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気象研究所研究報告 第52巻第2号 31-66頁 平成14年2月 Papers in Meteorology and GeophysicsVo1.52,No。2,pp。31-66,February2002 31 The Processes of SST CooHng by Typhoon Passage and Cas with a Mixed layer Ocean Model by AldyoshiWada ハ4α80名oJogづαzZ R6s6αzじh1%s房オzμ6。 乃%ゐ%δα,1bα名α1寵 3050052,ノ4ρα% (Received November1,2000; Revised October25,2001) Abstract The mechanisms by which sea surface temperatures(S凹s)(1ecrease by pass various initial oceanic con(litions and the atmospheric boundary con(1itions w wind stress,slower typhoon translation,excessive heat且ux from the sea to initial血xed layer,and a greatervertical gradient ofthe sea temperature in the an effecton mbζed layertemperature(MH)cooHng。MLTcooling occurs throu by enhanced entrainment and upwelling.In contrast,horizontal advection oscillation has a s五ght ef6ect on deteminingthe distributions ofMLTs。The de the area along the typhoon track is(letemlined by the magnitudes ofthe wind st speeds irrespective ofthe initialthic㎞ess ofthe mixedlayer,In addition, translation speeds,andverticalpro丘1es ofseatemperatures,the MLTcooling is ofm漉mumvadation ofdepthbyupwe11ingto the m頷dmum thic㎞ess ofthe mi ma虹mumvadationofdepthbyupwellingtothem面mumthic㎞essofthe ofexcessiveheatfluxes,isthe same as thatunderconditions ofno heat condi廿ons in whichthe ma面mumheatnuxreaches800W/m2is O.7。Cgreaterth Inthis case,seawatercoolingatthetransitionlayercausedbyentrainmen Numerical simulations were conducted to elucidate the3。C S釧「cooling by observed by R/V Ke血Mam of the Japan Meteorological AgencyσMA).The S訂v numerical simulation captures the aspects ofobservational S㎝s reported by SSTrapidly(lecreases and the ma}dmum S釧「cooling reaches about3。C.This rapi caused by the stronger wind stresses an(l slower translation speeds of T contents,based on the mode1-computed sea temperature,are closely related to Rex. 1.In1■oduction Some physical mechanisms of(lecreases of the sea surface temperature(hereafter referre(l to as SST) due to typhoon passage have been stu(1ie(1through many observations an(l numerical experiments。It is known that S釧「s decrease from1。C to about6。C with the passa.ge of typhoons(Black,1983).Black(1983) investigated the maximum SST cooling that occurs primarilybehind and to the rightofthe hurricane trackl the grea』test area of S㎝cooling was Iocated between 1~卿、罪and21~別礁,where1~吻、エwas the ra(lius ofmaximum ◎2002bytheMeteorologicalResearchInstitute wind velocities.Benderαα」.(1993)distingu ca』tegories of SST cooling observed after t 16tropical cyclones.These SST(1e groupe(1according to slow一,medium一,an(l storms,with average cooling for the thre 5.30C,3.5。C,and1.8。C. Decreases of the SST after the pa 取phoons are consi(lered to affect the inten movement of typhoons.From a the viewpoint,Emanuel(1998)maintaine hurricane intensity (1epen(led stro microscale processes goveming the e momentum flux across the sea surface a entrainment of the cold water across the

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Page 1: AldyoshiWada - JST

気象研究所研究報告 第52巻第2号 31-66頁 平成14年2月

Papers in Meteorology and GeophysicsVo1.52,No。2,pp。31-66,February2002

31

The Processes of SST CooHng by Typhoon Passage and Case Study ofTyphoon Rex                        with a Mixed layer Ocean Model

by

AldyoshiWada

 ハ4α80名oJogづαzZ R6s6αzじh1%s房オzμ6。

乃%ゐ%δα,1bα名α1寵  3050052,ノ4ρα%

(Received November1,2000; Revised October25,2001)

Abstract

   The mechanisms by which sea surface temperatures(S凹s)(1ecrease by passage of typhoons under

various initial oceanic con(litions and the atmospheric boundary con(1itions were investigated.A stronger

wind stress,slower typhoon translation,excessive heat且ux from the sea to the atmosphere,a thimer

initial血xed layer,and a greatervertical gradient ofthe sea temperature in the the㎜ocline layer,all have

an effecton mbζed layertemperature(MH)cooHng。MLTcooling occurs through intemlingled processes

by enhanced entrainment and upwelling.In contrast,horizontal advection produced by near-inertial

oscillation has a s五ght ef6ect on deteminingthe distributions ofMLTs。The depth in the mtxed layemear

the area along the typhoon track is(letemlined by the magnitudes ofthe wind stresses and the translation

speeds irrespective ofthe initialthic㎞ess ofthe mixedlayer,In addition,under dhferent曲d stresses,

translation speeds,andverticalpro丘1es ofseatemperatures,the MLTcooling is closelyrelated to the ratio

ofm漉mumvadation ofdepthbyupwe11ingto the m頷dmum thic㎞ess ofthe mixed layer。The ratio of

ma虹mumvadationofdepthbyupwellingtothem面mumthic㎞essofthem盈edlayerunderconditionsofexcessiveheatfluxes,isthe same as thatunderconditions ofno heatnux.However,MLTcoolingunder

condi廿ons in whichthe ma面mumheatnuxreaches800W/m2is O.7。Cgreaterthanthose in no heat旦ux.

Inthis case,seawatercoolingatthetransitionlayercausedbyentrainmentin∬uences MLTcooling.

   Numerical simulations were conducted to elucidate the3。C S釧「cooling by Typhoon Rex that was

observed by R/V Ke血Mam of the Japan Meteorological AgencyσMA).The S訂variation obtained by

numerical simulation captures the aspects ofobservational S㎝s reported by R/VKeifu Mam,in thatthe

SSTrapidly(lecreases and the ma}dmum S釧「cooling reaches about3。C.This rapid S団「cooling is mainly

caused by the stronger wind stresses an(l slower translation speeds of Typhoon Rex。The ocean heat

contents,based on the mode1-computed sea temperature,are closely related to the intensities ofTyphoon

Rex.

1.In1■oduction

   Some physical mechanisms of(lecreases of the

sea surface temperature(hereafter referre(l to as SST)

due to typhoon passage have been stu(1ie(1through

many observations an(l numerical experiments。It is

known that S釧「s decrease from1。C to about6。C with

the passa.ge of typhoons(Black,1983).Black(1983)

investigated the maximum SST cooling that occurs

primarilybehind and to the rightofthe hurricane trackl

the grea』test area of S㎝cooling was Iocated between

1~卿、罪and21~別礁,where1~吻、エwas the ra(lius ofmaximum

◎2002bytheMeteorologicalResearchInstitute

wind velocities.Benderαα」.(1993)distinguished three

ca』tegories of SST cooling observed after the passage of

16tropical cyclones.These SST(1ecreases weregroupe(1according to slow一,medium一,an(l fasしmoving

storms,with average cooling for the three groups of

5.30C,3.5。C,and1.8。C.

    Decreases of the SST after the passage of

取phoons are consi(lered to affect the intensity and the

movement of typhoons.From a thermodynamic

viewpoint,Emanuel(1998)maintained that the

hurricane intensity (1epen(led strongly on the

microscale processes goveming the enthalpy,the

momentum flux across the sea surface at gale,and

entrainment of the cold water across the thermocline

Page 2: AldyoshiWada - JST

32 WadaA VoL52,No.2

1ayer.Negative feedback characterizes the relationship

between the intensity of the typhoon and cold water.

The intensity・of the typhoon is suppresse(1when SST

cooling occurs(G呈nis,1995),since emission of the

latent heat圭n the atmosphere inside the typhoon eye is

suppressed.Thewamcoreofthe切phoonintheupperatmospheric layer then becomes cooler.Suppression of

the second.circulation weakens wind.velocities near the

surface.The heat fluxes near the surface are

suppresse(i because of the weaker win(1stresses.

Mesoscale circulations can affect not only the intensity

but also the movement oftyphoons.However,not only

the air-sea interaction but also the static s惚bilhy of the

planetary boun(1ary layer and environmental flows can

㎡ectthetyphoon development.

    Hongαα」.(2000)examined the development and

the movement of Hurricane Opal using a hurricane-

ocean coupled mo(1el,which consisted of the Naval

Research Laboratoryls Coupled Ocean/Atmosphere

Mesoscale Prediction System(COAMPS)for theatmospheric part and the hydrostatic Geophysical Fluid

Dynamics Laboratoryls Modular Ocean Model version

2(MOM2)for the ocean part.When Hurricane Opal

was generated,warm core rings(WCR)separated from

the Gulf Stream already existed in the Gulf of Me}dco

(Shayαα」.2000).Hurricane Opal suddenly develope(i

during passage over the WCR,while the upper trough

e》dstednorthwestoftheWCRand Hurricane Opalwasmoving on the right si(ie ofthe upper trough.Bosart召」

α」.(2000)asserte(1that this trough was related to the

development ofHurr}cane Opal.The case ofHurricane

Opal demonstrates that not only the air-sea interaction

but also environmental flows and mesoscaleconvection,such as rainban{ls,can a丘ect the intensi取

of tyl)hoons.

    The ocean response to hurricanes,particularly

SST cooling by stoms,has been previously studie(l by

numerical experiments(Chang an(1Anthes,1978;

Price,1981;Ginis6≠‘zJ.,1993;and others).One

conclusion was that SST cooling and deepening of the

mixed layer were noticeable on the right rear of the

running typhoon.Near-inertial oscillations then

appeared on the right si(1e of the running typhoon after

its passage.Another conclusion was that SST cooling

increases as the translation speed of the typhoon

decreases。The SST cooling ten(1s to apPear the nearby

typhoon atlowertyphoon translation speeds.

    The purpose of this study is to clarhiy how much

the mixed layer temperature(hereafter referred to as

MLT)cooling by passage of typhoons depends on

atmospheric and oceanic conditions,such as the

maximum magnitude of wind stresses,translation

speed ofatyphoon,ma⊃dmum magnitude ofheatfluxes

fromthe seato the atmosphere,thickness ofthe mixed

1ayer,and the vertical gradient of sea temperatures in

the thermocline layer.In addition,some physical

processes,such as entrainment,upwelling,andhorizontal advection,are thought to cause a decrease of

SST.Among these physical processes,entrainment

depends partly on the initial conditions of the

atmosphere and the ocean.Here,we investigate how

entrainment rates are detemined and how dominant

theyareintemsofMLTcooling.Oursecondobjectiveis to examine the cause of SST cooling observed by

R/V Keifu Maru after the passage ofTyphoon Rex

south of Okinawa on August24,1998.In a(1dition,we

examine the relationship between SST cooling(or

ocean heat capacity)an〔l the intensity of封phoon Rex.

    The mixed layer ocean model used in this paper is

summarized in section2.Some numerical experiments

are performed in section3to investigate the ocean

response under different wind stresses,typhoon

translation spee(1s,heat且uxes,initia1(1epth in the

mixed Iayer,and the vertical profiles of the sea

temperatures.The roles of physical processes such as

entrainment,upwelling,and horizontal advection are

discussed in section4.In particular,the relationship

between SST cooling and the ratio of maximum

vahationduetoupwellingtothema溢mumthic㎞essofthe mtxed layer is examined.In section5,we peぜorm a

numerical simulation of the lowe血g of the SST by

T夕phoon Rex un(1er the realistic initial conditions an(i

boundary conditions.In addition,we discuss how the

heat capacity(Leipper and.Volgenau,1972)of the

ocean contributed to the intensity of Typhoon Rex.

Some problems with our simulation for this SST

cooling are(iiscussed in section6.Our conclusions and

the summary are provided in section7.

2.Mixed Layer Ocean Model

   The equations use(l in our mixed layer ocean

model are based on those of Benderθ麺」.(1993).

However,,some physical processes were constmcted or

mod迅ed.Kondols bulk aero(1ynamic formulas(1975)

were applied to estimate the momentum and the heat

(sensible and latent)fluxes.The density ofthe seawater

was calculated by UNESCO formulas(Gi11,1982).The

topographical distribution(1an(1and ocean)was

considered inthis model.We applied the time-spli廿ing

metho(10f Ginis an(l SutyFrin(1995)to calculate the

non-1inear term.The essential details of the numerical

algorithm are described in Ginis and Sutyrin(1995).

   The region covered is from10。N to500N and

from120。E to160。E.This mixed layer ocean model

consists of eight layers.The ocean is assumed to be

且at-bottom and the depth ofthe ocean is initially set to

1500m.The first layer is de丘ned as an oceanic mbζed

Page 3: AldyoshiWada - JST

2002 The Processes ofS訂CooHngbyTyphoon Pass&ge and Case StudyofTyphoon Rexwith a Mixed layer Ocean Mode1 33

layer where the sea temperature is vertically miform.

The secon(11ayer is defined as a thermoCline layer,

which is located below the oceanic mixed layer and is

characterセed as having the greatest vertical gra(lient of

sea temperatures.The portion ofturbulent energy that

is available for the generation of the ocean cun℃nt is

proportional to the difference of the wind stress

between that on the surface and that on the base of the

mixed layer.It is assumed that all turbulence is

con且ned to the mixed layer,and thus the mod迅cation

of the thermocline layer is due only to horizontal

advection an(1upwelling.The sea temperature below

the thermocline layer remains constantl i.e.,our mbくed

layer ocean model can only forecast the sea

temperatures ofthe two upPerlayers.

    The Boussinesq and the hydrostatic appro⊃dmation

are assumed in this model.In addition,a reduced gravity

approx㎞ation h}which the pressure gra(1ient is reduce(l

to O in an infinite depth is also assumed.Note that the

effect of horizontal d血1sion is neglected in this model

becausewew皿1predictocean con(litionsup to afewweeks

at most.The thickness,the momentum,and the

themodynamicequaHons冴easfoUows.

    Thethic㎞essequationsare,

並+▽・(h1玩)一ω,

∂渉

∂h2+▽・(h2瑞)一一ωe

∂診

∂h    →  ∫+▽・(h必)=0∂孟

(1-1)

(1-2)

(1-3)

    Suf五x lづl in(licates the ith Iayer,except the丘rst and

the second layers,h(m)is the thic㎞ess ofthe layer,V

(m/s)is the ocean current,and物,1(m/s)is the

entrainmentrate.

   The momentum equations are,

∂響+▽・(幅)+(∫+∂1穿θ)だ×h・味蘇+ω・ち(2一・)

∂響+▽・(幅)+(∫+び2穿θ)雇×h2畦蘇一ω・ち(32)

∂響+▽・(繭+(∫+禦)る×礁語 (2-3)

where∫is the Coriolis parameter,which is2Ωsinθ,θis

thelatitude,Ωistheangularvelocityoftheearthrotation(7.2×10{5s-1),σis the radius of the earth

(6370㎞),andρoistherelerencedensi敏(1023kg/m3).

P indicates the pressure gradient shown by Ben(1er召∫

α」.(1993).τ(N/m2)is thewind stress.

    Thethemodynamicequationsare,

∂h・θ・+▽・(脅h1θ1)=B+ω,θ2

 ∂孟

∂h2θ2+▽・(彦h2θ2)一一2ω,θ2

 ∂診

(3-1)

(3-2)

    θ1is T1-T3,andθ2is T2-T3.T3(K)is the

temperature atthe bottom ofthe thermocline layer and

is a constantvalue in this model.Suf6x l represents the

MLT,which is included in the S訂.Suf且x2indicates

the temperature between the mixed layer and the

thennocline layer.

   The salini取equations are(lefined as replacing the

water temperature and the heat flux with the salinity

and the water flux.The entrainment rate that indicates

the degree of turbulent mixing is defined as the

empiricalfomulasofDeardor丘(1983).Theseempirical

formulas are calculated based on the Richardson

number for the frictional velocity(1~」τ)caused by win(1

stress,the buoyancy ef価ect(1~σ.)in the mixed layFer that

occurs by emission of heat fluxes on the sea surface,

an(l the vertical shear of currents(1~ん)between the

mtxe(11ayer an(1the thermocline layer.The essential

details of the numerical algorithm are described in

Deardorff(1983).The entrainment rate is described as

afunctionofR歪τ,1~づ薯,1~ル.

肌一肌(1~στ,1~づ捧,1~劾 (4)

   Jacobαα」.(2000)examine(i three bulk

entrainment parameterizations for obselvational data

on Hurricane Gilbert.The Price(1981)scheme(iepen(1s only on the bulk Richardson number Riv.

According to Price (1981),the external bulk

Richardson number1~歪τwas also considered.The

Kraus and Tumer(1967)scheme(1epends on themagnitu(1es of the frictional velocity and the heat nux。

The Deardorff(1983)scheme depends on1~」,,1~∫.,and

Riv.Jacob6緬」.(2000)estimated the entrainment

mbdng across the base in the mtxed Iayerby Hurricane

Gilbert at different time stages.After the passage of

storms,the ma}dmum contribution to the dynamics in

the mb【ed layer was associated with the shear-induced

entrainment mbdng forced by near-inertial motions up

to the third day,as indicated by the bulk Richardson

numbers that remaine(i below criticality.Ginis(1995)

also estimated the features of three bulk entrainment

closure schemes,such as Price(1981),Deardorff,

(1983)an(1Elsberryαα」.(1976),an(l these kinds of

parameterizations were dhferent from those in Jacobθ孟

α」.(2000).The amount of SST cooling by Deardorff

(1983)was the greatest in Ginis(1995),and SST

cooling also sprea(1thewidestofthe three schemes.

Page 4: AldyoshiWada - JST

34 W&(1aA Vol.52,No.2

3.Nume近ca1取pe血nents underIdeal Conditions

    In a(ldition to the heat loss to the atmosphere,the

oceanic processes of vertical an(l horizontal advection

plus turbulent mixing at the top of the thermocline

layer contribute to cooling the upPer layer in the ocean

(Elsberryθ麺1.1976).Since these mechanisms are

intemingled,it is d置icult to resolve the magnitude of

each of the processes by observation.Price(1981)

discussed the parametric dependence of the upper

ocean response.He examined the ocean response for

parameters such as the hurricane wind speed,

hurricane transla.tion speed,hurricane size,the initial

thickness of the mtxed layer,the vertical gradient of

sea temperatures atthe transition layer,and the inertial

period.In his conclusion,the SST response is a lively

function of the hurricane st1●ength and translation

speed,the initial mixe(11ayer depth,and the vertical

gradient ofsea temperatures at the transition layer,but

a weak function of the latitude and the hun・icane size.

In this section,we quantitatively estimate the

parametric dependence of the upper ocean respqnse,

such as on the typhoon wind speed and size,the

取phoon translation speed,the heat且uxes,the initial

thic㎞ess of the mixe(i layer,and the vertical gradient

ofthe seatemperatures.

3.1 1nitial Conditions

   We conducted numerical experiments under

simp1迅ed initial conditions to estimate the amount of

MLTcoolingundervarious initial conditions.Here,the

ocean responses to typhoon forcing are examined from

the stan(1points of the various parameters,such as the

size and the intensity of the wind stress,the speed of

the typhoon,the heat nuxes on the sea surface,the

initial thickness of the mixed layer,and the vertical

structure of the sea temperatures.It is assumed that

the wind distribution is determined by the Rankin

vortex,which is applied to Chang andAnthes(1978).

   The distribution of wind stress(Fig.1)is

calculated as follows:

τ7(7,θ)=

τθ(7,θ)=

一1τ,1卿7巖蟻、πθノ

                 7min≦7≦7max

-1τ,1規グ孟n 7≦7min (5’1)                 7>Zmax

O

1τ、1吻7無荒、寮θノ

1τθ1卿劣煮nπθノ

0

名min≦7≦7m眠7≦名min          (5-2)

7>7max

The outer edge of the typhoon is now7卿、.(this

(listance correspon(ls to6.25。in this paper),and the

radius of the取phoon eye is7別砿(0.5。in this paper)。

Both are defined as the number ofg且ds in this model.

However,because of the northwar(l translation,the

zona1(1ist段nces a』re not const且nt(1ue to the change of

Iatitude.The distribution of win(1velocities was

assumed using Eqs.(5-1)and(5-2).The wind stresses

were then calculated by Kon(lols formula.Ginis and

Sutyrin(1995)reported that the shape of the wind

stress outside of the radius of the maximum win(1is

importantin detemining the horizontal stmcture ofthe

barotropic currents.

    Weassumedthattheratioofthemmingdirectionof the typhoon is-1to the west an(12to the north in

these experiments.Therefore,this typhoon moves

north-northwestwar(i(Fig.1).

28N

26N

24N

22N

20N

/8N

∵∵∴∵緊辮

・::・::ン2 徊器隻沙

べ 、 、 ↑ ↑ チ メ 廓 4 { 叩 っ マ

\\~↑fヂプ 劉 貿  ゴ  7

\\\↑ノノ〆 胃.77 7.

   ブ!/   - ” } ▼ 7 7 7 ’

\\N   -’”ヲ77 77■

矯濃ヨ蝦㍑…

!/

1↓\\\、、う夢)》》》》 ・

Fig.1

154E 156E   窪38E   340E   142E   144E               一『(N/㎡)

The horizontal distribution of wind stresses at

the initial time an(l at48hours integration.The

contours indicate the wind stresses(N/m2)at the

initial time;the contour intelvals are O.5N/m2.

The vectors show the win(l stresses(N/m2)after

48hours integrationl the unit vector is5N/m2.

The typhoon mark is located in the typhoon

center at the initial time and at48hours

integration;the line represents the取phoon track

over48hours.

   The coefficient∫(θ),which indicates

asymmetry ofatyphoon,is(1efined below.

∫(θ)=1+γ(cos(σ)cos(わ)一sin(α)sin(わ))

the

(6)

c・s(a)一(1-cx)/r,sin(a)一σ一cy)/r,c。s(b)一2/佑,sin(b)一一

1/お.

   The point(cx,cy)is the center position of the

壇)hoon。The initial center position of the typhoon is at

140。Eand200N.Thecoe伍cientγusuallytakesavaluebetween O and O.3and is now applied to O.1.I and J

Page 5: AldyoshiWada - JST

2002 The Processes ofSSrCoohngbyTyphoon Passage and Case StudyofTyphoon Rexwith aM盈edlayer Ocean Mode1 35

represent the indexes of the longi加de an(l latiUlde.r is

the(1istance be伽een(cx,cy)an(1(1,J).Price (1981),

Greatbatch(1983),and Chang and Anthes(1978)

invest圭gated the ef£ect of asymmetry in storm forcing,

but it is not important compare(l with the effect of the

nonlinear dynamics.

   The d圭stribution of the atmospheric pressure is

given accor(ling to the fonow血g fonnula(Holan(11980).

                  且ραか=瓦+(P.一jP、)exp(一一万)

                  7

(7)

    P。indicates the minimum central pressure of the

typhoon(960hPa).P.is the environmental pressure

(1010hPa).7is the distance丘om the typhoon center.A

is the radius of the tyl)hoon(6.25。in this paper).B is a

constant value that is equal to1.5.

    It is assumed that the variation of the air

temperature always agrees with that of the SST.

Therefore,hea』t fluxes across the sea su㎡ace an(l the

entrainment rates(1ue to buoyancy can be neglected

when there are no differences between the air

temperature and the SST.

    Each vertical layer thickness was initially set to

50m in the mixed lay・er,150m in the thermocline layer

and100,100,100,200,300,and500m below the

themoclinelayer.Theoceandepthwasinitially1500min the whole area.The sea temperatures at the top of

each layer were28。C in the SST,27。C in the transition

layer,180C at the bottom ofthe thermocline layer,and

120C,8。C,60C,5。C,and40C at the top of the bottom

layer.The transition layer was located between the

mixed layer and the thermocline layer.The vertical

profiles of the sea temperatures are shown in Fig.2.

The above-mentioned profile corfesponds to the lbl

profile in Fig.2and is used as a st3ndard profile in this

study.The lal profile of th6vertical sea temperature in

Fig.2has a30m mixed layer and a170m themlocline

layer,the lbl profile has a50m mtxe(l layer and a150m

thermocline layer,and the℃l profile has a70m mixed

layer an(1a130m thermocline layer.The ldl and lel

profiles have the same depth in the mb【ed layer and

thermocline layer as the lbl profile has,but the sea

temperature at the bottom of the thermocline layer in

the ldl profile is warmer than that in the lbl profile an(1

the sea temperature at the bottom of the thermocl圭ne

layer in the lel profile is cooler than that in the lbl

profile.The salinity is assumed to be uniform(35ppt)

throughout the whole ocean.It is assumed that ocean

currents are motionless atthe initial stage.

    A summary of our numerical experiments is

shown in Table1.Experiments l to9were canied out

under differentmaぬmumwind speeds.Experiments10to21were then canie(l out un(1er(i迂ferent hea』t fluxes,

expenments22to27under蔽erentthic㎞essesofthe

m嬢edlayerandthemoclinelayer,andexperiments28to 29 un(1er different vertical profiles of sea

temperatures.All experiments for the different

conditions were pe㎡ormed un(1er(1ifferent translation

speeds,exceptexpehments28and29.

                                   degree(OC)

     05雀015202530depth O

(m)

  100

200

300

400

500

ーメ

β×

 / 

〆×

  ∠

一ノニ

…丑a(30m)一(>一b(50m) l

l+c(70m)… d(5・m-W)i

I一〇一e(50m_G)1

Fig.2 Five vertical pro五1es of sea temperatures were

used in this sUIdy.The『a『pro丘1e of the vertical

sea temperature has a30m mixed layer and a

170m thermocline layer,the lbl profile has a50m

mixe(11ayer and a150m thermocline layer and

the lcl profile has a70m n通xe(i layer and a130m

themoclinelayer.Theldlandlelpro五lesarethe

same as pro丘1e lbl in the thic㎞ess ofthe mixed

layer and the the㎜ocline layer.The temperature

is20。C at200m,15。C at300m,and10。C at400m

in the ldl profile,and is15。C at200m and10。C at

300min the lel profile.

3.2MLTCooling Caused by Di押erentWind Stresses

    In this section,we discuss how wind stresses

contribute to MLT cooling.Three kinds of wind

stresses are examined in experiments2,5,and8(Table

1).Figure3(a)shows the distribution of MLT

deviations from the initial condition at48hours

integration in experiment5.The dot represents the

丘xed point where a variation of MLT,a deepening of

the mixed layer an(1a variation of depth at the bottom

of the thermocl董ne layer by upwelling,was observed.

MLTcoohng on the right side along the typhoon track

is clearly seen under and behind the tyl)hoon.The area

of ma虹mum MIT cooling is seen around21.5。N and

the distance from the typhoon center(about26.50N)to

the area of maximum MI∫r cooling is from500km to

600km.Maximum deepening of the mixed layer is

about45m on the right rear of the typhoon,10cate(1

aroun(i22。N(Fig.3(b)).Except for this position,

deepening of the mixed layer is about30m and is

clearly seen near the typhoon center.The(leepening of

the mixed layer is smaller on the left side of the

running嚇)hoon.

    Divergent currents are dominant on the right side

in the running(1irection,and then near-inertial currents

apPear on the right rear of the typhoon,especially near

Page 6: AldyoshiWada - JST

36 WadaA. Vol.52,No.2

Experiments mixed-layer translation maximum wind sea temperature sea temp.一airtemp. maximum SSTthickness(m)s eed(m/s) s eed(m/s) at3rd b er (OC) decrease(OC)(48h)

1 50 3 30 18 0 一1.33

2 50 5 30 看8 0 一〇.97

3 50 10 30 18 0 一〇.3

4 50 3 35 18 0 一2.7

5 50 5 35 18 0 一2.18

6 50 10 35 璽8 0 一1.06

7 50 3 40 18 0 一4,34

8 50 5 40 18 0 一3.89

9 50 10 40 18 0 一2.2

Experiments mixed-layer translation maximum wind sea temperature sea temp.一airtemp. maximum SSTthickness(m)s eed(m/s) s eed(m/S) at3rd la er (℃) decrease(。C) (48h)

10 50 3 35 18 1 一2.85

11 50 5 35 18 1 一2.47

12 50 10 35 18 1 一韮.22

13 50 3 35 18 2 一2.97

14 50 5 35 18 2 一2.57

15 50 10 35 18 2 一1.31

16 50 3 35 18 3 一3.09

17 50 5 35 18 3 一2.68

18 50 10 35 18 3 一1.4

19 50 3 35 18 4 一3.2

20 50 5 35 18 4 一2.78

21 50 10 35 18 4 一1.5

Experiments mixed-layer translation maximum wind sea temperatUre sea temp,一airtemp. maximum SSTthickness(m)s eed(m/s) s eed(m/s) at3rd ia er

(。C) decrease(OC)(48h)

22 30 3 35 18 0 一4.09

23 30 5 35 18 0 一3,06

24 30 10 35 18 0 一1.94

25 70 3 35 18 0 一2.2

26 70 5 35 18 0 一1.36

27 70 10 35 18 0 一〇.49

Experiments mixed-layer translation maximum wind sea temperature sea temp.一airtemp. maximum SSTthickness(m)s eed(m/s) s eed(m/s) at3rd Ia er

(。C) decrease(OC)(48h)

28 50 5 35 20 0 一2.06

29 50 5 35 15 0 一2.67

Table1. A summary of the numerical experiment.There are29experiments that are divide(1into

五vecategohes,theinitialthic㎞essofthemb【edlayer,thetyphoontranslationspeed,the

maximum、瀬ndspeed,the seatemperatureatthebo枕omofthethemoclinelayer(=3「d

layer),and the deviations from the sea temperature to the air temperature.MLT cooling

for each isgiven in the7th column.

the typhoon center(Fig.3(b)).This is because

circulations of clockwise rota』tion are strengthene(l on

the right side in the running direction with the

movement of the wind stress(Price,1981).The

divergent currents are formed by counterclockwise

strong wind stresses near the typhoon center(Price,

1981).The depth atthe bottom ofthe thermocline layer

is remarkably shallower behind the typhoon,located at

25。N(Fig.3(c)).Figure3(c)indicates that the

magnitude of the shallower depth due to upwelling is

donオnant behind the typhoon.

    Figure3((i)shows the horizontal(1istribution of

MLT advection.The amount of advection is calculated

by一か▽T,in which∂represents the mixed layer

currents,Tis the MLT,and▽is the gradient operator.

Advection plays a role in warming the MLT directly

mder the typhoon,while the MLT becomes cooler on

the right side of the typhoon center.The amount of

MI∫r advection directly under the typhoon is greater

than that behind the typhoon.However,thecontribution of MLT advection to the ma】dmum MUr

cooling is somewhαtsmaller.

    Figure3(e)shows a vertical section along O.5。

eastward of the typhoon track.”Typhoon mark”

indicates the location of the typhoon center.Sea

temperature cooling is evident at the transition layer.

Figure3(e)also shows the existence of near-ine域ial

oscillations near the surface and convergent currents

belowthe thermocline layerbehin(l the typhoon.

   The entrainment rate is locally great behind the

typhoon and has the important role of supplying cooler

water from below the thermocline layer to the sea

su丘ace.The ma痘mum entrainment appears where the

wind stress is e:田ciently working to the kinetic energy

ofthe mixed layFer(Price,1981,Fig.16b).This area also

has substantial current shears between the mlxed layer

andthermoclinelayer.WesupposethatthislargeshearmakeS the entrainment rateS greater Un(ler COnditiOnS

of no heat flux.However,maximum MLT cooling

cannot be determined by entrainment alone.In fact,

maximum MI∫r cooling appeared around220N behind

the typhoon in experiment5.Elsberryασ」.(1976)

reporte(10n the(iistribution of nea1●一surface cooling,

subsurface cooling in(1uced by upwelling,and an

intermediate layer of warming due to entrainment and

convective mixing.It is thought that SST cooling by

Page 7: AldyoshiWada - JST

2002 瓢ePr・cesses・fS訂C・・HngbyT四h・・nPassageandCaseS加dy・fT”h・・nRex舳aM盈edlayerOce㎜M。de1 37

entrainment is included孟n these processes of Elsberly

etal.(1976)

28N

26N

24N

22N

20N

18N /54E

Fig.3(a)

、 Qヴ2粛

  つ

一〇.

一〇.6

-0,5

28N

26N

24N

22N

20N

18N

》“})②=F  』みレ}“一壷一1壱一54レ}壷↓ ∠)  ~ 甲Ψ耐 モ ↓            曳 島 ^ 卜           斌\t舎癌4

き↓4\ 蹄ノメ胃)壷帝ψレ↑      ■π矛

               、ジ\ 、 も

               ペキ   の

i魅藻、三灘            、〕15

             -10

             -5

  5ゆ  ψ    4  》

〆  一    (  ふ

〆  ∫     ▼  4

賃56E   て』38E   140E   ↑42E   144E

The decrease of the MLT in experiment5is

shown horizontally from134。E to144。E an(l

from18。N to28。N.The contours indicate the

deviations ofthe MLTfromthe initialvalues.The

contour intervals are O.3。C.The line represents

the取phoon track over48hours.The取phoon

mark is locate(1in the取phoon center at the

inidal time and at48hours integration.The dotis

the丘xe(l point used in Fig.4.

454E   窪56E   138E   140E   142E   144E

                     訂  (m/s)

Fig.3(c) The variation of the thickness at the bottom of

the thermocline layer in experiment5is shown

horizontallyfrom134。E to144。E and from180N

to280N.The contours indicate the variation of

the thickness at the bottom of the thermocline

layer.The contour intervals are5m.The vectors

show the currents below the thermocline layer;

the unitvector is O.3m/s.The line represents the

typhoon track over48hours.The typhoon mark

is located in the typhoon center atthe initial time

and at48hours integration.The dot is廿1e fixed

point use(1in Fig.4.

28N

26N

24N

22N

20N

織欝耀   / ~ゆ夢 “寸》v   /与→  ,  “ } v 》

      \ 、 司    ソ レ 幽 乙

    眠\ ψレ‘4くてマ

   \ ≠ 4 卜トハ

1\勇5一漸;窺

\O灘多

 ヘ                         ノ ノ

 、  /   ノ 刀ノ  ノー

 . ノ9∫!イグノノ“      >1ンノ  ノ  ノノ認

         二’砂ノ   ノ ノ ノr ~、  、  、

     窪54E   156E   158E   /40E   142E   344E                          -7  (m/s)

Fig,3(b)Deepening of the mbくed layer in experiment5is

       shown horizontally from134。E to1440E and

       from18。N to28。N.The contours illustrate the

       deepening of the thickness of the mixed layer

       from the initial value。The contour intervals are

       5m.The vectors show the mb【ed layer currents;

       the unit vector is lm/s.The line represents the

       typhoon tr&ck over48hours.The typhoon mark

       is located in the typhoon center at the initial time

       and at48hours integration.The dot is the fixe(l

       point used in Fig.4.

   18N

28N

26N

24N

22N

20N

   ノF  4↓ ↓ ‘ 一 解 畠 ム ム 』 》 》 貿

』↑〆/〆!,‘‘‘勝齢轟‘乙幽レ}}

     154E   藷56E   158E   140E   142E   144E                          「→ (m/s)

Fig.3(d)The MLT advection in experiment5is shown

       horizontallyfrom134。E to144。E and from18。N

       to280N.The contours indicates the amount of

       MLT advection per time step(1200seconds)(一

       θ・▽T,θis the mixed layer currents,T is the

       MLT,and▽is the gradient operator).The

       contour intervals are O.003。C/timestep(1200

       secon(1s).The vectors show the mixe(11ayer

       currentsl the unit vector is lm/s.

    18N

Page 8: AldyoshiWada - JST

38 WadaA. VoL52,NQ。2

Fig.3(e)

depth o(m) →50

100

150

200

250

500

550

400

450

500

                         、,.錦プ

......=q,モYM》♪79,蕪.、、...Tq.9〉♪〉τ9.蚤.

20N 22N 24N 26N 28N      50N 1 (m/s)

The vertical section along O.5。eastward of the typhoon track in experiment5,from20。N

to30。N and from the surface(Om)to500m depth.The vectors show the ocean currents;

the unitvector is lm/s.The contours indicate the(leviations ofthe sea temperatures;the

contourintervals are O.3℃.The typhoon markislocated inthe typhoon centerat72hours.

   Figure4shows the time series for MLT cooling,

the deepening of the mb【e(l layer,~md the vahation of

the depth at the bottom of the themaocline layer at the

丘xed point139。E,22。N.This position is located on the

right si(1e of the running typhoon,where the wind

stress is somewhat greater.This position also can be

observed both under and behin(i the running typhoon.

Figure4indicates thatthe phases ofMLTcooling may

be distributed in three stages.From in圭tiation to12

hours,the mixed layer becomes deeper an(1the depth

at the bottom ofthe thermocline layer becomes a little

deeper(downwelling).In this first stage,the MLT

suddenly decreases after six hours,although MLT

coolingis onlyminimal atfirst.The(1epth atthebottom

of the thermocline layer becomes shallower

(upwelling)from12hours to30hours,an(l the mb【e(l

Iayer becomes a little shallower.In this second stage,

the MIT decreases as rapidly as that in the first stage

丘om6to12hours,and the ma虹mum MH’cooling is

detemined inthis stage.The depths inthe mbくedlayer

and at the bottom of the thermocline layer change

periodically after30hours.However,the MI∬’doesnlt

change as dramatically in the third stage as in the first

and secon(l S惚ges.

    Experiment8is a case of stronger win(l stress.

The maximum MLT cooling is greater than that in

experiment5(Fig.5(a)).Ma⊃dmum deepening of the

mixed layer is around70m and is deeper than that in

Fig.4

㍗0

 0

 α

一〇.40

一〇.80

一1.20

一壌.60

一2.00

 P P P     E

髪t ‘

p峠 『1 1 1 1 1 1 1

…『-ll,,1噌IIIIIlliーーー5

 l 1

PーーーPー“

一一

60.脆

40.00

20.00

一e-SST  DEVIAT【ON(deg)P

   i舟MiX LAYERO.oo  DEEPEMNG(m)

20・00、赤BOπOMOF     T短ERMOGU旺i     SHALLOWER(m)1

40.001、

                               1

-2.40            三 一一」60.00   0    6   12   18  24   30   36  42  48  54   60   66   72

                     ho鱗r

The time series ofMLT cooling(。C),deepening ofthe mbくed layer(m),and variation of

the depth at the bottom ofthe the㎜ocline layer(m)at1390E and22。N from the initial

time to72hours integration in experiment8.The left axis indicates the temperature

measurement(。C),an(1the righta⊇ds shows the metermeasurement.

Page 9: AldyoshiWada - JST

2002 The Processes ofSSTCoolingbyTyphoon Passage and Case Study ofTyphoon Rexwith aMixedlayer Ocean Mode1 39

28N

26N

24N

22N

20N

18N

畿謹繋、

、、⑲

那殿、  \

134E

28N

26N

24N

22N

20N

18N

 55 N\    ↓

 ~5 ↓

逗3肴》:-椿

  一5

136E   158E   140E   142E   144E

鳶1Q、

 、と遭尊1つ^》》    ↓ 曹 噸 噌 ▲ 》

    ∫ ‘ ψ や ぜ ▲

     〆  ∫   睡  Ψ  噌

154E 136E 138E 140E   142E   144E   耐  (m/s)

Fig.5(a)

28N

The decrease of the MLT in experiment8is

shown horizontally from134。E to144。E and

from18。N to28。N.The contours indicate the

devia丘onsoftheMLTfromtheinitialvalues.The

contour intervals are O.3。C.The line represents

the typhoon track over48hours.The typhoon

mark is located in the typhoon center at the

inidal dme an(l at48hours integration.The dot is

the fixed point used in Fig.6.

ク 瀟

蕪…灘・.灘

       遠野6      ↓、

        Z

                恥 》 、

                   著 \

               ~ ぞ

                     ヤ

            

 疹                 〆↓

強  誉痴〆〆㍑ 〆・

叡、振響θ激楽

Fig.5(c)

26N

24N

22N

20N

18N

玉ノノノノノ!

〆ノ     

 F 甲

/ノ

134E 156E   158E   140E   142E   144.E               一マ  (m/s)

Deepening of the mb【ed layer in experiment8is

shown horizontally from1340E to144。E and

from18。N to28。N.The contours indicate the

deepeningofthemixedlayerthic㎞ess丘omtheinitial value.The contour intervals are5m.The

vectors show the mixe(l layer currents;the unit

vector is lm/s.The line represents the typhoon

track over48hours.The typhoon mark is located

in the typhoon center at the initial time and at48

hours integration.The dot is the fixe(1point used

in Fig.6.

28N

The variation of the thickness at the bottom of

the thermocline layer in experiment8is shown

horizontallyfrom134。E to1440E and from180N

to28。N.The contours indicate the var玉ation of

the thickness at the bottom of the thermocline

layer.The contour intervals are5m.The vectors

show the currents below the thermocline layer;

the unitvector is O.3m/s.The line represents the

typhoon track over48hours.The typhoon mark

is located in the typhoon center at the initial time

and at48hours integration.The dot is the fixed

point used in Fig.6.

26N

24N

22N

20N

Fig.5(b)18N

嶽騎α.

蝦〃〆房、、、u

麟擁磐諺駿認

154E 136E 158E 140E   14・2E   144E   -7  (m/s〉

Fig.5(d)The MLT advection in experiment8is shown

       horizontallyffom134。E to1440E and from18。N

       to280N.The contours in(licate the amomt of

       MLT advection per time step(1200seconds)(一

       ∂・▽T,∂is the mixe(l layer currents,T is the

       MLT,and▽is the gradient operator).The

       contour intervals are O.005。C/timestep(1200

       secon(1s).The vectors show the mixed layer

       currents;the unitvectoris lm/s.

Page 10: AldyoshiWada - JST

40 Wa(iaA Vo1.52,No.2

experiment5(Fig.5(b)).Deepening ofthe mixed layer

near the typhoon center is also greater.The(1epth at

the bottom ofthe thermocline layer becomes shallower

behind the typhoon(Fig.5(c)).The amount of M皿’

a(1vection in Fig.5((1)is greater than that in Fig.3((1),

particularly near the typhoon center.Positive and

negative advections are greater due to strong wind

stresses,Even in this case,the effect of advection on

MLT cooling per time step is smalL Figure5(d)

indicates that the sea temperature is lower in the

vertica1(lirection.Sea temperature cooling at the

bottom of the mixed layer is particularly evident.

Figures5(c)an(i5(e)also indic&te that the variation

due to upwellingis greaterthan in experiment5.Figure

6shows the time se貞es for MLTcooling,deepening of

the mixed layer,and variation of the(1epth at the

bottom of the thermocline layer at the丘xed point139。

E,22。N un(ler strongerwin(i stresses.The m圭xed layer

(1eepening is greater and the depth atthe bottom ofthe

mixed layer is shallower than in experiment5.The

greater entrainment rates presumably make these

amplitudes higher.

    In contrast,entrainment rates are lower in

experiment2,due to the weak wind forcing,so the

MH’cooling,deepening of the mixed Iayer,variation

byupwelling,and hohzontal advection are smaller.

Fig.5(e)

depth o(m)

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

500

→...,1篇一!1誌一茄》一1夏

.....一鵠題1』☆驚1、

                                        /

一  TQ・5鳩と6.描q’裾ζ9・臥

20N 22N 24N 26N 28N      50N 1 (m/s)

The verdcal section along O.5。eastward ofthe typhoon track in exper㎞ent8from20。N to

30。N and from the surface(Om)to500m depth.The vectors show the ocean currents;the

unit vector is lm/s。The contours indicate the deviations of the sea temperaturesl the

contourintelvalsare O.5。C。The1yphoonmarkislocatedinthetyphooncenterat72hours.

Fig.6

驚』ゆ

 0

一〇。50

一肇.00

樋.50

一2.00

一2.50

一3.00

一3.50

一4.00

一4.50

E臼      i

L     ;1}

・」 一[ 

 - I I l

i            l

、、、-」

   一

  よ

』1

0 6   12   18   24   30 36

hour

42   48   54   60   66   72

m80.00

60.00

40.00

20.00

0.00

20.00

i令SST   DEVIATION(deg)

一40。ooi

一60.00

→ヨーMIX LAYER  DEEPE卜謎NG

ナ のロの  ド

  翻員臨騰)…

80.00

100.00

The time series of MLT cooling(。C),deepening ofmtxed Iayer(m)and variation ofthe

depthatthebo廿omofthethemocHnelayer(m)at139QEand22。N丘omtheinitialtimeto72hours integration in experiment8。The left axis indicates the temperature

measurement(℃),and the righta}ds shows the metermeasurement.

Page 11: AldyoshiWada - JST

2002 TheProcessesofS訂CoolingbyTyphoonPassage and CaseStudyofTyphoon Rexwith aMixedlayer OceanModeI 41

3・3MLT Coo”ng Caused by Different Typhoon   Trans置ation Speeds

    Chang an(1Anthes(1978)reported that SST

cooling increased as the typhoon moved more slowly.

Here,numerical experiments were con(lucted with two

speeds under constant wind forcing.The typhoon

moved slowly(3m/s)in one an(1faster(10m/s)in the

other.Experiments l to9revealed that the slower

translation and the stronger wind forcing increase(1

MLT cooling at48hours integration(Table1)。

Experiment4,the slower case,and experiment6,with

fastermovementare described in this section.

    A slower-moving typhoon makes the decrease of

S3[’greater in the hohzontal distribution(Fig.7(a)).

The location of MLT cooling was almost the same as

thatinexperiment5.Ma》dmumdeepeningofthemixedIayer(Fig.7(b))was at about30m,1ess than that in

experiment5after48hours integration.However,the

(1epth atthe bottom ofthe themocline layer(Fig.7(c))

was40m shallower than that in experiment5,and the

distribution was clearly d置erent from that in the5m/s

case.The area of shallower depth due to upwelling

appeared onlybehind the typhoon in experiment4.The

d迂ferent distribution ofthe shallower area by upwelling

seems to be related to the transferred distance and the

wavelength ofthe near-inertial oscillations.Figure7(d)

shows the amount of MLT advection.The amount of

maximum positive and negative MLT advection near

the typhoon center is greater than those in experiment

5.However,the contribution of MLT advection to the

ma⊇dmum MLT cooling is as small as the contribution

in experiments5and8.The near-inertial oscillation

doesnlt appear in the3m/s translation spee(1during48

hours,so the hodzontal distribution of MLT advection

differs from that in expehments5and8.The verticaI

section(Fig.7(e))in(1icates that sea temperature

cooling Penetrates in the vertical direction near the

typhoon center.Since integral time doesnlt reach a

period of near-inertial time,divergent currents in the

mixe(11ayemearthe typhoon center are conspicuous in

experiment4.Figure8depicts the time series of MH’

cooling,(1eepening of the mb【ed layer,and variation of

the depth at the bottom ofthe thermocline layer at the

fixe(l point139。E,220N for a3m/s translation speed.

The墨eatures of each stage of MLT cooling are similar

to those in experiment5.However,the amplitude due

to upwelling is greater,the wavelength of the near-

inertial oscillation is shorter,and the maximum MUr

cooling is greater.Currents below the thermocline in

this slower typhoon translation can be balanced

geostrophically,an(1subsequently generate greater

upwellingthan thatin experiment5.

28N

26N

24・N

22N

20N

18N

磯一

154E

Fig.7(a)

28N

156E   158E   140E   142E   144E

The decrease of the MLT in experiment4is

shown horizontally from134。E to144。E and

丘om18。N to28。N.The contours indicate the

deviations oftheMLrfromtheinitialvalues.The

contour intervals are O.3。C.The line represents

the typhoon track over48hours.The typhoon

mark is located in the typhoon center at the

initial time and at48hours integration.The dotis

the fixed point used in Fig.8.

26N

24N

22N

20N

18N

撃畢覧K  k、~↑↑↑  ・調、マ,7》郊喉乳\\\ 6 ↑プ1メメ”τ▼7)  凧、 \\\~↑ア  ノノ男...._\  や  !ノ ー刀..γ←_~\  1    ノ 、刃亭7            15

 ← ~     櫓       -  」々7←           ↑          ノ  身 マ

ゲ   ゼ  す                         ノド   げ

一〆匝漉 24  ”〆 〆〆!    絃    --

11繊, 、誘ノグ                              -

                             ■

                             ■

                             ノ

                             ノ

                             /

                             オ

 ψ↓↓↓い ウ24  グ7Ψ ↓ も 、、 →21    ■1

134E

Fig.7(b)

156E   158E   140E   142E   344E                -7  (m/s)

Deepening of the mbζed layer in experiment4is

shown horizontally from1340E to1440E and

from180N to28。N.The contours indicate the

deepening of the thickness of the mixed layer

from the initial value.The contour intervals are

3m.The vectors show the mixed layer currents;

the unit vectoI’is lm/s。皿e line represents the

typhoon track over48hours.The typhoon mark

is locate(l in the typhoon center at the initial time

an(1at48hours integration.The dot is the fixed

point used in Fig.8.

Page 12: AldyoshiWada - JST

42 Wa(iaA VoL52,No.2

28N

26N

24N

22N

20N

18N

,ζNV

    ㌧\  \

ぢ 〆 〆

 ∠

\、㌧↓↓↓↓↓

旨 、 、 ↓↓↓↓↓

岬  

、 、 モ ↓  ↓

ノ       

ヤ む

、ノ㍉、、、㍉モ

5、斗、、↓↓↓

154E 156[ 138E   140E   142E   144E       万ア  (m/s〉

Fig.7(c)The variation of the thickness at the bottom of

      the thermocline layer in experiment4is shown

      horizontallyfrom134。E to1440Eξmd from18。N

      to28。N.The contours indicate the variation of

      the thickness at the bottom of the thermocline

      layer.The contour intervals are5m.The vectors

      show the cu1Tents below the themlocline layer;

      the unitvector is O.1m/s.The line represents the

      取phoon track over48hours.The typhoon mark

      is locate(l in the卿hoon center at the initial time

      and at48hours integration.The dot is the丘xed

      point use(l in Fig。8.

28N

26N

24N

22N

20N

18N

llここ厭串獅驚噺凧~\\\\ ~ ↑ ア ア ノ ノ メ ■ ” . .<

綴1沼髄1・・〃//〃             。■ノ//  /ノー♂’’”↓↓暫            ゆーノ/ノ/ノゆ  ゆ  ゆ           も  む

噛 ゆ ↓ も モ 、 、 、  →ノノノノ//∠=逗

134E 156E   158E   140E   142E             一「’ (m/s)

144[

Fig.7(d)The MLT advection in experiment4is shown

      horizontallyfrom134。E to144。E and from18。N

      to28。N.The contours indicate the amount of

      MH’advection per time step(1200seconds)(一

      θ・▽T,∂is the mixe(11ayer currents,T is the

      MLT,and▽is the gradient operator).The

      contour intervals are O.0030C/timestep(1200

      seconds).The vectors show the mixed layer

      currents;the unitvectoris lm/s.

depth o(m)

50

100

150

200

250

500

350

400

450

500

→  一             一 ・         2.

一〇.5 ノ20N 22N 24N 26N

1(m/s)

Fig.7(e)The verdcal section along O.5。eastward ofthe typhoon track in expehment4from20。N

      to26。N and from the surface(Om)to500m depth.The vectors show the oceIm currents;

      the unitvector is lm/s.The contours indicate the deviations ofthe sea temperatures;the

      contour intelvals are O.3。C.The typhoon mark is located in the typhoon center at72

      hours.

Page 13: AldyoshiWada - JST

2002 The Processes ofSST Cooling byTyphoon Passage and Case Study ofTyphoon Rex with a Mb【ed layer Ocean Mode1 43

  OC

O.00

一〇.25

一〇.50

一〇.75

一匪.00

一1.25

一1.50

一屡.75

一2.00

一2.25

一2.50

E5き

E…

E

ヨ引 ヨ

i

 一 一 『 

4i

…ヲi

一「 Ei

          …

E          E

0   6   12  18  24  30 36   42  48   54   60   66   72

h◎ur

OmOO

4

30.00

20.00i一喚一BQτTOM OF       トほ    ロれヒ

30。ooi SH肌OWER(m)

一40.00

50.00

60.00

Fig.8 The time sedes ofMLTcooling(。C),deepening ofmb【ed layer(m),and vanation ofthe

depth at the bottom ofthe themaocline layer(m)at139。E and22。N from the initial time

to72hours integration in experiment4.The left axis indicates the temperature

measurement(℃),and the righta》ds shows the metermeasurement.

   A faster-moving typhoon results in less MLT

cooling in the horizonta1(listribution(Fig.9(a)).The

slower translation speeds of the typhoon have an

oceanic response in a circular paUlern(Fig.7(a)).In

contrast,the faster translation speeds of the typhoon

have a narrow oceanic response formed in a long

ellipse pattem(Fig.9(a)).These features are also

observed in the deepening of the mbくed layer(Fig.9

(b))and the variation ofthe depth at the bottom ofthe

thermocline layer(Fig.9(c)).Geisler(1970)

demonstrated that the interface between the upper and

lower Iayers in a two-1ayer model tends to experience

an oscillatory response rather than general vertical

a(1vection as the translation spee(l increases.The

vertical ocean response in experiment6was weaker

than that in experiments4and5.In addition,

Greatbatch(1983)investigate(l the ocean response to

storms with different translation speeds.In the

(1iscussion of Greatbatch(1983),two Rossby numbers

were used.んis(1etermine(l by WU,which indicates

the cross-section parameter for the typhoon translation.

U is the moving spee(l of the storm an(17is the

ma虹mum current aromd the area of MLT cooling.P渉

is determined by W互which indicates the along-

section parameter for the typhoon translation.L is the

scale of the wi(1th of the ocean response and the

constantvalueiぜespecUveofthespeedofthestom.∬

the typhoon moves slowly,the ratio of P必4∫is

somewhatsmall.This suggeststhatthe response inthe

cross-track direction is fairly don∬nant.In contrast,the

ratio of Pレ44∫is somewhat greater if the typhoon is

moving fast.In this case,the ocean response in the

along-track direction is moderately(lominant.

Greatbatch(1983)o丘ere(1concrete values ofノ箋an(1P≠

in Table2in his paper.His result indica』tes that P≠4≠is

O.36/0.54for a constant speed U=5m/s and O.27/0.20

for a constant speed U=10m/s.Therefore,the above

discussion is consistent with the results of Grea』tbatch

(1983).

    Figure9(b)shows that remarkable near一圭nertial

currents could be seen on the right side behind the

typhoon.The wavelength ofthe near-inertial cun・ents is

Ionger than that in experiments2and5。Maximumdeepening ofthe mb【ed layerwas30m,butthe depth at

the bottom of the thermocline layer was only18m

shallower behind the typhoon.Upwelling may

minimally contribute to the MH’lowering,because

entrainment does not work we11.Figure9(d)depicts

the horizontα1distribution of MLT advection.The

amount ofmaximum positive and negative advection is

smaller than that in experiments2,5,and8.The

contribution of advection to ma}dmum MI∫r cooling is

logically as small as the contribution in experiments2,

5,and8.Figure9(e)in(licates that the along-track

wavelength of the oscillations left behind by passage of

the typhoon is close to the local inertial wavelength2π

αゲ(Greatba』tch1984).Here,Uisthetranslationspeed

of the storm an(1∫is the Coriolis parameter.Figure10

showsthetime series ofMLTcooling,deepe血gofthemixe(11ayer,and the variation of the(iepth at the

bottom ofthe thermocline layer at the fbくed point1390

E,22。N for a10m/s translation spee(1.Deepening of

the mbくe(i layer and the shallower depth at the bottom

ofthe thermocline layerreachthe maximum amplitude

(20m and30m)earlier than in experiments2and5,so

MLT cooling reaches a maximum early in the

Page 14: AldyoshiWada - JST

44 WadaA. VoL52,No.2

integration.

    Greatbatch(1985)examined the relationship

between SST lowering an(1the ratio of shallower

vahation by upwelling to the(1epth in the mixed layer,

which estima』tes the initial thickness ofthe mixed layer

and(leepeningby entrain血ent.1~uis defined as follows:

Ru一%. ) (8)

   πuin(1icates the amplitu(le byupwelling,and E別is

the initial thickness of the mixed layer.△h represents

the deepening by entrainment.This parameter

measures the importance ofupwelling in any particular

case.Upwellingplays an essentialrole for MLTcooling

if1~u has a greater value.1~u is about O。75for slower

translation speeds(3m/s),but O.4for faster translation

speeds(10m/s).The d価erence of1~u suggests that the

effectby upwellingwas smaller in experiment8.1~uwas

about O.67in stronger win(l stresses,and O.43in

weaker wind stresses.Therefore,upwelling contributes

greatlyto MLTcoolingin slowertranslation speeds and

stronger wind stresses Ea.ch1~u in this paper was

estimated as somewhatgreaterthan the1~uin the paper

of Greatbatch(1985)because Greatbatch(1985)

estimated entrainmentrates using the parameterization

of Kraus an(1Tumer(1967),neglecting the variation of

the heat budget.

56N

52N

28N

24N

20N

\  ・・4V‘Ψ(4咽

  ・ “ } レ く ? 卜 牛ノ

  》  ↓  V  』   《  Ψ  k 

S

. 》 ↓ 寸 》 レ 髪  臥

りPP一.L-  黙

(貿」↓    、

^ア∠   81

い↑5購捜・…

凡薯  -     、

や転   ’.みτ ^

↑ ↑     ♂ ~   己 て ト 、

4  を  ー  〆  メ  解  レ  4  マ  ト  、

1

Fig.9(b)

/28E   132E 156E 1耳OE   144E

r→ (m/s)

Deepening of the mtKe(11ayer in experiment6is

shown hohzontally from1260E to146。E and from

180N to38。N.The contours in(1icate the

thickening ofthe面xed layerfヒom the initialvalue。

The contourintervals are3m.Thevectors showthe

mixed layer currents;the mit vector is lm/s.The

line represents the嚇)hoon track over48hours.

The typhoon markislocated in the typhoon center

at the initial time and at48hours integration.The

dot is the fixed point used in Fig.10.

36N

52N

28N

24N

20N

O

β

0

  O。

O) O=O

o、        OQ

       O。_

搬驚.、

    」』

                      ヰ 

                  ㏄)..

                   一 一

. 8謙。8、

\無丑

 と ヤぽロ

惚旦          \

↑28E   152E   136E   140E   144E

56N

52N

28N

24N

20N

Fig.9(a)

レ  κ

\ ・ ・ “ v 4 マ ( 4 質

 ・ ム 噌 レ 《 } 卜 卒 ノ

 ) “ v 轟 《 ▽ k&

.》』-》レ左 臥

.、じ寺L〆 黙

4帽」↓   ¥

(チ∠  81

い↑5購§・.

鵡∠姻療

      1

       15

        9ゆ ψ ↓ 、

7 ↓  、 \  5 ’→

The decrease of the MLT in experiment6is

shown horizontally from1260E to146。E an(l

ffom18。N to38。N.The contours indicate the

deviations ofthe MLTfromthe initialvalues.The

contour intervals are O,2。C.The line represents

the typhoon track over48hours.The typhoon

mark is located in the typhoon center at the

initia1廿me and at48hours integration.The dot is

the fixed point used in Fig.10.

Fig.9(c)

 128E   152E   136[   140E   144E                   一『  (m/s)

The variation of the thickness at the bottom of

the thermocline layer in experiment6is shown

horizontallyfrom126。E to1460E and from18。N

to38。N.The contours indicate the variation of

the thickness at the bottom of the thermocline

layer.The contour intervals are3m.The vectors

show the currents below the thermocline layer;

the unitvector is O.1m/s,The line represents the

typhoon track over48hours.The typhoon mark

is located in the typhoon center at the initial time

and at48hours integradon.The dot is the五xed

point used in Fig.10.

Page 15: AldyoshiWada - JST

2002 The Processes ofS訂CoohngbyTyphoon Passage and Case Study ofTyphoon Rexwith aMixed layer Ocean Mode1 45

56N

52N

28N

24N

20N

糞奪灘

128E 132E 156E   140E   144E     「’→ (m/s)

Fig.9((1)The advection in experiment6is shown

      horizontallyfrom126。E to1460E and from18。N

      to38。N.The contours indicate the amount of

      MLT advection per time step(1200seconds)(一

      砂・▽T,∂is the mixed Iayer currents,T is the

      MLT,and▽is the gradient operator).The

      contour intervals are O.0030C/timestep(1200

      seconds)。The vectors show the mixed layer

      cunfents;the unit vector is lm/s.

deρth o(m) →50

100

150

200

250

500

550

4・OO

450

500

照瓢繊鰍瞥㎜

一〇.1

一…一4…謀酬へ厨?ゐレv・

O.1

20N 22N  24N  26N  28N  こ50N 52N 54N   56N  58N   40N     1 (m/s)

Fig.9(e)The vertical section along O.5。eastward of the typhoon track in experiment6from20。N

      to260N and from the surface(Om)to500m depth.The vectors show the ocean currents;

      the unit vector is lm/s.The contours indicate the deviations of the sea temperaturesl the

      contourintelvals are O.1。C.Thetyphoonmarkislocate(linthe取phooncenterat72hours.

Page 16: AldyoshiWada - JST

46 Wada A. Vo1.52,No.2

Fig.10

  OC

O.00

一〇.20

一〇。40

一〇、60

一〇.80

一1.00

一1.20

一1.40

】』ヨ

ーー1

0   6   12  18  24  30  36

                     hour

42  48  54  60   66  72

  m30.00

20.00

10.00

1奇謡Aτ1。N(DEG)1

     →ヨーM置XεDしAYERO.00     DEEPENING(m)

30.00

40.00

The time series ofMLT cooling(oC),deepening ofthe mixed layer(m),and variation of

the depth atthe bottom ofthe themocline layer(m)at1390E an(122。N from the initial

time to72hours integration in experiment6.The left a)ds indicates the temperature

measurement(oC),and the且ghta》ds shows the metermeasurement.

3.4 MLT Cooling Caused by Heat Fluxes

   In this section,we examine how amounts and

differences of heat fluxes affect MLT cooling under

constant wind stresses.Here,four kinds of heat fluxes

are examined in experiments10to21with(lifferent

translation speeds.Convective overturning contributes

to SST¢ooling ifthe column of seawater is losing heat.

No deepening of the mixed layer will occur if the

mechanical term is sma11er than the convective term

when the column is being heated(Elsberryθ麺」.,

1976).In these experiments,the differences in the heat

且uxes are expresse(i as differences between the air

temperature and the MLT under constant wind

stresses.The(1ifference temperature of loC between

the air temperature and the MLT corresponds to

200W/m2,which is calculated by adding the sensible

heat to the latent heat under the maximum wind speed

of35m/s in this experiment.Similarly,the dhference

temperature of4。C between the air temperature and

the MLTcorresponds to800W/m2.Jacobαα」.(2000)

reportedthataheat且uxof1200W/m2was observed in

the directly forced region of Hurricane Gilbert.Price

(1981)an(1Benderαα」.(1993)suggested that the

direct effect of SST cooling by heat nuxes is about10%

ofthe total cooling,but the effect ofentrainment(1ue to

the buoyancy caused by heat flux is over80%.

Therefore,the heat flux is considered to play an

important part ill SST cooling.

    Figures11(a)and(b)depict the distribution of

the entrainment rαtes in experiments5and20.The

ma》dmum entrainment rates are located in nearly the

same position in both cases,although the area of

entrainment rates in experiment20,under the

condition of excess量ve heat nux,spreads wider than

that in experiment5under the condition of no heat

丘ux.The entrainment rate in the greater flux cases is

greater than those in no heat且ux,particularly ahead of

the typhoon.The(1ifferent entrainment rates produced

by different heat flt【xes among experiments2,5,and8

and10to21,cause d1任erences in MI∫rcooling.Figure

12(a)indicates that the location of MLT cooling三s

almost the same as that in experiment5,but the MLT

cooling is about O.7QC greater.The maximum

deepening of the mixed layer(Fig.12(b))is about

55m,10m deeper than that in experiment5.The

shallower var玉ation of the depth at the bottom of the

thermocline layer is35m(Fig.12(c)),almost the same

as that in experiment5,but the magnitude of the

shallower(lepth at the bottom ofthe thermocline layer

is dif『erent at139。E,21。N.The distribution of MLT

ad』vection(Fig.12(d))is similar to that in Fig.3(d).

Therefore,we consider that the heat fluxes on the

surface have little or no af五ect on any aspect of MLT

advection.Figure12 (e) in(iicates that the sea

temperature atthe transition lαyer is cooler than that in

experiment5.The ma}dmum(1逝erence of about O.7。C

at the transition layer between Fig.3(e)an(1Fig.12(e)

corresponds to the dhference in MUr cooling between

Fig.3(a)an(1Fig.12(&).The dhference in SST cooling

by heat fluxes depends primarily on this seawater

cooling at the transition layer,since the contribution of

ho貞zontal a(lvection(loes not change un(1er the same

wind stress even lf the heat fluxes change.Figure13

depicts the time series of MLT cooling,deepening of

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2002 The Processes ofSSTCoolingbyTyphoon Passage and Case StudyofTyphoon Rexwith a Mixed Iayer Oceξm Model 47

the mixed layer,an(l variation of the(1epth at the

bottom of the thermocline layer at the fixed point139。

E,22。N when the maximum heat flux reaches800W/m2.Noted that the ma}dmum deepening ofthe

mixed layer and thevariation byupwelling are a similar

value.The excessive deepening of the mixe(11ayer

compare(l with the deepening of the mixed layer in

experiment5causes the greater entrainment rates.

Other physical processes are similar to those in

experiment5.

   RuisaboutO.45inan800W/m2heat且ux,andO.53

in no heat flux,because while entrainment rates are

greater(1ue to heat fluxes,the kinetic energy given by

28N

wind stresses(10es not change.The reason for the

cooler MLT is that cooler water produced by greater

entrainment at the transition layer is transported to the

mixed layer by upwelling.

28N

26N

24N

22N

26N

24N

22N

20N

18N

             の

論、、鵜ノ、

o’o男

20N

18N

一〇,9

-1,2 -1.5  r1.8    \   一2.1

じヰ

  二11

  -1.

   一1.2

  -0.9

136E   158E   140E   142E   144E

154E 156E   138E   140E   142E   144E

Fig.12(a)The decrease of the MLT in experiment20is

       shown horizontally from134。E to144。E and

       from18。N to28。N.The contours indicate the

       deviations ofthe MLTfromthe initialvalues.The

       contour intervals are O.3。C.The line represents

       the typhoon track over48hours.The typhoon

       mark is located in the typhoon center at the

       initial time and at48hours integration.The dotis

       the fixed point used in Fig.13。

154E

Fig.11(a)The entrainment rates are shown horizontallyfor

       experiment5from134。E to144。E an(1from18。

       N to28。N.The contours in(1icatethe entrainment

       rates(m/s);the contourintelvals are O.0004。

28N

28N

26N

26N

24N

22N

20N

α・・瓠瀞・24N

22N

20N

22㌧\、、2A

bー- :

!  ’4ψ夢\

     154E   156E   138E   1耳OE   142E   144E                          -7  (m/s〉

Fig.12(b)Deepening of the mixed layer in experiment20is

       shownhorizont証yfrom134。Eto144。E andffom

       18。N to280N.The contours indicate the

       thickening ofthe mixedlayerfromthe initialvalue。

       The contour intervals are5m.The vectors show

       the mixed layer currents;the unit vector is lm/s。

       The line represents the typhoon track over48

       hotぱs.The typhoon markis located in the typhoon

       center at the initial time and48hours integration。

       The dot is the fixe(i point used血Fig.13。

   18N

   N\、      ム  て

諦    ㌧↓     τ  卜        恩        応     〆        ヘ            タ

黛鐙灘ll

 俺     0         ノ

 ヘ   ノ

 、→~ 9   ノ

      の ヤヤリ オ  ノ  ノ  ノ

     き

1、_算_““

    154E   1こ56E   158E   140E   142E   144E

Fig。11(b)The entrainment rates are shown horizontally for

       experiment20from1340Eto144。E and from18。

       N to28。N.The contours indicate the entrainment

       rates(m/s)l the contourintervals are O.0004,

  18N

Page 18: AldyoshiWada - JST

48 WadaA Vol.52,No.2

28N

26N

24N

22N

20N

18N

→) Q 産.↓一1も    ドび 誉

捻§

」讃“ー遂

      廓 、醇     N、

       、     \↓

      あ、、   \し

      》 ネ  \\、2

      フ             ヤ  セ

            ー15      マ   ン   シ   ら       ム   ぜ

            一10

《 《 ( 《 て τ ▼   ^ 卜一モ5マ

メ  胃  -  ,  4

、  麺  笥  畿  画

キ キ ル む の

↓’一↓5  ジ ー ψ

 〆 ノ  ゼ  皆

154E 156E 138E 140E   142E   144E   π  (m/s)

Fig.12(c)The variation of the thickness at the bottom of

      the themlocline layer in experiment20is shown

      horizontallyfrom134。E to1440E and from18。N

      to28。N.The contours indicate the variation of

      the thickness at the bottom of the thermocline

      layer。The contour intervals are5m.The vectors

      showthecurrentsbelowthethemoclinelayerl      the unitvector is O.3m/s.The line represents the

      typhoon track over48hours.The typhoon mark

      is located in the typhoon center atthe initial time

      and at48hours integration.The dot is the丘xed

      point used in Fig.13.

28N

26N

24N

22N

20N

18N

vレレ《p卜44、胃〆・1111 

v:‡卜^41・・ノーノノノニ

v:ー :;ニニノ~コ

i…iノ蚤イ参ゴノ

154E 156E   138E 140E   ↑42E

  一「→ (m/s)

144E

Fig.12(d)The MLT advection in experiment20is shown

      horizontallyfrom134。E to1440E and from18。N

      to280N.The contours indicate the amount of

      MLT advection per time step(1200seconds)(一

      ∂・▽T,∂is the mixed layer currents,T is the

      MLT,and▽is the gradient operator).The

      contour intervals are O.002。C/timestep(1200

      seconds)。The vectors show the mixed layer

      currents;the unitvectoris lm/s.

depth o(m)

50

100

150

200

250

500

550

400

450

500

一…謀☆マQ・丼記・^》_刈79・曇〉ヤτQ・蚤

 hκ/2島た・プ/

20N 22N 24N 26N 28N 50N1(m/s)

Fig.12(e)The vertical section along O.5。eastward ofthe typhoon track in experiment20from20。N

      to30。N and from the surface(Om)to500m depth。The vectors show the ocean currents;

      the mitvector is lm/s.The contours indicate the deviations ofthe sea temperatures;the

      contour intervals are O.3。C。The typhoon mark is located in the typhoon center at72

      hours.

Page 19: AldyoshiWada - JST

2002 The Processes ofS訂CoohngbyTyphoon Passage and Case StudyofTyphoon Rexwith aMixed layer Ocean Mode1 49

  。C

O。00

一〇.50

一1.00

一1.50

一2.00

一2、50

一3.00

i

1

㎜ “ 一 一 甲㎜ P { 皿

111 I

lI

06121824 30  36 42

   hour

48  54   60   66   72

 m60.00

40.00

20.00

0.00

20、00

40.00

一G-SST  DEV夏ATION(deg)

一{…トMIX LAY旺R

  DEEPE卜繧NG(m)

一西BOτ丁OM OF

  THERMOCUNE  SHALLOWER(m)

60.00

Fig.13 The time series ofMLT cooling(oC),deepening ofthe m盈ed layer(m),and variation of

the depth at the bottom ofthe the㎜ocline layer(m)at139。E and22。N from the initial

time to72hours integration in experiment8.The left a》ds indicates the temperature

measurement(oC),and the righta》ds shows the metermeasurement.

3.5MLT Coo”ng Under Different Mixed Layer   Thickness and Different Vertical Profiles of

   Sea Temperatures

    In this section,we discuss how veltical profiles of

the sea temperatures affect MLT cooling under a

constantwind stress.We examined two thic㎞esses of

the mixed layer(profiles lal and lcl in Fig.12)in

experiments22to27with different translation spee(1s

and two vertical profiles of sea temperatures(profiles

ldl an(11el in Fig.2)with a5m/s translation speed.

Among experiments22to27and4to6,MUr coolingwas generally larger(smaller)where the mixed layer

was thinner(thicker).

    Figures14(a)an(1(b)depict the time series of

MLT cooling,deepening of the mixed layer,and

variation ofthe(1epth at the bottom ofthe thermocline

layer at the fbくed point139。E,22。N in the30m and

70m mb【ed layers.The lal profile in Fig.2was applied

in experiment23and Fig.14(a),while the lcl profile

was applied in experiment26and Fig.14(b).

Maximumdeepening ofthe mtxedlayerwas about70m

in experiment23an(125m in experiment26,and the

maximum depth ofthe m圭xed layer was about100m in

both experiment23and experiment26.The variation of

the(iepth at the bottom ofthe themocline layFer due to

upwelling in experiment23was almostthe same as that

in experiment26.Since the entrainment rates in

experiment23were greater than those in experiment

26,deepening in the mixed layer was dominant in

experiment23.If(1eepening is dominant,particularly in

a shallow mixed layer,upwelling occurs easily due to

variation of the density in the mixe(11ayer.This

upwelling has a significant i㎡luence on MLT cooling.

However,MI∫rcoolingtendsto be suppressed in areas

where the mixe(11ayer becomes thicker.Elsberlyε地」.

(1976)examinedthein且uenceoftheinitialthic㎞essof

the mixed layer and thermocline stabili七y for the same

atmospheric forcing.The amount of cooling was not

linearly related to the initial thickness of the mixed

Iayer,since the associated depth change(i.Cornillonθ渉

α」.(1987)reported that the greatest(iecrease of SST

occurred in slope waters north of the Gulf Stream

where the seasonal thermocline is the shallowest and

most compresse(1.Sakaidaαα」.(1998)examine(1the

role of the vertical oceanic stmcture in SST cooling.

The Oyashio profile is more suitable for SST cooling

than the Kuroshio profile because the mb【e(i layer is

thimer an(1the vertical gradient of sea temperatures in

the thermocIine is steeper.These two reports are

consistentwith the results ofexperiments22to27.

    1~u of O.53is the same value in both the30m and

70m thickness of the mixed layer as in the50m

thickness of the mbζe(11ayer,so it is considered that

upwelling contributes to MLT cooling to the same

extent.It is then easily corぽirme(1in Figs.4,14(a),an(1

14(b)that the thickness of the mixe(11ayer is

determine(i by the magnitude of wind stresses,

regardless of the initial thickness of the mixed layer,

Since MLT cooling is related to the difference in the

amount ofinitial heat content in the mixed layer m(1er

the same wind stress,a difference in MLT cooling

occurre(l in experiments23and26.

    MLT cooling in experiment29became somewhat

more significant than in experiment28because the

Page 20: AldyoshiWada - JST

50 WadaA VoL52,No.2

entrainmenttemoftheheatcontentequa廿on(3-1)hasa greater effect on(lecreasing SST.Figures15(a)an(i

(b)depictthetime series ofMLTcooling,deepening of

the mixed Iayer,an(i variation of the depth at the

bottom of the thermocline layer at the丘xed point139。

E,220N in the great and small ve而cal gradients of sea

temperatures.The ldl profile in Fig.2was applied in

expehment28and Fig.15(a),while the lel profile was

applied in experiment29and Fig.15(b).Thedeepening ofthe mixed layer and shallowervariation of

the depth at the bottom of the thermocline layer in

experiment28were similar to those in experiment29.

A d迅erence in the vertical profile of sea temperatures

influencesMLTcooling

   1~u is about O.50in the warmer temperature at the

bottom ofthe thermocline layer,butis aboutO.55in the

colder temperature at the bottom of the thermocline

layer.Adifference invertical seatemperatures causes a

di廷erence in the contribution of upwelling,because

entrainment rates change if the temperatures at the

bottom of the mixed layer change.This is why MLT

cooling differs between experiments28and29.

ヤ心ゆ

 0

一〇.50

一黍.00

一1.50

一2.00

一2.50

一3.00

一3.50

0   6   嘆2  18  24  30  36

                    hour

42   48   54   60   66   72

  m80.00

60.00

40.00i

20、00

0.00

一20.00

40.00

一60.00

i一←SST   DEVIAマ10N(deg)

暑M屋X LAYE只  DEEF,ENING(m)

慨磯

Fig.14(a)The time series ofMLTcooHng(oC),deepening ofthe mtxed layer(m),and variation of

       the depth at the bottom ofthe themlocline layer(m)at1390E and22。N from the initial

       time to72hours integration in experiment23.The left a》ds indicates the temperature

       measurement(。C),andthe righta⊇ds showsthemetermeasurement.

 OCO.00

一〇.20

一〇.40

一〇.60

一〇.80

一1.00

一肇.20

一肇.40

司,60

一1.80

一2.00

τ・ー

■ヨー↑Il

11釘 ヨ

[『…E,韮

0    6   肇2   匪8   24   30

  m50.OO

40.00

30.00

20.00

10.00

0.00

10.o軽

20。0α

チ  マ  DεVIAT10踵(deゆi

→ヨトーMIX LAYER

  DεEPENiNG(m)

i一合一BOTTOMOF   TH鉦RMOCU幾E 、   SHALしOWER(m)1

36   42   48   54   60   66   72

hour

30.od

40.OO

50.00

Fig,14(b)The time series ofMLTcooling(。C),deepening ofthe mlxed layer(m),and vahation of

       the(1epth at the bottom ofthe the㎜ocline layer(m)at139。E and22。N丘om the initial

       time to72hours integration in experiment26.The Ieft a}ds indicates the temperature

       measurement(。C),an(l the righta滋s shows the metermeasurement。

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2002 The Processes ofS訂CoolingbyTyphoon Passage and Case StudyofTyphoon Rexwith aMixed layer Ocean Model 51

  。C

O.00

一〇、50

一1。00

一1.50

一2.00

一2。50

一3.00

ξ己FE

ξ葦=

     歴

0612董82430   36   42   48   54   60   66   72

   hour

  m60.00

、α,,1 祠

     1暑MIX風YER。.。。i DEEPENING(m)

2・.・d奮瓢認C鑛NE

         S騒ALLOWεR(m)i

40.00

40、00

60.00

Fig。15(a)The time series ofMLTcooHng(。C),deepening ofthe mixed layer(m),and variation of

         the depth at the bottom ofthe the㎜ocHne layer(m)at139。E and22。N from the initial

         time to72hours integration in experiment28.The left aぬs indicates the temperature

         measurement(℃),andthe righta⊇ds shows the metermeasurement.

  OC

O.00

一〇.50

一1.00

一1、50

一2.00

一2.50

一3.00

1聖;}

 E … 一 ■,

0    6   肇2   18   24 30   36   42   48   54   60   66

   hour

OmO

O6

40.00

20.00

0、00

2αooi

十SST   DEVIAτ韮ON(deg)

一E←M夏X LAYER   DEEPEN【NG(m)

音BOYτOM OF   THERMOCUNE   S懸ALLOWER(m)

72

40.00

60.00

Fig.15(b)The time series ofMLT cooling(。C),deepening ofthe mixed layer(m)and variation of

         the depth at the bottom of the the㎜ocline layer(m)at1390E and220N from the initial

         time to72hours integration in experiment29.The Ieft a}ds indicates the temperature

         measurement(。C)and the righta⊃ds shows themetermeasurement。

Page 22: AldyoshiWada - JST

52 WadaA. Vo1.52,No.2

4.Physical and Thermodynamic Processes of   M正T Coolin9

    We described three stages ofMLTcooling in the

previous section.We noted the relationship between

MH’cooling and the amount of horizontal advection

each time at139。E,22。N in order to investigate the

role of some physical processes in detai1.Figure16

illustrates this relation.There are three stages be帥een

MI∫r cooling and the amount of horizontal advection.

The MLT initially decreases suddenly due to

entrainment.Negative advection is dominant in this

stage because the且xe(l point is Iocate(i on the right

side of the running typhoon.Next,the amount of

advection changes from negative to positive and the

ma}dmumMUrcoolingremains nearthe samevalue,一2.50C.Finally,the MI∫rgraduallydecreases similarlyto

near-inertial oscillation.

    The first stage corresponds to the”inteminglell

stage(Elsberry6麺Z.,1976),where entrainment plays

an important role in increasing the thickness of the

mixe(11ayer.Entrainment is dominant particularly

before10hours integration.Cooler water has already

been produced by entrainment at the transition layer.

This water and the water below the thermocline are

transported to near the surface by upwelling.The

second stage corresponds to the(1evelopment of near-

inertialoscillation.Boththe MUrαndthethic㎞ess of

the血xed layer change periodically in this stage.The

second stage and the last stage demonstrate that the

contribution ofMLTadvectionto the total MLTcooling

is much less behind the typhoon

    MLT cooling becomes greater as wind stress

becomes stronger and the translation of the typhoon

slows.In contrast,variation by upwelling becomes

weak and SST cooling is slight as the win(i stress

weakens an(1the translation speed of the typhoon

increases.Greatbatch(1983)suggested tha.t the

horizontal pressure gradient terms could be neglected

in momentum equationsfor”fast”or”large”storms.

    WeconsiderherethatM工Tcoolingoccursmainlyby entrainment and upwelling.The entrainment rate is

deteminedbythewindstress,buoyancy,andve丘ical

current shear,while upwelling is affecte(1by the

variance of the mixe(11ayer thickness.The Froude

number was examined at the fixed point139。E,22。N

to investigate the ef6ect ofwind stress on MH’cooling

an(1deepening of the mixed layer.If the Frou(1e

number is high,the contribution of the wind stress is

sign迅cant or the mixed layFer is thimer.In this paper,

we confirm the contribution of the win(l stresses and

physical processes described in chapter4for MLT

cooling and mixe(l layer deepening.The Froude

numberis defined asfollows:

畜キ一【%毒酢

(9)

    In(9),z6*is the伍ctional velocity an(1is calculate(1

&s the ra』tio of the win(1stress(τ)to the density(ρ)of

theMLT.Thethic㎞essofthembくedlayerishl andgis the gravitational acceleration.

0.01

0.005

0卜>.一〇.005

一〇.01

一〇.0葉5

一〇.02

ヨ     }     1                一「     i         i         …         …    縛

+0-24h

、._ユニニ

     1

薮   1『『魂 一一×24-48h

  +48-72h騨   、  F

1…l 

l

     }

i       l

一3 一2.5 一2 一1.5

0C

一1 一〇.5 0

Fig.16 The relationship between MLT cooling and the amount of MLT advection(。C)per

timestep(1200seconds))for a5m/s typhoon translation speed with different periods,

The horizontal axis represents the MLT cooling(oC),and the vertical a》ds shows the

amount ofMI』radvection(。C/timestep),一∂・▽T.砂is the m盈edlayer currents,Tis the

MIT,and▽isthegradientoperator.

Page 23: AldyoshiWada - JST

2002 The Processes ofS訂CooHngbyTyphoon Passage and Case StudyofTyphoon Rexwith aMb【ed layer Ocean Model 53

0

一〇.5

一1

五  2  5  3

ー  } 乞  一

一      一

(OD)智一8・ヒΣ

一3.5

一4

一4.5

粛××

謎G

 。一

σ、8雌

 .£米

痔誹

  皿0

…ー畢………○…

  0

  0

  0

1『藍米※×米×※一潔※1×※※一

よL

i爾i・誉1:ll二瓢

0

一〇.5

1     5     2      にU

一   乳    一   之

     一          『

   (Q。協≦08↑一Σ

一3

0 0.0005 0.001      0,00で5      0.002      0.0025      0.003

    Froude number

一3.5

霧              ガ            ノ

日日日日日日鞠日図臼日醐

㌔ダ

1.士麺鋤

0 0.0005  0.OOマ 0.0015    G,002    0.0025    0、003

   Froude number

0.0035

」0.004

Fig。17(a)The relationship between MLT cooHng(。C)and

       the Froude number under different wind

       stresses。The horizontal axis represents the

       Froude number,and the vertical a}ds shows the

       SST coolin9(。C).

Fig。18(a)The relationship between MLT cooHng(。C)and

       the Froude number for different initiaI

       thicknesses of the mixed layer.The horizontal

       axis represents the Froude number and the

       verticala⊇dsshowstheMLTcooling(。C).

140

120

0   

0   

0   

0

0   

8   

6   

4

ω器韮。峯』。>⑩も。x還

20

0

120

100

               くず※××          簗

         来・諫業※一

、一椀難瓢凝       監 }

ロ                                    ロ

       = ※『3.5N50m

・0 3.ON50m -『「

0.001    0.0015    0.002     0.0025    0.003

    Froude number

の 800⊆

x三

』 60>

で実署 40

20

0 0.00050 0

「ー【聖『『..甲‘Pーーー,-

II}t■=.■■=l11 1i 「 ,,ーーヨ■

171i

E6唱P■F

・◆需燈

◆ 、皿

、国、

♂日一

温日

◎.ー…PFP

一日σ日

rーコー11 1 ,聖

、陵

m一Sm  

m m

O O O

5 3 7

 一  曹

 S  S

- / -

 m m

5 に》 FD

0.0005       0.001  0.0015      0.002

Froロde number

0.0025 O.003

Fig.17(b)The relationship between the thickness of the

       mbζed layer(m)and the Frou(le number un(1er

       different wind stresses.The horizontal axis

       represents the Froude number and the vertical

       adsshowsthethic㎞essofthemixedlayer(m).

Fig.18(b)The relationship between the thickness of the

       mixed layer(m)an(l the Frou(ie number for

       different initial thicknesses of the mb【e(l layer.

       The horizontal axis represents the Froude

       number,and the vertical axis shows the

       thic㎞essofthemixedlayer(m).

    Figure17(a)illustrates the relationship between

the Froude number and MLT cooling under dhferent

win(1stresses,and Fig.17(b)shows the relationships

between the Froude number an(1the thickness of the

mb【ed layer under diぜerent wind stresses.We noted

that the Froude number has a larger value when the

MLT suddenly decreases,while the MLT remains

constant as the Froude number changes from the

ma虹mum to minimum values because the wind stress

is weakene(1by passage of the typhoon.At the stαge of

maximum thickness of the mixed layer,the Froude

number rapidlybecomes small because the appearance

ofthe typhoon eye weakens the wind stresses.

    Figure18(a)depicts the relationship beなveen the

Froude mmber and MLT cooling under different

thic㎞esses ofthe mixed layer,and Fig.18(b)shows

the relationship between the Froude number and the

thickness of the mixe(11ayer under different mixe(1

1ayerthic㎞esses.ThemadmumFroudenumbersandmaぬmum thic㎞esses of the mixed layer in the three

cases are similar to those shown in Figs.17(a)and(b).

These factors indicate that the magnitude of MLT

cooling is not dete㎜ined by the丘ictional velocity,but

rather by the initial heat content of the mbくed layer.

Moreover,theFroudenumberinshallowerthic㎞esses

of the mixed Iayer can reach a maximum value most

rapi(11yamongthe three cases.

    Figure19(a)shows the relationship between the

Froude number and MLT cooling under different

translation spee(1s,and Fig.19(b)shows the

relationship between the Froude number and the

thic㎞ess ofthe mixed layer un(ier dhferenttranslation

spee(ls.The Froude number for the10m/s translation

speed is the greatest of the three cases.In addition,the

Froude number for the slower translation speed can

reach the maximum value most rapidly of the three

Page 24: AldyoshiWada - JST

54 WadaA VoL52,No.2

0

一〇.5

-      FD      2

一    t    一

 (O。協に編08↑一Σ

一2、5

一3

 0

                -一△・△、

                  .、・△

             ぐ

亀△ △一△鋳粛

←5m/s.5・m]

、一●一3m/s_50m i

,一ム..!9醸s解50ml

0.0005    0.001    0.0015    0.002    0.OO25    0.003    0,0035    0.004

            Froude number

Fig.19(a)The rela恒onship between MIT cooling(。C)and

       the Froude number for different typhoon

       translation speeds.The horizontal axis

       represents the Froude number,and the vertical

       a虹s shows the S凹coo1血g(。C).

120

100

 0     0     0

 8     6     4

の器⊆着置to澄モo×釜

20

0

lI

………

’1ヨ臼、.

   巳騒、.、、

、.難馨紳衛・

    …『1一・句   1

    ミ   野1    臨

EE、1.-

漁..禽納毒

 i

-4

瞬{ヨ

 忽  ll戸訴癒㎜一

…一

i{多

鷺鷹「  圏      『・血・10m/s50m  I   -             i l

lヨヨヨ

0 0.0005      0.001      0.0015      0.002      0.0025      0.003

          Froude number

Fig.19(b)The relationship between the thickness of the

       mixe(11ayer(m)and the Froude number for

       different typhoon translation speeds.The

       horizontal a》ds represents the Frou(le number,

       and the vertica1礎ds shows the thic㎞ess ofthe

       mixed layer(m).

cases,and it is similar to the case under different

thic㎞esses ofthe mixedlayer.

   MLT cooling and deepening ofthe n丘xed layer is

suddenly changed under different wind stresses and

the thicknesses of the mixed layer when the Froude

numberisgreater.However,this rule camotbe applied

to different translation speeds.It is thought that the

maximum thickness of the mixed layer is量ndepen(1ently determine(1by the wind stress and

translation speed of the typhoon.MLT cooling is

independent of the Froude number,but MH’cooling

has its own range of Froude numbers.The pattem of

Froude number variation versus MUf cooling is thus

uniquely determine(i under dhferent conditions,such

as the wind stress,the廿anslation speed of the typhoon

andtheinitialthic㎞essofthemixedlayer.

    In conclusion,MI∫rcoolingis determinedbywind

stress,translation speed of the lyphoon,heat且uxes,the

initial thickness of the mixe(11ayer,and the vertical

gradients of sea temperatures in the themlocline layer.

However,the mechanism of MLT cooling is dHferent。

Themagni加deofwindstressdeteminesthethic㎞essofthemixedlayerirrespectiveoftheinitialthic㎞essof

the mixed Iayer an(l variations caused by upwelling。

The magnitude ofthe thic㎞ess ofthe mixed layer and

vahationofthedepthatthebo廿omofthethemoclinebyupwelling(雌ers amongtranslation speeds。

Entrainmentplays an importantpartin(1etemining the

thickness of the mixed layer.We must know the

con(1itions such as the frictional velocities,buoyancy

且uxes,and vertical current shears in the mixed layer in

order to detemine the entrainment rate.The buoyancy

is affected by surf&ce heat且uxes,so it is possible that

MLTcoolingoccurs dueto excessiveheatfluxes.

    It is important that the initial vertical profiles of

seatemperaturesaf『ectMLTcooling.Both entrainment

andupwellingcontributeto MLTcoolinginthiscase。

5.Numerical Simulation ofTyphoon REX

5.1Typhoon Rex and Maritime Data Acquired by

   Rハ1Kelfu Maru

   Tヲphoon Rex appeared on August24,1998,south

ofOkinawa.There werefewertyphoons in the summer

of1998than in the average year.A warmer S訂,over

30。C spread.overthewestregionfrom140。E,whilethe

SSI’over the east region,from140。E,was somewhat

lower than that in the average year.The minimum

central pressure of Typhoon Rex suddenly descen(1e(1

from1002hPa onAugust25,1998to960hPa onAugust26.This typhoon moved trochoidally(Fig.20),and the

minimum central pressure rem2疽ned constant for about

a week.Typhoon Rex reache(1955hPa central pressure

and40m/s maximum win(1spee(1from OOOO(UTC)

August29to2100(UTC)August29,1998in JMA best-

track data.

    Maritime observations by R/V Ke血Mam were

conducted behind Typhoon Rex from August24to

August31,1998(Fig.20).A rapid decrease ofthe SST,

inwhich the ma》dmum SSTcooling reache(1about3。C,

was observed around OOOO(UTC)August29,1998,

when the intensity of the typhoon became maximum

(Fig.21(a)).However,the win(1velocities in maritime

observationswere ffom6m/s to8m/s(Fig.21(b))and

were notsubstantial comparedwiththewindvelocityof

atypicaltyphoon.Maritime data also indicated thatthe

air temperature decreased rapidly and simultaneously

as the SST decreased.The air temperature had almost

the same value as the SST during the SST variation

from OOOO(UTC)August29to1800(UTC)August29,1998.Shayθ渉αZ.(2000)also repo1’te(i that the air

Page 25: AldyoshiWada - JST

2002 The Processes ofSSTCoohngbyTyphoon Passage and Case StudyofTyphoon Rexwith aMixed layer Ocean Mode1 55

100。Ei110。E 120。E 唾30。Ei唾40。E 壌50。E 160。E 170。E 180。

500N

40。N

30。N

200N

壌00N

0。

    欝灘熱、甕慧撫

一灘 一群… 霰                   ・」’‘ K3

繋…獺…欝塑σ』〆

…灘    腱牛27

4奎一

         〆

,禽〆

艦。

60卜Pa

82700960hPa

■‘』 50。N

40。N

30。N

200N

10。N

00100。E ”0。E 屡200E 130。E で40。E 1500E 1600E 曜700E 180。

Fig.20 The circles depict the JMA besレtrack data of Typhoon Rex(9804)from August24to

September6,1998.The shaded circles represent the posi廿ons of Typhoon Rex at OOOO

(UTC)。The date and the minimum pressure are also shown in this figure.The triangles

represent the observational track of Ke血Maru from August24to September1,1998.

The shaded tdangles indicate the positions of the ship at OOOO(UTC).The Knumber is

the day ofthe maritime observation in the region.

temperatures had almost the same values as the S訂,

based on observations by ocean buoy after the passage

of Hunricane Opa1.

5・21nitial and Boundary Conditions for the   Numerical Simulation

    In this section,we explain the initial and boundary

conditions for the numerical simula廿on of SST cooling

byTyphoon Rex.Itwas necessary to first determine the

initial conditions in the atmosphere and the ocean in

preparingforthe numerical simulation ofTyphoon Rex.

The model covers the area from100N to50。N and

from120。E to160。E.Each zonal and meridian grid

resolution is O.25degrees.The physical elements

consi(lere(l here to be the initial conditions of the

atmosphere are wind velocities,atmospheric pressures,

and air temperatures at10m heights near the surface.

The atmospheric pressure in afine grid is calculated by

Iinear interpolation from the coarse global objective

analysis{lata at the JMA(GANAL:1.250resolution at

Iatitude an(110ngitude).The wind velocities in a fine

gri(1were also primary calculated by linear

interpolation from the GANAL data.In ad(1ition,the

Rankin vortexes,which were calculated using the best-

track data in JMA,were composite(l on these GANAL

data.(We call this proce(lure”Typhoon Bogusing”).

Since GANAL data are usually update(1eve可six hours,

the atmospheric conditions maintain the value for sbく

hours,except that the Rankin voltexes are calculated

by linear interpolat三〇n every time step.The bulk

coefficients of the wind stresses are also modified.

Their values are change(1up to1.25times for a wind

speed between8m/s and25m/s and up to1.5times for

wind spee(1s over25m/s.This mo(1ification enables

SST cooling to be well simulated because of the

stronger wind stresses.The air temperatures recorded

by R/V Keifu Mam are assimilated around every

observatiomlstation of艮/VKeifuMaru.The dhference

in SST cooling between the numerical simulation and

the observation,without the effect of the heat nux,can

be(1iscusse(1using this assin五1ation.The a㎞ospheric

temperature convertingf『om the objective analysis data

to the observationa1(lat且acUlally contributes very liUlle

to SST cooling.No T立phoon Bogusing of the sea level

pressure was used in this experiment since a reduce(i

gravity appro》dmation is applie(1in this mode1,although

the effect of the bottom topography is important in

detemユiningthe ocean dynamics in a shallow area.

    Levitus(1984)climatological data are used for the

sea temperatures and the salinities by linear

interpolation from120。E to160。E an(1from10。N to

50。N.In addition,TRMM/TMI one-day averaged data

Page 26: AldyoshiWada - JST

56 Wad&A. Vol.52,No.2

。C

34

32

30

28

26

24

22

20

18

金temperature(。C〉

   dew-Point temperature(。C)

一Sea Su㎡ace Temperature(。C〉

 × Sea Levei Pressure(hPa)

{016

1014

1012

1010

1008

廃006

1004

1002

1000

hPa

嘩998/8/ 1998/8/ 1998/8/ 1998/8/ 1998/8/ 1998/8/ 1998/8/ 1998/8/ 遷998/8/ 匪998/8/ 1998/9/ 1998/9/

22 0=00 23 0:00 24 0=00 25 0=00 26 0=00 27 0:00 28 0:00 29 0=00 30 0=00 31 0=00  1 0=00  2 0=00

Fig.21(a)Maritime observation data acquired by R/V Keifu Maru.The air temperature(。C),the

       dew point temperature(。C),an(l the S瑚「(oC)are shown on the left axis and the sea level

       pressure(hPa)is shown on the right axis.The arrow indicates the maximum SST

       decrease(luring the observations.

m/s

24

21

18

15

廓2

9

6

3

0

。一。曲

∴謡

    コ

   O皿800

    『

    『

    『

    ア

    閲

    π

    『

    

OO

陽酵oQ

oo

8→←Wind speed(m/s)

o Wiハd directio為(degree)

360

315

270

225

180

135

90

45

1998/8/22

  0=00

1998/8/24  1998/8/26  0=00        0:00

1998/8/28

  0100

確998/8/30  1998/9/1

  0:00        0:00

0

degree

Fig.21(b)Maritime observation data acquired by R/VKeifu Maru.The wind speed(m/s)is shown

       on the left axis,and the wind direction(degrees),on the right axis.

Page 27: AldyoshiWada - JST

2002 The Processes ofS訂CoolingbyTyphoon Passage and Case Study ofTyphoon Rexwith a Mb【ed layer Ocean Mode1 57

were used for the SST data.TRMM/TMI data covers

the area from38.1250N乙38.125。S and are at O.25。

resolution for both latitude and longitu(ie.The SST(1ata

from the previous day or the next daywere composited

on the grid where there was no data because of thick

clouds of severe storms or no obsen7ation.Levitus SST

data were used in grids that had no data for thr“e(iays.

These initial SST data correspond to the niaritime

observational data acquired by R/V Keifu Maru.

Ben(1er an(l Ginis(2000)applied』the NCEP daily

averaged SST and Levitus(1984)climatological data as

the initial conditions.

   The thic㎞ess ofthe mixed layerwas setto30m

and that of the thermocline layer was set to170m for

the oceanic interior con(litions.Data of temperature

and salinity in the ocean,except f6r the sST,were

apPlied using Levitus climatological data.Water且uxes

due to evaporation were considere(1,but the

precipitation cou1(l be neglecte(1.

   Following the above procedures,we performed

the spin-up Process to calculate the steady ocean

currents,so that the pressure gradient term balanced

the Coriolis term atthe initialtime.

△T(oC)is the deviation ofthe SSTover26。C△Z(m)is

the ver丘cal gri(l interva1,and H(m)is the depth over

260C.

    Figures25(a),(b)and(c)(lepict the dist益bution

of the ocean heat content on August24,27,and31,

1998.The ocean heat content was the greatest in the

south at15。N,and was over20kcal/cm2from August

24to August.31,1998。Leipper and Volgenau(1972)

suggested that the ocean heat content over6kca1/cm2

is related to typhoon development.The ocean heat

contentwas maint3ined at over6kca1/cm2丘omAugust

24to August27,1998,(iuring Typhoon Rex.Figure26

shows the relationship between the ocean heat content

and the intensity of Typhoon Rex.During this period,

the mini単um central pressure of Typhoon Rex

suddenly descended from1002hPa on August25,1998,

to960hPa on August26.However,the ocean heat

content was less than6kca1/cm2after August27by

Typhoon Rex.Typhoon Rex maintained the intensity

but did not develop well because the ocean heat

content(lecrease(1(1ue to SST cooling.

5.3Results of the Numerical Simulation

    The numerical simulation of Typhoon Rex was

performed from August24,1998,(Fig.22(a))to

August31,1998。The decrease of the SST cause(i by

Typhoon Rex began to appear after72holurs

integration on August27,1998,(Fig.22(b))in the

horizontal SST distribution.The decrease in the SST

became greater,particularly behind and to the right of

the typhoon track(Fig.22(c))onAugust31,1998.This

SST cooling was more noticeable馬hen the wind

stresses were stronger and the translation speeds were

lower.The distribution of the mode1-computed SST,

particularly the area of maximum SST cooling,was

similar to that of the three-day running mean

TRMM/TMISSTdata(Fig.23).

   We compared the SSTvariationinthe modelwith

that ofthe S蟹observed by R/V Keifu Maru(Fig.24).

Except for the d置erence in the initial value of SST,the

tendencywas well simulated,particularlythe ma》dmum

SST decreases from1200(UTC)August28,1998,to

OOOO(UTC)August29。

   We examined the relationship between SST

cooling and the intensity of Typhoon Rex.Leipper and

Volgenau(1972)suggested that the ocean heat content

could be defined as follows:

         な

    9・HC=Σρら△勉Z         (9)         h=O

   whereρ(g/cm3)is the oceanic density,Cρ(1

ca1/g/。C)is the heat content with a constant pressure,

Page 28: AldyoshiWada - JST

58 Wada A. Vol,52,No.2

59N

56N

55N

50N

27N

24N

2葉N

18N

15N

12N

SST Aug24by Mi×ed LGyer Oceqn ModeI

120E   125E   肇50E:  155E   肇40E   145E:  150ε   155E   筆60E

54

52

30

28

26

24

22

20

18

↑6

14

12

10

Fig。22(a)The initial S訂distribution on August24,1998.The shaded bar on the right side indicates

        the range of the SST(。C).The contour intervals are2。C.The line represents the typhoon

        trackfromAugust24to August31,1998.The typhoon mark is the position in the typhoon

        center at OOOO(UTC).

39N

56N

55N

50N

27N

24N

21N

18N

15N

喋2N

SST Aug27by Mi×ed LQyer Oceqn ModeI

120E   125E   150E   155E   1尋OE   14・5E:  150E   155E   壕60ε

54

52

5Q

28

26

24

22

20

爆8

16

14

璽2

璽0

Fig.22(b)The mode1-computed S訂distribution on August27,1998.The shaded bar on the right

        side indicates the range of the SST(。C).The contour intervals are2。C.The line

        represents the typhoon track fromAugust24to August31,1998.The typhoon mark is the

        pos圭t三〇n in the typhoon center at OOOO(UTC).

Page 29: AldyoshiWada - JST

2002 The Processes ofS訂CoolingbyTyphoon Passage and Case Study ofTyphoon Rexwith a Mixed layer Ocean Model 59

59N

56N

55N

50N

27N

24N

21N

18N

15N

12N

SST Aug51 by Mi×ed Lqyer Oceqn Model

120E   霊25E   150E   155E   140ε   145E   150E   155E   160E

54

52

50

28

26

24

22

20

喋8

16

嘩4・

12

j o

Fig。22(c)Same as Fig.22(b)exceptforthe datel(August31,1998).

Fig.23 The left panel shows the distribution of three.days averaged SST acquired by

TRMM/TMI onAugust31.The rightpanel shows the distribution ofSSTdeviationsfrom

JMA climatological SST data averaged from1961to1990.The data were produced by a

TRISST(Ver.2.0)algorithm an(1supplied by the Earth Observ・ation Research Center,

National Space DevelopmentAgency ofJapan.

Page 30: AldyoshiWada - JST

60 Wada A. Vol.52,No.2

32

31.5

3遷

30.5

O   FD   9

3  q“ 2

    2

(Q。)ΦΦ」boΦで

28.5

28

27,5    ㎜ 叩 P 門 『

㎜}㎝一一

「i {modei SST

K〉一〇bs SST(10m語)

27     ・  1      1             ・      一 ド  n        ・・ i      一一〃』

擁998/8/ 1998/8/ 唾998/8/ 1998/8/ 1998/8/ 1998/8/ 1998/8/ 1998/8/ 肇998/8/ 1998/9/

23α00  240100  250=00  260:00  270:00  280=00  290:00  300=00  3蒙0:00  1 0:00

Fig.24 Time series that shows the variation of the SST at the position of the maritime

observation.”Model S訂”indicates the model-computed SST.”Obs SST(10min)”is the

observation data acquired every10minutes by R/V Keifu Maru.The vertical axis shows

the sea surface temperature(。C).

ohc Aug24by Mi×ed Lqyer OceGn Model59N

56N

55N

50N

27N

24N

21N

18N

15N

喋2N

120E 125E

「合.角

蓉. 加

、○

150ε 155E   喋40E   歪ヰ5E:  150E   155E   160E

50

27

24

21

喋8

12

9

6

5

Fig.25(a)The shade〔l portion and contours in〔licate the horizontal(listribution of the ocean heat

       content(kcal/m2)on August24,1998.The shaded bar on the right side shows the range

       of the ocean heat content(kcal/m2).The contour intervals are3(kca1/m2).The line

       represents the typhoon trackfromAugust24to August31,1998.The typhoon mark is the

       position in the typhoon center at OOOO(UTC).

Page 31: AldyoshiWada - JST

2002 The Processes ofS解CoolingbyTyphoon Passage and Case Study ofTyphoon Rexwith a Mixed layer Ocean Model

    ohc Aug 27by Mi×ed Lqyer Oceon ModeI

555522211蓬

幽6

  φ

ヌΩ

120E   葉25E   嘩こ50E   嘩55E   140E:  窪45E:  摩50E   155E

   Fig.25(b)Same as Fig.25(a)exceptfor the date;(August27).

160E

61

    ohc Aug 31 by Mixed Lqyer Ocecn Model

59N

56N

53N

50N

27N

24N

21N        21

18N

窪5N

               18

   で20ε   125E   で50E   で55E   で4Gε   璽45ε   雪50ε   155E   マ60E

      Fig.25(c)Same as Fig.25(a)exceptforthe datel(August31),

074摩852

3222摩璽1963

Page 32: AldyoshiWada - JST

62 WadaA. Vol.52,No.2

lil

I4112!

086』弓20

→トOGeanHeatContent(o》er 26℃)←minimロmcentralpressure(hPa)

1010

1000

990

980

   丁970 釦U   o

960

950

940

930

1998/8/241998/8/251998/8/261998/8/27{998/8/28 1998/8/291998/8/30

 0100  0:00  0=00  0:00  0:00  0:00  0:00                   day

920

was adapted.Figure27also illustrates thatmodification

of the bulk coef且cients yielde(1a better result for SST

cooling.However,the effects of high waves an(1

whitecaps were neglected in this experiment.These

problemswillbe considered inthe future.

32 「㎜一31、5

31

Fig.26 Time series of the minimum pressure and the

ocean heat content over26。C by Leipper and

Volgenau(1972)at the position of the minimum

pressure of the tyl)hoon center.The verUcal axis

indicates the ocean heatcontent(kca1/m2).

 30.5

ρ 30届史留29.5

  29

28.5

28

27.5

一Eヨーbogus and bulk

-e-bogus

込一GANAL

1998/8 1998/8 1998/8 1998/8 1998/8 1998/8 1998/8 1998/8 1998/8 1998/9

6。The Ocean Response to Typhoon Rex

    The ten(lency of SST cooling by Typhoon Rex is

well simulated comparedwiththe maritime SSTbyR/V

Ke血Mam shown in Fig.24.However,the magnitude

of maximum SST cooling by mmerical simulation is

smaller thξm that observed by R/V Ke血Mam.Figure

27shows the time series ofS釧「coolingfor the GANAL

wind stresses,the a(ldition of Typhoon Bogusing,an(l

Typhoon Bogusing with a mo(1ification of the bulk

coefficients.The weaker wind stresses in GANAL

reduce maximum SST cooling.The maximum SST

cooling obtaine(1by Typhoon Bogusing with the

modhication ofthe bulk coef且cients was the greatest of

the three cases,but the model camot perfectly

simulate the maンdmum SSTcoolingnotedbyR/VKe血

Mam.    S訂cooling was observed by R/V Ke血Mam at

24。50N,134.750E on August29,1998.This SST cooling

appeared on August26where Typhoon Rex passed.

The maximum wind stresses on August26,1998,were

3.5N/m2in the case ofthe Typhoon Bogusing with the

mo(1mcation ofthe bulk coef且cients and2.2N/m2in the

case of the basic Typhoon Bogusing.Deepening of the

mixed layer was about10m,while the depth at the

bottom of the thermocline Iayer became about4m

shallower due to upwelling for the Typhoon Bogusing

with the modification of the bulk:coefficients.

Therefore,the win(l stresses may be insu丘icient for

reproducing maximum SST cooling.It has beenreported that there is a problem with bulk coef且cients

at high seas.Price(1981)examine(1the ef慮ect of bulk

coefficients for SST cooling and suggested the

possibility of an underestimation of about40%for S訂

cooling if the constant drag coefficient CD=1.5×10-3

3020

/α

Fig.27

/24   /25   /26   /27   /28   /29   /30   /31  /遷〇二〇〇

〇二〇〇 〇100 0:00 0:00 0:00 0100 0:00 0;00

Time series that indicates the variations of the

SST(。C).”GANAL”indicates that only GANAL

data were used for the atmospheric wind data,

”bogus”indicates that both GANAL data an(l the

Rankin vortex produced by J幽best track dat且

were used,”bogus and bulk”indicates that the

modhie(1bulk coe伍cients of Kon(10(1975),1.25

times from8to25m/s and1.5times over25m/s,

were used.

    There is another problem with wind stresses.The

ma》dmum wind speed ofTyphoon Rex was not actually

observed伽一s伽but was determined by routineanalysis.1f the analysis of the Typhoon Bogusing ha(l

any errors compared with the初一s吻wind distribution,

the result ofthe simulationfor SSTcooling may include

such en℃rs.

    Westatedinsection4thatitisimportantthatwind

stresses play a role in SST cooling.However,other

factors may affect SST cooling,such as the initial

thickness of the mixed layer,the vertical gradients of

sea temperatures,and heat fluxes.If the verticaI

gradients of sea temperatures at the area of ma}dmum

SSTcooling observed by R/VKe血Maruwere greater

than those in the Levitus(1984)climatological data,

SST cooling of the simulation may become greater.In

fact,the sea temperature around137。E and25。N was

cooler from June to July than in the average year,

accordingto the observationbyR/VRyFofuMaruσMA,

private communication).Bao8如1.(2000)envisaged the

relationship between the thickness of the mixed layer

an(l the intensity of typhoons using an atmosphere-

ocean wave coupled modeL The intensity of the

typhoon was suppressed when the mixed Iayer was

Page 33: AldyoshiWada - JST

2002 The Processes ofS訂CoolingbyTyphoon Passage and Case StudyofTyphoon Rexwith aMb【edlayer Ocean ModeI 63

thin,while the intensity of a typhoon with a greater

thickness of the mb【ed layer was almost the same as

that in the uncoupled mode1.Therefore,the initial

thickness of the mixe(11ayer may have a significant

effect on SST cooling an(1the intensity of tyl)hoons.

7.Conclusions and Remarks

   The ocean response to typhoons,particularly the

MLTvariation after the passage of a typhoon,was

investigate(1in this study using the mtxed layer ocean

mode1.The following meteorological or oceanic

conditions tended to be favorable for MLT cooling by

passage of a typhoon.

    1)Strongeran(1more substantialwind forcing

    2)Lowertranslation speed oftyphoons

    3)Moreintensiveheatflux

    4)Thimerinitialmixed layer

    5)Greater temperature gradient in the

      themocline layer

   The results of1),2),4),an(15)are similar to the

results of Price(1981).However,we quantitatively

estimate MLT c601ing under different conditions.

Strong wind stresses determine the thickness of the

mixed layer regardless of its initial condition.Wind

stresses and typhoon translation spee(ls have a

significant effect on the entrainment and upwe11ing

processes.We can understand the process of MLT

coolingfromtherelationshipbetweenMLTcoolingand

the thickness of th¢mixed layer at each typhoon

translation speed.The entrainmentprocess is dominant

for MLT cooling mder different heat fluxes from the

sea to the atmosphere.The(1ecrease of the SST

changes due to the(1ifferent vertical profile of sea

temperatures under a constant win(1forcing,as

reflected in condition5).

    We consider that MLT cooling is caused by

entrainment and upwelling.If the wind stresses are

strong and the translation speed of the typhoon is low,

a dynamic effect,such as entrainment an(1upwelling,

mainly contributes to a decrease in the MLT.Price

(1981)thought the contribution of heat nuxes to SST

cooling was smal1.One reasons for this is that his

entrainment rate was not include(i in the effect of

buoyancy.The thermodynamics ef£ect by heat fluxes

under a constant win(1stress and the translation speed

of a typhoon cannot be neglected because cooler water

is created at the transition layer by entrainment and

contributes to decrease MLT to some extent.MLT

cooling was about O.7。C greater and the maximum

(leepening of the mixed layer was10m deeper in

experiment20than under the condition of no heat flux

in experiment5.The vertical profiles of sea

temperatures are also important for MLT cooling。

Under these differing con(litions,SST cooling is

determinedbyentrainmentandupwelling.    The rapid decrease of the SST obtained by R/V

Ke血Maru is reproducedwellbynumerical simulation

using the mixed layer ocean model.The Rankin vortex

was composite(i on the global analysis data to simulate

SST cooling by Typhoon Rex.It is necessary to

consi(1er the effect of the moving speed ofthe typhoon

on SST cooling.The decrease of SST cause(1by

Typhoon Rex corresponds to the peho(1when the wind

stresses were stronger and the translation spee(ls were

lower.However,since climatological data were used as

oceanic initial con(iitions,unrealistic vertical pro丘1es of

sea temperatures in the initial conditions may af醇ectthe

prediction of SST cooling in this numerical simulation.

Therefore,preparation of better qualitative initial

conditions is re(luire(1for a beUler pre(liction.

    The mixed layer ocean model used in this paper

has been(ieveloped as a part of取【)hoon-ocean coupled

model in order to improve the forecast ofintensities of

typhoons.Further improvement of the mixed layer

ocean model will be expected to simulate the ocean

con(1ition more practical.One ofthe subjects we should

improve is an introduction of the effect of the bottom

topography in order to improve the pre(liction of

landing typhoon and the重yphoon that moves along the

coastal region,Another subject,which is easier to

practice than former one,is to make finely the

horizontal resolution of the mixed layer ocean mode1.

The丘nerhorizontalresolution ofthe mixedlayerocean

model embodies a S鋼「cooling by passage of typhoon

in a SST distr圭bution.However,we should also make

五nely the horセontヨ1resolution of typhoon model in the

typhoon-ocean coupled mo(lel because a(1etaile(i

distribution of the wind velocity on the surface also

embodies the SST cooling by typhoon.Besides,we

should reconfirm some parameterization metho(is in

planetary boundary layer such as the estimation of

momentum flux because of its great in旦uence for S訂

cooling.The mbζed layer ocean model will progress in

future for the purpose of the typhoon pre(liction with

the typhoon-ocean coupled model although there are

some subjects to improve for development ofthe雌xed

layeroceanmode1.

Ac㎞owledgement

    I am grateful to two anonymous reviewers for

providing useful suggestions and comments.This

research is now carried out as”Research into

pre(1iction ofatyphoon using anumerical mode1”in the

Typhoon Department Meteorological ResearchInstitute,theJapan MeteorologicalAgency。Du血gthis

research,many recommendations and suggestions

Page 34: AldyoshiWada - JST

64 WadaA Vo1.52,No.2

were received from Mr.ShoinYagi,the Director ofthe

Typhoon Department.We obtained extensive advice,

proposals about the mixed layer ocean mo(1el,and

information about source co(1es from Prof.1.Ginis at

the University of Rhode Island.We received many

suggestions from Prof.R.L。Elsbeny at the Naval Posし

Graduate School and Dr.C.Rowley in FNMOC at the

Naval Research L衰boratory.I thank Mr.Chikara Nara

for assistance with maritime observation data.The

observation datafromKe血Maruwere acquiredbythe

staff of Ke血Maru,including Takeo M&ehira,Chief

Observer、ITRISST(Ver.2.0)l was pro(iuced and

supplied by the Earth Obser▽a.tion Research Center,

National Space DevelopmentAgencyofJapan.

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66 WadaA. Vol.52,No.2

海洋混合層モデルによる台風通過時の海面水温低下の過程と台風Rexの事例調査

和田章義

 様々な海洋内部の初期条件や大気境界条件が、台風に伴う海面水温低下に与える影響について調べた。強い風応力、

ゆっくりとした台風の移動、海洋から大気へ放出される過剰な熱フラックス、初期の混合層深度の設定そして海洋内部

の水温分布は台風通過に伴う海面水温低下に影響を与える。海面水温低下はエントレインメントと湧昇の効果が混合し

たプロセスで生じ、海面水温低下に対する慣性振動に代表される移流の影響は小さい。台風中心付近を通過する点にお

いて混合層の深まりと海面水温低下の関係を調べた結果、初期の混合層深度に関わらず風応力の強さと移動速度の違い

により混合層深度及び水温低下は決定される。また水温低下と湧昇、エントレインメントによる混合層の深まりの割合

は風応力の強さ、台風の移動速度の他、海洋の鉛直構造の違いに対しても密接な関連がある。一方で熱フラックスのみ

を変化させた場合、混合層の深まりに対する湧昇の効果は変化しないものの、熱フラックスが最大800W/m2に達する状

況では、熱フラックスを与えない場合に比べ、混合層水温は約0.7℃低下した。このようにエントレインメントによる混

合層下部における水温低下は混合層水温低下に影響を与える。

 海洋気象観測船啓風丸によって観測された台風Rexによる約3℃の水温低下を理解するために、数値シミュレーション

を行った。モデルによって計算された水温変動は、海面水温の急激な低下や約3℃の海面水温低下といった観測の特徴

を良くとらえていた。モデルの計算結果から、この水温低下は台風による強い風応力と遅い移動速度に生じていたこと

を確認した。更にモデルにより計算された水温を使用して計算された海洋熱容量は台風強度の時間変化とよい関係を示

していた。