al-andalus exhibition: exhibition guide

8/3/2019 Al-Andalus Exhibition: Exhibition Guide

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2ESOPROYECTO BILINGE AL-ANDALUS AND SCIENCECURRICULUM INTEGRADO STUDENTS GUIDE & WORKBOOK - 1


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2ESO -PROYECTO BILINGE AL-ANDALUS AND SCIENCECURRICULUM INTEGRADO STUDENTS GUIDE & WORKBOOK -1

CONTENTSAL-ANDALUS AND SCIENCE - STUDENT S GUIDE

WHAT ARE YOU GOING TO LEARN ABOUT? VISIT PLAN - SCHEDULE STUDENT S GUIDE

AL-ANDALUS AND SCIENCE WORKBOOK Routes of Science and Cities for Wisdom Al-Andalus. Eight centuries of History Islam, Al-Andalus & Science. Brief Exhibition Cultural Routes ofEl legado andalus Science in Al-Andalus Astronomy and Mathematics Cartography and Navigation Water Systems Mechanics Optics, Physics and Chemistry Agronomy and Botany Medicine and Zoology Architecture Mining and Metal-working Other Technologies

FURTHER INFORMATION

REFERENCES AND WEBSITES VIDEOS

GLOSSARY


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AL-ANDALUS AND SCIENCE - STUDENT S GUIDE

WHAT ARE YOU GOING TO LEARN ABOUT?

Al-Andalus Pavilion, in the midst of Granada Science Centre, provides you a complete

vision of Arab-Muslim scientific heritage and invites you to value and preserve this cultural

legacy. So we are going to travel back in the past, understanding the medieval Muslim

scientific world, the role played by Al-Andalus and its relationships with the Mediterranean

area and Western Christendom.

Therefore, our main goals will be:

Meeting and knowing Al-Andalus scientific heritage and the influence ofmedieval Islamic science in the scientific history

Muslim culture as a link between East and West, North and South Knowing and remembering outstanding historic landmarks, cities and characters Understanding the way Islam Science recover, preserve , spread and develop the

scientific Greek and Roman legacy

How scientific knowledge has no clear boundaries between disciplines orbetween theory and applications.

The Pavilion is divided in two different floors:

The lower floor displays a small permanent exhibition analysing some aspects of Al-Andalus and Muslim scientific world. Educational workshop room is setting here.

The upper floor develops these topics using models, interactive media games, audio-visual resources.... You will spend most of time here, looking for the answers to

complete your workbook.


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VISIT PLAN - SCHEDULE

DEPARTURE: WE LEAVE AT 9.15 / 9.30 FROM IES ALBAYZIN BREAK TIME ABOUT 12.00 h BACK TO EXHIBITION / EDUCATIONAL WORKSHOP AT 12.30 ARRIVAL AT IES ALBAYZIN: 14.25 / 14. 35 PLEASE, BE RESPECTFUL OF TIMETABLE AND DONT BE LATE

Visiting the Exhibition

Upper FloorLower Floor

1 Routes of Science and Cities forWisdom

2 Al-Andalus. Eight centuries ofHistory

3 Sites 4 Al-Andalus & Science. 16 Cultural Routes ofEl legado

andalus

17 The Routes ofEl legadoandalus

5 Science in Al-Andalus 6 Astronomy and Mathematics 7 Cartography and Navigation 8 Water Systems 9 Mechanics 10 Optics, Physics and Chemistry 11 Agronomy and Botany 12 Medicine and Zoology 13 Architecture 14 Mining and Metal-working 15 Other technologies


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ROUTES OF SCIENCE AND CITIES FOR WISDOMIslam originated in the Arabian Peninsula at the beginning of 7

thcentury.

Soon Islam spread from the Arabian Peninsula eastwards to India and westward to the

Iberian Peninsula. Islamic culture and Empire soon assimilated culture and knowledge from theconquered territories.

In 9th

century the Caliph founded the firstHouse of Wisdom in Baghdad to translate the

most important Persian and Greek works into Arabic. The Arab scientists fused, preserved and

transmitted ancient (Greek-Latin) knowledge, but also developed it by making their own

contributions and achievements.

So, in the Middle Ages the Islamic World rediscovered the knowledge and wisdom of

Classical Greece and Rome and Ancient Orient. This knowledge was transmitted in Arabic and

came to Europe through Italy and the Iberian Peninsula, and through other contacts (trading

exchanges, travels, pilgrimage and Crusades).

During the emirate of Abd al-Rahman II, this scientific legacy arrived to Iberian

Peninsula (=Al-Andalus) from the East as an endless flow of learning and spread to the rest of

Europe. So Al-Andalus became the actual forefront of medieval science and thinking in

Europe; Classical knowledge came back to the West thanks to translations from Arabic

language.

In the Iberian Peninsula translations was carried out in the Spanish March (during 10th

century) and later in the Ebro Valley, Seville and Toledo (works during King Alfonso X the

Wise were particularly worthy).

AL-ANDALUS. EIGHT CENTURIES OF HISTORYAl-Andalus was the name the Muslims gave to the Iberian Peninsula (Spain and

Portugal) and more specifically, to the territory they controlled. The area covered by Al-

Andalus differs of that of modern Andalusia, but is here that the Moors stayed the longest.

A brief summary of the history of Al-Andalus: Traditionally, we divide this time infour different periods:

1. THE UMAYYADS (711-1031 AD. / 92- 422 H.)Muslims arrived to Iberian Peninsula in 711 AD. Within a period of 7 years Muslims

conquerors came to dominate almost all of this land, except small regions in the North. The

ruling Dynasty, the Umayyads governed from Cordoba; they came

from Damascus and first founded an Emirate and later a Caliphate.

2. THE TAIFA KINGDOMS(1031-1086 AD / 422-479 H.)

After the Umayyad power collapse, some local and regional

lords became independent kings (malik) of small kingdoms (taifa) and

created courts as magnificent as Cordoba. There were noteworthy

governors in Toledo, Zaragoza, Granada, Seville or Almeria.


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3. ALMORAVIDS AND ALMOHADS (1086-1232 AD/ 476-630 H.)To stop the advance of Christians, the Taifa Kingdoms

asked for help to the Almoravids, a Bereber dynasty from the

Sahara. They entered Al-Andalus, swept

aside the Taifa Kingdoms and extendedtheir empire throughout Al-Andalus.

Later, Almohades took control of

Al-Andalus, and established their capital

in Seville. This dynasty went into decline

from 1212 onwards after, and were

defeated at Las Navas de Tolosa battle by Aragon and Castile

Christian Kingdoms.

4. THE NASRID KINGDOM OF GRANADA(1232-1492 AD / 629-879H.)

Ruled by the Nasrid dynasty, this was the last Muslimterritory on the Iberian Peninsula and survive for 250 years despite

of its political weakness. In 1492, after being conquered by Castile

Kingdom the last Nasrid King, Boabdil (=Abu Abd Allah) left the

Iberian Peninsula and settle in Northern Africa.

ISLAM, AL-ANDALUS & SCIENCE. EXHIBITIONThe Islamic Empire absorbed the culture and teachings of the lands it conquered.

Initially, Arabic science was known for its ability to integrate Greek, Syrian, Sanskrit andPersian teachings and the knowledge of other cultures. Ancient classical works by Aristotle,

Plato, Galeno, Hippocrates, Ptolemy, Euclid and Archimedes were published and disseminated

thanks to their Arabic translations.

Moorish scientists did not just fuse together and disseminate ancient science; however,

they also developed it extensively by making their own significant contributions. Disciplines

such as astronomy, mechanics, physics, geography and medicine were enriched by constant

exchange. The adoption of a single language, Arabic, helped to extend the network of

knowledge to the most remote areas.

Another element that helped dissemination was the introduction of paper in the Arab

world in the 8th

century, making copying easier and bringing about the proliferation of many

works. In the 10th

century, paper was present at the court of the Cordoba Caliphate.Trade, pilgrimages and journeys for study made by the people from Al-Andalus meant

that the region took an active part in science being developed in the Islamic East and on the

southern shore of the Mediterranean.

Al-Andalus was a cultural bridge that recovered the knowledge of the classical tradition

and oriental science and from the 11th

to 13th

centuries, Arab-Latin translators worked for the

transfer of this knowledge to the rest of Europe.

To conclude, the aim of this exhibition and school-work on science in Al-Andalus is to

take a look at the importance of Al-Andalus history, to highlight Islamic scientific world


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between the 8th

and 15th

centuries, and to underline significant scientific achievements in a

variety of disciplines such us Astronomy, Agronomy, Mathematics, Pharmacology, Botany,

Medicine and Navigation.

A significant proportion of this knowledge clearly shows the extent of scientific

collaboration between different communities, societies and religions, all of which were driven

by a single purpose; the desire to discover and apply this knowledge for the benefit ofmankind.

The 15th century Nasrid Granada (A Model): Knowing the Muslim city

Under the rule of Nasrids Granada was protected by a wall surrounding the city, with

gates all around the medina (= Muslim city). The citadel of the Alhambra was on the top of a

red hill (al-Hamra) protected by walls and towers.

In Moorish Garnata (Granada) streets were narrow and winding. The heart of the city

was the commercial area, around the Great Mosque, and featured the Alcaiceria, the old Arab

bazaar where silk and other luxury goods were sold. There were too a large number of public

baths and flour mills. Outside the city walls there were many almunias with gardens.At this time Granada had an estimated population of 70.000 people.

The Medina was located

in the centre of Garnata. This was

a walled area including a wide

variety of buildings such as the

Great Mosque, other smaller

mosques, souks or markets, the

madrasa or former Islamic

college, the Alcazar (governors

residence) as well as baths. The

medina was surrounded bysuburbs called arrabales.

The Arrabales sprung up

outside the walled area when the

city began to grow. They were

sometimes given the name of the

craftsmen community that

inhabitated them. Each one had

its own facilities and services

(mosques, baths, souks...).

The medina was surrounded and protected by walls. Walls were fortified by defensivetowers and barbicans. Crossing the walls there were gateways with complex architectural

structures featuring double doors or right angled bend. A city was as important as the number

of gateways it had. Garnata had more than 30 of them; the finest were Puerta Elvira, Puerta de

las Pesas and Puerta de Bibarrambla.

As other Muslim big cities, Garnata had various cemeteries as well as one for Jews and

another for Christians. Following Roman tradition, they were usually located outside the city

walls, close to the main gates. Sometimes they were absorbed by growing cities. Granada had


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six main cemeteries: the Puerta Elvira, Socaster, La Sabika, The Puerta de los Alfareros, Los

Extranjeros y La Rauda.

Mosques were religious buildings used by Muslims to worship. The quibla wall

determines the direction in which mosques face and featured the mihrab, where the iman stand

to lead prayers. A tower or minaret is the place used by muezzin (prayer caller) to call

worshippers to prayer five times a day. Mosques also had a courtyard with a fountain forablutions. The main mosque in the city or Aljama (in the same place of current Cathedral) was

one of the over 200 mosques founded in Garnata.

Public Baths were important buildings in Al-Andalus day-life; worshippers were

required to wash themselves before praying. Public baths or hammam were similar to Roman

hot baths and comprised four different rooms: a vestibule to put away the clothes, one cold

bath room, one warm and the other hot. Granada should have many baths although only four

have survived, the most important of these are The Bauelo.

Houses were built in the Mediterranean style with an enclosed courtyard or patio. The

exterior had usually few windows generally covered by lattice woodwork panels to prevent

people looking from the outside.

Water was supplied by several irrigation channels. The Aynadamar channel is believedto be the very first of them. They were also many aljibes, tanks used to store rainwater, in the

city.

Outskirts the city, there were the almunias, leisure estates with gardens and plantations.

The finest of these estates belonged to the upper-class people. Almunias had an ornamental and

aesthetic purpose as well as were farms to make money and trial grounds for the

acclimatisation of seeds and crops from Middle East.

The Maristan was a hospital used at first to treat all kind of illness, but at last used to

care for the insane. In Granada, the maristan was founded in fourteenth century by the Nasrid

sultan Muhammad V. It has many rooms, a spacious courtyard and stores.

Themadrasa was an Islamic college. Granadas madrasa was built in the middle of the

fourteenth century by sultan Yusuf I. Here the most famous teachers and schoolmasters gave

lessons on grammar, Arabic poetry, mathematics, astronomy, medicine and natural sciences.

However, the most important were the study of the Koran. Subjects were taught orally and also

involved the reading of core texts.

Inside the medina the souk was the place for the economic activities (trade and

craftsmanship). The Alcaicera was an enclosed area inside the souk, were goods were sold.

During the Nasrids, the Alcaiceria in Granada was a commercial area dedicated to the trading

of silk and other luxury goods. Alhondigas were used to store goods and provide lodges for

merchants and traders. A fine example of them is the Corral del Carbn, which stands opposite

the Alcaiceria and is the only surviving alhondiga in Spain.

CULTURAL ROUTES OFEL LEGADO ANDALUS

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--- UPPER FLOOR ---SCIENCE IN AL-ANDALUS

Al-Andalus Pavilion takes a look at Islamic scientific legacy. It deals with disciplinessuch as trigonometry, combinatorial analysis and algebra. Calculus, along with astronomy and

its instruments, is subject of special analysis, along with physics and optics. Geography,

cartography, navigation and travel are also a major source of information. Not forgetting

medicine, so closely linked with pharmacology, botany, alchemy and chemistry.

Other sciences such us veterinary science, zoology, geology and music are also present

in this Pavilion. Agronomy, architecture and the decorative arts are closely linked to the history

of Al-Andalus, and are also present in this scientific dimension.

From the Orient to the Occident, in the Middle Ages the Arabic-Islamic Worldrediscovered the knowledge and wisdom of Classical Greece and Rome and of the Ancient

Orient. This knowledge was transmitted in Arabic and came to Europe through Italy and the

Ibherian Peninsula, and through other contacts such as those established through the Crusades,

trading exchanges and travels.

Human movement, pilgrimages, the export of works and knowledge, were all common

practice in the Mediterranean, so there were a multitude of books and scientific learning

brought from Iraq, Syria, Egypt, Tunisia .

Contrary to the current concept of specialisation, the learned men of that age would be

specialists in various fields of science at the same time. Many of them knew about medicine,

pharmacology and botany. Meanwhile, knowledge of mathematics, astronomy, optics and

philosophy often also existed in parallel.

The Arabs distinguished between the sciences linked to Islam and their own tradition

and those that originated in other civilizations, which they called sciences of the ancients. Thisterm helps us to understand the contribution made by Arabic science, through its roots, on the

one hand in the Mediterranean in Classical Greece and Rome and on the other hand in the

Orient from Mesopotamia to India and China.

The classical legacy entered Arabic science through Greek translations, commissioned

especially from the year 750 AD. Onwards under the second Abbasid Caliph, al-Mansur, the

builder of Baghdad (754-775), assimilation and development of the classical legacy continued

for a further three centuries.

The legacy of classical Greece and Rome came to Al-Andalus by three main routes:

From the Arabic Orient, through the contacts the Andalusians had with thecentral core of the Arab-Islamic culture to which they belonged.

From the native people of the Iberian Peninsula, who stayed in Al-Andalus andkept their Latin culture active until the 10 th century. Trough relations with Byzantium, which were decisive in the 10th century,

when the Byzantine Emperor sent the caliph of Cordoba the Materia Medica by

Dioscorids and theHistory by Paulus Orosius.

Knowledge and Learning in ArabicIn the 1

stcentury Hegira (8

thcentury AD.), a process of development of knowledge

began that was to bear important fruits, especially in the followings fields:


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1.- Essential wisdomsReligious sciences and jurisprudence

Language and Literature

Geography:

Descriptive geography Physical geography Cartography Accounts of travels

History:

Universal and dynastic chronicles Biographies

2.- Rational SciencesPhysical sciences:

MedicineZoology and VeterinaryAgronomyBotanyPharmacologyPhysicsOpticsChemistry and AlchemyGeologyMeteorology

Philosophy:

LogicMetaphysics

Mathematics and geometry:

Numbers and calculusAlgebra geometry

Astronomy:

Observation and planetary theories TrigonometryAstronomical instruments

Music:

Theory and practiceInstruments

3.- Applied sciencesMechanics

Hydraulics

Mineralogy

Metallurgy

Navigation


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Architecture and construction techniques

Other technologies (ceramics, glass, paper, textiles and others)

ASTRONOMY AND MATHEMATICSAstronomy is directly linked with Maths, and soon became an important discipline,

supported by political power and social elites (upper social class). During Middle Ages,

Astronomy was linked to Astrology.

Astronomical tables, almanacs, equatoriums, spherical calculators and astrolabes were

some of the instruments that underwent significant development.

In the East, major astronomical observatories were created (Maragha, Samarkand) and

will have an important role in medieval astronomy.

ASTRONOMY

The Arabic legacy in astronomy was the fruit of the assimilation of previous traditions

(Mesopotamian, Hellenistic, Greek and Indian-Iranian) and their own original ideas, and is one

of the most brilliant examples of a shared Mediterranean scientific heritage.

This heritage is both intangible, in that it deals with ideas and vocabulary, including

technical terminology and the names of stars, and tangible in that it is made up of manuscripts

and instruments, which as the faithful companions of the astronomer accompanied him on a

roundabout journey through the great scientific centres of the medieval Arab world, from

Baghdad to Cordoba and from al-Andalus to Samarkand.

Astronomers and observatories had access to quadrants, armillary spheres, astrolabes and

other sophisticated instruments that enabled them to observe the heavens, draft theories,

calculate tables and measure the time and, also to pray, fast, make pilgrimages and bury theirdead as required by Islamic tradition.

Astronomy and Portable Astronomical InstrumentsAstronomers and Observatories needed the right tools for their work and this meant that

many of the instruments inherited from the Ptolemaic tradition were improved, and new

instruments were invented.

Together these astronomers produced hundreds of

treatises which are preserved today for posterity in

thousands of manuscript copies in public and private

libraries. These texts do not normally provideinformation about the technology or the materials used in

the construction of the instruments. Astronomers were

often themselves astrolabe-makers and constructed their

own instruments, but we also have records of astrolabes

and quadrants that were made for sale on a highly

specialized market.


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The Universal Instruments of Al-AndalusThe history of the design of astronomical instruments has many things in common with the

history of applied mathematics and the development of descriptive geometry and the theory of

projections.

Mediaeval literature on astronomical instruments includes a number of works that are

compendia of the instruments known by their respective authors. Some of these are standardwell-known instruments in general circulation, but others are geometrically complicated

variants whose real existence is uncertain.

Al-Andalus made a distinguished contribution in the materialization of what were complex

options, and between the 11th

and 14th

centuries, Andalusian astronomers and astrolabists

updated these standard instruments which then made their way back to the Orient and the rest

of Europe.

Astronomy and AstrologyAstrology, as applied astronomy, often justified the theoretical importance of astronomy.

Kings and Queens sponsored the work of astronomers believing that they would provide themwith tables with which they could make more accurate horoscopes, and some of them in their

double role as astronomers and astrologers enjoyed a privileged position as Royal councillor.

Court astrology was fashionable in the Emirate and the Caliphate of al-Andalus, in spite

of opposition from alfaques (experts in law) and certain poets. Alongside this elitist astrology,

there was another mass market form ofastrology, which was perhaps less mathematical and

closer in essence to magic.

From the fusing together of Oriental materials, al-Andalus inherited historical horoscopes,

the astrological technique of choices and astrological meteorology, to which it added its own

contribution, the survival of Latin techniques of judiciary astrology.

Andalusian astrologers developed mathematical astrology techniques which simplified the

calculation of planet longitudes for the horoscope, and mathematical techniques and tables thatwere applied to the calculation of astrological procedures such as the projection of rays,

astrological progressions (tasyr) and the division of the ecliptic into houses.

Production of Astronomical IdeasAfter an initial phase of translation and assimilation, Arabic astronomers soon began to

produce their first original works with descriptions of the stars, references to spherical

astronomy and applied trigonometry, planetary models and astronomical tables.

Mediaeval Arabic sources refer to open-air observation stations

in private residences, in royal gardens or in public places. In the 9th

century there were observatories in Baghdad (al-Shamasiyya) and in

Damascus (al-Qasiyun), but these were something of an exception andit was not until the 13

thcentury that the important Observatory of

Maragha was created, which was later followed by those in

Samarkand (15th

c.) and Istanbul (16th

c.).

There are no references to observatories in Muslim countries in

the West, except for the occasional mention of the use of towers for

observation purposes.


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Astronomy, Religion and Everyday LifeThe calculation of praying times or the azimuth of the alquibla are examples of the

ways in which astronomical discoveries were applied to everyday life. Alquibla means

direction, although in an Islamic context, it is clear that the direction of Kaaba, the temple in

Mecca, is the direction par excellence.

Facing in the right direction when praying, or at other significant moments such aswhen sacrificing an animal, relieving oneself or burying someone, are all rules set down in the

Koran, which not only remain in effect today, but are also a key part of the Muslim symbolic

universe. In their prayers, Muslims travel towards Mecca in a Spiritual sense, but they also

travel there physically when they comply with another basic requirement of their religion:

pilgrimage.

MATHEMATICS

Arabic mathematics is the result of a juxtaposition and subsequent synthesis of different

ancient legacies that were significantly enriched during the period of innovation that extended

from the 9th to the 15th centuries.Geometry and number theory came from Greece. The decimal positional system was

recovered from India. The procedures of calculus, measurement, calculation and problem

solving came from Mesopotamia, Egypt, China and probably from the Iberian Peninsula as

well.

From these theoretical and practical contributions, original contributions were devised

over the centuries: obtaining new results in ancient disciplines (geometry, number theory); the

study of new mathematical objects (plane and solid figures, number series); the development of

approximation methods; the creation of new disciplines. Some of these, like algebra and

trigonometry, became autonomous with respect to other older disciplines. Others, such as

combinatorial analysis and the construction of magic squares, remained largely undeveloped.

Why did Islam culture develop the mathematical knowledge? Passion for science Territorial expansion: astronomy, geographic and cartographic knowledge

(trigonometry and navigation charts)

Religion: The calculation of praying times or the azimuth of the alquibla are examplesof the ways in which astronomical discoveries were applied to everyday life.Alquibla

means direction, although in an Islamic context, it is clear that the direction ofKaaba,

the temple in Mecca, is the directionpar excellence.

Mathematics: Theoretical and Practical Contribution

Numbers and Calculus Algebra Geometry Astronomy Geography and Cartography Physics Decoration


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Measuring TimeOn the Arabian Peninsula, as in the rest of the Middle East, a long time before the

arrival of Islam there were already empirical methods of observing the sky, so as to measure

the passage of time.

In Islam, the Muslim calendar was lunar and the civil day began at

sunset, with the result that the night always preceded the day to which itbelonged. The mawaqit are the five moments in the day set for holy

prayers. If greater precision is not required, they are taken as a reference

point to designate any phase of the day or night. During the expansion of

the Islamic Empire through the Grecian-Roman world, the Arabs

discovered the solar quadrant and Muslim astronomers, who were

interested in measuring time, began developing sundials and similar

devices.

GEOGRAPHY. CARTOGRAPHY AND NAVIGATIONThe Arabs inherited their knowledge of geography from the Greeks, and they extended

it not only because of their extraordinary passion for science, but also due to their own

territorial expansion, which covered great areas of Asia, Africa and Europe and gave them

interesting first-hand geographical information.

Their starting-point was Ptolemys Geography, which was translated into Arabic in the

9th

century. At the start of the 11th

century, al-Biruni carried out important geodesic research

and established the rules for spherical trigonometry as used in mathematical geography.

From the 11th

century onwards, the study of geography progressed in Al-Andalus and

Sicily. Maps were drawn in both the Orient and the Islamic West and a multitude of

geographical works of all kinds were written, such as geographical introductions to books on

universal history, travel stories and other similar works.Descriptive geography was developed in both the oriental and the occidental Muslim

world. Oriental geographers became particularly interested in the Mediterranean once they had

discovered the Maghreb. The Mediterranean nautical chart appeared in the 13th

century,

produced by cartographers from Italy, Majorca, North Africa and Al-Andalus, with detailed

descriptions of the coasts. Arabic astronomers twice corrected Ptolemys calculation of the size

of the Mediterranean, which was about 20 degrees out of line. This error was reduced by about

9 degrees, and in 10th

century they achieved such a high level of accuracy that in some tables of

geographical coordinates there was only a half a degree of difference from todays modem

measurements.

The greatest

geographer of the

Middle Ages was born

in Ceuta (1100), called

Al-Idrisi. His most

important work was

carried out in Sicily in the court of Christian king Roger, who gave him the task of producing a

world map. Al-Idrisi wrote hisNuzhzt al-mushtaq, the geographical masterpiece of the Middle

Ages, which combined both descriptive and mathematical geography.


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During the Middle Ages there were a number of important changes in navigation

techniques that affected technical aspects of the vessels, in particular the introduction of the

stern rudder (maybe from China), the triangular sail (allows for sailing against the wind) and

the use of navigation charts together with a compass. Treatises and diagrams showing tides, the

lunar mansions, etc. appeared to help ships on the right course.

Considerable impetus was given to astronomical navigation in Al-Andalus. They wereable to navigate without following the coastline, calculating latitude by the meridian height of

the sun or the polar star. Instruments such as the compass, nocturnal astrolabe and nautical

quadrants allowed sailors to establish their position, direction and speed.

WATER SYSTEMSThe water required for the irrigation system characteristic of agriculture in Al-Andalus

was obtained using a generalized hydraulic system, which has left its mark on the Spanish

language which uses numerous terms derived from Arabic such as: acequia (irrigation

channel), alberca (water tank), aljibe (cistern or well) amongst others.Written sources and archaeology have

given us an insight into the water system in

Al-Andalus, and the way water was collected,

distributed and used. This system was the

result of a synthesis of Yemeni and Berber

elements combined with those found locally.

One of the most interesting methods of

obtaining water from underground was trough

perforated galleries.

Both water and wind power have been

used since ancient times and appear in Greek treatises translated intoArabic. The practical applications of water-power for irrigation or for moving things were

developed in the Middle Ages, and the important role played by Al-Andalus can be seen in the

Arabic roots of Spanish words such as noria (waterwheel) and acea (watermill). Watermills

with wheels and trip-hammers were used by the people from Al-Andalus to remove the husk

from rice, grind cereals, etc., and also for making paper.

MECHANICSMechanics

Books on mechanics by Archimedes, Apollonius and otherswere translated from Greek into Arabic, and practical mechanical

applications varied greatly across the expanse of the Muslim world,

with the Roman tradition that was technically so important being

particularly influential.

The best-known Arabic treatises on mechanical matters

appeared between the 9th

and the 16th

centuries, beginning with the

works of Banu Musa ( Book of Ingenious Devices), which were


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followed by other scholars such as al-Khwarizmi, Avicenna, al-Saati (= the clockmaker), and

above all al-Djazari (13th

c.) with A compendium on the theory and practice of the mechanical

arts. In Al-Andalus, the treatise on automata by al-Muradi is particularly worthy of note.

Ibn Firnas: poet and inventorThere is a legend that shows this man from Cordoba (died 887) in flight. The story goes

that he donned feathers and wings and launched himself very briefly into the air before

plummeting down because he had not put on atail. Paving the way for other famous fliers,

his feat is well commemorated today and he can be seen for example gliding above the Ibn

Battuta Mall in Dubai.

He is also said to have contributed to the

progress of al-Andalus by applying his knowledge

of astronomy, alchemy and his art as a wordsmith:

understanding metrics, building an armillary

sphere, a clock with automata and even a

representation of the firmament that included

thunderbolts and lightning.He also had ideas on glass-making. He

composed songs and verse, and accompanied

another cultural hero, Ziryab, the great musician. The chroniclers of the Umayyads pointed

to the creativity of Ibn Firnas as proof of the level achieved by al-Andalus as early as the 9th

century.

Clepsidra. Nocturnal watch of water.Clepsidras are kind of watches which need neither batteries nor electricity. They work

with water.

The most antique ones date from ancient Egypt. They can measure the time depending

on what water takes to fall from one pitcher to the lower. The outlet hole had a determined

diameter so it was possible to control the time to fall. The level of the water indicated the

periods of time that was spending.

OPTICS, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRYPHYSICS

Arab scientists studied various aspects of Physics such as the statics of solids and

liquids, dynamics and optics. They also delved into mechanics, as we will see in another

section. The works of Ancient Greek scholars were acknowledged, discussed and extended bythese authors using mathematical and experimental approaches. Today we still have extant

about sixty Arabic works on statics, with important contributions by Avicena, al-Razi and al-

Biruni, or those by al-Khazini on gravity and the centre of the Earth.

Alfarabi, Abu Salt of Denia, Avempace, Averroes, and others discussed the philosophy

of Natrue and raised what were essentially physics questions, the first in his study of vacuum,

On vacuum, which was translated into Latin in the Middle Ages. Al-Bitrudji, otherwise known

asAlpetragius, was the first scientist in al-Andalus to mention the theory ofimpteus, in hisDe

Motibus Coelorum, translated into Latin by Michael Scot.


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CHEMISTRY

Chemistry and AlchemyAl-Kimiya is the Arabic name for chemistry and alchemy. Chemistry deals with

the transformation of materials to make dyes and inks, cosmetics and perfumes, to obtain

substances required in certain techniques or processes (textiles, ceramics, paper), applicationsin metal-work etc.

Alchemy however had more esoteric dimensions and proposed the transmutation of

elements to convert any metal into gold or to prepare the elixir of life. Various traditions came

together in Arabic al-Kimiyaincluding the Coptic and the Greek traditions.

There are records of the contributions made by over 40 Arabic chemists/alchemists until

the middle of the 11th

century, of whom Djabir (Geber in the Latin translation), Razi and

Alfarabi stand out. In al- Andalus Maslama the Cordoban (10th

c.) is another important figure,

with his great work Rank of the Wise Man, in which he analyses the transformation of metals

by heat, and refers to experiments such as the obtaining of mercury oxide, which brings to

mind the mercurius calcinatus of Lavoisier, the great 18th

century chemist.

Ibn Khaldun (14thc.), in his Introduction dedicates a chapter to alchemy and cites abrief treatise by the Andalusian Ibn Bisrun, a disciple of the great Maslama the Cordoban (10

th

c.), and for example states; The principles of this noble art had already been mentioned by the

Ancients. Those who wish to learn it must start by learning these three rules: 1. If

[transmutation] can occur; 2. From what does it occur?; and 3. How does it occur?

The StillThe use of the still (al-anbiq) was typical. It had three parts: the

pumpkin (qara), containing the material that was to be distilled, whichwas heated using water vapour or fire, and then passed on to the cold

still, where distillation took place before reaching the container

(qabila). Several stills could be mounted at the same time reaching over a

metre high.

OPTICS

Foremost amongst the Greek treatises on Optics translated into Arabic were those by

Euclid and Ptolemy, whose old Arabic version was translated into Latin in Sicily (13th

cent.).

In the 9th

century al-Kindi became the first scientist to prove that light travelled in a

straight line and he also made contributions on perspective. His work was translated into Latin

in the 12th

century under the titleDe aspectibus.

Notable Arabic works on theoretical and applied Optics continued to be produced over

the next four centuries. These dealt with reflection and refraction, eclipses, rainbows, visionand the propagation of light. The Latin versions made in the Iberian Peninsula show that their

originals in Arabic must also have passed through al-Andalus.

Ibn al-HaytamIbn al-Haytam of Basora (11

thcent.) is an outstanding example of rationality who

refuted the theory espoused by Greek philosophers of the Spirit of vision. He also presented

other new theories about visual perception and the properties of light and colours, combining


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physics, maths, physiology and psychology in his Book of Optics translated into Latin.

Cited by Roger Bacon and other European theorists, who adapted his name to Alhazen,

his works were also discussed by Persians and Turks. His epistle on burning mirrors De

speculis comburentibus was translated into Latin in Toledo in the 12th

century.

AGRONOMY AND BOTANYBOTANY

As in the rest of the mediaeval Islamic world, botany was closely linked to medicine

and pharmacology, and also to agronomy, which means that many of the writers referred to in

the sections on these subjects also appear in this section on botany.

TheMateria Medica by Dioscorides was the point of reference and inspiration for many

of the first works written in al-Andalus. Two other classical authors, Theophrastus and

Aristotle, also influenced the development of the study of botany, although to a much lesser

extent and a more philosophical level. Abu Hanifa al-Dinawari was the point of reference interms of the terminology used.

Initially, botanical information was most often found in treatises on pharmacology, as in

the treatise by Ibn Djuldjul, although little by little, new scholars emerged that ushered in a

new era in which various treatises were written, of which theBasic Guide to Plants for Doctors

is undoubtedly the most famous.

Leading Botanists and their ContributionsOne of the first botanist in al-Andalus of which we have records is al-Bakri, the author

of a book on plants which has unfortunately been lost. The first great work dedicated

exclusively to botany is attributed to Abu l-Kahyr, and established a modern system for the

taxonomic classification of plants, which was followed by later writers. Ibn Badjdja wrote a

small theoretical work in which he used more rudimentary methods of botanical classification.

Al-Nabati was the last-known botanists (to date) of al-Andalus. The information we have on

this work is still somewhat confusing, although he is said to have provided curious details on

plants from several different countries.

Various other scholars whose works contained botanical and pharmacological

information, such as Ibn Djuljul, al-Gafiqui, al-Idrisi and Ibn al-Baytar should also be added to

this list.

AGRONOMY AND AGRICULTURE

The arrival of the Arabs marked the beginning of the greatest and most far-reaching

development of agriculture on the Spanish Peninsula which, in spite of the high levels reached

during Roman times, had entered a phase of regression and stagnation under the Visigoths.

This development had a solid theoretical or agronomical base laid down by Andalusian

agronomists in their treatises and put into practical effect in a variety of tried and tested

agricultural techniques and practices that adapted well to the soils of al-Andalus.

The agronomy of al-Andalus was the product of a combination of classical, Oriental

Arabic and local traditions which expanded out first to North Africa and the Orient and later


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from the 16th

century onwards to the rest of the Iberian Peninsula.

Perhaps the most striking feature of this applied agronomy was the introduction of an

irrigation-based system of agriculture and more specifically of intensive field production,

which was something completely new and in marked contrast with what had existed hitherto.

The improvements brought by irrigation were

complemented with the introduction of new crops and thereintroduction of others that had been abandoned or

forgotten, together with a more intensive use of land by

reducing and at times eliminating fallow lands, with the

result that in many areas there was now for the first time a

summer harvest.

Species CultivatedCountry landscapes were greatly enriched with the

introduction and acclimatization of new species from

different parts of the Islamic world and the improvement

and diversification of existing species.

The first group included several species of particular

interest: citric fruits (bitter orange, lemons, limes, citron

fruit or a variety of grapefruit); some species for industrial use (mulberry, sugar cane, cotton,

henna), fruit and vegetables (aubergines, artichokes, melons, water-melons) and others such

as rice, pistachio nuts or date palms.

In the second group there was an increase in the varieties of cereals (specifically wheat

and millet) and fruit trees (apples, figs, pears, peaches, quinces, plums). Special attention was

given to certain tree species (jujube trees- azufaifos) which are now relatively uncommon, but

still form a traditional part of the landscape and culture of Granada.

Agricultural TechniquesMany techniques were proposed in these treatises for the different phases of the

agricultural cycle, some of which could still be applied today:

Preparation work: this involved levelling the land to prepare the ground and make it easierto irrigate and cultivate. This was followed by the fertilization of the soil by breaking it up,

ploughing it and turning it over.

Cultivation: grafting techniques highly developed in al-Andalus and with some surprisingcombinations, demonstrate that these agronomists had a profound knowledge of botany.

These techniques had an obvious application in the improvement and the diversity of the

species cultivated. The idea of pollination as a technique of sexual propagation was

equally interesting. Fertilisers: the most commonly used fertilisers were of animal origin, including pigeon

manure. As the agronomists themselves pointed out, the use of fertilisers from birds, rich in

nitrates, or from young plant humus and manure, can transmit illnesses. They also

recommended composts made with straw, manure and ash.

Irrigation: The advances achieved in water collection and distribution were essential forthe development of the new agriculture of al-Andalus, as they enabled a rationalization of

what was highly-prized resource.


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Pest/Weed control: certain techniques used for weed control based on competitionbetween species are most interesting and highly topical. Examples include the sowing of

lupins which were later buried as a part of the fight against grama grass and other harmful

weeds, the basis for modern weed control studies. Other techniques which were then

considered to be of a magical nature are known today to have a rational explanation.MEDICINE AND ZOOLOGY

MEDICINE & PHARMACOLOGY

Medicine was one of the most important sciences for the Arabs, and the most developed

branch of medicine was pharmacology, which was based on traditional knowledge of the

curative power of plants. Botanic gardens were created, in many cases alongside hospitals,

which meant that the doctors had their own plants with which to prepare the medicines they

prescribed to their patients.

Plants were the main ingredients, but they also used minerals and animal substances.

The aim was to find substances that had direct curing powers (simple medicines) or that when

combined formed more active medicines (compound medicines).

Books on pharmacology covered a wide range within medical literature. These included

lists of simple medicines in alphabetical order, pharmacopoeias, treatises against poisons,hospital formularies, and those that referred to specific uses (eye drops, poultices) There

were also encyclopaedic works and others on remedies and foods that stressed the importance

of diet as part of a preventive, hygiene-based form of medicine.

MedicineThere is a traditional form of medicine known as the Medicine of the Prophet. Arabic

medical studies began around the end of the 8

th

century, using the traditions of the Ancients,above all Galen and Hippocrates, as a base. The first medical texts in Arabic were written in

the 9th

century and their theoretical and experimental creativity continued for a further six

centuries, as can be seen in a multitude of different works.

Together with Mathematics and Astronomy, Medicine formed part of the triad of great

Arabic contributions to Science, because of its philosophy, its advances in diet, hygiene and

illness prevention, surgery, ophthalmology, drugs and hospital treatment.

Experimentation was fundamental to these advances and for example, 14th

century

doctors from Granada faced with a number of serious epidemics came up with the theory of

contagion. Al-Kindi anticipated the Law proposed by Weber (d. 1878) on the relationship

between the dose of medicine and its effect. Ibn al-Nafis (13th

c.) described pulmonary

circulation, in a similar way to that proposed by Servet three centuries later. Arab contributionsto medicine were extended and prolonged through translations into Latin, Hebrew and

Romance languages.

SurgerySurgery was a branch of medicine that flourished under the Arabs. Leading figures

included Abu I-Qasim al-Zahrawi, or Abulcasis (in the Latinized form of his name) who lived

in Madinat al-Zahra and Cordoba in the 10th

11th

centuries. His Book for practising


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(medicine) without having to consult any other texts has 30 volumes, and deals particularly

with Pathology, Hygiene and Pharmacology. Volume XXX discusses cauterization, surgery

and bone fractures and described the instruments used, some of which such as forceps were

new.

OphthalmologyFrom the 11

thcentury onwards, Arabic ophthalmology, with Ali

b Isa, a Christian from Baghdad, and Ammar de Mosul, offered a

variety of new ideas (for example, suction of cataracts). His treatises

were translated into Latin with contributions that have been essential

for modern ocular pathology since the 18th

century. The classification of

materials into a basic Guide such as that produced by al-Gafiqi (12th

c.) from Cordoba were precursors of those produced by modern

ophthalmology,

Eminent PhysiciansAl-Razi (10th c.), author of about 200 works, half of which wereon medicine including his al-Hawi, an extensive work in 25 volumes, refers to the medical

knowledge of the Greeks, Syrians, Arabs, Persians and Indians and adds his own shrewd

observations and experiences.

His work was translated into Latin by the Jewish doctor Farragut in 1279, and was

printed on numerous occasions in Europe after 1486, Al-Razi also wrote essays on the doctor-

patient relationship, hospitals, calculations etc. His study of small-pox and measles was the

first written work on these illnesses, and was translated into Latin and other languages and

printed about 40 times between 1498 and 1866.

Many other physicians are mentioned in books entitled Categories ofdoctors such as

that written by the Andalusian Ibn Djuldjul. We should also remember Avicena with his lengthyCanon of Medicine, that spread in Latin and Hebrew versions the Andalusian physicians

Avenzoar and Averroes Eminent Jewish physicians such as Maimonides also wrote in

Arabic.

HospitalsHospitals treatment, promoted by the Government, was an integral part of Arabic

medicine, from the 8th

century onwards. There are records of eight hospitals in mediaeval

Baghdad; three in Damascus, and three more in Aleppo; five in Cairo, at least one in Mosul,

Jerusalem, Gaza, Mecca, Medina, Alexandria, Tunis, Fez,

Marrakech and Granada. Many eminent physicians had links with

these hospitals or maristanes.

ZOOLOGY

The Arabs knowledge of zoology and veterinary science

also included some basic concepts of Greek and Roman origin

among others.

They also made their own discoveries which they then

passed on: a good example is the zoological part of the voluminous


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encyclopaedia by Avicena, al-Sif, which was translated for King Frederick II of Sicily

(approx. 1230) by Michael Scot under the Latin title ofAbbreviatio Avicennae de animalibus.

There were plenty ofBooks on animals in Arabic and more practical references could

be found in agricultural treatises on the productivity and care of domestic animals. All of these

writings contain a large variety and amount of real and symbolic zoological information, which

was also presented in the images of animal frequently portrayed in different art forms andworks.

ARCHITECTURE

Genesis and Urban EvolutionFrom the beginning, Islamic society was highly urban. When the Muslims arrived on

the Iberian Peninsula, urban life had taken a significant step backward when compared with the

Roman era, as across all of western Europe. With the stabilization of Islamic rule, especially in

the 10thcentury, both ancient and new cities experienced extremely important development,

unequalled in Europe, with Cordoba, the Anadalusian capital of the Omeya Caliphate,

becoming the largest and most populated city of its time.

The conquerors of Al-Andalus used existing cities and, unlike in other Islamic areas,

did not found any new ones after they have settled for good. The most important urban centres

(Cordoba, Toledo, Merida, Saragossa and

Seville) remained in the earlier sites,

although their road structure and appearance

were transformed. Some cities, like

Saragossa, preserved a large part of the

Roman layout.The newly created cities, like Murcia

and Badajoz, consolidated the control of the

central power. Both these and existing cities

(like Cordoba) usually expanded on a fairly

regular basis, although the characteristics of Islamic society and demographic pressure resulted

in them having an irregular and compact appearance, common in densely populated cities. Of

all the cities founded by the Andalusians, the court cities were particularly outstanding, with

the spectacular palace areas of the caliphs and sultans who built them and court and

administrative residences, in addition to all the elements usually found in Islamic cities. Two

examples of this are Madinat al-Zahra in Cordoba and the Alhambra in Granada.

Urban Structure and City ElementsThe Islamic city ormadina was characterized by a set of elements, some of which were

common to other cultures. The city walls demarcated the city and defended its inhabitants. The

mosques were the distinctive element on which the city structure was based; they were usually

centres for teaching as well. The aljama mosque (from the Arabic to gather), initially the only

on each city, brought the Muslim community together for prayer on Fridays, and was both

religious and political in nature.


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Around the mosque lay commercial areas or zocos, this extended down the main

thoroughfares and linked the aljama to the city gates. Shops and workshops were grouped by

activity, with some located on the periphery for health reasons. With direct access to the area

outside the city, there might be walled enclosures or fortresses (alcazaba), where the local

power resided. At times, neighbourhoods or shantytowns developed with their own structures

like those in the medina mosques, neighbourhood markets, baths, etc., all protected bysuccessive rows of walls.

In the earliest phases of its development, the city would have wide open spaces which,

as the population grew, were filled with the production of craftwork and buildings. The cities

had different systems for supplying water, at time using irrigation ditches and channels from

outside the city. In most cases, water was obtained from wells or cisterns inside the cities.

When the supply was sufficient, the city had a sewer system.

Construction techniquesMuslim civilization took advantage of construction techniques and forms of different

origins. In al-Andalus, Roman and even earlier forms of construction were still in use, along

with new arrivals from the East, some of which underwent important subsequent development.

Of the pre-existing techniques, some like stonecutting were only in limited use at the time,

becoming less common in the 11th

century, despite its widespread use in the 10th

century,

especially in Cordoba. Constructions with brick and adobe (uncooked bricks) were among

those most used in public and domestic architecture.Of the traditional techniques in the Mediterranean that were most widely developed in

al-Andalus and northern Africa, doubtless the most important was the technique of rammed

earth (in Spanish, tapial), which consisted of using moulds or wooden frames to make walls of

rammed earth, a mixture of earth, aggregates and other stabilisers like calcium or gypsum,

creating a real concrete.

Innovative techniques reached al-Anadlus from Persia and Iraq, usually related to theuse of a material that was very abundant both here and there, but that had not been taken

advantage of before: plaster. Its use for

finishing surfaces and embellishment was

widespread, taken advantage of its easy

carving, and it was also used as a

conglomerate in stone, brick and rammed

earth constructions. Some exceptional

techniques reduced or eliminated the use of

auxiliary structures like formwork and

moulds to hold up arches and vaults during

the construction process, common in areasthat were low on wood. This led to the

development of ribbed brick vaults with

plaster mortar, a technique already known in

Pharaonic Egypt and Mesopotamia, and

timber vaults in al-Andalus, starting in at least the 12th

century and widely used even today.

Without a doubt, the shining example of the synthesis of European structural influences

and Islamic decorative influences is found in woodwork. Designed to build cover structures


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that would be visible from inside, this technique was developed in the Christian areas on the

Peninsula with spectacular results for several centuries after al-Andalus. It required the

extensive application of geometry, using simple formulas to design structures and yet was easy

to do, despite the spectacular and complex results.

In addition to woodwork, ornamental architecture also featured the use of carved plaster

in different compositions (geometric, floral and epigraphic) and the use of glazed pottery,applied in pieces that were cut to form mosaics with compositions that were largely geometric,

simulating intertwined bows and creating works of exquisite beauty.

MINING AND METAL-WORKINGMining was an important industry in al-Andalus. There are records of mines of gold,

silver, copper, brass, mercury, lead, alcohol or galena, iron sulphur, tutty, alum, copperas,

zaffre, rock crystal, asphalt, marble, lime, gypsum and some precious stones, as well as sea salt

and rock salt. We have textual information about these mines and other clues such as place-names including those derived from the Arabic word al-madin: Almaden (the mine).

Written sources have shown that there was a significant metal-working industry in al-

Andalus and archaeological findings have done likewise in Salts (Huelva) and in Vascos

(Toledo), where hammers, axes, punches, pointers and other tools have been found, along with

large amounts of iron slag, all of which are signs of mining and metal-working activity.

Numerous metal objects (both luxury and practical items) from the al- Andalus period survive

today, for example the amazing selection of tools found at Litor (Albacete). Written sources

refer to certain places where they were made: al-zuhri, a 12th

century geographer from Almera,

mentions the factory (dar al-sinaa: atarazana) in Huesca, that produced elegant helmets and

coats of mail and instruments made from copper and iron;he also says of Seville: they also

export alfinde (type of steel) from this city and they manufacture Indian steel too, as nearbythere is a mine of alfinde powder (used to treat the iron).

Mining CentresMetallurgy developed near miming centres. Metals and alloys were produced, the main

ones being silver, copper, lead, mercury and, specially, iron. At the mine al Almaden, so-called

xabeca, ovens (for reducing cinnabar to mercury) were manufactured and in use until almost

the end of the 16th

century.

The iron mines were concentrated in the

mountain ranges of Seville and Cordoba and to a lesser

extent in the Sierra Menera (Teruel), Zenete (Granada),

the Montes de Toledo and Castelln. Copper came fromGranada, Almeria, Toledo and Huelva (Rio Tinto and

Tarsis) and Ajustrel (Portugal). The mine at Almaden

was the principal source of cinnabar and mercury. Lead

and silver mining was concentrated in the mountain

ranges of Cordoba and Cartagena, the Montes de Toledo,

Granada and Almeria. Alum mines for the textile and

leather industries were located above all at Cabo de Gata


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(Almeria), Mazarrn (Murcia) and Rio Tinto (Huelva).

The minting of coins was very important and fine metallurgy techniques for gold and

silver developed to that end. The main gold mining centres in al-Andalus were at the Darro and

Genil Rivers (Granada) and the Segre River (Lerida).

Quarries with clay, gypsum, lime and decorative rocks were spread across the area, but

the most important were found in Constantina (Seville), Macael (Almera), Montemayor(Malaga), Los Almadenes (Murcia) and Tarragona. Salt mines, such as those at Cadiz,

Saragossa and La Malaha, were also quite important.

The Mines of Obejo (Crdoba)The geographer al-Idrisi -12

thc.- describes the mercury and cinnabar mines (about 400

metres deep), he visited in Obejo, a days journey north of Cordoba, [whose products] areexported all over the world. Over a thousand men work here, some going down the shafts to cut

the stone, others transporting wood for the combustion of the mineral, others with the vessels

in wich the mercury is melted and sublimed, and others with the furnaces and the fire .

Coin MakingAnother important side of the material industry was coin making. Coins were an

instrument of fiscal authority, issued under a monopoly system and in large quantities by

almost all the successive States of al-Andalus, and represented their power. In general, they

coined gold dinars and silver dirhams, with occasional fall-backs into low alloys and copper

coins (felus). The coining process was carried out in the Royal Mint (dar aikka: from which

Spanish word ceca is derived), and the various workmen involved included an engraver

(naqqas), as the coins were adorned with expressive lettering and decorations.

OTHER TECHNOLOGIESWEAPONS

Military TechnologyWar played a central part in medieval society in the Iberian Peninsula. As a result, there

were great developments in armaments, which were put to use by Christians and Muslims

alike.

There were various types of arms, offensive ones

such as swords, lances, bows and crossbows, as well as

defensive weaponry such as shields and helmets. Siege

machines were also produced and included wooden towers,catapults and gunpowder weapons including muskets,

large-bore cannons and smaller cannons.

WeaponsThe Arabs used a variety of metal-based offensive

and defensive weapons (swords, lances and spears, maces,

bows and cross-bows, arrows, shields, helmets and chain mail). These came in different shapes,


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types and qualities and the way they were forged was highly valued. In his Epistle on

Swords, the 9th

century philosopher al-Kindi describes two kinds of iron, natural and

manufactured. He divides the first kind into hard and light, plus the combination of the two

forged together. The manufactured kind, he says, is steel; it is manufactured with iron; and

during casting a purifier is added which tempers it until it becomes hard and flexible, and can

be worked in the fire.

GunpowderA variety of projectiles were shot with catapults (mandjaniq). In the Nasrid Emirate of Granada

they used primitive cannons known in Arabic as naphtha devices which were fired with

gunpowder (barud): Emir Ismail I besieged the frontier town of Huscar in 1324 A.D./724 H.,

as recounted by the Vizier Ibn al-Khatib: he surrounded the town completely, lined up his

troops for the attack and fired with a powerful device that worked with naphtha throwing

flaming balls at a small window of an inaccessible tower in the fort and produced effects like

those produced by rays of lightning that fall from the sky.

POTTERY AND GLASSWORK

PotteryThere must have been a significant amount of production in al-Andalus, judging from

the archaeological, artistic and monumental remains, producing notable techniques, pieces and

styles which evolved with great personality, and products for export. The techniques and

features would live on in Mudejar and Moorish pottery and extend across the Peninsula,

especially green-and-brown ware (in Teruel, Peterna, Manresa) and blue ware (in Teruel,

Calatayud, Paterna, Manises, Barcelona, Fajalauza and more).

Al-Andalus brought together eastern and indigenous ceramic traditions. The most

significant innovation in al-Anadalus was glazing. Known in Roman times, it came to al-Anadalus from Persia and required the application of techniques like lead- and tin-glazing, wall

tiling, the dry line or cuerda seca technique and lusterware. The green-and-brown technique,

characteristic of the pottery from the Omeya Caliphate, was tin-glazed. Dry line began to be

used in al-Andalus in the 10th

century: the design was outlines with a line of manganese and

oil, separating the pigments, and then glazed in a second firing.

The prestigious lusterware or loza dorada arrived in al-Andalus from the East in the

10th

century. During the Nasrid Emirate, Malaga (which gave its name to this pottery, Malicha

orMalica) produced magnificent examples (like the famous Alhambra vases). The piece, fired

one, was submerged in lead and tin sulphide and then decorated with cobalt oxide (which

produced blue over the tin glazing). The lustre was the result of applying silver, copper and

mercury sulphides and iron and alum oxides before firing the piece a third time (at 650). From

the 14th

century on, these techniques was exported to Manises and Paterna and spread across

Aragon, Catalonia and Murcia.

Pottery and KilnsRecent archaeological finds contributed more information through the identification and

study of pottery and kilns in al-Andalus, in excavations ranging from Pechina-Almeria to

Balaguer, Denia, Murcia, Priego and Saragossa. Archaeologists are now beginning to learn


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about the origin of this enormous production of everyday and luxury crockery by analysing the

components. Two types of kiln: single-chamber with kiln bars; double-chamber with vertical

flue.

Glasswork in al-AndalusArabic writers describe glass as one of the most outstanding products of al-Andalus in

the Middle Ages. Ibn Sad al-Mafribi (13th

century), for example referred to glass producers in

Malalga and Almeria, and said that Murcia was renowned for the manufacture of glass and

ceramics; from both materials they make large vessels in the most elegant and exquisite

shapes. In spite of these references showing glass

objects, until recently very few glass pieces from the al-

Andalus period had been discovered, apart from a few

fragments found in excavations such as those carried out

at the beginning of the 20th

century in Madinat al-Zahra.

This began to change with the increase in

mediaeval archaeology, although our knowledge of this

particular field is still very limited in comparison withwhat we know about other art forms produced in al-Andalus.

Techniques and ShapesIn excavations of glass workshops in Murcia archaeologists discovered a great deal

about the process of preparation of the raw materials, the melting and blowing of the glass, and

the various kinds of oven used. These ovens had up to nine crucibles containing glass ofdifferent colours which enabled the glass-markers to produce beautiful multi-coloured pieces.

An impressive variety of decorative techniques were used, such as moulding, carving,

incrusting, printing, enamelling and even the application of gold paint.

Restores have managed to put various glass pieces back together. These include vesselsused at the table such as jugs, glasses and bottles; various kinds of lamp; and even laboratory

tools such as flasks and stills. There are also fragments of flat glass in different colours that

formed part of glass panels mounted on plaster-work frames that were used to decorate houses

from at least the 12th

century onwards.

FABRICS

Textile techniques and MaterialsFibres were obtained from plants (flax, cotton, hemp) and animals (silk, wool), and then

spun, dyed and prepared for weaving. Products included different types of fabrics, carpets and

tapestries that required a loom (horizontal or vertical), with weights some of which have been

discovered in archaeological excavations, as have an abundant supply of thimbles and needles

of various different sizes. A pedal loom was mentioned by the Valencian poet al-Rusafi in the

11th

century.

FabricsThe rich fabrics ofTiraz, which were used for ceremonial occasions, were first brought

to Cordoba by the Emir Abd al-Rahman II (822-852). During the Ummayad and subsequent


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periods, the production ofTiraz in the palace workshops became very important as did other

luxury industries. The veil of Hisham II, Caliph of Cordoba, survives today.

The fabrics were either simple or compound, depending on the number of wefts or

warps. Simple fabrics included taffeta, serge and satin. Fabric manufacturing was very

important in the mediaeval Islamic world, and fabric production and trade was a great source of

employment and wealth. The geographer al-Idrisi -12th c.- praised the 800 workshops inAlmeria which had a highly varied production.

The high esteem in which the textile industry was held is shown by the large number of

al-Andalus fabrics mentioned or conserved in different parts of mediaeval Europe, some of

which survive to this day, such as those kept in the Museum of Las Huelgas (Burgos). Another

significant fact is the number of Spanish words derived from Arabic that are used to describe

fabrics such as: algodn (cotton), alvex, balda quino (baldachin), cendal (sandal), cenefa

(stripe, trimming), damasquino (damask), gasa(gauze)

SilkSilk, which original in China and was known in both Rome and Byzantium, was also

made in different parts of al-Andalus, becoming one of its most important products nad

reaching its peak in the Nasrid Emirate of Granada. At the time of expansion of Islam, the use

of cotton (al-qutn) already stretched from India to Persia and it soon became a material

characteristic of al-Andalus. Fine strips of gold (or gilded silver) were entwined with silk

threads, forming the highly prized oropel fabric.

Fabrics: the DyesThe Andalusians knew of a good number of plants for dyeing their fabrics and clothes:

indigo and woad (blue), walnut root, sumac and gall (black), turmeric, saffon and dyers weed

(yellow) and henna, sesame and madder (red). Animal substances were also used, such as

murex, and Kermes insects for dyeing fabrics red, as well as dyes that were mineral in originlike verdigris and cerussite to obtain green.

WRITING(For Writing Down and Transmitting Information:

Papyrus, Parchment and Paper)

ParchmentAncient scribes wrote on a variety of different materials until papyrus, and above all

parchment came to the fore. Ibn al-Nadim (10th

c.) explained the very ancient technique of

tanning animal hides until surfaces suitable for writing were obtained. These were used inArabic from the 7

thcentury onwards and survived to some extent right up until the 16

thcentury.

Sometimes the hides were dyed to enhance them, as happened with the blue parchmentkept in

Qayrawan. Once the parchments were cut and sewn together, they could form a book.

PaperThe great Chinese invention of paper spread across the territories of Islam and reached

Tunis from Samarkand at the end of the 9th

century. It was of enormous importance as it


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reduced the cost of writing materials and so a huge scale as shown by the millions of

manuscripts produced since.

The paste used by the Arabs as a base for paper was above all made of flax and cloth.

The bibliophile Caliph al-Hakam II promoted the use of paper in al-Andalus, and sheet of

paper from the end of the 10th

century is still kept in great library in the Qarawiyyin of Fez.

Although paper was manufactured in many different places, the paper mad in Xtiva (whichused rice or wheat starch and very slight watermark lines) was particularly admired. From al-

Andalus and Sicily, the use and manufacture of paper spread across Europe. This enabled book

production to multiply and was an essential cultural motor, a cultural revolution, in a similarway to printing centuries later and electronics today.

Inks and PensInks typically came in two forms: one that was kept solidified and another that

remained liquid. There were a multitude of different types, named after their country of origin

(such as Chinese ink, etc), after a component, or after the use to which they were put. The

Granada writer al-Qalalusi (14th

c.), in his manual on writing, provides a detailed explanation

of how inks were manufactured on a base of tree gall, vitriol, gum Arabic and water. Most

writing was done with cane pens (qalam), cut in different ways for the different kinds of

calligraphy. A pen with ink-store incorporated is

mentioned as a rarity in the 11th

century Egypt of the

Fatimids.

A Recipe for Making Silver InkFine strips of silver are cut and then placed

in a pan of the fire. Once molten, they are poured

into a vessel with mercury, and then mixed with a

clay rod and rubbed on a stone to remove the black.

Once purified, it is poured into a clean bottle andgum Arabic is added (Umdat al-kuttab, 11

thcentury).

MUSIC

The Moors introduced the following musical instruments into Europe: the lute (ud),

psaltery (qanun), viol (rabab), flute (nai), horn or trumpet (nafir), tambourine (duff) and the

kettledrum or drum (tabl), etc. The most popular and original musician in al-Andalus was

Ziryab (c. 9th

). He was responsible for adding the fifth string to the classical lute. Musical

instruments were made by specialist carpenters.

Musical TheoriesThe flourishing of music was another important aspect of the culture of al-Andalus withlocal traditions being merged with Arabic or Oriental styles as a result of the arrival in the area

of musicians and slave singers.

There are a variety of documentary sources about music and musicians, with treatises

by al-Andalus academics (9th15

thcenturies) describing both theoretical and practical aspects.

Iconographic images and musical instruments recovered from archaeological excavations show

the wide variety of instruments and the way they were played.


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Musical theorists from al-Andalus knew and referred to musical works by Orientals

such as al-Kindi, al-Farabi, ikhwan al-Safa, Avicena with all their variants, profane music of

a classical nature (nawba), popular music and Sufi music, which show musics recreational,

aesthetic and functional facets and its relationship with poetry. The spread of Andalusi music

throughout the Maghreb has ensured its survival to this day.

Musical Practice and TeachingThree important schools have been identified in:

The South of al-Andalus (Cordoba, Seville,Granada and Malaga)

The Upper March (Zaragoza and Albarracn). The Levantine School (Murcia, Denia, Xtiva

and Valencia).

These sprung from the Cordoba School based around

the great master Ziryab (Iraq-Cordoba, 9th

c.). The musical

treatises describe a system of alphabetical musical notation based on the base note of the fourdouble chords of the lute and their relationship with the cosmic elements, human humours and

natures, the main modes and rhythms of cultured music.


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FURTHER INFORMATION

REFERENCES AND WEBSITES

http://www.alandalusylaciencia.es/visita-al-pabellon/http://www.mhs.ox.ac.uk/scienceislam/legacy.php

http://www.islamawareness.net/Maths/science_and_math.html

VIDEOS

1001 Inventions and The Library of Secrets - starring Sir Ben Kingsley as Al-Jazari

Presentacin de 1001 inventos islmicos que cambian el mundo, en ingls, dificultad media-

alta. En plan peliculita.http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JZDe9DCx7Wk&feature=related

1001 Inventions: Pioneers of Science and Technology

Otra presentacin de la misma exposicin: algunos ejemplos, espectacular. El ingls es

muncho ms clarito... y explica las norias. Muy recomendable!

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vtgkcz87XbA&feature=related

Discovering Maths at The Alhambra in Al-Andalusia / 2bueno como presentacin y fcil de seguir.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b8amCqoOye4

[1/7] What The Muslims Did For Us

Bastante bien, es una serie seria de la BBC. Diccin impecable y relativamente fcil de

entender. Este es el primer captulo, pero te proporciona los enlaces para poder continuar con
http://www.alandalusylaciencia.es/visita-al-pabellon/http://www.alandalusylaciencia.es/visita-al-pabellon/http://www.mhs.ox.ac.uk/scienceislam/legacy.phphttp://www.mhs.ox.ac.uk/scienceislam/legacy.phphttp://www.islamawareness.net/Maths/science_and_math.htmlhttp://www.islamawareness.net/Maths/science_and_math.htmlhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JZDe9DCx7Wk&feature=relatedhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JZDe9DCx7Wk&feature=relatedhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vtgkcz87XbA&feature=relatedhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vtgkcz87XbA&feature=relatedhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b8amCqoOye4http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b8amCqoOye4http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b8amCqoOye4http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vtgkcz87XbA&feature=relatedhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JZDe9DCx7Wk&feature=relatedhttp://www.islamawareness.net/Maths/science_and_math.htmlhttp://www.mhs.ox.ac.uk/scienceislam/legacy.phphttp://www.alandalusylaciencia.es/visita-al-pabellon/


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los otros 7. Merece la pena!

http://www.youtube.com/watch?annotation_id=annotation_49049&v=eYdFdjPUq6s&feature=i

v

When the Moors (Muslims) Ruled Europe: Documentary (full)

Fcil comprensin, interesante, pero a veces cae en tpicos, para ver en partes (dura 1h 42).

Del 412 al 1232: muy interesante explicacin de la armona constructiva en la Alhambra a

partir de series de rectngulos proporcionales.

Through interviews with noted scholars, youll see how Moorish advances in mathematics,

astronomy, art, and agriculture helped propel the West out of the Dark Ages and into the

Renaissance. Conduced by Bettany Hughes (born 1968), an English historian, broadcaster

and writer.

http://www.youtube.com//watch?v=PM8HnvuKbAo

[5/11] When Muslims Ruled in Spain (Astronoma = astrolabio)

Del comentado ms arriba, slo la parte dedicada al astrolabio. El ingls resulta fcil de seguir.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2sve8x8eQAw&feature=related -------- VIDEOS in SPANISH --------

+x-.Arte Geomtrica en espaol buena introduccin a las cuestiones de matemticas,

geometrra y arte islmico.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ls53O75VVH8&feature=related

+x- 3. La geometra se hace arte (a-b).f4v la geometra en la Alhambra, muy interesante,

este es ms bien una introduccin. Espaol.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0DP_kH2S0TI&feature=related

+x- 3. La geometra se hace arte (b-b).f4v En espaol. Los 17 grupos cristalogrficos del

plano y particin peridica del plano: no os desanimis, es muy fcil

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EJhR6A_D9Yg

+x- 13. Matemticas y realidad.avien espaol interesante aplicacin de los gruposgeomtricos de la alhambra a proyectos de estudiantes de arquitectura

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QS_jw5rwvhM
http://www.youtube.com/watch?annotation_id=annotation_49049&v=eYdFdjPUq6s&feature=ivhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?annotation_id=annotation_49049&v=eYdFdjPUq6s&feature=ivhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?annotation_id=annotation_49049&v=eYdFdjPUq6s&feature=ivhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PM8HnvuKbAohttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PM8HnvuKbAohttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2sve8x8eQAw&feature=relatedhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ls53O75VVH8&feature=relatedhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ls53O75VVH8&feature=relatedhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0DP_kH2S0TI&feature=relatedhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0DP_kH2S0TI&feature=relatedhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EJhR6A_D9Yghttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EJhR6A_D9Yghttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QS_jw5rwvhMhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QS_jw5rwvhMhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QS_jw5rwvhMhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EJhR6A_D9Yghttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0DP_kH2S0TI&feature=relatedhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ls53O75VVH8&feature=relatedhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2sve8x8eQAw&feature=relatedhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PM8HnvuKbAohttp://www.youtube.com/watch?annotation_id=annotation_49049&v=eYdFdjPUq6s&feature=ivhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?annotation_id=annotation_49049&v=eYdFdjPUq6s&feature=iv


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GLOSSARY

NEW WORD.... ITS MEANING.... IT SOUNDS LIKE....

ACHIEVEMENT logros, avances

BRICK ladrillo

CARVED Tallado, modelado

CHESS ajedrez

COTTON algodn

CRAFTSMAN artesano

CRAFTSMANSHIP artesana

DEVICE Instrumento, aparato,

DRAFT borrador

ENABLED capacit, permiti

FABRICS tejido

GLASS vidrio, cristal

GRID cuadricula , rejilla, red

GUNPOWDER plvora

HARBOUR puerto

HEGIRA HEGIRA

HEIGHT altura

HERITAGE legado, herencia

HOUSEWARE ajuar domstico

LUSTERWARE cermica de brillo metlico

MEASURE medida


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MEASUREMENT medicin

NOTEWORTHY notable

OVEN horno

PATTERN patrn (~ modelo)

PILGRIM peregrino

PILGRIMAGE peregrinacin

PORTOLAN CHARTS PORTULANO

POTTERY cermica

POWDER polvo

RANGE cordillera / rango (intervalo)

RAW MATERIALS materias primasSALT sal

SHAPE forma

SILK seda

STERN-POST mstil

STILL alambique

SUNDIAL reloj de sol

TILE azulejo, baldosa

TO ACHIEVE lograr, conseguir

TO ALLOY alear

TO COAT revestir

TO COVER cubrir, forrar

TO DISPLAY desplegar, exhibir

TO DYE teir, tintar

TO GRAFT injertar

TO LEVEL nivelar

TO MEASURE medir

TO MELT fundir, derretir

TO MINT acuar

TREATISE tratado

VAULT bveda


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VESSEL nave, navo / vasija

WATE

al-andalus exhibition: exhibition guide

Documents