algal blooms in the ocean

7/31/2019 Algal Blooms in the Ocean

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Algal Blooms in the Ocean

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Approved iron oxide well cleaner

Rehabilitation Specialists

Boresaver.com.au

The ocean, that vast body of water covering 71 percent of the Earth's surface, is divided

into four major basins: the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, and Arctic Oceans. These large

basins are interconnected with various shallow seas, such as the Mediterranean Sea, the

Gulf of Mexico, and the South China Sea. Oceans and seas abound with life, ranging

from microscopic unicellular (one-celled) organisms to multicellular (many-celled)

animals.

Algae is an important life form in the ocean. Life in the ocean is maintained in balance

by forces of nature and by predator

prey relationships, unless some external pressures

upset the balance. When a balance upset leads to conditions more favorable for the

reproduction and growth of algae, an explosive increase in the number of algal cell

density occurs. Such rapid increases in the algae population are called algal blooms.

During a bloom, a liter of water may contain millions of algae. The most widely

publicized type of algal bloom is associated with species that produce a toxin (chemical

substance) harmful to animals that feed on the algae (and hence is known as a harmful

algal bloom), and/or algae that cause a tint in the water because of thephotosynthetic

pigments they contain. The latter commonly is known as a "red tide," but different

pigments can turn the water red, brown, purple, orange, or yellow. Depending on the

circumstances and the species present, a red tide may or may not be harmful. Although

not all algal blooms in the ocean produce highly visible effects nor are all blooms

harmful, they nonetheless affect life in the ocean and on land in both beneficial and

harmful ways.
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In February 2002, the massive die-off and decay of algae from a nearshore harmful algal

bloom (a "red tide") caused a rapid reduction in the water's dissolved oxygen

concentration, driving tens of thousands of rock lobsters to "walk out of the sea" near

the coastal town of Elands Bay in South Africa's Western Cape province. The lobsters in

search of oxygen moved toward the breaking surf, but were stranded when the tide went

out. Government and military staff attempted to save some of the lobsters, but others

were collected for food. A similar stranding from a massive red-tide event occurred at

Elands Bay in 1997.

Requirements for a Bloom

Algae require warmth, sunlight, and nutrients to grow and reproduce, so they live in the

upper 60 to 90 meters (200 to 300 feet) of ocean water. The upper layer of water, the

epipelagic zone, is rich in oxygen, penetrated by sunlight, and warmer than water at

lower levels. As algae and other organisms that live in the ocean die, they fall to thebottom of the ocean, where they decay and release the compounds from which they were

made. Under certain conditions, these nutrients can deplete the oxygen in the water.

Temperature and salt concentration determine the density of water and how water

moves (currents). Cold water is denser (heavier) and sinks from the surface


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(downwelling). Other water moves across to replace it. Eventually, water at the surface

is replaced by water that has risen, or upwelled, from the bottom to the surface

somewhere else in the ocean. These upwellings bring nutrient-rich waters to the top.

This increase in nutrients can trigger algae blooms.

An increase in nutrients also may be caused by activities of humans, such as runoff from

animal farms or fertilized croplands and lawns, or atmospheric deposition of sulfur and

nitrogen compounds or oxides derived from the burning offossil fuel . These nutrients

lead to blooms in coastal waters to a greater extent than in the open ocean.

However, some of these nutrients do find their way to the open ocean far from shore,

and contribute to the formation of blooms in the open ocean. Their movement is aided

by the wind and by ocean currents. Algae blooms in the open ocean are not usually

harmful; instead, they provide many benefits, largely deriving from the fact that the

open ocean is relatively unproductive (low in nutrients).

Algae and Photosynthesis

Algae are referred to as plants because, like plants, they produceorganic compounds

from inorganic compounds (carbon dioxide and water) by capturing and using the

energy from sunlight. Most algae are eukaryotic , an exception being the blue-greenalgae (cyanobacteria).

Photosynthesis takes place in organelles called chloroplasts in eukaryotic cells.

Chloroplasts contain an outer and an inner membrane and pancakeshaped structures

called thylakoids. Energy is captured from sunlight by pigments (chlorophylls a and b

and carotenoids) stored in the thylakoids.

Photosynthesis occurs in two stages commonly referred to as the light reactions (light isrequired) and the dark reactions (no light is directly required). During the light

reactions, energy captured from sunlight is used to split (dissociate) water molecules.

Electrons released from this reaction are passed down a series of electron carrier

molecules, leading to the storage of the energy in the form of ATP (adenosine


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triphosphate). This is the form in which living organisms store energy to be used

immediately for carrying out chemical reactions and other activities.

Oxygen is produced as a byproduct of the light reactions. During the dark reactions

(Calvin cycle), six molecules of carbon dioxide are used to make sugar (glucose).

Because algae use carbon dioxide and release oxygen as a product of the light reactions,

these plants play an important role in maintaining the proper concentrations of carbon

dioxide and oxygen in the environment, via the carbon cycle and oxygen cycle.

Algae, like green plants, produce the first organic compounds in the food chain and

thus are referred to as primary producers. Other organisms cannot use inorganic

molecules to make the organic compounds that they need for life, and therefore depend

on algae and other plants as the initial source of organic compounds. These organisms

either eat algae to obtain organic compounds, or obtain them from the water when they

are released after the algae die.

Types of Algae That May Bloom

Cyanobacteria.

Cyanobacteria, also known as blue-green algae, are one of the oldest known types ofalgae and are believed to have played a major role in the addition of oxygen to the

Earth's early atmosphere. Some cyanobacteria carry out nitrogen fixation, which is the

conversion of nitrogen gas into nitrogen compounds that can be used by other primary

producers.

Diatoms.

Diatoms are unicellular and have a cell wall composed of silica, a glass-like material,

which comprises a shell-like structure called a frustule.


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Coccolithophore blooms are identifiable via space-based remote sensing because their

external plates of calcium carbonate, called coccoliths, backscatter light from the water

column to create a bright optical effect. This bloom (the cloudy swirl in lower lefthand

corner) occurred in summer 2001 in the Celtic Sea off England's southwestern coast.

When diatoms die, the frustules settle to the bottom of the ocean floor and combine with

the soil to form diatomaceous earth. Diatomaceous earth is used in products such as

filters for swimming pools, as temperature and sound insulators, and as an abrasive in

toothpaste.

Dinoflagellates.

Dinoflagellates have two unequal flagella that help them direct their movement. Many

of these organisms contain colored pigments that cause the water to appear colored

when these organisms bloom, leading to the terms "red tide" or "brown tide," for

example. Some dinoflagellates live in close association with marine animals, such as

sponges, sea anemones, giant clams, and corals. The golden-brown photosynthetic cells

found in these animals, called zooxanthellae, actually are dinoflagellates.

Coccolithophores.

Coccolithophores are cells covered with button-like structures called coccoliths made of

calcium carbonate. The coccoliths give the ocean a milky white or turquoise appearance


7/21

during intense blooms. The long-term flux of coccoliths to the ocean floor is the main

process responsible for the formation of chalk and limestone.

Coccolithophores and some other algae participate in the sulfur cycle and produce the

gas dimethyl sulfide. This is the primary way that sulfur is carried between ocean and

land.

Dimethyl sulfide leaves the surface of the water and reacts with oxygen in the

atmosphere to form tiny sulfuric acid droplets. These droplets are carried over land and

fall back to land in the form of precipitation. They also aid in the formation of clouds,

which partially block the transmission of harmful ultraviolet light that penetrates the

surface water. Cloud formation also is thought to encourage surface winds that promote

the movement of surface water, leading to upwellings that bring nutrients to the surface.

Benefits of Algal Blooms

Algal blooms provide large concentrations of algae that produce organic compounds

needed by higher organisms, ranging from oysters, clams, and mussels to human beings.

For this reason, productivity increases in areas where algal blooms occur. More algae in

the water means that more carbon dioxide is used from the atmosphere and that more

oxygen is released into the atmosphere. Oxygen is necessary for many living things,including humans. As noted previously, the production of dimethyl sulfide gas helps

protect algae from harmful ultraviolet rays so they remain healthy and thus are able to

continue the cycle of sustaining life on Earth.

Even in the coldest parts of the ocean, algae provide the primary source of organic

material to animals at the bottom of the food chain. Organic materials are moved up the

food chain as higher organisms feed on those lower down the chain. For example, algae

have been found in Antarctic sea ice. As sea water freezes, algae living in the water arefrozen in the ice, where they later can be released during a thaw. These algae are a vital

source of food for krill, the shrimp-like organisms eaten by penguins, seals, seabirds,

and whales.


8/21

SEE ALSOACID RAIN ;ALGAL B LOOMS , HARMFUL ;ALGAL B LOOMS IN F RESHWATER;

CARBON D IOXIDE IN THE O CEAN ANDATMOSPHERE ;E COLOGY, MARINE ;F ISHERIES ,

MARINE ;M ICROBES IN THE O CEAN ;O CEAN B IOGEOCHEMISTRY;O CEAN -F LOORS

EDIMENTS ;P LANKTON ;S EAWATER, GASES IN .

Doretha B. Foushee

Bibliography

Castro, Peter, and Michael E. Huber.Marine Biology, 2nd ed. New York: Wm.

C.Brown/McGraw-Hill, 1997.

Cousteau, Jacques. The Ocean World, 2nd ed. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1993.

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User Contributions:

1farah naz

Mar 9, 2007 @ 7:07 am

article is good and so much informative Dinoflagellates have two unequal flagella that help

them direct their movement. Many of these organisms contain colored pigments that causethe water to appear colored when these organisms bloom, leading to the terms "red tide" or"brown tide," for example. Some dinoflagellates live in close association with marineanimals, such as sponges, sea anemones, giant clams, and corals. The golden-brownphotosynthetic cells found in these animals, called zooxanthellae, actually aredinoflagellates.Coccolithophores.

Coccolithophores are cells covered with button-like structures called coccoliths made of
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calcium carbonate. The coccoliths give the ocean a milky white or turquoise appearanceduring intense blooms. The long-term flux of coccoliths to the ocean floor is the mainprocess responsible for the formation of chalk and limestone.

Coccolithophores and some other algae participate in the sulfur cycle and produce the gasdimethyl sulfide. This is the primary way that sulfur is carried between ocean and land.

Dimethyl sulfide leaves the surface of the water and reacts with oxygen in the atmosphere toform tiny sulfuric acid droplets. These droplets are carried over land and fall back to land inthe form of precipitation. They also aid in the formation of clouds, which partially block thetransmission of harmful ultraviolet light that penetrates the surface water. Cloud formationalso is thought to encourage surface winds that promote the movement of surface water,leading to upwellings that bring nutrients to the surface.Benefits of Algal Blooms

Algal blooms provide large concentrations of algae that produce organic compounds neededby higher organisms, ranging from oysters, clams, and mussels to human beings. For this

reason, productivity increases in areas where algal blooms occur. More algae in the watermeans that more carbon dioxide is used from the atmosphere and that more oxygen isreleased into the atmosphere. Oxygen is necessary for many living things, includinghumans. As noted previously, the production of dimethyl sulfide gas helps protect algaefrom harmful ultraviolet rays so they remain healthy and thus are able to continue the cycleof sustaining life on Earth.

Even in the coldest parts of the ocean, algae provide the primary source of organic materialto animals at the bottom of the food chain. Organic materials are moved up the food chainas higher organisms feed on those lower down the chain. For example, algae have beenfound in Antarctic sea ice. As sea water freezes, algae living in the water are frozen in the ice,

where they later can be released during a thaw. These algae are a vital source of food for

krill, the shrimp-like organisms eaten by penguins, seals, seabirds, and whales. i relay likeall these informationi need more

2gary a highland

Jun 13, 2008 @ 1:13 pmI am interested in learning how we can grow algae at sea to use for bio fuel

3Laura

Feb 9, 2009 @ 11:11 am

I do not like this sentence:"...the production of dimethyl sulfide gas helps protect algae from harmful ultraviolet raysso they remain healthy and thus are able to continue the cycle of sustaining life on Earth."

- It implies that algae are the only organisms capable of the photosynthesis "sustaining life
http://www.waterencyclopedia.com/A-Bi/Algal-Blooms-in-the-Ocean.html#Comments_2http://www.waterencyclopedia.com/A-Bi/Algal-Blooms-in-the-Ocean.html#Comments_2http://www.waterencyclopedia.com/A-Bi/Algal-Blooms-in-the-Ocean.html#Comments_3http://www.waterencyclopedia.com/A-Bi/Algal-Blooms-in-the-Ocean.html#Comments_3http://www.waterencyclopedia.com/A-Bi/Algal-Blooms-in-the-Ocean.html#Comments_3http://www.waterencyclopedia.com/A-Bi/Algal-Blooms-in-the-Ocean.html#Comments_2


10/21

on Earth" .- You do not appear to have considered the major costs to many ecosystems of the acid rainthat is the "tiny sulfuric acid droplets". Agreed, such acidity caused by algae is smallcompared to that produced by human activities, but you have simply implied that it is agood thing only.

Read more:Algal Blooms in the Ocean - sea, oceans, effects, temperature, important,

salt, types, plants, source, effect, marine, oxygen, human, Pacific

http://www.waterencyclopedia.com/A-Bi/Algal-Blooms-in-the-

Ocean.html#ixzz1eK7GLm7Z

In October 1998, U.S. Senator Daniel Patrick Moynihan testified before Congress on

acid rain. A longtime champion of the issue, Moynihan stated that "As far back as the

1960s, fishermen in the Adirondacks began to complain about more than 'the big one

that got away.' Fish, once abundant in the pristine, remote Adirondack lakes, were not

just getting harder to catch. They were gone."

The issue of acid rain emerged in the United States in the mid-1970s. At the time, little

was known about the magnitude and distribution of acid rain or about its impacts on

terrestrial (land-based) and aquatic ecosystems . However, many believed that acid

rain and the air pollutants that caused it posed a threat to forests, aquatic life, crops,

structures (e.g., buildings), cultural artifacts (e.g., statues and monuments), and human

health.

Since the 1970s, acid rain has been addressed in the United States through hundreds of

millions of dollars of research, passage of laws, and implementation of regulatory

programs. However, Senator Moynihan's 1998 remark is stark testimony to the fact that

acid rain continues to have a negative effect on natural resources, and addressing the

problem is an enduring public policy dilemma.

Sources and Forms of Acid Rain

Rain, snow, sleet, and other forms of precipitation are naturally slightly acidic because

of chemical reactions with carbon dioxide and other naturally occurring substances in
http://www.waterencyclopedia.com/A-Bi/Algal-Blooms-in-the-Ocean.html#ixzz1eK7GLm7Zhttp://www.waterencyclopedia.com/A-Bi/Algal-Blooms-in-the-Ocean.html#ixzz1eK7GLm7Zhttp://www.waterencyclopedia.com/A-Bi/Algal-Blooms-in-the-Ocean.html#ixzz1eK7GLm7Zhttp://www.waterencyclopedia.com/A-Bi/Algal-Blooms-in-the-Ocean.html#ixzz1eK7GLm7Zhttp://www.waterencyclopedia.com/A-Bi/Algal-Blooms-in-the-Ocean.html#ixzz1eK7GLm7Zhttp://www.waterencyclopedia.com/A-Bi/Algal-Blooms-in-the-Ocean.html#ixzz1eK7GLm7Zhttp://www.waterencyclopedia.com/A-Bi/Algal-Blooms-in-the-Ocean.html#ixzz1eK7GLm7Zhttp://www.waterencyclopedia.com/A-Bi/Algal-Blooms-in-the-Ocean.html#ixzz1eK7GLm7Zhttp://www.waterencyclopedia.com/A-Bi/Algal-Blooms-in-the-Ocean.html#ixzz1eK7GLm7Zhttp://www.waterencyclopedia.com/A-Bi/Algal-Blooms-in-the-Ocean.html#ixzz1eK7GLm7Zhttp://www.waterencyclopedia.com/A-Bi/Algal-Blooms-in-the-Ocean.html#ixzz1eK7GLm7Z


11/21

the atmosphere. But this natural acidity can be increased by human-induced air

pollution. Acid deposition or "acid rain" occurs when emissions of sulfur dioxide (SO2 )

and oxides of nitrogen (NO x) in the atmosphere react with water, oxygen, and oxidants

to form mild solutions of sulfuric acid or nitric acid. Sunlight increases the rate of most

of these reactions. These compounds fall to Earth and are deposited in either wet form

(e.g., rain, snow, sleet, and hail), known as wet deposition, or dry form (e.g., particles,

gases, and vapor), known as dry deposition. Cloud or fog deposition, a form of wet

deposition, occurs at high elevations and in coastal areas.

In the United States, nearly two-thirds of annual SO 2 emissions and just over one-fifth

of NO xemissions are produced by electric utility plants that burn fossil fuels .

Transportation sources (e.g., cars, trucks, and other vehicles) account for more than half

of NO xemissions. Ammonia emissions derive largely from livestock waste and fertilized

soil. Industrial combustion

A sign in Nova Scotia, Canada proclaims the potential effect of acid rain on a local river and its

salmon runs. Acidified waters can be harmful or even deadly to salmon populations.

and industrial processes are the other major categories of emission sources. Acid rain is a

regional problem because prevailing winds can transport SO 2 and NO xemissions over hundreds

of kilometers, sometimes crossing state, national, and international borders.

Wet Deposition.


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13/21

Buffering capacity depends on the thickness and composition of the soil as well as the

type of bedrock beneath the forest floor.

Lakes and streams become acidic ( pH decreases) when the water itself and its

surrounding soil cannot neutralize the acidity in the rain. Differences in soil buffering

capacity are an important reason that some areas receiving acid rain show damage,

whereas other areas receiving about the same amount of acid rain do not appear to be

harmed.

Several regions in the United States contain many of the surface waters sensitive to

acidification. They include the Adirondacks and Catskill Mountains in New York State,

the mid-Appalachian highlands, the upper Midwest, and mountainous areas of the

western United States. In areas such as the northeastern United States, where soil

buffering capacity is low, some lakes have a pH value of less than 5. With a pH of 4.2,

Little Echo Pond in Franklin, New York was one of the most acidic lakes reported as of

2002.

Ecosystem Impacts.

Acid rain is not the sole cause of low pH in lakes and streams. There are many natural

sources of acidity that can drive down pH to low levels (as low as 4) even in the absenceof acid rain: for example, organic acid inputs or mineral veins in underlying geologic

materials. Similarly, natural sources of buffering capacity such as limestone bedrock can

push pH to as high as 8. Notwithstanding these natural influences in specific locations,

lakes and streams generally have pH values from 6 to 8. Hence, reductions in pH due to

human-induced acid rain create an imbalance in the chemistry and ultimately the entire

ecosystem of a lake or stream.

Acid rain causes a cascade of effects that harm or kill individual fish, reduce fishpopulations, completely eliminate fish species from a waterbody, and decrease

biodiversity. As acid rain flows through soils in a watershed, aluminum and other

metals are released from soils into the lakes and streams located in that watershed.

Thus, as a lake or stream becomes more acidic (has lower pH), aluminum levels

increase. Both low pH and increased aluminum levels are directly toxic to fish. In
http://www.waterencyclopedia.com/A-Bi/Biodiversity.htmlhttp://www.waterencyclopedia.com/A-Bi/Biodiversity.htmlhttp://www.waterencyclopedia.com/A-Bi/Biodiversity.html


14/21

addition, low pH and increased aluminum levels cause chronic stress that may not kill

individual fish but may make fish less able to compete for food and habitat.

The impact of declining pH varies because not all aquatic organisms can tolerate the

same amount of acid. For example, frogs are better able than trout to tolerate somewhat

acidified water. Generally, the young of most species are more sensitive to

environmental conditions than adults.

As pH levels decline, acid-sensitive species may attempt to migrate to better habitat, or,

if blocked from migration, will likely die. At pH 5 and below, most fish species

disappear, and ecosystem-level processes are affected. Some acid lakes and streams

contain no fish.

Acidified lakes and streams can be treated with agricultural lime in an attempt to counteract the

acidity. Such temporary and localized measures are not as effective as emissions reductions in

addressing the long-term and geographically widespread ecological impacts of acid rain.

Effects on Forests and Soils

Acid rain has been implicated in forest and soil degradation in many areas of the easternUnited States, particularly high elevation forests of the Appalachian Mountains from

Maine to Georgia. Acid rain does not usually kill trees directly. Instead, it weakens trees

by damaging their foliage, limiting the nutrients available to them, or exposing them

to toxic substances slowly released from the soil. Quite often, injury or death is a result


15/21

of acid rain in combination with other environmental stressors, such as insects, disease,

drought, or very cold weather.

Chemicals in watershed soils that provide buffering capacity (such as calcium and

magnesium) are also important nutrients for many species of trees. As forest soils

receive year after year of acid rain, these chemicals are washed away, depriving trees

and other plants of essential soil nutrients. At the same time, acid rain causes the release

of dissolved aluminum into the soil water, which can be toxic to trees and plants. The

chemicals that provide buffering capacity take many decades to replenish through

gradual natural processes, such as theweathering of limestone bedrock.

Trees also can be damaged by acid rain even if the soil is well buffered. Mountainous

forests often are exposed to greater amounts of acidity because they tend to be

surrounded by acidic clouds and fog. Essential nutrients in foliage are stripped away

when leaves and needles are frequently bathed in acid fog, causing discoloration and

increasing the potential for damage by other environmental factors, especially cold

weather.

Effects on Human Health and Human Environments

The pollutants that cause acid rain also damage human health. These gases interact inthe atmosphere to form fine sulfate and nitrate particles that can be inhaled deep into

the lungs. Scientific studies show relationships between elevated levels of fine particles

and increased illness and premature death from heart disease and lung disorders, such

as bronchitis. In addition, nitrogen oxides react in the atmosphere to formozone ,

increasing risks associated with lung inflammation, such as asthma.

Sulfates and nitrates in the atmosphere also contribute to reductions in visibility.

Sulfate particles account for 50 to 70 percent of decreased visibility in eastern U.S.national parks, such as the Shenandoah and the Great Smoky Mountains. In the western

United States, nitrates and carbon also play roles, but sulfates have been implicated as

an important source of visibility impairment in some national parks, such as the Grand

Canyon.


16/21

Wet and dry acid deposition contribute to the corrosion of metals (such as bronze) and

the deterioration of paint and stone (such as marble and limestone). These effects

seriously reduce the value to society of buildings, bridges, cultural objects (such as

statues, monuments, and tombstones), and automobiles.

1990 Clean Air Act Amendments: Title IV

In 1990, the U.S. Congress took action intended to address acid rain issues, passing the

Clean Air Act Amendments (CAAA) (42 U.S.C. 7651). The purpose of the Acid Rain

Program (Title IV of the 1990 amendments) was to address the adverse effects of acid

rain by reducing annual emissions of sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ) and nitrogen oxides (NO x)

the main air pollutants that cause the problemsfrom stationary power generation

sources.

Implemented by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency starting in 1995, the

program consists of two major components. The SO 2 emission reduction program

employs a two-phase cap-and-trade approach to reduce total annual SO 2 emissions by

10 million tons below 1980 levels by 2010 (roughly a 40-percent reduction in total

emissions). When the SO 2 emission reduction is fully implemented in approximately

2010, electric utility emissions will be capped at 8.95 million tons per year (representing

approximately a 50-percent reduction in emissions from this sector).

The NO xemission reduction program aims to reduce annual NOxemissions from coal-

fired electric utility boilers by 2 million tons below what they would have been without

Title IV. The NO xcomponent of the program does not include a cap on NOxemissions

or any emissions trading provisions.

Emissions Trading.

In establishing the Acid Rain Program, Congress chose to utilize an innovative

environmental management approach known as capand-trade, or emissions trading, to

reduce SO 2 emissions. Emissions trading is a departure from more traditional

"command and control" regulatory approaches in which the government commands

industry to install particular control technologies at specific plants in order to reduce


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18/21

required emission levels, resulting in early achievement of human health and

environmental benefits. In 2001, SO 2 emissions from power generation were more than

6.7 million tons below 1980 levels.

Emissions of NO xhave been reduced by 1.5 million tons from 1990 levels (about 3

million tons lower than projected growth). Because the NOxcomponent of the program

includes no cap, there is no guarantee that NO xemissions will stay at these low levels;

without a cap, emissions may increase as power generation increases.

Because of the reduction in SO 2 emissions, acidity of rainfall in the eastern United

States has dropped by up to 25 percent. As a consequence, some sensitive lakes and

streams in New England are showing signs of recovery. Further, sulfate concentrations

in the air have decreased, leading to improved air quality and associated benefits to

public health, such as fewer irritations or aggravations to respiratory conditions (e.g.,

asthma and chronic bronchitis). Finally, visibility has improved in some parts of the

eastern United States, including areas with scenic vistas, such as Acadia National Park

in coastal Maine.

Although the Clean Air Act has had positive effects, emissions and acid deposition

remain high compared to background conditions. The rate and extent of ecosystem

recovery from acid deposition are directly related to the timing and degree of emissions

reductions. Research suggests that deeper emissions cuts will lead to greater and faster

recovery from acid deposition in the northeastern United States.

SEE ALSOAMPHIBIAN P OPULATION D ECLINES ;CAVERN D EVELOPMENT ;C HEMICALA

NALYSIS OFWATER;E COLOGY, F RESH -WATER;F RESHWATER, NATURAL C

OMPOSITION OF ;F RESHWATER, P HYSICS AND C HEMISTRY OF ;KARST HYDROLOGY;L

AKES : C HEMICAL P ROCESSES .

Richard Haeuber

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Dehayes, Donald et al. "Acid Rain Impacts on Calcium Nutrition and Forest Health."

Bioscience 49 (October 1999):789800.

Driscoll, Charles T. et al.Acid Rain Revisited: Advances in Scientific Understanding

Since the Passage of the 1970 and 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments.Hanover, NH:

Hubbard Brook Research Foundation, 2001. Available online at

.

Driscoll, Charles T. et al. "Acidic Deposition in the Northeastern U.S.: Sources

andInputs, Ecosystem Effects, and Management Strategies."Bioscience 51, no. 3 (March

2001):180198.

Driscoll, Charles T. et al. "The Response of Lake Water in the Adirondack Region of NewYork State to Changes in Acid Deposition."Environmental Science and Policy 1

(1998):185198.

Ellerman, A. Denny et al.Markets for Clean Air: The U.S. Acid Rain Program.New

York: Cambridge University Press, 2000.

Kosobud, Richard F., ed.Emissions Trading: Environmental Policy's New Approach.

NewYork: John Wiley & Sons, 2000.

Likens, Gene E., Charles T. Driscoll, and D. C. Buso. 1996. "Long-Term Effects ofAcid

Rain: Response and Recovery of a Forest Ecosystem."Science 272 (12 Apr. 1996):244

246.

Lovett, Gary. "Atmospheric Deposition of Nutrients and Pollutants in North America:

An Ecological Perspective."Ecological Applications 4, no. 4 (1994):629650.

Stoddard, John L. et al. "Regional Trends in Aquatic Recovery from Acidification

inNorth America and Europe."Nature 401 (7 Oct. 1999):575578.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Clean Air Markets Division.EPA Acid Rain

Program2001 Progress Report. EPA-430-R-02-009. Washington, D.C.: U.S.
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Environmental Protection Agency. Available online at

.

Internet Resources

Clean Air Markets. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

.

National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program.

.

National Atmospheric Deposition Program. .

Nilles, Mark A.Atmospheric Deposition Program of the U.S. Geological Survey.U.S.

Geological Survey. .

ACID RAIN AND THE U.S. CAPITOL BUILDING

The buildings and monuments of Washington, D.C. use many types of stone. Marble and

limestone structures are the most likely to show damage caused by acid precipitation

and urban pollution. They are vulnerable to accelerated deterioration because they are

composed primarily of the mineral calcite (calcium carbonate), which dissolves readily

in weak acid.

The United States Capitol building shows evidence of stone deterioration. For example,

preferential dissolution of calcite (where the silicate mineral inclusions remain) has

caused pockmarks in marble columns and balustrades and their square bases. Although

stone deterioration has many causes, both natural and human-induced, it is almost

certain that some deterioration can be attributed to acid rain.

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21/21

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Izoterm- Crystal growing equipment Sapphire, Silicon and other... -nii-izoterm.ru

User Contributions:

1

Michelle

Sep 24, 2006 @ 7:19 pm

Clearly we can help by carpooling, walking, taking less trips, bicycling--anything to reduce

our time in cars. If possible, buy a car that does not emit so many pollutants.

2

michael

Dec 6, 2006 @ 1:13 pm

The buildings and monuments of Washington, D.C. use many types of stone. Marble and

limestone structures are the most likely to show damage caused by acid precipitation and urban

pollution. They are vulnerable to accelerated deterioration because they are composed primarily

of the mineral calcite (calcium carbonate), which dissolves readily in weak acid.

The United States Capitol building shows evidence of stone deterioration. For example,

preferential dissolution of calcite (where the silicate mineral inclusions remain) has caused

pockmarks in marble columns and balustrades and their square bases. Although stone

deterioration has many causes, both natural and human-induced, it is almost certain that some

deterioration can be attributed to acid rain.

Read more:Acid Rain - building, river, effects, important, largest, types, plants, source, effect,

oxygen, humanhttp://www.waterencyclopedia.com/A-Bi/Acid-Rain.html#ixzz1eK8Ykukn
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