energy

gotten from sources available naturally which are replenished immediately, usually tapped for the benefit of human

existence. The earthly waters (rivers and water falls), sun, wind and earthly vegetation (wood from trees and other

plant material) are forms of RE. Further highlighted that, RE can also be termed as zero carbon energy and

technologies that perform more efficient than the traditional energy sources which emits more CO2 while providing

power, heating and cooling. Apart from the use of RE, DTI (2006), also suggested that Passive applications of RE

can be employed in building designs where glazing is implemented to admit daylight and heat internal spaces or

natural ventilation is enhanced by the use of natural fresh air into interior spaces.

Finally, climate change is defined by the United Nations Framework conversion on climate change (UNFCCC) (1994),

as the climatic alterations caused by human activities either directly or indirectly changing the composition of the

atmosphere.

2.3. Energy Evolution.

A key issue that led to industrial revolution in Europe during the 18th Century are major transformations in the

energy sources resulting from technological advancement (Nakata et al. 2011). Quaschning (2005), explained that

by the end of the 18th Century coal and crude oil were not relevant energy suppliers because windmills, waterfalls

and firewood were used to provide energy in other to meet the demand during that period. James Watt was the

pioneer of industrialisation being the brain behind the steam engine in 1769 and later developed the internal

combustion engine which immediately replaced both water and mechanical wind installations. According to Smil

(2004) and Niele (2005), the introduction of steam engines was influenced by the creation of large scale industries

requiring more energy intensity. As a result, the use of wood became less effective leading to the discovery of coal

as a better energy source that can be mined and supplied as demanded. Due to this change, coal became the most

appropriate source of energy.

Niele (2005), went further to explain that technology advancement in the 19 th Century led to the development of

the oil industry where oil was used to produce kerosene for lighting, proofing to be better form of energy compared

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to coal. The development of the of internal combustion engines brought about the use of oil for vehicles during the

20th Century as explained by Marcotullio and Schulz (2007), in conjunction with the large scale electrification

demand from household, industries etc. leading to the provision of improved quality of life particularly in developed

countries. Conversely, in the beginning of this period crude oil took over the role of coal because energy demand

increased due to increase in motorised engines and growing population. During these time also, large hydro-electric

power stations were constructed to replace the watermills and the use of firewood for energy supply lost its

importance. Shortly after the Second World War, natural gas and nuclear power were introduced to the

convectional energy sources but natural gas was preferred which lead to its fast growth. Nuclear power for

electricity was of low demand then compared to natural gas and remained relatively low today as illustrated by

World Nuclear Organisation (2016).

According to Nakata et al. (2011), the instability of oil supply in the 1970’s triggered the awareness for energy

security. This led to the search for alternative energy sources and it received strong support from government

agencies, environmentalist and all parties involved in energy generation. Consequently, it brought about further

research and development of renewable technologies such as Photovoltaic (PV) systems and nuclear power these

new renewable technologies were financed by world leading governments across the globe. Shortly after this

awareness, the environmental impacts of energy use were viewed across developed nations in 1980s to be a

delicate obstacle to the built environment and nature. It has been reported by Skea and Nishioka (2008), that GHGs

recognition is a major factor that contributed to the clamour for climate change. Emphasising that energy is a

fundamental facilitator of sustainable development because of the important role it occupies in developed and

developing countries. As a result, it is important to make decisions relating to the consumption of energy by

considering the effects it has on the environment, economic and society; by having a society with less CO2 emission.

Yoda (1995), agrees with Skea and Nishioka by making it clear also that, low carbon society can be achieved when

sustainable developments are constructed to depend on energy systems with low carbon content and CO2 emission.

In today’s world, the use of fossil fuel such as crude oil, coal and natural gas provided more than 85% of world

energy demand as illustrated in figure 1 which shows that oil, natural gas, coal, nuclear and hydro power are energy

sources in high demand globally.

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The intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (2000) are of the opinion that, energy demand will increase

globally in the nearest furfure where the majority of the increase will be from developing countries rather than in

developed countries. Emphasising that, the growing world population is eminent in few decades to come. However,

it is predicted that energy demand will increase tremendously by 2050, it will contribute more to the energy

demand and problems faced today such as the depletion of fossil energy sources and GHGs effects.

2.4. Climate Change.

In recent years’ climate change has been a topic of discussion where several debates as occurred to determine if

climate change is real or not. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), National Oceanic and

Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and the United State Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), agrees that

climate change is real and occurring. Climate change is described by National Research Council (NRC) (2010), as a

statistical distribution changes to weather patterns that last for a prolonged time for example several years or

decades. Usually referred to as a change in average weather condition and these changes are caused by several

factors which includes human activities such as deforestation/agriculture, solar radiation, volcanic eruptions etc.

According to the Department of Energy & Climate Change (2016), climate change is the same as global warming

which is a rise in the earth’s average surface temperature. Illustrating that climate change is due to the use of fossil

fuels that releases CO2 and other GHGs into the air which later traps heat within the atmosphere. This development

has an effect on the ecosystem, severe weather events, sea level rising and severe droughts. Highlighted that

increase in earth’s temperature, severe wildfires and rising sea levels are some of the effects of climate change.

IPCC in 2001 highlighted that several undisputed factors illustrates that climate change is indeed occurring due to

an increase in greenhouse effect;

i. Since temperature measurement began in 1861, the 1998 was the warmest recorded worldwide.

ii. The global mean sea level rose by 0.1 – 0.2 metre during the 20th Century

iii. The warmest decade recorded were the 1990s.

iv. Since the late 1960s, the extent of ice cap and snow cover decreased by about 10%.

v. Rainfall increased during the 20th century by 0.5 – 1% per climate change, renewable energy and decade

energy.

vi. The intensity and frequency of droughts in Asia and Africa increased in recent decades.

vii. There was an increase in heavy rainfall events in mid and northern latitudes.

viii. Non-polar glaciers are undergoing widespread retreat.

2.4.1. Climate Change Control.

According to IPCC (2000), controlling of climate change is achievable if tremendous effects are established and

adhered too. It is expected that by 2100, GHGs emission levels must be reduced significantly as against the level in

1990. Made it clear that, if the following approaches are maintained the reduction of GHGs emission is achievable;

i. By decreasing global CO2 emissions by 70%

ii. By reducing global N2O and CH4 emissions by 50% and 5% respectively

iii. By banning the use of all Chlorofluorocarbon gases (CFCs) and halons

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The foreseeable climate change reduction target by 2050 is that developed countries would have to achieve greater

GHGs emission reduction for an effective protection against climate change compared to developing countries who

are lagging behind. They should achieve at least;

i. 25% reduction of CO2 emissions by 2005 compared with 1990

ii. 50% reduction of CO2 emissions by 2020 compared with 1990

iii. 80% reduction of CO2 emissions by 2050 compared with 1990

iv. 90% reduction of CO2 emissions by 2100 compared with 1990.

In other to conform with the climate change clamour, the following should be considered;

2.4.2. Greenhouse Effect.

The increase in CO2 and other radiative gases is a growing public health concern worldwide since the industrial revolution.

This increase, Mitchell (1989), suggests is largely caused by human activities arising from increases the heat in the

troposphere and earth surface. Thus, the earth’s atmosphere is exposed and not totally protected. This led to

Quaschning (2016) to explain that, without the earth’s atmosphere under protection the global mean ambient

temperature would be very low to about -180 C because the gases in the atmosphere absorb some of the incoming

solar radiation which is described as the greenhouse effect as illustrated in Figure 2.

Figure 2 explains the consequences of greenhouse effect on making life existence possible on earth. It illustrates

that without the greenhouse created naturally, the earth will emit virtually all its heat radiation to the outer space.

Also made mention that, induced human activities and energy consumption are factors that influence

anthropogenic GHGs emitted into the atmosphere. Theses anthropogenic gases are CO2, methane (CH4),

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), Nitrous Oxide (N2O) and stratospheric Water Vapour (H2O). IPCC (2001) in Quaschning

(2005), showcased the characteristics of GHGs and CO2 has the most effect on the atmosphere as elaborated in

table 1.

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2.4.3. Green Deal.

The UK government introduced the Green Deal into the scene based on the clamour on climate change and the

reduction in carbon emission within the built environment. This policy has currently been abandoned by the UK

government but the main purpose of the scheme was to increase energy efficiency within domestic building leading

to CO2 emission reduction. According to Trada Technology (2011), the Climate Change Act set out in 2008 entails

the UK government to reduce GHGs based on the baseline set in 1990 by at least 34% before 2020 and by 80% by

2050. The UK government quickly took action in the building sector, which is suggested to be among the most

inefficient in the world today in terms of GHGs emission. The statistics provided by Gov.uk (2013), shows that UK

Buildings accounts for between 50% - 70% of energy consumption apart from transportation and 50% of carbon

emission. Figure 3 shows that housing sector consumes greatest.

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In view of this, the Energy Act 2011 put in place a legislation that introduced the Green Deal and the Energy

Company Obligation (ECO). The basic objectives for both initiatives were purely to increase energy efficiency so as

to trigger a reduction in carbon emission, reduce the dependence on fossil fuel energy sources and ultimately help

vulnerable or low income households in the reduction of energy costs escaping fuel poverty. Also create an open

market for business and investment which will drive economic growth.

The Department of Energy and Climate Change (DECC), (2011), explains the subdivision of the energy Act and how

they are implemented into;

i. Green Deal: This is structured in a framework financed by the UK government to assist domestic and non-

domestic building properties improve energy efficiency. This approach is purely for property owners; they

are not forced to make any payment upfront because the scheme is funded by a charge on the energy bills

the property generates after a period of time usually twenty-five years. However, the debt stays with the

property whenever the owner sells and relocates to another property because there is a provision set by

the framework that protects the person that signs up for the scheme and the subsequent owner. The

private rented sector is not left out in the scheme, it allows for tenants living in rented properties to sign

up for the scheme from April 2016 even if the Land Lord disagree. The energy Act also states that by 2018,

all rented properties must reach the minimum energy efficiency standard or requirement otherwise

unlawful if not complied with.

ii. Energy Company Obligation (ECO): This scheme was created by the UK Secretary of State to replace the Gas

Act 1986, Electricity Act of 1989 and Utilities Act 2000. It focussed on the reduction of carbon emission.

This is mainly for vulnerable and low income households requiring support.

2.4.4. Energy Performance Certificate (EPC).

The energy performance certificate was introduced by the UK government in conjunction with European Union (EU)

directive to ensure that both domestic and non-domestic buildings are efficient in energy use. This is a scheme

fashioned to help in the overall reduction of CO2 emission into the atmosphere. The Department for Communities

and Local Government DCLG (2014) explains that, the scheme was designed for building owners to produce an EPC

of their buildings to prospective buyers and tenants. This helps to show accurate information about the use and

performance of energy within the building, it also shows practical advice on ways to improve the performance if

below the set standards. In terms of running costs, it provides energy efficiency rating for buildings based on the

performance potential of the building’s fabric and services such as heating, insulation ventilation and fuels usage.

Energy Saving Trust (2016), clarifies that, EPC tells how efficient a building is in terms of energy and give it a rating

from A (very efficient) to G (inefficient), this is shown in figure 4. It allows the building occupants to know how

costly heating and lighting will cost and the amount of CO2 it will emit.

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The UK government set out guidance assessment procedure for the implementation of attaining EPC. According to

Gov.uk (2013), the certificate also includes recommendations on methods to improve energy efficiency in other to

save money. Accredited Inspectors (Domestic energy assessors or Home Inspectors) are assigned to inspect the

building in other to regulate the laid down standards and the accuracy of their recommendation depends solely on

the standard of inspection carried out by the inspectors. They also mentioned that the EU directive requires a cost

effective recommendation in improving the energy efficiency for homes.

The author identified some limitations of the EPC rating in the area of focusing mainly on existing domestic

buildings, the lack of accredited assessors, the length of time for financial payback and the fact that the debt

remains with the property that signs up for the scheme.

2.5. Energy Sources.

According to Demirbas (2005), primary energy sources can be categorised into three; fossil fuel, nuclear power and

RE. The global energy demand by fuel from 1980 to 2006 is illustrated in table 2 as presented by the IEA (2008).

In 2015 IEA came up with an advanced world energy statistic which encompasses annual studies of all forms of

energy sources. To further buttress the statistics shown in table 2, figure 5a highlights the total global primary

energy supply by fuel while figure 5b shows the fuel share of energy supply from 1971 to 2013. It is seen that coal,

crude oil and natural gas are the most use respectively.

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2.5.1. Fossil fuel.

The agency makes it clear that today’s energy supply is based largely on fossil fuels. Pointed out that in 2006, fossil

fuel alone amounted for about 81% of the world primary energy consumption. Crude oil comes up with the highest

share of about 34% of total fossil fuel compared with coal of 26% and gas of 21%. From statistics, coal is increasing

in world demand by an average of 2% per year and expected to increase by 29% by 2030. The main reason behind

the increasing demand for coal is the use of power plants in developing countries such as India and China.

Conversely, the demand for gas is expected to grow whereas crude oil demand may decrease in the nearest future

due to the Middle East crisis and drop in consumer prices. Figure 6a shows the world primary energy supply by

region and fig 6b showcases the regional share of fuel supply.

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IEA (2015), produced an intensive data of the main fossil fuel sources crude oil, natural gas, nuclear power and coal

production by global and regional share between 1973 and 2014 are seen in figure 7,8,9 and 10 respectively.

25

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From the data of fossil fuel sources seen above, it is noted that the use of fossil fuel in the past decades till date has

been enormous and continued to be used by developed and developing countries. Crude oil production especially

did not have any significant change compared to natural gas production that decreased in the OECD region from

71.5% in 1973 to 36% in 2014 and increased in other regions slightly by 2014. The production of nuclear power

decreased in OECD region from 92.8% in 1973 to 79.1% by 2013 and increased in non-OECD region from 5.9% to

11.5% by 2013. Whereas, in Asia, China and other regions the production of nuclear power began and by 2014 their

production was 3.3%, 4.5% and 1.6% respectively. In 1973, coal production was 55.6% and 24.5% in OECD and non-

OECD region respectively and by 2014 there was a decrease in its production to 25.4% and 7.8%. in other regions,

the production of coal increased significantly especially in China where it increased from 13.6% in 1973 to 46% by

2014. Overall the electricity generation by fossil fuel from 1973 to 2013 is illustrated in figure 10a. It shows that

fossil fuel is still in high use for energy generation, because there is an increase in all the types of fossil fuel till date.

The agency pointed out that fossil contributes to high quantity of CO2 emission into the atmosphere especially crude

oil, natural gas and coal production. Figure 10b shows that natural gas and coal production contributes continuously

to CO2 emission increasing from 14.4% - 19.8% and 35.9% - 46% by 2013 respectively.

2.5.1.1. Fossil Fuel Reservation.

Quaschning (2005), is of the opinion that due to the natural formation of fossil fuel needing several years to form,

there must be a system regulating the exploitation of it in other to preserve it. Although since fossil fuel reserves

are continually exploited there is the tendency that future extraction will become difficult, risky and challenging

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which will make if very expensive in the nearest future. In agreement, British Petroleum BP (2003), explains further

that, if the use of fossil fuel continues unmonitored all natural gas and petroleum reserves will be exploited within

the 21st century. This is because the exact amount of existing reserves is unknown and the size of deposits already

explored are known. Future reserves are only estimated and not certain. Moreover, if more reserves are discovered,

the fact remains that fossil fuel reserves are limited and its availability can only be prolonged for some years.

2.5.2. Nuclear Power/Energy.

IEA (2008), describes Nuclear energy as energy derived from radioactive materials, usually used to generate

electricity in nuclear power plants. In recent times the use of nuclear energy is on the increase in developing

countries (India, japan and China) and on the decrease on the other hand in world’s primary energy demand. Factors

that contributed to the slow growth and development of nuclear energy supply is purely based on the issue of safely

disposing the waste generated during the production of nuclear energy. Another contributing factor is EU

government policies to phase it out where Sweden and Germany are the forerunners. IEA statistic shows that

nuclear energy production contributed to about 6% of global energy consumption in 2006. Figure 9 shows Nuclear

energy production from 1971 to 2013. Nuclear energy production does not generate air pollutants such as CO2 or

GHGs, and can be described as a low-carbon technology.

According to world nuclear organisation (2016), the UK has 15 reactors generating about 21% of UKs electricity but

about half will be retired by 2025. Due to this development, the use of RE will be encouraged for energy generation

to replace the vacuum that would be created when nuclear reactors are retired.

2.5.3. Renewable Energy Resources.

In contrast to fossil fuel and nuclear energy, RE is derived from replenishable natural resources that does not allow

energy generated from them adding to climate change because they do not emit GHGs. It is suggested by IEA (2008),

that most renewable energy sources are derived from solar radiation either directly (for generating electricity or

heating) or indirectly (energy got from wind power, water, wood waste and plants). Geothermal is another form of

renewable energy. It is known that massive quantities of renewable energy sources exist however, some of them

are isolated in the sense that they cannot be continuously tapped. IEA study shows that 13% of world’s primary

energy demand comes from renewable energy supply where 18% goes to total electricity generation. Table 3 gives

a detailed sources of renewable energy and how they are applied. It explains the energy sources, how they are

converted to energy, usage options and their environmental considerations in terms of CO2 and GHGs emission.

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Emphasis is laid on the various types of renewable energy sources and the major ones include;

2.5.3.1. Solar energy technology.

Quaschning (2005), explains that solar energy is energy sourced from the sun (day light) and the sun is the largest

energy resource known today. Highlighted that, annually, 3.9•1024 J = 1.08•1018 kWh of solar energy reaches the

surface of the earth. It is ten thousand times more than global primary energy demand annually and available more

compared with other energy reserves on earth. Further identified two categories of solar energy direct and indirect.

Direct solar energy is used by technical systems converting solar radiation into useful energy e.g. heat and electricity

whereas, indirect forms of solar energy are river water, plant growth and wind.

Technologies that utilize direct solar energy include;

i. Photovoltaics, solar cells for electricity generation.

ii. Solar collectors for water heating.

iii. Passive solar heating systems.

iv. Solar thermal power plants.

v. Photolysis systems for fuel production.

Technologies that utilize indirect solar energy include;

i. Wind.

ii. Heating of Earth’s surface and the atmosphere.

iii. Evaporation, precipitation, water flow.

iv. Ocean currents.

v. Biomass production.

vi. Melting of snow.

vii. Wave movements.

According to Nakata et al. (2011), solar energy is converted to useful energy by two different technologies solar

energy and solar thermal technologies.

Solar energy technology: This is known as photovoltaic (PV), which is the generation

of electricity from direct natural light such as sunlight. Apart from direct sunlight, PV can also operate during cloudy

period and winter. However, the energy output will be reduced significantly. The process of generating energy

through this means is carried out by the use of materials that are semiconductor (silicon is a widely used material

in PV cell), they are modified to emit charged particles creating the source of electricity required. The attributes of

solar energy technology are clean in operation, highly reliable, durable, silent and do not require fuel to operate.

Other advantages include; does not emit CO2 and does not require water for cooling compared to coal, gas and

nuclear power stations. The disadvantage of PV systems is the high cost of materials and installation. Dunlop and

Halton (2005), pointed out that the lifecycle performance of PV depends on outdoor condition, ageing of material

and last between 20 to 22 years. Due to their modular nature they can adapt to a lot of locations such as installing

them on roof tops, cladding materials, windows etc. (see figure 11a).

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Basic principles behind solar energy according to Jenkins (2013), is a collection of PV cells usually made of silicon

which are mounted together in panel or module form seen in figure 11b. The panel or module are connected

together to produce the quantity of power needed.

PV cells produce direct current, the electricity are stored and delivered by batteries. PV systems are improved by

the use of an inverter that converts direct current into alternative current. A typical PV system is connected to

national grid in other to pass on unused electricity produced this is shown in figure 11c.

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European Renewable Energy Council (EREC) (2004), are of the opinion that, PV can replace the use of fossil fuel

with enormous environmental benefits based on its annual growth because it has great potential for electricity

production. Nevertheless, the high cost of PV material, unstable sunlight and low energy conversion efficiency of

PV makes it essential to introduce storage systems that can store the electricity generated. Quaschning (2001) in

Quaschning (2005), suggest that combining PV systems with other RESs is desirable because it will allow the entire

electricity demand to be CO2 emission free and storage capacities will be avoided. Stressed that, buildings should

be designed with passive solar technologies in mind because they help absorb solar energy into buildings, for

instance the use of solar heat gain and air circulation without fans or pumps within the building. In achieving passive

use of solar energy, buildings should be oriented in such a way that glass facades are utilizes solar heat gain.

Solar-thermal technology: This technology purely involves the collection and direct use of solar radiation

for the production of high-temperature heat and electricity. Also for low-temperature heat for room heating or

domestic water heating. It is currently used mainly for domestic water and swimming pool heating and rarely used

for room heating systems. Solar collectors are used to heat water at low temperatures and used in thermal engines

for electricity generation where complex collectors are employed to produce steam that drive steam turbines for

electricity generation. Figure 12. explains the process of solar thermal technology where the energy generated from

the sun is used to heat domestic water effectively and at time used for space heating through the use of room

radiators or underfloor heating. The latter is not commonly used because the system cannot generate enough

energy that can heat interior spaces continuously compared to geothermal technology (GSHP).

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2.5.3.2. Hydropower energy technology.

Renewable energy policy network for the 21st Century (Ren21) (2007), explains that, hydropower has been the

principal source of electric power generation in several countries through the process of capturing the energy

contained in water flow of streams and rivers by turbines and transformed into electricity. This method has been

adopted for over 80 years and technological development focussed on large-scale hydropower systems used by

developed countries. However, small hydropower (SHP) systems are used as alternatives to energy source for

electricity generation compared to large-scale hydropower by developing countries. This are usually installed in

small streams and rivers with few or no noticeable environmental effects. The process of SHP takes advantage of

the kinetic energy of falling water, where the rushing water initiates a turbine that inverts water motion and

pressure into mechanical energy for electricity generation. A typical hydro power technology is shown in figure 13

where energy generated is transmitted into power line that transports electricity where needed.

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Apart from the advantageous use of SHP systems, they create negative impact on wildlife and fish during

construction. Another disadvantage is the effect of weather, drought and seasonal water stream variations that

causes shortage of constant electricity generation in some regions. Based on the highlighted disadvantages, storage

plants with adequate capacity are introduced to reuse/recycle the water for continuous electricity generation. IEA

(2015) explains that, there is a decline in hydropower production since 1973 in some regions globally i.e. the

production of hydropower in OECD and non-OECD region decreased from 71.8% to 38% and 11.6% to 8.3% by 2013

respectively. Where the production increased in other regions since 1973 to 2013 as seen in figure 14.

2.5.3.3. Wind energy technology.

IEA (2009), explains that wind energy has been used to pump water and power windmills for centuries, highlighting

that more than 58,000 wind turbines are in existence in the world for electricity generation. Usually the system

includes a rotor with blades, control and transmission system with an electrical generator. The generator is an

important feature of wind turbines. There are three types of generators; induction, synchronous and direct current

generators. Both induction and synchronous generators are commonly used because they are less expensive,

available in different sizes, easily connected or disconnected from the grid and easy to construct while the direct

current generators are used in small turbines. The process of generating electricity occurs when wind forces turns

the blade of wind turbine that has a generator. The electricity generated are transported from the generator to

where needed and surplus electricity is transferred to the grid as seen in figure 15.

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Wind turbines are environment friendly because they do not emit CO2 or require water supply. Jenkins (2013),

explains there are two types of wind turbines; the horizontal/vertical axis and upwind/downwind horizontal axis

wind turbines shown in figure 16.

Each has its specific advantages and disadvantages, although neither type is likely to produce more power or last

longer. Horizontal axis turbines usually utilise three, but sometimes just two, rotor blades.

2.5.3.4. Geothermal energy technologies.

According to Renewable energy policy network for the 21st Century (REN21), Geothermal energy sources produces

energy in the form of electricity and direct heating and cooling, estimated to about 528 PJ (147 Twh.) in 2014. In

concur, Lee et al. (2007), suggest that geothermal energy technology is surplus in natural source of heat after solar

energy and continuously available. The technology utilises the elevated temperatures of the earth’s crust and

comprises of three technologies used for energy production; electric power plants, direct-use applications and

geothermal heat pumps. The electric power plants are mostly used in four categories; single flash team, double

flash, dry steam and binary cycle power plants. Emphasised that geothermal energy technology is the cleanest and

most reliable source of energy with very minimal environmental impacts compared with other RESs. Invariable, due

to the high cost of installation, transferring energy generated from far distances and insufficient suitable location

for power plants contributes to its disadvantages.

Ren21 pointed out that, the countries utilising geothermal energy sources are China, Turkey, Japan, Iceland, India,

Hungary, Italy and United states of America. They use geothermal directly for direct heating and cooling. Figure 17

shows the percentage global capacity of geothermal energy source.

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2.5.3.5. Biomass energy technologies.

According to Nakata et al. (2011), biomass is the most common renewable energy resource based on having a

biological origin. Referred to as solar energy stored in chemical form in animal materials and plants. Biomass is

regarded as the most versatile and valuable resources the earth harbours. Biomass is available in two forms;

i. Woody biomass: This is derived from forest plantations grown specifically for energy

generation purposes, residual from natural forestry production and collected green waste from built up

environment.

ii. Non-woody biomass: This is from energy crops (corn, wheat sugar cane etc.), animal and human derived

wastes (sewage) and agriculture crop residues (rice husks).

IEA (2008), pointed out that in 2006, biomass accounted for 10% of total energy consumption and figure 18 shows

biomass contribution by type to global energy demand.

Biomass is converted to useful energy in different ways; by transforming to solid or liquid fuel, burning to produce

electricity or heat and by changing into gas like hydrogen, CO2 and methane. The conversion methods of biomass

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are divided into four groups; thermal, biological, chemical and non-thermal conversion. Figure 18a illustrates the

resources of biomass for energy production, conversion methods, energy carriers and demand.

Ren 21 statistic in figure 19 shows that, the use of biomass technology is on the increase globally for heating and

electricity generation. All forms of its technology (solid biomass, traditional and modern bioenergy, fuelwood,

animal waste, bagasse ad black liquor) are utilised tremendously. The main disadvantage of using biomass is its

impact on deforestation and carbon recycling of soils.

Other forms of renewable energy sources apart from the major ones include;

2.5.3.6. Clean coal technology.

Other form of renewable energy sources used for energy generation is the Clean coal technologies (CCTs). IEA

(2008), describes this technology as new innovation that reduces air emission and other air pollutants from power

plants using coal burning. They usually achieve lower CO2 emission and higher conversion efficiencies per energy

output when compared to the conventional cola plants. Also stressed that CCTs can achieve 40% efficiencies and

0.8t-CO2/MWh emission.

2.5.3.7. Waste-to-energy technology.

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US-EIA in Nakata et al. (2011), explains that waste-to-energy (WTE) technologies has being in existence between

the 1960s and 1970s. It is made clear that, WTE technologies are used in various forms by different countries and

observed that there are over 600 WTE facilities worldwide. They produce energy from waste-derived fuels and

waste in general, where the waste-derived fuels are separated into two groups; thermal technologies (such as

gasification and incineration) and non-thermal technologies (anaerobic). Most of WTE technologies are located in

the Japan, United States of America and the EU.

2.6. Other Low Carbon Technologies.

DTI (2006), is of the opinion that there are some technologies which are not referred to as ‘renewable’, but have

significant CO2 emissions compared to the conventional sources of energy. They include;

i. Combined heat and power (CHP): This system uses and recovers heat from the process of local power

generation compared to most conventional power stations.

ii. Heat pumps: The system which transfers heat from sources such as the ground, air or water and

transports the heat within a distribution circuit at a useful and higher temperature.

iii. Ground water cooling: They are used to provide cooling system with considerable reduced energy

requirement as against other types of chillers.

iv. District heating and cooling: This system is used to achieve improved efficiency in large scale centralised

cooling and heating plants.

v. Absorption cooling: The system uses fuel by-products such as animal waste or landfill gas and waste heat

to provide cooling. They emit low CO2 when compared to other cooling equipment.

DTI also stressed that, different buildings types require different low carbon energy sources; an example is using

heat pumps in buildings that are continuously occupied, buildings using cooling and heating equipment all year-

round and the use of solar water heater in buildings with high demand for hot water.

2.7. Designing Energy Systems.

There are various forms of energy systems used in the provision of energy since the industrial revolution. The

methods used in converting these energy sources into technologies that change them into consumable energy to

the end user also varies. This led Nakata (2004), to categorise energy systems into three components which include;

primary energy sources, conversion technologies and supply of primary energy to end users and the demand

sectors. Meier (1984), is of the opinion that these components can be further subdivided into a more sequential

flow such as mining (primary energy source), transportation, distribution and end user. IEA (2008), explains that

conversion technologies of energy sources into energy systems are essential, because they transform energy

sources into energy forms for consumer’s appropriate use. The combustion of fossil fuels is used for the conversion

of energy sources into energy systems and this contributes largely to the emission of GHGs mainly CO2. Whereas,

conversion technologies used for energy production derived from renewable energy sources do not emit GHGs. In

designing energy systems, specific targets and the demand by society are considered. The interactions between the

system, end user demand, society at larger (comprising of the environment, economy and energy) and feedback

are illustrated in figure 20. Energy systems are designed purely to determine how resources and technologies are

combined to meet target audience under strict constraints.

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2.8. Selection of Renewable Energy Systems.

It is made clear by DTI (2006), that the selection of low carbon technologies requires making important decisions

based on ranges of factors as highlighted below;

i. Promotional value: This involves the sustainable features of buildings and their impacts on the

environment demonstrating the corporate social responsibility (CSR) of owners to improve air tightness of

buildings and achieve low energy demand.

ii. Cost effectiveness: This is an important consideration in the selection of low carbon technologies but it

varies depending on building location and type. Department for the Environment, Food and Rural Affairs

(DEFRA) (2002), suggest different initiatives are in place to aid the implementation of these low carbon

technologies for example through finance groups, grant schemes or schemes relating to low carbon sources

that allows electricity generated from renewable sources leading to carbon savings.

iii. Attitude to risks: Risk is involved in the selection of low carbon technologies although the risk is low level

because the technologies are well established and proven to perform effectively. However, some of the

technologies are bespoke in nature which may have an impact on construction imposing the risk because

they have been designed with the building during the planned stage. While most can be added to existing

building quite simply.

iv. Carbon saving potential: Energy sources with low carbon technologies are contributing factors to the drive

of reducing energy demand and attributed to achieving CO2 emission in buildings. To attain this, some

statutory obligation must be adhered too. However, most developers and planning authorities at times set

high targets compared to the minimum requirement.

2.9. Energy Demand.

Generally, the demand for energy is on the increase particularly in developing countries however, the developed

countries are not left out based on the various sectors within the economy in high demand for its use. IEA (2008),

pin points that energy users demand its use in different sectors within any society and they divided the sectors into

four main categories; residential, industrial, commercial and transportation sectors. Interestingly, agriculture sector

is usually merged with residential or industrial in most economy. The statistic IEA published in 2006 shows that,

transportation and industrial sectors have the largest share in energy consumption of global energy consumption

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amounting to 28% and 27% respectively. In contrast, IEA (2008), in another report named “CO2 emissions from fuel

combustion” suggests that, adding to the sectors named earlier, heat and electricity production activities are

considered a standalone sector called the energy sector. Emissions related to energy comes mainly from this

standalone classification amounting to 41% of total emission, higher than both transportation and industrial. From

the data produced by IEA (2015), in figure 21a, it is seen that the global demand for energy per energy source has

continued to be requested for from 1973 to 2013.

It also shows the global demand of coal, oil and natural gas by sector in figures 21b, c and d respectively from the

same period.

Figure 21b and 21d illustrates that, the demand for coal and natural gas by the industrial sector is extremely high

compared to transport and other sectors. This is due to the continuous development of developed countries and

the demand also by developing countries such as China.

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On the other hand, oil is demanded more in the transport sector compared to industrial, other sectors and non-

energy sectors from figure 21c.

2.10. Energy Management.

The management of energy exploitation and use is essential in today’s world in order to minimise CO2 and improve

climate change. Appropriate measures focused on improving energy efficiency so as to reduce the overall total

energy consumption are been implemented in various sectors. IPCC (2007), clarifies that the industrial sector can

reduce considerable emission by using more electrical equipment with energy efficiency, implementing the CHP

systems, material recycling and other advanced technologies specifically manufactured for emission reduction.

Furthermore, the appropriate operation and maintenance of machineries, fixing air compressors leakages on time

and reducing the number of systems dependant on electric motor. Emission can be further reduced in the

transportation sector if more efficient vehicles (electric and hybrid) are manufactured, using ethanol and biodiesel

as alternative fuel options and adhering to set emission standards. Presently, the transportation sector in developed

countries introduced the use of compressed and liquefied natural gases as a means for fuelling private vehicles.

Lastly, emission reduction in both residential and commercial sector comprises of adopting the use of heating,

cooling devises and electrical appliances that are energy efficient. Further points out that, over 50 countries are

applying labelling and standards to appliances. However, the outcome of the strategy solely depends on consumer

behaviour. Major influencing factor in reducing emission is designing efficient buildings by taking advantage of

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thermal mass/insulation, combined natural ventilation with efficient air conditioning systems and natural

daylighting. This EU strengthened the measure by launching a directive for buildings energy performance, focused

on implementing energy efficiency standards in buildings by assessing and providing energy performance

certificates to buildings that comply. It is estimated that, CO2 emission can be reduced to between 25 – 45 million

tons by 2010 if the EU directive is adhered too.

Other methods considered for energy management include;

2.10.1. Pre-design considerations:

To achieve low CO2 emission and energy efficient buildings, it is suggested by several authors that, pre-design

consideration should be sought in the following areas;

In designing new buildings several initial considerations have tremendous impact on energy use and the practical

options for low carbon energy sources. Decisions made prior to designing, such as initial planning and site selection

can improve the choice of renewable energy technologies. In other to achieve this, the following key principles

should be adhered to;

i. Buildings should be orientated within 30° of south to make use of solar energy, provided summertime

cooling is not created during the process.

ii. Spaces that require higher temperatures should be located on the south side of the building glazing,

provided summertime cooling is not created when this is done.

iii. Shadings should be provided for buildings to control overheating and should be avoided if heat gains are

envisaged.

iv. Pitched roofs should face south.

v. The use of plants for the provision of summer shading should be employed and it allows for light and shelter

during the winter period.

vi. Exposing building thermal mass.

vii. Increasing south-facing glazing proportion.

2.10.2. Low energy building design.

Low energy building designs are essential in today’s world due to the clamour on climate change, low CO2 emission

and cost of energy consumption. Since energy is used to create thermal comfort within buildings, it is important to

know the services that meet this need such as;

i. Electrical equipment

ii. Air conditioning

iii. Hot water heating

iv. Room heating

v. Electrical services

vi. Lighting

Based on knowing these services, energy saving opportunities, CO2 emission reduction and RESs should be

considered and implemented in new build buildings to achieve effective energy performance and efficiency of

buildings.

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Low energy building should also incorporate a combination of energy efficient technologies such as high efficiency

boilers and heat recovery systems, automatic controls, passive design features like natural ventilation, daylighting

and solar heating coupled with high insulation in buildings. Moreover, the key drivers of energy efficiency are low

running cost and features of low energy buildings like openable windows are preferred by building occupants.

2.10.3. Building regulation.

Due to increase awareness of climate change, several government around the world as derived a directive in other

to control GHGs emission and achieving energy efficiency in buildings. This made the EU to come up with a directive

on Energy Performance of Buildings Development (EPBD) which requires all new buildings greater than 1000 square

meter to consider alternative energy supply systems instead of using the convectional energy sources. The directive

also requires issuing EPC certificates for buildings by adopting a methodology with positive influences of electricity

produced by CHP, electricity and heating systems based on RE and district cooling and heating system, Nakata et

al. (2011) because energy is in high demand in all types of buildings. In the UK, the government came up with the

green deal initiative which is aimed at improving existing buildings to meet set standards in relation to EPC rating

and GHGs emission.

2.10.4. Behaviour change.

Behaviour change can be described as the change in attitude of occupants, in the sense that the manner in which

they use appliances in order to save energy and ultimately managing the building in a sustainable way. To achieve

this the following guidance amongst several should be adhered to by occupants;

i. Changing light bulbs energy efficient ones such as LED bulbs.

ii. Boiler should be controlled at all times by the use of thermostat and heating interior spaces only when

building is occupied.

iii. Changing appliances such as washing machines, freezer, driers and fridges to energy efficient ones.

iv. Water closets should be changed to efficient ones and the use of showers should be encouraged.

v. Reducing washing load in washing machines.

vi. Boiling required water for tea in kettles.

Once the occupants adhere to the stated guidance there will be a further reduction in the energy consumption,

which in turn reduces energy demand. The savings derived from behavioural change may be minimal on monthly

bases but definitely contributes to the overall savings and CO2 emission reduction to the atmosphere.

2.11. Chapter summary.

This chapter discussed various literature reviews focusing on energy sources, renewable energy sources, climate

change and its impact on the built environment. In addition, energy consumption, selection criteria of RESs, design

considerations and behaviour change of occupants were looked at. The relevance of the literature review to this

research aim is mainly to give a broad knowledge of why RESs should be incorporated into new-build residential

development. It is also relevant to the objectives, of critically appraising the selected RESs of this research,

determining the influence of RESs on climate change, examining reduction in cost of energy consumption and

evaluating the cost benefit of implementing RESs into new-build residential development.

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CHAPTER THREE.

Research Methods.

3.0. Introduction.

This chapter will focus on the research approach and methods used to achieve the aim and objectives of this research. The aim is to incorporate RESs into new-build residential development, while the objectives include; critically appraising RESs such as solar power, solar hot water heating with geothermal heat pump in new-build residential development, determining the influence of RESs on climate change, examining the reduction in cost of energy consumption and evaluating the cost benefit of implementing RESs into new-build residential development.

3.1. Research Design Theories.

In order to have a successful research work, it is important to understand research approaches and methods. For

this purpose, the various types of research approaches and methods will be discussed briefly. However, emphasis

will be laid on the authors chosen research approach and method in detail. Secondary data collection is employed

based on using case study as a research method. This falls in line with Crotty (1998), explanation that the method

chosen for data collection will be influenced by the research methodology chosen, the theoretical perspective

adopted and by the researcher’s epistemology as shown in figure 22 below.

It is important to have a background knowledge of research design theory and how they are applied. Several studies

revealed that, there is no direct approach to a successful research work. Gray (2009), pointed out that there are

two types of theoretical approaches to research; the inductive reasoning, (a process of analysing data collected to

ascertain any pattern occurring to suggest any connection between variables), and deductive reasoning (is the

process of focusing on hypothesis, once an opinion is established). On the other hand, Dewey (1933), categorised

theoretical approach as scientific approach because it involves inductive discovery (inductive) and deductive proof

(deduction). He further explained that deduction evolves as a universal view of a particular situation working

backwards to the particulars. While induction is the opposite, working from incomplete particulars to a connected

view of identified situation. Moreover, Gill and Johnson (2010), illustrated the process of deductive and inductive

approach further in figure 23.

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It is significant to know that both inductive and deductive can be combined in research work as stated by Dewey

(1933). For this reason, Gary illustrated how both can be combine in figure 24.

Gray is of the opinion that, the choice of research methodology is determined by different factors such as; the

researcher believing there are some sort of truth that needs discovering pertaining to a subject area or whether

the research task is to explore people’s views in a field setting. This is influenced by whether the research is inclined

towards as either interpretivist, positivist or other perspectives as shown in figure 22 under theoretical perspective.

Research methodology is finally influenced by the way the researcher thinks theory should be used as either

deductive or inductive.

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3.2. Research Approach.

Naoum (2007), describes research approach as the process of questioning research objectives and identified two

types; Quantitative and Qualitative Research as shown in figure 25. highlighting that, the choice of Research

approach adopted usually depends on the availability of information required and purpose of topic area.

In contrast, Silverman (2013), is of the opinion that research approach cannot always be ‘right or wrong’, but only

appropriate more or less to researchers defined choices. He explained that qualitative research comprises of

numerous endeavours and usually concerned with the objectives (scientific) study of realities. Due to the simple

nature of the objectives, researchers tend to prefer the qualitative approach. However, the choice of choosing a

research approach depend purely on what the researcher is trying to find out. This concurs with Naoum’s views

that Qualitative approach is ‘subjective’ in nature because it explains experiences, meanings and description where

Information gathered are classified into Exploratory, Attitudinal and Placement. On the other hand, Creswell (1994),

explains that quantitative approach is viewed as object in ‘nature’. Described as investigating issues based on theory

and hypothesis, usually analysed statistically and numerically measured to determine if theories and hypothesis are

correct. The differences between both research strategies are highlighted in table 4.

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3.3. Qualitative Approach.

As explained earlier that qualitative approach is objective in nature and it is usually focused on objectives or

scientific study of realities because it tends to explain description, meanings and experiences (Silverman and

Naoum, 2007). Invariable, Saunders et al 2003, are of the opinion that the approach portrays attitude and Behaviour

characteristics of individuals or groups by determining the frequency in which they occur. The approach focus is

based on the context of the identified subject by finding answers to who, why, what and how of a particular study

allowing flexibility between the researcher and chosen study. Naoum (2007), suggests gathering information for

this approach is classified into exploratory, attitudinal and placement which comprises of interviews, field work,

case study, manual records and questionnaires.

3.3.1. Advantages of Qualitative Approach.

The following advantages of qualitative approach are highlighted;

It establishes an easy, quick and systematic observation.

Researcher has the opportunity to view or study existing data apart from carrying out individual data

collection.

Allows for continuous data collection while research is progressing.

Allows full mental and physical participation of research in retrieving facts and findings of subject area.

Due to reduced assumptions, the data collected are authentic based on the genuine/authenticity of data

collection sources.

It resolves the issue of contradicting data collected better compared to its counterpart quantitative

approach.

3.3.2. Disadvantages of Qualitative Approach

The following disadvantages of qualitative approach are highlighted;

Gaining access to required resources or information may be difficult.

Authentic data collections are determined solely by researcher.

There is usually no originality in research.

Sufficient time is required for this approach in other to gain the trust of audience.

There may be contradicting of findings which might lead to confusion during conclusion.

In other to realize the aim and objectives of a research, adequate provisions should be in place to reduce the

setbacks caused by the highlighted disadvantages.

3.4. Quantitative Approach.

Cresswell earlier describes quantitative approach as a method of investigating issues based on theory and

hypothesis. Cavana et al (2001), suggests that the approach focuses on already existing findings like statistic

information and variables in other to explain and understand them. It also predicts outcomes of results rather than

description compared to qualitative approach. Overall, the approach is usually used to analyze statistics and

numerical measurements to determine whether theories and hypothesis are correct.

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3.4.1. Advantages of Quantitative Approach.

The advantages of quantitative approach include;

This approach gives arise to obtaining wide information resulting to data comparison in categories

identified

It brings stability to the entire research work based on knowing what to expect.

Allows for wider study because more data are processed compared to qualitative approach.

3.4.2. Disadvantages of Quantitative Approach

Its disadvantages include:

Having too many existing data causes confusion during data collection.

Usually assumptions are made when research is concluded resulting in discarding real facts.

Distractions occurs due to vast existing data.

3.5. Research Method - Case study.

Naoum (2007), explains that this form of research method is used by researchers to support their argument by

having an in-depth analysis of a particular project. The case study chosen is focussed mainly on the identified

problem. Usually the conclusion derived are related to the particular project. Three forms of case study are

identified; the descriptive, analytical and explanatory case study. Both descriptive and analytical case studies are

applied on detailed cases but are closely related to descriptive and analytical survey respectively. Whereas, the

explanatory case study adopts theoretical approach to the problem by collecting facts and studying the relationship

between facts collected in other to find a common relationship within them.

3.5.1. Advantages of Case study.

The advantages of using case study include;

i. Case studies are usually flexible to use because it allows researcher to manoeuvre between the various

type.

ii. It focuses on an identified problem rather than perambulating.

iii. Conclusion is usually focused on particular problem and precise.

iv. Gives the research the option of getting accurate results by using any of the case study type or a

combination of them.

v. It deals specifically with facts and proven results.

3.6. Approach and Methodology Choice.

Approach choice:

Now that research approaches are explained in detail, relating to how data are collected, examined and analysed.

The author decides to use the qualitative approach based on the nature of the subject area in determining how

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RESs can be implemented into new-build residential development. This approach is chosen because it allows the

author to view and analyse existing data in combination with any individual data collection. It creates systematic

observation and data collection can be collected while research work is ongoing. Other reasons include;

contradicting data can be resolved appropriately, data collected are authentic and tested and it allows for full

participation of the author. The use of qualitative approach is justified by the author based on the fact that, data

collection is usually rich and deep in nature, resulting in accurate provision of detailed information and the overall

success of a research work.

Methodology Choice:

The method chosen for data collection is case study because it gives a better understanding of collecting data and

analysing real facts and proven projects or schemes. Case study is chosen by the author because, the method

focuses on resolving a particular problem, the data collected are facts giving a true reflection of study area, it is

flexible due to its different forms of tackling detailed cases. Among other reasons is the accuracy of results. The

case studies were undertaken by employing descriptive case study and the findings were critically analysed to

derive answers to the objectives. The selection criteria for case study was based on deriving answers to the

objectives outlined in terms of energy cost savings, determining the influences of RESs on climate change and

evaluating renewable energy systems in existing and new-build residential development. These selection criteria

were also based on CO2 emission reduction, appropriate RESs, residential sector of the built environment and end

user.

The author conducted the research work by firstly determining the research topic after identifying a problem, in

this case the gap that existed when the UK government introduced the Green Deal scheme for existing domestic

building. Secondly, by understand the different types of research approach and selecting an appropriate one to use.

Establishing a scope and time line, outlining the works that need to be done with set dates for completion.

Embarked upon were finding answers to research questions, finding useful information from academic sources,

reading, taking notes and writing in detail. Thirdly, new sources were evaluated as writing commenced and research

questions were kept in mind.

3.6.1. Justification of case study.

The author carried out an extensive research on the subject matter by initially reading various literatures (text

books, journals) written by academician, government agencies, professional bodies and other recognised parties

involved in subject matter. After the literature was reviewed and written, various real life case studies that have

been implemented were accessed, reviewed and data collected were analysed. The rationale behind the selection

of appropriate case studies is focused on the implementation of RESs in new-build residential development and the

selection criteria used to analyse them was cost, CO2 emission reduction, technology, end user/target audience and

type of building sector. This is used because it helped to critically analyse the findings and ascertain that the

objectives of the research are achievable. The various case studies reviewed helped in deriving a result, drawing a

recommendation and conclusion because they have been achieved and implemented in real life existing buildings.

Alongside this, statistical data were also retrieved from agencies that keep statistical data such as IEA and Ren21.

The statistics got were also critically analysed and compared to the ones from case studies to identify similarities in

formation.

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3.7. Summary of Research Methodology.

The author concluded on employing qualitative research approach after carefully studying and understanding the

available research approaches. This approach is selected because it focuses on objectives and scientific study of

realities, due to the reality of this research. Another reason is the flexibility the approach portrays between the

researcher and chosen subject area, where data collection is continuous during the entire research process.

3.8. Chapter Summary.

Overall the chapter was able to study research approaches, methods and various ways of data collection. Stated

the authors choice of research approach and methodology employed. It also justified the reasons why the

research approach and methodology were selected by the author.

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CHAPTER FOUR.

Case Study of Renewable Energy Systems.

Case Study findings and analysis.

4.0. Introduction.

In this chapter, four case studies will be examined to collate data for this study in order to achieve the research’s

aim and objectives. For this purpose, the following RESs in new-build residential development will be analysed;

solar power and water heating with geothermal GSHP. These three RESs will be focused on because they are the

main sources of energy used in residential developments. Without doubt, occupants need power for lighting, water

heating and space ventilating (cooling and heating). Furthermore, to achieve the objective of evaluating renewable

energy systems in existing and new-build residential development, the fourth case study is carried out and analysed

to compare cost of energy consumption, CO2 emission and EPC rating in existing and new-build residential

development.

The following approach will be taken for each case study before a final analysis of the findings will be carried out;

background summary/context, selection criteria, objective, method, financial resources, results and lessons

learned. Finally, the selection criteria for each case study was based on overall cost effectiveness, CO2 emission

reduction, type of RES, end user or target audience and residential sector of the built environment.

Case study 1: Solar water heating (SWH).

4.1. Background Information.

This scheme was funded by Energy saving trust in partnership with Kirklees and Calderdale Metropolitan Borough

(KMC & CMBC), Kirklees energy service (KES) and Hebden bridge alternative technology centre. The aim was to

reduce CO2 emission by installing SWH systems and offered two installation approaches either professionally or do

it yourself (DIY). Grants and discount prices were also offered to prospective buyers. KMC implemented the scheme

while Kirklees Energy Services (KES) managed, marketed and delivered the scheme

4.1.1. Context.

The scheme was carried out in the districts of Kirklees and Calderdale in West Yorkshire, England with a combined

population of about 587,271. Simple solar was motivated in solar water heating in domestic sector because they

wanted to assist the local authority in executing policies towards the achievement of energy conservation. This

resulted from the Friends of the Earth Climate Resolution the council signed in 1996, challenging the council to

achieve a target of a 30% reduction in CO2 emissions by 2005. With the assumption that it will encourage the

installation of SWH. It is estimated that, a reduction of about 50% in CO2 emission in domestic hot water heating

will be achieved displacing about 1,700kWh of gas and a saving of 0.44 tonnes of CO2 per installation per year is

expected.

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4.1.2. Objective.

The overall aim of simple solar is make SWH affordable and desirable to householders in the locality and

ultimately CO2 emission reduction, savings on energy cost and energy conservation. To achieve this, they adopted

the following strategies to meet the set objectives;

i. Providing householders with fuel cost and CO2 saving information.

ii. Promoting renewable energy by making householders aware of the importance of energy efficiency and

sustainable energy use.

iii. Offering discounted prices and grants towards installation cost.

iv. Householders are offered free survey and quotation at no cost.

v. Developing a local installer with quality assurance.

4.1.3. Method.

The approach used in carrying out the scheme by simple solar is outlined below;

Firstly, householder accesses the scheme by contacting KES on phone and a detailed survey is carried out to

determine caller’s eligibility. Eligibility criteria are based on householder’s house having cavity wall and loft

insulation, facing between southeast and southwest, a flat roof, suitable ground level location and an appropriate

heating system (gas boiler, hot water cylinder). However, householders who do not have the stated insulations and

hot water systems are eligible to cash back if they implement SWH.

Secondly, householders are offered two installation options by KES, either the professionally or DIY installation

option. The basic solar system can be purchased as a kit or partially pre-assembled unit costing €1,449.42 and

€1,520.47 respectively and the installation cost were €888.14 and €817.07 respectively. Thirdly, based on the high

cost, householders are offered discounts, grants and the use of quality assured suppliers and installers. Simple solar

registered supplier and installer managed the projects of householders that chose the professionally installation

while Solar Club (a division of Hebdon Bridge Alternative Technology Centre), managed the installation of

householders that chose DIY installation. Irrespective of the installation option chosen by householder, they are

passed to KES for their suitability, where grant and purchase is arranged with accredited suppliers.

4.1.4. Financial resources and partners.

Due to the high cost of SWH, simple solar had to be in partnership with other bodies such as Kirklees and Calderdale

Metropolitan Borough Council, KES, Hebden Bridge Alternative Technology Centre Solar System manufacturers

(AES and Filsol).

4.1.5. Results.

The scheme was able to achieve CO2 emission reduction despite the fact that simple solar did not realise the number

of installation targeted. Moreover, they were able to introduce affordable solar energy into the community which

enhanced energy conservation and savings on household energy cost. Table 5 shows the choice of SWH by

householders in Kirklees and Calderdale. From the table, 109 SWH were installed comprising of 96 professional

installations and 13 DIY installations.

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The scheme achieved CO2 emission reduction, cost saving and energy conservation. Table 6 below illustrates the

savings achieved in terms of cost saving and CO2 emission reduction. The scheme also contributed to the increase

in thermal comfort for householders by encouraging them to take up other renewable energy measures.

4.1.6. Lessons learned

Simple solar learnt the following lessons from executing the scheme;

i. That targeting households who are financially buoyant was ineffective because participants were interested

based on energy saving cost.

ii. The advisement method employed was unsuccessful, rather human-interest stories would have attracted

greater responses.

iii. The time wasted by installer to survey properties that are not suitable or meet the eligibility criteria.

Furthermore, the eligibility criteria for the scheme worked against it in the sense that,

some household did not meet the eligibility criteria such as not having a compactible combination boiler, specific

roof orientation, expectation of suppliers and installers not met and the prolonged time taken before sale and

installation.

4.2. Analysis and Findings.

The result of the case study is shown in table 6, it is obvious that CO2 emission reduction was achieved by the

scheme. The energy cost and CO2 emission saving achieved was based on the number of SWH installed in 2001,

2002 and 2003.

In 2001, 60 SWH were installed resulting in energy saving of 132,936kWh per annum (PA), CO2 emission reduction

saving of 25,313 Kg/ (PA) and energy cost saving of €6,115.

Between 2002 and 2003, 49 SWH were installed.

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2002 achieved energy saving of 69,644kWh (PA), CO2 emission reduction saving of 13,456 Kg/PA and energy cost

saving of €3,204.

2003 achieved energy saving of 16,416kWh (PA), CO2 emission reduction saving of 3,114 Kg/PA and energy cost

saving of €755.

It is deducted that the scheme achieved its aim and objectives because it was able to attain CO2 emission reduction,

convectional energy saving, energy cost saving and achieving energy conservation in domestic buildings. In total

the overall;

CO2 emission reduction: 1047.075 tonnes

Energy saving: 218,996 kWh (PA)

Energy cost saving: €10,074.00 (PA).

Based on this findings, the author assumes that if about 1000 household installs SWH rather than the 109, then

more CO2 emission reduction, convectional energy saving and energy cost saving will be obtainable as shown in the

calculation below.

CO2 emission reduction: 109 SWH = 1047.075 tons.

1000 household = 9,606.193 tons. (PA).

Energy saving: 109 SWH = 218,996 kWh (PA).

1000 household = 2,009, 137.62 kWh (PA).

Energy cost saving: 109 SWH = €10,074.00.

1000 household = €92,422.02

Case study 2: Geothermal (GSHP).

4.3. Background Information.

This project is a retrofit GSHP, which was carried out by Penwith Housing Association (PHA) to a group of social

housing homes sometime in 2004. It comprises of 14 bungalows that were fitted with Powergen (heat plant) and

heat pumps were connected to vertical ground loops which provides space heating and hot water heating. The

project aim was to showcase GSHP could provide space and hot water heating in homes with or without mains gas.

The positive outcome of the project demonstrated that GSHP systems can perform effectively and helped to

encourage the use of RE.

4.3.1. Context.

The idea of the project was derived from the success story of implementing GSHP in new-build homes by PHA in

1998 and the clamour of fuel poverty, climate change with the lack of energy efficient homes by Cornwall

Sustainable Energy Partnership (CSEP). Areas without mains gas connection are in need for affordable space heating

because householders struggled to heat up interior spaces. This led Powergen to select the chosen site in order to

help reduce the high cost of space heating and CO2 emission reduction.

4.3.2. Objective.

The flowing objectives were set out for the project;

i. To make householders aware of various types of RES and the choice of selecting appropriate one

for their homes.

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ii. To showcase that GSHP can provide space and hot water heating for homes.

iii. To determine and solve technical problems that arises during the installation of GSHP in existing

homes.

4.3.3. Method.

In order to achieve a successful project, key design decisions were made by all parties involved. This include;

i. That current positions of existing services should be checked and recorded to avoid possible damage during

installation.

ii. That in other to avoid the loss of internal spaces, the pumps will be installed outside the home in purpose

build attachments.

iii. That radiator systems will be used to distribute the heat within the homes

iv. That vertical borehole systems are used for the installation of ground loops.

Upon deciding on key design issues, contractors were appointed for the commencement of work on site.

4.3.4. Financial resources and partners.

Based on the nature and high cost of the project, PHA had to partner with other parties such as Powergen, Penwith

District Council and CSEP in other to get funds to achieve a successful project. The project cost was 233,000.00 and

all parties involved had a fair share in funding it.

4.3.5. Results.

The results gotten from the project showed that GSHP can be used for space and hot water heating in homes and

also contributes to CO2 emission reduction in the atmosphere. The project won three awards; the South West Green

Energy Award (Best Community Project 2004) and the 2004 National Home Improvement Council Award for

‘Innovative. The project also won another award in 2006 by the Building & Engineer Awards ‘Energy Efficient Project

of the Year. In addition, the project has encouraged other housing associations to install GSHP, other RES and

comply with new legislations associated.

From the project, figure 26a & 26b shows a graph comparing fuel cost and CO2 emission levels when GSHP was used

compared with using fossil fuel to generate the same amount of energy.

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4.3.6. Lessons learned.

The lessons learnt in the project by all parties are outlined below;

i. GSHP can work effectively with radiator system to distribute heat into interior spaces for effective space

heating.

ii. Overall heat loss of household should not exceed the heating capacity of the heat pump in the GSHP system.

To achieve this, residential buildings should install wall and loft insulation, wall cavity fill, double or triple

glazing.

iii. That GSHP works well with homes having small gardens when vertical boreholes are employed and reduced

to acceptable levels.

iv. To have an efficient GSHP system, the system should be designed for space and hot water heating. It was

observed that, heat pumps which do not deliver domestic hot water to augment the heating capacity incurs

higher running costs and CO2 emissions.

v. Contractors and energy companies who can procure drilling projects should be assigned in other to reduce

the costs of drilling boreholes.

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vi. Engineers and installer should be familiar with the operation of GSHP and assessing suitable ground

condition.

4.4. Analysis and findings.

From the results shown in figure 26a and 26b, it was derived that cost and CO2 emission reduction was achieved by

the project. The cost and CO2 savings achieved was based on comparing fuel cost and CO2 emission levels when

GSHP was used as against using fossil fuel to generate the same amount of energy in 2007.

From figure 26a, the cost savings of using GSHP for space heating was £520.00 and a further reduction of £470.00

when GSHP (E7) was used. When this amount is compared to other fossil fuel sources, such as electric £1,160.00,

electric (E7) £720.00, gas (cond.) £540.00, gas £580.00, oil £600.00, LPG £860.00 and solid £980.00. It is seen that

using GSHP for space heating is more cost effective.

From figure 26b, the CO2 emission savings of using GSHP and GSHP (E7) for space heating was 2000kg. When this

amount is compared to other fossil fuel sources, such as electric and 4electric (E7) 4,600kg, gas (cond.) 2,600kg, gas

2,900kg, oil 3,600kg, LPG 3,400kg and solid 7,300kg. It is seen that using GSHP for space heating emits less CO2 into

the atmosphere.

With these results, the aim and objectives of the project was realised based on achieving cost saving, CO2 emission

reduction and showcasing that GSHP can be used for space and hot water heating in residential new-build and

existing buildings.

Case study 3: Solar power.

4.5. Background Information.

This project is located in Whitstable, North Kent and comprises of five apartments. It was executed by solar power

portal in 2014, notable for achieving a Standard Assessment Procedure (SAP) rating of ‘AA’.

4.5.1. Context.

The main idea behind the project was to develop a residential development with a form of renewable energy

implemented within it which can contribute to CO2 emission reduction and energy cost.

4.5.2. Objective.

The main objective was to develop a residential building that will be;

i. Energy cost effective,

ii. Implemented RESs,

iii. Reduced CO2 emission and an

iv. Energy efficient building. attain

4.5.3. Method.

The approach employed to achieve a successful project was the use of solar PV-T modules which were able to

produce all the energy requirement of the building during summer period and an amount realistic for heating during

winter period. Newform energy PV-T modules

4.5.4. Financial resources and partners.

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Masonry Frame Systems a thin joint constructor collaborated with Newform energy to develop the first accredited

MCS PV-T module.

4.5.5. Results.

The project achieved an EPC rating of ‘A’ and reduced CO2 emission in the atmosphere due to the array of PV-T

modules, shown in table figure xx. Also built to meet the Code for Sustainable Homes by adopting passivhaus

principles air tightness of 0.93 level.

4.5.6. Lessons learned.

Due to the successful outcome of the project in terms of quality, further partnership will be encouraged amongst

participants, other contractors and subsequent knowledge and support will be sought to facilitate continuous

development of solar power systems.

4.6. Analysis and Findings.

Due to practical constraints and insufficient data, this paper cannot provide a comprehensive review of the results

for this case. Although based on the findings, it is deducted that the project achieved its objective by attaining a

SAP rating of ‘AA’, EPC rating of ‘A’ and carbon emission of ‘A’. As a result, it is concluded that the project

contributed to the reduction of CO2 emission into the atmosphere with reduced overall energy use through the

convectional energy sources. It is energy cost effective and energy efficient because it is estimated by the builders

that the property will maintain 97% of its energy efficiency.

Case study 4. Comparison between an existing and new-build building.

4.7. Background information.

To achieve the objective of evaluating renewable energy systems in existing and new-build residential

development, the author decided to carry out a case study comparing cost of energy consumption, CO2 emission

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and EPC rating in existing and new-build residential development. An existing three bed semi-detached building

built in the Victorian time was selected against a modern three bed semi-detached new-build residential building

having RESs implemented in them. In quantifying energy cost, CO2 emission and EPC, an accredited tool developed

by Home Energy Trust (HET) called Home Energy Check (HEC) was used. This tool calculated the cost of energy, CO2

emission and EPC rating of the existing building compared to the new-build residential building that has RESs

implemented in it. It also shows the overall savings on cost of energy, CO2 emission reduction and EPC improvement.

It is important to know that the same information was provided to the HEC tool which includes;

Building material, insulation type (wall, floor and loft), type of RES installed, heating methods and comfort. Also

included are type of door and window, number of occupants, type of lighting and occupant’s behaviour.

4.7.1. Selection Criteria for existing building.

The selected Victorian house was built in 1880 and comprises of a brick wall with typical features that include; solid

wall where brick is used, sash windows, slate roof, with no cavity or loft insulation. These existing features were

used as the selection criteria for the study. The common problems that occur with this type of building is that they

are generally energy inefficient because they allow damp and water penetration, heat loss through the solid wall,

condensation, air filtrations into building and draft emittance into building. In addition to this, they lack wall, floor

and roof insulation, use single glazed windows and losses energy due to building not properly air tie.

4.7.2. Quantifying energy cost and CO2 emission of existing building.

In quantifying energy cost and CO2 emission, a tool developed by Home Energy Trust called Home Energy Check

(HEC) was used by the author. This tool helped to calculate the cost of energy and CO2 emission of the existing

building compared to the new-build residential building that has RESs implemented in it and also shows the overall

savings on cost and CO2 emission.

The following results were got after inputting the existing building information into the HEC tool; the current energy

cost is £2, 850.00 per annum, F band of EPC as shown in figure xx and the current CO2 emission is estimated at

10,640 Kg.

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Furthermore, the HEC tool recommended a home improvement plan of twelve years’ potential payback period if

the householder spends about £9, 410.00 so as to meet the energy efficient and CO2 reduction emission target. The

recommendations include solid wall, floor and loft insulation, draught proofed doors and windows and the use of

control thermostats with low energy lighting as shown in table 8 by installing home improvement measures.

Based on the recommendation of installing home improvement measures shown in table 8, the cost of energy and

CO2 emission improved to £2, 030.00 and 5,520 Kg respectively. While the EPC improved to D band, all these are

shown in figure 28a, 28b and 28c respectively.

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4.7.3. Selection Criteria of new-build building.

The new-build residential building selected is a modern one built between 2012 till date and comprises of a cavity

wall that is well insulated either partially or fully where brick is used as a cladding material. The typical features

include; designed to meet passivhaus standard, use of double or triple glazing, controlled air filtration, loft and floor

insulation etc. Unlike the existing building chosen, this type of building performs better on its own in terms of being

energy efficient because they do not allow much heat loss, water penetration, air filtration, condensation etc.

However, since the target is to reduce CO2 emission and energy conservation within the housing sector, it is

important to implement RESs into this type of building to further make it perform better to achieve the target.

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4.7.4. Quantifying energy cost and CO2 emission of new-build building.

The same HEC tool was used and the following results were derived after inputting the building information

mentioned above; the current energy cost is £1, 280.00 per annum, B band of EPC as shown in figure 29 and the

current CO2 emission is estimated at 3,300 Kg.

It is important to note that the HEC tool did not have the option of GSHP apart from solar power and hot water

heating when generating the result in figure 29. Bearing in mind that GSHP is part of the RESs this research is

implementing into new-build residential development. However, the HEC tool recommended a home improvement

plan of over twenty-five years’ potential payback period if the householder spends about £6, 950.00 in other to

meet the energy efficient and CO2 reduction emission target. The recommendation of installing home improvement

measures is GSHP as shown in table 9.

Based on the recommendation of installing home improvement measure shown in table 9, the cost of energy and

CO2 emission improved to £1, 150.00 and 3,130 Kg respectively. While the EPC remained on B band, all these are

shown in figure 30a, 30b and 30c respectively.

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62

4.8. Analysis of Findings between existing and new-build building.

From the study carried out to compare the energy cost and CO2 emission between existing and new-build

building, the discoveries were categorically analysed in terms of energy cost, building material, CO2 emission,

design consideration RESs installed with EPC and illustrated in table 10 below.

Issue Existing building New-build building

Energy cost The energy cost was £2,850.00

per annum. It was analysed

that if RESs are installed into

the building, the energy cost

will be reduced to £2,030.00.

making a saving of £820.00 per

annum.

The energy cost was £1,280.00

per annum. This cost was

further reduced to £1,150.00

when GSHP was installed

making a saving of £130.00 per

annum.

CO2 emission The CO2 emission was 10,640

kg per annum. If RESs were

installed, the CO2 emission can

be reduced to 5,520 Kg saving

5,120 Kg of CO2 per annum that

would be emitted into the

atmosphere.

Initially the CO2 emission was

3,300 Kg per annum. The

overall CO2 emission is 3,130

Kg per annum after

implementing the suggested

RESs (solar power and hot

water heating with GSHP).

EPC The current band of EPC was F

band. This can be improved to

D band if RESs are installed.

The overall EPC rating of is B

band. However, if other forms

of RESs are implemented apart

from those implemented, the

EPC will be further improved to

A band.

RESs installed It is made clear by the study

that; this type of building is not

cost effective in terms of

energy uses, energy inefficient

and CO2 emission into the

atmosphere is high if RESs are

not implemented in it.

With the implementation of

RESs into new-build building,

the energy cost is low, the

building itself is energy

efficient and the CO2 emitted

into the atmosphere is low.

Design consideration The design consideration

employed during the period

the existing building was built

did not consider building to

Passivhaus standard or making

the building energy efficient

and reducing CO2 emission.

This influenced the inefficiency

of buildings in terms of energy

use or conservation and CO2

emission. adding to the high

percentage of energy cost and

CO2 emission of residential

New-build building was

designed to Passivhaus

standard making it air tie,

effectively insulated, ability to

control heat gain and loss,

double or triple glazing, use of

natural lighting etc. this

approach contributed to the

energy efficiency and CO2

emission reduction without the

implementation of RESs.

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buildings within the building

section.

Building material The building material used

contributes to way the building

performs in terms of energy

cost, efficiency and CO2

emission. The building

materials commonly used for

this type of building comprises

of solid wall made of brick or

stone, sash windows, slate

roof, with no cavity or loft

insulation. Based on the

building material used, the

building faces problems of not

been air tie and condensation

amongst others. Generally,

energy inefficient because they

allow heat gain and loss and air

filtrations into it. The lack of

wall, floor and roof insulation,

results in rapid heat loss

leading to continuous space

heating.

The type of building material

used contributes to the way

building performs because

these days all building material

are designed to meet standard

U-value which influences the

overall U-value and energy

performance of the building.

This contributes to low energy

cost and CO2 emission. usually

the problems existing building

faces do not occur in new-build

building as long as occupants

behaviour are considerate.

4.9. Chapter Summary.

This chapter was able to study and analyse three case studies in conjunction with evaluating the cost benefit of

implementing RESs into new-build residential. This was carried out by comparing the cost of energy consumption,

CO2 emission and EPC in existing and new-build residential development and the results derived were critically

analysed. Conclusion and recommendation will be discussed in the final chapter.

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CHAPTER FIVE.

Discussion, Recommendations and Conclusions.

5.0. Introduction.

This is the final chapter of this research and it will focus on drawing a conclusion to all the results derived from the

case studies in respect of implementing RESs into New-Build Development. In order to ascertain that, the aim and

objectives set out at the beginning of this research must be achieved. The research aim and objectives will be listed

and re-evaluated, analysing them with the results to ensure they were accomplished. Also, the results will be

compared with relevant studies from the Literature review in chapter two and interpreted.

5.1. Conclusion.

In conclusion, it is realised that RESs can be implemented into New-Build Residential Development to effectively

achieve a building that will be energy efficient, emits low CO2 and reduces energy cost. The research examined

various issues pertaining to RESs, their selection criteria, influences on climate change, appraisal of main RESs that

meets occupant’s requirement for comfort, etc.

The aim of the research is met by the author after carefully reviewing various literatures pertaining to subject area,

studying and critically analysing case studies to derive answers to laid down objectives. To achieve this, three RESs

such as solar hot water, solar power and geothermal GSHP were studied.

The literature review created a broad and clear understanding of the subject area and the research approach

employed determined the research method chosen. The case studies and comparison between existing and New-

Build residential development carried out provided results relating to the aim and objectives set out, these are

further discussed below;

5.1.1. Aim.

Based on the aim of this research to incorporate RESs into new-build residential development, it is observed from

all the case studies that the aim is obtainable. The three types of RESs studied were implemented in the case studies

and the results was outstanding, illustrating that RESs can be effectively implemented if the appropriate one is

employed. It is important to consider implementing RESs into New-Build at the initial stage of planning and

designing to build, this falls in line with the suggestion made by DTI that, RESs can be integrated successfully into

new building development if considered early before other design factors and occupants comfort are considered.

5.1.2. Objective 1.

This research was able to realise this objective of critically appraising the selected RESs (solar power, solar hot water

heating and geothermal GSHP) by establishing a general knowledge and understanding of renewable energy

sources using resourceful literature reviews and proven case studies. Firstly, it is seen that solar power using PV are

very reliable/durable, clean in operation, does not require fuel to operate and not noisy. In addition, the system

does not utilise water for cooling unlike natural gas, nuclear power and coal and the emittance of CO2 is zero.

Secondly, when solar hot water heating was studied in case study one, the results highlighted that the scheme

achieved CO2 emission reduction, cost saving and energy conservation. Lastly, the case study on GSHP helped to

65

ascertain that GSHP can be used for hot water and space heating in new-build development. it is derived that the

three types of RESs studied ultimately lead to reducing CO2 emission, saving energy cost and efficiency.

5.1.3. Objective 2.

The results derived from the various case studies shows that implementing RESs into both existing and New-Build

Residential Development influences climate change by contributing to the reduction of CO2 and other GHGs

emission. Apart from this, it also influences energy cost reduction because buildings do not rely solely on energy

generated from fossil fuel whose cost are on the increase due to its demand as emphasised by Luna-Rubio et al.

(2012), that suggests using alternative energy sources. It was derived that the use of RESs in new-build residential

development gives a better result compared to existing building as seen in case study four which shows that RESs

implemented in them makes the building perform to set goals, in terms of reduction in CO2 emission and energy

cost, building material, design consideration, type of RESs installed, EPC rating and energy efficiency. This proofs

that, when RESs are implemented into New-Build, they influence climate change positively. The author suggestion

is that, RESs should be implemented in New-Build residential development to help facilitate the clamour for

climate change by contributing to CO2 and GHGs emission reduction to the atmosphere which are the front

runners that affects climate change negatively.

5.1.4. Objective 3.

Examining the cost reduction of energy consumption was achieved from the results of the case studies, there was

significant savings in energy cost after RESs were implemented into the buildings. For instance, in case study one

energy cost saving was achieved between 2001 to 2003 when solar hot water heating system was implemented

into the building. Energy saving of €6,115,00 €3,204.00 and €755.00 were achieved in 2001, 2002 and 2003

respectively depending on the number of system installed. The overall result of energy saving was €10,074.00 PA

between 2001 to 2003. This result will encourage implementing RESs in New-Build residential development because

it makes energy cost cheaper than the convectional energy sources. Based on this, various countries are promoting

RESs as means of energy generation due to their environmental friendly nature.

5.1.5. Objective 4.

This objective of evaluating RESs in existing and New-Build residential development was achieved by comparing

cost of energy consumption, CO2 emission and EPC rating between existing and new-build residential development.

From the findings, it was observed that RESs perform better in New-Build compared to existing buildings. This is

generally due to the advanced technology of building materials having high performance U-value, buildings are built

to passivhaus standards making them utilise natural day lighting, ventilation and solar heat gain instead of relying

on artificial light and ventilating mechanism powered by energy generated from the use of fossil fuel. Also building

design considerations are emphasised and appropriate RESs are installed based on meeting occupant’s comfort.

Ultimately, the major advantages householders look forward to when RESs are implemented are energy cost and

CO2 emission reduction and having an energy efficient building such as the results derived in case study 4 where

the cost of energy and CO2 emission improved to £1, 150.00 and 3,130 Kg respectively and the EPC rating is on B

band, which can be further improved if other types of RESs are implemented.

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5.2. Recommendations.

The following recommendations are suggested; that new home owners, government/council, housing association

and home building companies should be encouraged to implement RESs into New-Build residential development

from design stages, the high cost of RESs should be subsidised by government to make it affordable or putting in

place appropriate financing methods to assist householders willing to implement RESs into their buildings.

Manufacturers of RESs need to improve the technology and cheaper materials for their production should be

researched continuously. In addition, when designing residential buildings, passivhaus principles and appropriate

RESs should be considered and accredited contractors, engineers and assessors should be appointed for installing,

designing and surveying/assessing relevant buildings or site.

5.3. Limitations to the research.

The limitation faced by the author was the insufficient case study relevant to subject area (RESs) because there

were very few case studies for residential developments compared to other building sectors, particularly getting a

good case study for solar power was a be challenge. The difficulty in assessing and obtaining relevant data from

agencies like Office of National Statistics and the UK Data Archive forms part of the limitations and the time frame

for the research was not sufficient.

5.4. Future research.

Further research is recommended by the author to establish appropriate methods of selecting and implementing

RESs into New-Build residential development that will meet the requirement of owners. Also the awareness of

making everyone within and outside the construction industry understand the negative effects of using

convectional energy sources rather than renewable energy sources.

67

List of Acronyms and Abbreviations.

Carbon Dioxide (CO2).

Combined heat and power (CHP).

Cornwall Sustainable Energy Partnership (CSEP).

Corporate social responsibility (CSR).

Department for the Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA).

Department of Trust and Industry (DTI).

Energy Company Obligation (ECO).

Energy Performance of Buildings Development (EPBD)

European Renewable Energy Council (EREC).

European Union (EU).

Greenhouse Gas (GHGs).

Ground Source Heat Pump (GSHP).

International Energy Agency (IEA).

Kirklees Energy Services (KES).

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).

Penwith Housing Association (PHA).

Per Annum (PA).

Photovoltaic (PV).

Renewable Energy (RE).

Renewable Energy Systems (RESs).

Solar Hot Water Heating (SHWH).

Small hydropower (SHP).

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA).

United Kingdom (UK).

United State Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA).

68

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Appendix.

72

Application Form

for use by undergraduate and postgraduate students on Taught Programmes (Projects & Dissertations)

Who should complete this form?

This form should be completed by all students who have a high level of responsibility for how their project is carried out, including deciding the aim and who is to be involved, such as Research Projects and Dissertations.

Read and understand:

1. This form must be submitted to Blackboard as a Word document. Scanned submissions will not be considered.

2. The sections will automatically expand to the size required as you type.

3. Discuss the contents of the form with your dissertation supervisor before submitting on Blackboard.

4. If conducting interviews or questionnaires also include an example of your participant information sheet and the informed consent form/wording you will use to secure consent.

SECTION A – to be completed by ALL applicants

Last name of student: Akinjiyan

First name of student: Olufemi Isaac

Student ID: @00333369

Programme of study: MSc. Project Management in Construction.

Supervisor: DR. Justine Cooper

This project/dissertation is deemed to be:

Select one only Type 1

Type 1 Project work using secondary sources only – no human

involvement. (Complete Section A and C only)

Type 2 Project work involving human interaction and where ethical

issues can be considered and appropriately addressed.

Type 3 Project work where there is a significant ethical dimension in

connection with human interaction.

Is this application a resubmission? No

1. Title of proposed research project

Renewable Energy Systems in New-Build Residential Development.

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2. Project Focus/Aim

To investigate how renewable energy systems can be incorporated into New-Build Residential Development.

3. Project Objectives

To carry out literature study on renewable energy systems that will make new-build residential development energy efficient with maximum energy performance rating.

To examine the reduction of energy consumption in new-build residential development. To explore the implementation of renewable energy systems into new-build residential

development

4. Research Strategy. How will you undertake data collection for your project?

Please Note - Ethical approval must be obtained by all students prior to starting to collect data with people (i.e. observation / interviews /

questionnaires, etc)

SECTION B (Only Necessary for Type 2 and 3 applications)

5. If you are going to work within a particular organisation do they have their own procedures for gaining ethical approval – for example, within a hospital or health centre?

6. Are you going to approach individuals to be involved in your research? How will you ensure you gain informed consent from anyone involved in this study?

7. How many people will be recruited or involved in the research? What is the rationale behind this number?

8. Are there any other ethical issues that need to be considered?

Secondary Data collection.

74

9. Are there any data protection issues that you need to address?

10. Are there any health and safety issues that you need to address in undertaking your research? Specifically if conducting face-to-face interviews are there any lone worker safety procedures that need to be put into place?

SECTION C – to be completed by ALL applicants

In electronically submitting this form I certify that the above information has been discussed with my dissertation supervisor and is, to the best of my knowledge, accurate and correct. I understand the need to ensure I undertake my research in a manner that reflects good principles of ethical research practice. I will notify my Supervisor of any significant changes in my methodology and re-apply for ethical approval if necessary.

Student Name: Olufemi Isaac Akinjiyan

Date submitted electronically to Blackboard: 3rd August 2016.

This form and any supporting documents should now be submitted via Blackboard

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