all tudors early stuarts

8/12/2019 All Tudors Early Stuarts

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British Institutions

ISTI 2013

Dr. Antoinette De Vos


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Engish Institutions

What did the early Tudors bring?

Hint: think thematically


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Church and Crown


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HENRY VII

1485. Recognition of the Title of Henry VII 1485. An Act against bringing in of Gascony Wine except

in English, Irish, or Welshmens Ships

1487. Establishment of the Court of Star Chamber 1495. Allegiance to a De Facto King not Treason 1503-1504. An Act against Unlawful Retainers and

Liveries

1503-1504. Reversal of Attainders 1503-1504. Grant of Two Aids


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A portrait of Henry Tudor (1457-1509), who reigned as Henry VII(1485-1509). Henry's seizure ofthe throne in 1485 brought orderto England after 85 years of civilwar. His rule saw astrengthening of themonarchy and theintroduction of importantchanges in how thegovernment was organised.He created the Committee ofthe Privy Council, a forerunnerof the modern cabinet, as an

executive advisory board andestablished the Court of theStar Chamberto increase royalinvolvement in civil and criminalcases. Henry also encouragedtrade and commerce bysubsidizing ship building and

entering intolucrative tradeagreements, thereby increasingthe wealth of both crown andnation. He also extended thePalace of Placentia atGreenwich as a retreat from thebusy city of London.


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The Tudor Rose, white (York) on red(Lancaster)
http://bookreviewsbybobbie.wordpress.com/2009/04/24/the-tudors/tudorrose/http://tudorhistory.org/


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Henry VII 1485-1509Henry VII, son of Edmund Tudor and Margaret Beaufort, wasborn in 1457. He married Elizabeth of York in 1486, who borehim seven children of whom four survived infancy: Arthur, Henry,Margaret and Mary. Henry descended from John of Gaunt andhis mistress, later wife, Catherine Swynford (sister-in-law ofChaucer); although he was a Lancastrian, he gained the thronethrough personal battle. The Lancastrian victory at the Battle ofBosworth in 1485 left Richard III slain in the field, York ambitions

routed and Henry proclaimed king. From the onset of his reign,Henry was determined to bring order to England after 85 years ofcivil war. His marriage to Elizabeth of York combined both theLancaster and York factions within the Tudor line, eliminatingfurther discord in regards to succession. He faced 2 insurrectionsduring his reign, each centered around "pretenders" who claimeda closer dynastic link to the Plantagenets than Henry. LambertSimnelposed as the Earl of Warwick, but his army was defeatedand he was eventually pardoned and forced to work in the king'skitchen. Perkin Warbeckposed as Richard of York, Edward V'syounger brother (and co-prisoner in the Tower of London);

Warbeck's support came from the continent, and after repeatedinvasion attempts, Henry had him imprisoned and executed.


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Henry failed to appeal to the general populace: hemaintained a distance between king and subject. Hebrought the nobility to heel out of necessity to transform

the medieval government that he inherited into anefficient tool for conducting royal business. Law andtrade replaced feudal obligationas the Middle Agesbegan evolving into the modern world. Francis Bacon, inhis history of Henry VII, described the king as such: "He

was of a high mind, and loved his own will and his ownway; as one that revered himself, and would reignindeed. Had he been a private man he would have beentermed proud: But in a wise Prince, it was but keeping ofdistance; which indeed he did towards all; not admitting

any near or full approach either to his power or to hissecrets. For he was governed by none."


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Henry greatly strengthened the monarchy by employing many politicalinnovations to outmaneuver the nobility. The household staff rose beyondmere servitude: Henry eschewed public appearances, therefore, staffmembers were the few persons Henry saw on a regular basis. He created theCommittee of the Privy Council,a forerunner of the modern cabinet) as an

executive advisory board; he established the Court of the Star Chambertoincrease royal involvement in civil and criminal cases; and as an alternative toa revenue tax disbursement from Parliament, he imposed forced loans andgrants on the nobility. Henry's mistrust of the nobility derived from hisexperiences in the Wars of the Roses - a majority remained dangerouslyneutral until the very end. His skill at by-passing Parliament (and thus, the will

of the nobility) played a crucial role in his success at renovating government.Henry's political acumen was also evident in his handling of foreign affairs. Heplayed Spain off of France by arranging the marriage of his eldest son, Arthur,to Catherine of Aragon, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella. Arthur died withinmonths and Henry secured a papal dispensation for Catherine to marryArthur's brother, the future Henry VIII ; this single event had the widest-

ranging effect of all Henry's actions: Henry VIII's annulment from Catherinewas the impetus for the separation of the Church of England from the body ofRoman Catholicism. The marriage of Henry's daughter, Margaret, to James IVof Scotland would also have later repercussions, as the marriage connectedthe royal families of both England and Scotland, leading the Stuartsto thethrone after the extinction of the Tudor dynasty. Henry encouraged tradeand commerce by subsidizing ship building and entering into lucrativetrade agreements, thereby increasing the wealth of both crown and nation.
http://www.britannia.com/history/monarchs/stuarts.htmhttp://www.britannia.com/history/monarchs/stuarts.htm


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Patron of the arts

Bust of HenryVII by PietroTorrigiano


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Funeral effigies of Henry VII and Elizabeth ofYork, Westminster Abbey, by Pietro Torrigiano


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Henry VIIs achievements

He found England poor and left it rich, He put an end to 85 years of civil strife, His son, Henry VIII, acceded without a civil war, He faced down several plots and secured acceptance as

monarch from the Heads of Royal houses throughoutEurope,

He tamed the nobles, improved the machinery ofgovernment, conducted royal alliances to his advantage

(with Spain and Scotland), launched England on theimperial route. Encouraged the arts, inviting Italians to England who

introduced the Renaissance.

Th ilit f th
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ireland_1450.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ireland_1450.png


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The military power of thecrown itself was greatlyweakened by the HundredYears War(13371453), andthe Wars of the Roses

(145585). A parliament wascreated, which mostly sat inDrogheda, until the Tudorstook greater interest in Irishaffairs from 1485 and moved

it back to Dublin. The Palegenerally consisted of fertilelowlands, which were easierfor the garrison to defendfrom ambush than hilly orwooded ground. For reasons

of trade and administration, aversion of English becamethe official and commonlanguage.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ireland_1450.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hundred_Years_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hundred_Years_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wars_of_the_Roseshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Droghedahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tudorshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ireland_1450.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tudorshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Droghedahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wars_of_the_Roseshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hundred_Years_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hundred_Years_War


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The two most influential families in Ireland were theButlers (who lived in Tipperary) and the FitzGeralds (wholived in south-west Ireland). Although they weredescended from Norman settlers, they had lived inIreland so long that they regarded themselves as Irish.The FitzGeralds hated the English more than any otherfamily in Ireland, while the Butlers tended to support theEnglish king. For this reason, the two families were often

at war with each other. When one of the FitzGerald Earlsco-operated with the English in 1463, he was seized andmurdered by his relatives in 1468. After this, the Englishbegan to co-operate with the relatively weak Earl GarrettMr of Kildare (on the western border of the Pale) in

order to gain some control outside the Pale. The peoplewho lived in the Pale had their own Parliament andbecause Garrett Mr supported the King, it had

jurisdiction over his kingdom too. Garrett Mr becamevery powerful and influential in Ireland through the Dublin

parliament.

1485 H 7th t th th i E l d id d i ll


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Henry and Irelandn 1485, Henry 7th came to the throne in England, aided in a smallay by the Butlers of Tipperary. However his coronation waspposed by many Irish Lords, including Garrett Mr despite the facthat he had supported the previous King. When Henry looked atreland he did not like what he saw. For one thing, his predecessor

ad allowed Garrett Mr of the Kildares to gain so much power thate was now becoming a threat to the English control of the Paletself. He also decided that English control in Ireland was patheticnd resolved to restore control to the level that the Normans hadnjoyed 250 years before and decided he had to take some action i

reland. The situation worsened in 1487, when Henry's opponent tohe throne, Edward, arrived in Dublin and received the support of thildares, who crowned him the rightful King of England. Henry hadarrett Mr kidnapped and sent to the Tower of London for treason.e then passed a law removing the independence of the Irisharliament in the Pale, and ordered that Ireland was to be insteaduled directly from London. However, Henry soon realised that heould not hope to control the other Lords in Ireland without thenfluence of the Kildares, and so grudgingly reinstated Garrett Mr ais Deputy in Ireland in 1496 . He knew that if he controlled Garrett,hen he would have much more chance of spreading the Pale's

ontrol all over Ireland. Garrett was succeeded by his son Garrett n 1513 who continued to rule the Pale in the name of the King, now

B ilt th fi t d d k i 1495
http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fichier:Henry_VII_angleterre.jpg


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Built the first dry dock in 1495(Portsmouth)

Encouraged the Cabot brothers in theirexpeditions to discover the NW passage

way to the Orient; they discovered the richfishing grounds off Newfoundland.Diplomacy and trade went hand in hand,and in Henry's reign England's prosperitywas assured. He made an advantageous

treaty with Denmark for fishing rights andan agreement with Florence for the sale ofEnglish wool there; he was also able, in1496, to extract excellent terms from theArchduke Phillipfor English trade with

the Netherlands, a pact formulated in theIntercursus Magnus. (Trading on his ownaccount, the Kingmade a profit of some15,000 on deals in alum in 1505-1506.)
http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fichier:Henry_VII_angleterre.jpg


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Yeomen and the Queen: Henry VII createdthe Queen's Body Guard of the Yeomen of

the Guard in 1485 at the Battle of Bosworth


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There are 73 Yeomen of the Guard, all of whomare former officers and sergeants of the BritishServices.

The Yeomen of the Guard are not the same asthe Yeomen Warders - who are affectionatelyknown as Beefeaters- who guard the Tower ofLondon, although their uniforms are almostidentical.

The Yeomen of the Guard can be distinguishedby their cross belts, worn from the left shoulder.

They carry a sword, which is not drawn, and ahalberd known as a partisan. The uniform andkit weighs nearly 24lb (11kg).


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Replica of the Matthewin Bristol, 2004
http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fichier:Matthew-BristolHarbour-Aug2004.jpg


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1503 Henry VIIs

daughter Margaret

marries King James IV ofScotland, of their 6children only one

survived infancy. Her

great-grandson James VIbecame James I of

England on Elizabeths

death
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Margaret_Tudor.jpg


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Henry VIII as ayoung man

The court life initiated by his father evolved into a


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The court life initiated by his father evolved into acornerstone of Tudor government in the reign ofHenry VIII. After his father's staunch, stolid rule, theenergetic, youthful and handsome king avoidedgoverning in person, much preferring to journey the

countryside hunting and reviewing his subjects.Matters of state were left in the hands of others, mostnotably Thomas Wolsey, Archbishop of York.Cardinal Wolsey virtually ruled Englanduntil hisfailure to secure the papal annulment that Henry

needed to marry Anne Boleyn in 1533. Wolsey wasquite capable as Lord Chancellor, but his owninterests were served more than that of the king: aspowerful as he was, he still was subject to Henry'sfavour - losing Henry's confidence proved to be hisdownfall. The early part of Henry's reign, however,

saw the young king invade France, defeat Scottishforces at the Battle of Foldden Field (in whichJames IV of Scotland was slain), and write atreatise denouncing Martin Luther's Reformistideals, for which the pope awarded Henry the title

"Defender of the Faith".

Studio of H Holbein


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Studio of H. Holbein Around his neck, he wears

a pendant depicting

George and the dragon - anationalistic motif. Theking is shown with ashaven head and beard,innovations he adopted inMay 1535 in imitation ofFrancis I of France. Thecareful and elaboratepainting of the gemmed

costume and jewelleryunderscores Henry'spassions for suchornaments, and

demonstrates Henry's


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Henry VIII wore out eight horses a day while hunting, and alsoengaged regularly in dancing, jousting and wrestling. Thislifestyle began to go badly wrong from the age of forty-four, whenhis horse rolled on him in a tournament, crippling one leg andleaving him a chronic invalid. The accident deprived him of hisability to take exercise, while his eating habits did not diminish.He was quite a good musician, and possessed a library of almosta thousand books, which he certainly read as he scribbled all

over them. He had a real understanding of fortification, ballisticsand shipping, and could discuss mathematics and astronomy onequal terms with experts. His court was a model of decorumcompared with most others in contemporary Europe, those who

frequented it being forbidden to brawl, duel or appear in publicwith their mistresses. His only conventional vices were gluttony,ostentation and gambling: in two years he lost 3,250 on cardsand by his death he owned a record 50 palaces. His one book,against Martin Luther's religious opinions, piled up quotations on

the points at issue without ever answering Luther's arguments


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He was genuinely charming, being boisterously affectionate,having a desperate desire to please, and taking a real interest inother people. The king's negative qualities were the other faces of

his positive attributes. If he was demonstrative in his affections, sowas he in his rages, abusing courtiers verbally and physically. Hisflamboyance could lead him into scenes which embarrassed allobservers, such as the weeks of public blubbering which followedthe revelation that his fifth queen, Catherine Howard, had beenunfaithful to him. One has the impression that his courtiers oftenfelt that they were dealing with a huge child; and a lethallydangerous one. His craving for admiration and success led him tothrow tantrums each time his policies were checked or failed, and

to turn furiously against both who had advised them and thosewho had resisted them. His reign probably contained morepolitical executions than any other of comparable length in Englishhistory - 330 in the years 1532-40 alone - and the king took a

personal interest in increasing the physical suffering andhumiliation of some of those condemned.

Henry never showed any capacity as a general and his


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Henry never showed any capacity as a general, and hisforeign policy was a failure. He repeatedly attempted toreconquer parts of France, and ended up with Boulogne, athird-rate port that was subsequently handed back to the

French after over a million pounds had been spent trying tokeep it. He tried to conquer Scotland, and only forced theScots to become allies of his enemies the French. Tworeal successes of his reign - the assimilation of Wales and

the pacification of Ireland - were not matters in which hedisplayed personal interest. The splendid string offortresses which he built to guard the English coast were asign of panic, at having united all the strongest powers inWestern Europe against himself by rejecting Catholicism.The overhaul of governmental structures and taxationundertaken by his ministers was driven by the need toraise money for his wars, where it was spent to little result.


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The Yeoman Warders, royalbodyguard, 1509

HENRY VIII


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HENRY VIII 1512. Benefit of Clergy denied to Murderers 1512. Act in Strodes Case

1514-1515. Resumption of Royal Grants 1532. The Conditional Restraint of Annates

1533. Act in Restraint of Appeals 1534. Ecclesiastical Appointments Act 1534. The First Act of Succession 1534. Act of Supremacy of Henry VIII 1534. The Treasons Act

1536. Act for the Dissolution of the Lesser Monasteries 1536. The King at Twenty-four may repeal Acts of Parliamentpassed during his Minority

1539. The Lex Regia 1539. Act for the Dissolution of the Greater Monasteries 1539. The Six Articles Act 1542. The Attainder of Queen Katherine Howard 1543. Ferrers Case

1544. Act fixing the Succession 1544. Act concerning Treasons committed out of the Realm

Charles Brandon duke of Suffolk was Henry VIII's closest


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Charles Brandon, duke of Suffolk, was Henry VIII s closestfriend. Brandon's father was Henry VII's standard-bearer atthe Battle of Bosworth Field and died defending the futureking. Henry VII repaid his loyalty by educating young Charles

with his own children, and from the beginning Charles and thefuture Henry VIII were devoted friends. But their friendshipwas sorely tested when Brandon secretly married Henry'sfavourite sister, the beautiful Princess Mary Tudor, widow of

the King of France.


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In 1513 a meeting was also a diplomaticnecessity since, in 1508, his father had

entered into a formal contract of marriagebetween his youngest daughter, Mary, andMaximilian's son, Charles of Castile. But

over the next few years, little mention hadbeen made of the contract. Henry used thevisit to broach the subject; the end resultwas an agreement that Princess Mary andCharles would wed in 1514, after Charleshad reached his 14th birthday.

In 1514 as well the usual tangle of European diplomacy had made Henry


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In 1514 as well, the usual tangle of European diplomacy had made Henrydistrustful of the Hapsburgs. Also, the deadline for Charles of Castile'smarriage to Princess Mary had come and passed with only dismissiveexplanations from the emperor. So when Louis XII of France offered a peacetreaty to England, Henry was eager to accept it. Louis considerably

sweetened the offer by offering to wed the Princess Mary. For Henry, this wasa diplomatic coup. For his sister, of course, it was considerably different. MaryTudor, born 18 March 1495, was the baby of the Tudor family and widelyconsidered the most beautiful princess of her time. She shared her brotherHenry's exuberance for spectacle and was the star of his court. Like him, she

loved dancing, masques, and parties; they were also close emotionally. Sowhen Henry told her that she would marry the widowed King of France, a manin his fifties with gout and a pock-marked face, she poured out her heart.Certainly she would do her duty as a Princess, she told Henry, but when themarriage was over, she wanted to choose her next spouse - and choose him

for love alone. It was an extraordinary demand for any woman of that time butHenry VIII loved his sister and he agreed. Why? Partly because he loved herbut also because he wanted her to leave for France peacefully and willingly;and also, perhaps more troubling, because she had confessed her secret loveto him. It was none other than his best friend, Charles Brandon.

M b li d h b th ' i d i d th d


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Mary believed her brother's promise and married the agedLouis XII at Greenwich Palace on 13 August 1514. The Ducde Longueville acted as the king's proxy in every respect; heeven lay down on a bed with Mary and touched her bodywith his naked leg, thus 'consummating' the marriage.

Mary enjoyed herself at her wedding festivities and itsattendant celebrations. It would have been impossible tofeel otherwise. She had a splendid trousseau, marvellous

jewels sent over from France, and all the honours due to thequeen of France. All contemporary accounts remark on hergreat beauty, particularly her clear complexion and long red-gold hair, the Tudor trademark. Her husband was eager to

see her, telling the English ambassador that he had manygifts for his bride and expected a kiss for each one.

M R Q f F th D h f S ff lk


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Mary Rose, Queen of France, then Duchess of Suffolkorn in 1496 she was five years younger than her brother, the future Henry VIII.er education included French and Latin, music and dancing. Marriages andromises of future marriage could be contracted even when the people

oncerned were infants. The first offer for Mary came in 1498 from Ludovicoforza, he thought his son would make a suitable future husband for therincess. This offer was rejected. Mary's happiness was shattered with theeaths of her oldest brother, Arthur, in 1502 and her mother, Elizabeth, in 1503.fter the death of her mother, Mary joined the household of Arthur's widow,atherine of Aragon, the future wife of Henry VIII. In 1508 Mary was married for

he first time. This marriage was by proxy to Charles, the son of Philip of Austria

nd Joan of Castile. She was showered with extravagant gifts of jewellery andiven the title "Princess Mary of Castile". The year after, her father died and herrother Henry became King, marrying Katherine of Aragon. The proxy marriageragged on, and it may have been about this time that Mary became attracted toharles Brandon, Duke of Suffolk, a man roughly fifteen years her senior.harles Brandon had already been married twice, returning to his first wife whene conveniently discovered that his marriage to a wealthy widow, who's fortunee had spent, was not valid. It would have been extremely dangerous forharles Brandon if Henry had suspected any form of liaison between him andary. A good friend of the King he may have been, but Henry would have had

ittle compunction in having him executed for presuming to get involved with hisister. In 1513 Brandon's wife died, leaving him free to become engaged to Ladyisle, and take the title Baron Lisle, even though he was not yet married. In the

ame year, Henry called off the proxy marriage of Mary and Charles, he wasurious that his ally Ferdinand of Aragon had made a separate peace with


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The marriage lasted for eighty-two days. On 31December 1514, Louis died quite abruptly. Despite hisill health, he had been notably active during hismarriage. This may have contributed to his demise; heboasted that on their wedding night, he had 'crossed

the river' three times. Before his death, he was visitedby the duke of Suffolk on a diplomatic trip and Charleswrote to Henry that his sister was discreet anddignified. This undoubtedly relieved both men; they

had perhaps wondered how Mary would greet her truelove. Mary, however, was aware of her position asQueen of France and, during her brief marriage,conducted herself with aplomb.


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The Brandon

marriageportrait


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As an alternative to the Common Lawcourts, Wolsey re-established the positionof the prerogative courts of the Star

Chamberand the Court of Chancery. Thesystem in both courts concentrated onsimple, inexpensive cases, and promised

impartial justice. He also established theCourt of Requestsfor the poor, where nofees were required

John Wyclif an Oxford academic anticipated
http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Star+Chamberhttp://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Star+Chamberhttp://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Court+of+Chanceryhttp://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Court+of+Requestshttp://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Court+of+Requestshttp://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Court+of+Chanceryhttp://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Star+Chamberhttp://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Star+Chamber


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John Wyclif, an Oxford academic, anticipatedthe arguments of Martin Luther over a centurylater, and also produced the first English Bible.Piers Plowman, a popular poetic satire, attacked

abuses in the entire church, from Pope to priest.But nothing happened. Wyclif's supporters, theLollards, were driven underground after theirfailed rebellion of 1414, and remained apersecuted minority for another hundred years.

The church carried on unabashed and proud,selling offices and indulgences, a politicalplaything for princes and a useful source ofincome for second sons and men on the make.

And forget celibacy - following the example ofRenaissance Popes, many cardinals hadmistresses and illegitimate children.


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The roots of the Reformation The Great Schism of Avignon saw two, even

three individuals claiming to be the Pope, andthe Council of Constance in the early fifteenthcentury saw a power struggle between Bishopsand Pope. Combined, they hindered Papal

government and harmed the reputation of theChurch in the eyes of the laity. They led earlysixteenth century popes to resist reform andbolster their own position by using their spiritualpower, along with war and diplomacy, tobecome territorial princes in Italy, building theirbank accounts on the way Thus they soldindulgences to finance the rebuilding of thePetrine Basilica in Rome.

His damage to traditional Christianity in England is


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His damage to traditional Christianity in England isobvious: his policies resulted in the destruction ofhundreds of beautiful buildings and works of art,incalculable damage to libraries, and the execution of the

Englishmen mostly widely respected in Europe for theirgodliness. In place of all this he instituted not a ProtestantChurch (that was the work of his children), but a decayingCatholic one. It is easy to make the case that he was far

more interested in his control of English religion than inthe quality of it.

F H th b t f i l th h


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For Henry the best way of managing people was throughfear; statements which testify to his innate insecurity. Aswell as savagely punishing ministers for failure, he

constantly encouraged them to watch each other for signsof incompetence or disloyalty and to inform the kingprivately of such signs. This led to an atmosphere ofchronic suspicion and rivalry at court, which worsened asthe king grew older. Only two of his leading advisers,

Archbishop Cranmer and Edward Seymour, escapedeither disgrace or execution. In two major respects,however, his mixture of caution and flamboyance paid off.He managed the nobility by honouring and flattering them

and, by carefully seeking the endorsement of Parliamentfor all his reforms, he increased both the power of theCrown and of representative democracy. These twotechniques combined to make his rule effective.


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As an alternative to the Common Lawcourts, Wolsey re-established the positionof the prerogative courts of the Star

Chamberand the Court of Chancery. Thesystem in both courts concentrated onsimple, inexpensive cases, and promised

impartial justice. He also established theCourt of Requestsfor the poor, where nofees were required
http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Star+Chamberhttp://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Star+Chamberhttp://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Court+of+Chanceryhttp://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Court+of+Requestshttp://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Court+of+Requestshttp://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Court+of+Chanceryhttp://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Star+Chamberhttp://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Star+Chamber


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Desiderius

Erasmus

(1466-1536),by HansHolbein

Priest, man ofletters, themost influential

humanist of theNorthernRenaissance


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Erasmus, scholar and monk, taught at Oxford,where he agitated for reform within the church.In his In Praise of Follyhe lambasted the clergy

for "observing with punctilious scrupulosity a lotof silly ceremonies and paltry traditional rules."Sir Thomas More, later Chancellor, wroteUtopia, a vision of an ideal society with nochurch at all to get in the way of spiritual

understanding.Henry himself, despite his later break withRome, was not a religious reformer. He wasfairly orthodox in his own beliefs, and he passedmeasures against Lutheranism and upheldmany traditional Catholic rites from attack byreformers.

Sir Thomas More Chancellor and Saint 1478-


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Sir Thomas More, Chancellor and Saint, 1478-1535

Sir Thomas More

opposed thedivorce and wasreluctantlyexecuted by Henry.

At the foot of the

scaffold More isreported to havesaid, "I pray you,Master Lieutenant,see me safely up,and for my comingdown, let me shiftfor myself".

Hampton Court Palace was England's most significant palace of the


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Hampton Court Palace was England s most significant palace of theTudor age. From 1515-c.1521, the Lord Chancellor of England andsoon-to-be Cardinal, Thomas Wolsey, transformed a medieval manor(situated 13 miles southwest of London on the north bank of the RiverThames) into a palace deemed superlative by contemporaryobservers. By 1529, the king had begun a process of rebuilding andremodelling which lasted at least ten years. As the Cardinal fell fromfavour and died, Henry transformed Wolsey's palace beyondrecognition. Then William III and Mary II managed to rebuild half of theTudor palace from 1689-94. Consequently, throughout the almost 500

years since Wolsey's occupation, it has enjoyed a long history ofdevelopment which has heavily obscured its original form.

By the time Henry finished his building


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By the time Henry finished his buildingworks at Hampton Court Palace inabout 1540, the palace was one of themost modern, sophisticated andmagnificent in England.There were tennis courts, bowlingalleys and pleasure gardens forrecreation, a hunting park of more

than 1,100 acres, kitchens covering36,000 square feet, a fine chapel, avast communal dining room (theGreat Hall) and a multiple garderobe

(or lavatory) - known as the GreatHouse of Easement - which could sit28 people at a time. Water flowed tothe palace from Coombe Hill inKingston, three miles away, throughlead pipes.

Th fi t b ildi t H t C t b l d t th K i ht


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The first buildings at Hampton Court belonged to the KnightsHospitallers of St John of Jerusalem, a religious order founded in

the 11th century.

By the 14th century the Hampton estates of the


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By the 14th century, the Hampton estates of theKnights Hospitallers sat rather convenientlybetween royal palaces at Sheen and Byfleet.

The grange was a perfect staging post for royalvisitors. And new building works at Hampton Courtreflected its new use as a high-status guest house.

Byfleet was dismantled in the early 1400s, and theimportance of Hampton Court declined at thesame time.

The Knights Hospitallers already rented out a lot of

their other estates and it seems that HamptonCourt first became a tenanted property at aboutthis time.


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1514 was a very important date in the

history of Hampton Court This was the year that a new 99-year

lease on the property was given, by the

Knights Hostpitallers, to Thomas Wolsey(c1470-1530), the Archbishop of York.

W l id i th T d i l t f


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Wolsey was a man on a rapid rise up the Tudor equivalent ofthe corporate ladder. He was soon to become a Cardinal andLord Chancellor of England. He also held a host of other

influential posts. Crucially, though, he was also a close friend of the new king,

Henry VIII (r 1509-1547) and would serve as his chief ministerfor over a decade.Wolseys works

Wolsey built a vast palace complex at Hampton Court,immeasurably transforming a grand private house into amagnificent Bishops palace.

Wolsey added new sumptuous private chambers for his ownuse, as well as three suites for the new royal family: one eachfor King Henry VIII, Queen Katherine of Aragon and theirdaughter Princess Mary.

A grand processional route led from all these grand apartmentsto an imposing double-height chapel.

Thomas Wolsey also owned York Place in London the official


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Thomas Wolsey also owned York Place in London, the officialresidence in the capital of the Archbishop of York. However, heneeded Hampton Court as an appropriately splendid countryhouse for entertaining and for hosting important state diplomatic

visits. Throughout the 1520s, Hampton Court hosted important

European delegations. These were occasions for ostentatiousdisplays of wealth and conspicuous consumption, but also

and the two purposes were not mutually exclusivefor doingdeals and signing treaties that would help improve Englands

position in Europe.

But though Wolseys great house was intended as a

compliment to Henry VIII (just as Wolseys magnificencemerely, according to him at least, reflected the glory of Henry)others didnt see it that way.

The fall of Wolsey


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Why come you not to Court ?

To which court ?

To the kings court ?

Or to Hampton Court ?Nay, to the kings court !

The kings court

Should have the excellence

But Hampton CourtHath the pre-eminence !

So wrote Wolseys contemporary, John Skelton, a poet and

sometime tutor to Henry VIII. Wolsey was thus criticised by

many of his peers for his extravagant lifestyle, epitomised byhis ostentatious palace at Hampton Court. But this was notwhat brought Wolseys fall from grace.

By the late 1520s, Henry was desperate to obtain a divorcefrom his first wife. Katherine had failed (in Henrys eyes) to

provide Henry with a male heir, despite numerous pregnancies.

C th i f A


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Catherine of Aragon

Katherine was 40 in 1525 and the object of


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Katherine was 40 in 1525, and the object ofHenrys desire was now the much younger

Anne Boleyn. But after years of politicalmanoeuvring and discussions, Katherine stillrefused to comply, the Pope didnt grant the

divorce and in 1528 Wolsey lost bothHampton Court and York Place to theKing.


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The Tudor King transforms his favourite


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The Tudor King transforms his favourite

property

In just ten years Henry VIII spentmorethan 62,000 rebuilding and extendingHampton Court. This vast sum would beworth approximately 18 million today.

When he died in 1547 the King had morethan 60 houses, butin the second half of

his reignnone were more important tohim, nor more sumptuously decorated, thanHampton Court Palace.

By the time Henry finished his building works at Hampton Court Palace in about


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1540, the palace was one of the most modern, sophisticated and magnificent inEngland.

There were tennis courts, bowling alleys and pleasure gardens for recreation, a

hunting park of more than 1,100 acres, kitchens covering 36,000 square feet, afine chapel, a vast communal dining room (the Great Hall) and a multiplegarderobe (or lavatory) - known as the Great House of Easement - which couldsit 28 people at a time. Water flowed to the palace from Coombe Hill inKingston, three miles away, through lead pipes.


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A year later, Henry was dead, with three survivingchildrenthe 9-year old Prince Edward and his

older sisters Mary and Elizabeth. Each would ruleEngland, and Hampton Court would continue toplay an important part in the lives of the Tudormonarchs.

All of Henrys six wives came to the palace and most had new


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All of Henry s six wives came to the palace and most had new

and lavish lodgings. The King rebuilt his own rooms at leasthalf a dozen times. The palace also provided accommodation

for each of the King's children and for a large number ofcourtiers, visitors and servants.

And he used Hampton Court to impress. Most famously inAugust 1546 Henry feasted and fted the French ambassadorand his entourage of two hundred gentlemenas well as1,300 members of his own courtfor six days. Anencampment of gold and velvet tents surrounded the palacefor the occasion.

A year later, Henry was dead, with three surviving children

the 9-year old Prince Edward and his older sisters Mary andElizabeth. Each would rule England, and Hampton Courtwould continue to play an important part in the lives of theTudor monarchs.

1531 Henry stood up in parliament and


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y p pdemanded that all members of the Church inEngland recognise him as Supreme Head and

Sole Protector of the Church in England.Although there was much resistance, an Actwas passed confirming the King's status as

Supreme Head of the Church of England.The King's new title was proclaimed to the

people.

1534 The Act of Supremacy was passed This


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1534 The Act of Supremacywas passed. ThisAct declared England as a sovereign state withthe King as Head of both the country and the

Church. It gave Henry the power to reform thechurch as he saw fit and also to appointchurchmen of his own choosing. This Actremoved the last traces of Papal power inEngland, including the Pope's right to decidedisputed points of Scripture. the passing of this

Act, together with the Act in Restraint of Appeals

(1533) and the Act of Supremacy (1534) made itunacceptable for monastic communities, whoowed allegiance to parent institutions outsideEngland, to remain. In 1536 all monasteries

were closed


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The real beneficiary of the Dissolution was notthe king, but the new class of gentry who bought

the lands. The suppression of the monasteries and places

of pilgrimages was devastating for thosepilgrimage centres that had no other economic

base. Income for people on the pilgrim routesdropped, with no way to recover it. The othergreat loser of the Dissolution was culture;many monastic libraries full of priceless

illuminated manuscripts were destroyed, withlittle or no regard for their value.


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Henry VIII commissioned 8000 Bibles foreach of the parishes in his Kingdom inEnglish so that all parishioners could

understand the Holy Scriptures. Printing presses could publish 15 pages

per second.

Whereas Parliament stipulated who should vote in countyconstituencies each town was allowed to decide for itself how


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constituencies, each town was allowed to decide for itself howits MPs should be selected. Voting qualifications variedenormously. In Prestonevery man over the age of 21 couldvote. However, in most boroughs only a small number wereallowed to take part in elections. In some constituencies, MPswere elected by less than ten people.

Henry VIII enhanced the importance of Parliament by his use ofit during the English Reformation. In 1547 the king gavepermission for members of the commons to meet at St.Stephen's Chapel, in the Palace of Westminster. In the 15thcentury the House of Lordswas the Upper House and theHouse of Commons the Lower House. However, since that

date, the balance of power has shifted in favour of theCommons.
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1534 Act of Supremacy


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1534 Act of Supremacy. This act effectively declared England as a

sovereign state with the King as Head of both

the country and the Church. The act stated thatthe king was to become Supreme Head of theChurch of Englandand would have the powerto visit, redress, reform, correct or amend allerrors,heresies and enormities which would

previously have been dealt with by anotherspiritual authority. The King could define the faithin parliament. The King also had the power toappoint men of his choosing to the mostimportant ecclesiastical posts. The passing ofthis act gave Henry more power than ever forwithin his own realm he was superior to thePope and all taxes formerly paid to Romewould now be paid to the King.


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During the 1512-1513 war against France,gunpowder played an important role in the

English fleet During the 1530s Thomas Audley the FightingInstructions at the Kings command. Note thiswas the same period when the Emperor Charles

V established a lectureship in Navigation atSeville University. By 1543 the Royal fleet constituted the first line

of defence when war broke out with France,

England had the most powerful squadron inEurope, its ships armed with the latest bronzeand iron guns

Royal Docks at Deptford, topograchical view


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y p p gby Joseph Farrington, late 18thc.

Anne Boleyn, unknown artist


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y Born 1501/1502 or 1507, niece

of Duke of Norfolk Young Lady-in-Waiting to Mary

Tudor, wife of King of France,accompanied her to Frenchcourt, on her return becameLady-in-Waiting to QueenKatherine.

she had been a maid ofhonour to QueenClaude at the Frenchcourt

Secretly married Henry VIII inJanuary 1533, crowned Queenin June, gave birth to Elizabethin September 1533. Miscarried2 sons,

Accused of adultery, witchcraft,

Jane Seymour,


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yminiature by Lucas

Horenbout Born between 1504-1509 Lay-in-Waiting to Anne Boylen Married Henry 1536

sought pardons for thoseinvolved in the Pilgrimage ofGrace revolt in 1536.

Gave birth to a son, Edward, in

1537, died of puerpural fever.Given a solemn state funeral. Henry waited two years before

remarrying.

The MARY ROSEsank on 19thJuly 1545 with the


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yloss of more than 400 lives, after 34 years of

service

Built between 1509 and 1511,she was one of the first shipsable to fire a broadside, andwas a firm favourite of KingHenry VIIIwho watched hersinking in a squall.

After a long and successful

career, she sank accidentallyduring an engagement with theFrench fleet in 1545.


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Battle of the Solent, 1545

Anne of Cleves miniature by Hans Holbein the


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Anne of Cleves, miniature by Hans Holbein theyounger

This German princess, whomHenry called a Flanders mare,was neither an intellectual norflirtatious, she had no musicalskills either. Henry married her

nonetheless in 1540 but bothwere repulsed by each other,the marriage was notconsummated. Divorced, sheremained in England, anindependently wealthy woman

Died in 1557..

Catherine Howard miniature by


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Catherine Howard, miniature byHans Holbein the younger

Date of birth unknown(probably 1521), cousin of

Anne Boleyn, niece of Duke ofNorfolk, Catherine wasCatholic, lady-in-waiting to

Anne of Cleves, this silly, butvivacious girl caught the Kings

roving eye. Married in 1540,soon accused of adultery,beheaded in 1542.

Katherine Parr, miniature by Lucas Horenbout


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Katherine Parr, miniature by Lucas Horenbout Born 1520 Twice-widowed and childless, in love with Thomas

Seymour, the brother of Henry's third queen Jane.But the king's will was law and Katharine bowed tohis demands with grace, married in July 1543. Shewas an admirable wife to Henry and a lovingstepmother to his two youngest children, Elizabethand Edward. She was also the most intellectual ofHenry's wives, caught up in the turbulent religious

climate of the times. Later in life, she wouldundertake the difficult task of learning Greek andLatin; this was indicative of her genuine love andrespect for scholarship, particularly with regard towomen. It was Katharine Parr who encouragedElizabeth I's education, thus creating the mostlearned monarch in English history. She also madeJohn Cheke and Roger Ascham tutors to youngPrince Edward; the influence of these Cambridge'reformers' upon both Elizabeth and Edward wasprofound. Katharine was dangerously attracted toevangelical Protestantism. Henry VIII died 28th January1547. Katherine married Thomas Seymour, gave birth toa daughter, Mary, but died of puerpural fever.


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Ruins of Glastonbury and Fountains Abbeys


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Ruins of Glastonbury and Fountains Abbeys
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1538 Dissolution of the monasteries Philosophical concepts of the power of the king over

church may have played a part in Henry's decision tosuppress the monasteries, but so did greed. Themonasteries were rich, and a lot of that wealth foundits way directly or indirectly to the royal treasury. Some

of the monastery buildings were sold to wealthy gentryfor use as country estates. Many others becamesources of cheap building materials for localinhabitants. One of the results of the Dissolution of the

Monasteries is that those who bought the old monasticlands were inclined to support Henry in his break withRome, purely from self interest.Thus the newly created Tudor aristocrats were firmly

in support of the Reformation. Lacock Abbey, founded in 13th c. Sold to Sir WilliamSharington in 1539 who demolished the Abbey church


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Sharington in 1539 who demolished the Abbey church

Pilgrimage of Grace,1536, rising of Roman Catholics in NEngland. It was a protest against the government's abolition ofl (1534) d fi ti (1536) f th ll
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papal supremacy (1534) and confiscation (1536) of the smallermonastic properties, intensified by grievances against enclosuresand high rents and taxes. The Catholics protested their loyalty to

Henry VIII, citing as their great grudge the position and influenceof Thomas Cromwell. In Oct., 1536, several thousand menoccupied the city of Lincoln, but dispersed after receiving a sharprebuke from the king. Almost immediately, another rally occurredin Yorkshire. The movement, which rapidly gathered strength in NEngland, was led by Robert Aske, a Yorkshire lawyer. Aske and

his followers occupied York and then moved on to Doncaster.Thomas Howard, 3d duke of Norfolk, promised from the king ageneral pardon and a Parliament to be held at York within a year.The men dispersed. Aske was well received by the king inLondon. In Jan., 1537, Sir Francis Bigod of Settrington, Yorkshire,

led an uprising at Beverley. Although Aske and other leaders ofthe Pilgrimage of Grace tried to prevent this new disorder, theywere arrested, tried in London, and executed in June, 1537. Thenorthern counties were placed under martial law, and manypeople were hanged on mere suspicion of disaffection. Therepression in N England after the Pilgrimage of Grace put an end

to open opposition to the government's religious policy.

The fate of the monks and nuns The monks
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The fate of the monks and nuns.The monksand nuns were treated quite well as a rule. Onlya few who resisted were summarily executed.The others, including 5000 monks, 1600 friars,and 2000 nuns, were given reasonablepensions. Many of the monks and friars wentinto regular church office, so they could not be

said to have suffered. Those who did suffer werethe thousands of servants attached to themonasteries. They numbered more than themonks, but there was no pension for them, no

golden handshake. A number of clergy under Elizabeth were in fact

previously Catholic monks.


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There were in excess of 800 religioushouses in England with 10,000 monks,nuns and friars.


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A Cirencester wool merchant, John Coxwell(1516 1614) a self made man ho made his


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(1516-1614), a self-made man who made hismoney from the wool trade rising from the ranksof the lower middle class to that of gentry.In the

14th and 15th centuries the trade in Cotswoldwool was on an international scale. FrancescoDatini, an Italian merchant, stated: "the best woolin Europe came from the Cotswolds and the best

wool in the Cotswolds came from Cirencester."John was in his early 20s when CirencesterAbbey was dissolved but 20 years later, whenElizabeth I sold off the Abbey lands he was ableto purchase a significant portion. Eventually heowned over 40 properties in Cirencester. In 1563he bought part of the manor of Siddington, 10years later he bought the manor of Ablington. Athis death in 1614, aged 101 after a fall from his

horse; he held lands throughout England.

There were still large forests in parts of Kent. Henry


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There were still large forests in parts of Kent. Henryalso chose Woolwich and Deptford as they werenear his palace at Greenwich.

Henry VIII further enhanced London's nationalsignificance and widened the range of its activitiesby setting up the Royal Dockyards at Deptford and

Woolwich on the south bank of the Thames. Thisstrengthened London's important links with the seaand particularly with the newly created Royal Navy.

The dockyards soon became major centres of

industry in their own right with a far-reaching impacton the local communities.

Royal dockyards, Woolwich (1514) (& Deptford1513) John Cleevly the Younger 1772


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1513), John Cleevly the Younger, 1772

By 1547 Deptford was the most important yardin the country. The earliest dry dock there had all f d bl ki h d h


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wall of mud blocking the end nearest theThames.

Every time a ship was ready to be launched ittook 20 men one month of digging to remove thewall so that the dock could fill with water.

Launching ships became easier after floodgateswere built at one end of the dry dock. As well as

space for building the ships, storehouses wereneeded for masts, rigging and cooperage(making storage barrels).

In 1570, privately owned rope works were set up

in Woolwich and Deptford to supply rope forrigging. Each dockyard was a self-containedcommunity of skilled craftsmen.

Until the time of the Great Fire of 1666, Londonhad spread out along the Thames The streets


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had spread out along the Thames. The streetswere narrow, poorly paved and of little use for

traffic. Because of this, the river was used asthe main highway for people and goods, as thelimits of the City were within easy reach of one

or other of the waterside stairs.

1616 Map Southwark CathedralA cold series of winters led to the Thames freezingover above London Bridge, and this led to the first Frost Fairin 1607, complete with atent city set up on the river itself and offering a number of amusements including ice
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tent city set up on the river itself and offering a number of amusements, including icebowling. In good conditions barges travelled daily from Oxford to London carrying timber

and wool, foodstuffs and livestock, battling with the millers on the way.

In the Middle Ages the Crownexercised general jurisdictionover the Thames one of the four royal rivers and appointed
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over the Thames, one of the four royal rivers, and appointedwater bailiffsto oversee the river upstream of Staines. The Cityof Londonexercised jurisdiction over the tidal Thames.

However, navigation was increasingly impeded by weirs andmills, and in the 14th century the river probably ceased to benavigable for heavy traffic between Henley and Oxford. In thelate 16th century the river seems to have been reopened for

navigation from Henley to Burcot.The first commission concerned with the management of theriver was the Oxford-Burcot Commission, formed in 1605 tomake the river navigable between Burcot and Oxford.
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For many centuries the Thames was the principle thoroughfare throughLondon. The Thames estuary was also Londons main gateway to andfrom Europe, linking the capital city with the rest of the world. It was also the

i l d d i f l h f l i i d i h h l
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arrival and departure point for royalty who frequently intermarried with the royalhouseholds of Europe. Throughout the centuries the Thames was also thesetting for numerous ceremonial events, particularly royal occasions, such asarrivals, departures, visits, coronations, marriages, funerals, processions andpageantry. Sovereigns travelled on the Thames in elaborately decorated royalyachts, barges and shallops. This tradition was centuries old and even in1214 King John travelled to the signing of Magna Carta, near Runnymedein a royal shallop.Royal processions on the Thames often involved music androyal celebrations such as coronations or weddings had displays of fireworks. In1717 George I progressed in the royal barge along the Thames from Whitehall

to Chelsea. George was accompanied by musicians in a city company barge,playing the 'Water Mus ic' by Handel. City company barges were frequentlyused to accompany royal processions and the companies also processed on theriver. Richly adorned, these barges were draped with different coloured awningsaccording to the ceremonial event, red for royal ceremonial and blue for civiccelebrations. Wealthy and powerful individuals used their boats to display theirstatus, by draping a tapestry carpet on the boat, ornate gilt carving or fine

liveried crews. The river offered the ideal backdrop for demonstrations of royalhegemony. Royal yachts and barges were not only conveyances, but alsosymbols of status and display. They were used to reinforce status and proclaimthe monarch and his or her purpose to the nation. Passing amid the people, theyachts and barges displayed power and obvious splendour with their flutteringflags and banners, sounding trumpets and saluting canons. Positioned on deck

the monarch could see his or her subjects and appear to be seen without beingclosel scrutinised.


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Although there were many cold winters in the past, theThames froze over only because of the old LondonBridge. Completed in 1176, this was the first stonebridge across the Thames in London. Its 19 narrowarches slowed the flow of the river and made it morelikely that the water could freeze during long and severewinters. The river froze over here more than 20 timesup to 1814.


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The 1547 Injunctions against imageswere a moretightly drawn version of those of 1538 but they weremore fiercely enforced, at first informally, and then byinstruction. All images in churches were to bedismantled; stained glass, shrines, statues were defaced

or destroyed; roods and often their lofts and screenswere cut down, bells were taken down; vestments wereprohibited and either burned or sold; church plate was tobe melted down or sold and the requirement of theclergy to be celibate was lifted; processions werebanned; ashes and palms were prohibited. Chantries,means by which the saying of masses for the dead wereendowed, were abolished completely

English Institutions


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English Institutions

Early Tudors - improved government, using Parliament

- strong Navy

- exploration overseas

- Reformation

- some social mobility

Upon Henrys
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death in 1547,his sickly sonEdward, aged9, acceded tothe throne, his

uncles becameregents in turn.The ProtestantReformation

seemedunshakeable.
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EDWARD VI 1547. Act for the Dissolution of Chantries

1549. First Act of Uniformity

1550. First Mention of Lords Lieutenant

1552. Second Act of Uniformity


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During the reign of Edward VI, theAnglican liturgy had been established inthe Book of Common Prayer and the

confession of 42 Articles of faithcomposed by Archbishop Cranmer (whohad granted the divorce of Catherine of

Aragon and Henry VIII) and Bishop Ridleyin 1552.


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The Admiralwas arrested and charged witht S t h it t d t i hi
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treason. Somersethesitated to sign hisbrother's death warrant, so Edwardgave the

council permission to have his uncle beheaded.Somersethimself later fell from the king's favorand lost his role as Protector. John Dudley,Earl of Warwick, took control of the King andcouncil, and eventually Somerset, like his

brother, was arrested and charged with treason.Under pressure from Dudley, now Duke ofNorthumberland, fourteen-year-old Edwardsigned Somerset's death warrant. Somersetwas executed in 1552. From the entries in his

Journal, Edward VIuncles' deaths was merelyRoyal business as usual.

Lady Jane Grey
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Lady Jane Grey

When the Edward died at the age ofsixteen the Duke of Northumberland triedto put a reluctant Lady Jane Grey, greatgrand-daughter of Henry VII, on the throneahead of Edward's sister Mary. There wasno real public support for the move and itfizzled after only nine days. The Duke, the

unfortunate Jane Grey, and all her majorsupporters were executed at the Tower ofLondon
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Mary Tudor 1553 58
http://tudorhistory.org/jane/janegreysig.jpg


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Mary Tudor, 1553-58

Upon Edwards death age 15 his ferventlyCatholic elder half-sister, Mary Tudor, daughterof Catherine of Aragon and Henry VIII, becameQueen in 1553. She and her advisers tried to

restore England to the Catholic faith. Hermarriage to the Catholic Philip of Spain, laterKing Philip II led many to fear she wouldsucceed. But her persecution of Protestants,

which included the burning at the stake ofArchbishop Cranmer and others, gavelegitimacy to the Reform through its first martyrs.


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MARY I 1553. First Act of Repeal

1554. Act for the Marriage of Queen Mary

to Philip of Spain 1554. Revival of the Heresy Acts

1554. Second Act of Repeal

The reign of Queen Mary(1553-58) was marked


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g y ( )by religious upheaval and dissension. She hadbeen raised as a Catholic, and she sought to

undo the Protestant changes of the past severalyears. Protestants were suppressed and burnedin the hundreds, an act which earned Mary thenickname "Bloody Mary".

Mary entered into an extremely unpopularmarriage with Philip, heir to the throne of Spain.Parliament refused to accept Philip as co-ruler,and after much wrangling he took his place asMary's consort only, with no right to inherit thethrone. Mary seems to have doted on Philip, buthe regarded the marriage as an affair of politicalconvenience.

hilip II of Spain, 1527-1598, made a purely political second marriage in 1554 tohis older cousin, Mary Tudor. He becamejure uxoris King of England, althoughhe couple was apart more than together as they ruled their respective countries.


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The English Parliament refused to crown him jointly with Mary.Philip II married four times to a) Maria Manuela of Portugal b) Mary Tudor of

England c) Elizabeth of Valois (in France) and d) to Anne of Austria.

The Catholic
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restoration under

Mary Tudor, 1553-8

Nearly 300 Protestantswere burnt at the stakeincluding the Protestantchurchmen Latimer andRidley on 16thOctober

1555, shortly followed byThomas Cranmer,former Archbishop ofCanterbury on 21 March1556.
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The military power of thecrown itself was greatlyweakened by the HundredY W (1337 1453) d
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Years War(13371453), andthe Wars of the Roses(145585). A parliament wascreated, which mostly sat inDrogheda, until the Tudorstook greater interest in Irishaffairs from 1485 and movedit back to Dublin. The Pale

generally consisted of fertilelowlands, which were easierfor the garrison to defendfrom ambush than hilly orwooded ground. For reasonsof trade and administration, aversion of English becamethe official and commonlanguage.
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Mary encouraged English settlers tocolonise Munster, a policy that her half-sister Elizabeth also promoted, with the

difference that her colonists wereProtestants, most of whom settled inUlster.


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Tension with Spain was constant during Elizabeth'sreign. Philip, who had once been touted as a possiblehusband for Elizabeth, was now king of Spain. Spain hadtremendous wealth pouring into its treasury from itsterritories in the New World, and English sailors had a

habit of capturing Spanish ships on the high seas. This"piracy" was officially reprimanded by Elizabeth andunofficially praised. Sir Francis Drakeand Sir JohnHawkins were two captains who made their reputationsand fortunes playing at piracy.

Elizabeth herself invested in several of their expeditionsand gave them letters patent as privateers, that isofficially sanctioning piracy against Spain.

As a Protestant Queen, Elizabeth was forced tolive with the threat of assassination from


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live with the threat of assassination fromCatholics throughout her reign. But there was an

army of men working in secret to protect theQueen. These were her spies, her secretservice, and they were overseen by the mostruthless spy master of them all: Francis

Walsingham. The efficiency of this networkunearthed a series of plots to overthrowElizabeth and replace her with the Catholic MaryQueen of Scots. It is a testament to the success

of this secret service that Elizabeth diedpeacefully of old age and not at the hands of anassassin.


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A regal icon of a Queen who ruled througha stuble manner, not through brute force as


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a stub e a e , ot t oug b ute o ce asher father had


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As one might expect under Elizabeth I, the articles arecouched in ambiguous language, allowing for a broaddefinition of faith that excluded Roman Catholics and

Anabaptists, yet included a spectrum of Protestantbeliefs. Elizabeth sought to draw together the people ofher realm under one umbrella of faith that allowed forindividual variation, yet firmly established the primacy ofthe Anglican church, with her at its head.

The articles repudiate Catholic beliefs such astransubstantiation and the sacrifice of the Mass, andaffirm the supremacy of scripture. They allow clergy to

marry, and affirm the right of the monarch to influencechurch policy. Parliament passed a law in 1571 requiringan oath be taken to these Articles.

The 'Golden Hind' was launched at the Royal Dockyard at Deptford in 1577.In this vessel Sir Francis Drake undertook one of the most historic andexciting voyages of all time. Between 1577 and 1580 the 'Golden Hind'


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circumnavigated the world making vital discoveries before returning homewith amazing treasures.

Elizabeth Tudor is considered bymany to be the greatest monarchin English history. When shebecame queen in 1558 she was


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became queen in 1558, she wastwenty-five years old, a survivorof scandal and danger, andconsidered illegitimate by mostEuropeans. She inherited abankrupt nation, torn by religiousdiscord, a weakened pawnbetween the great powers of

France and Spain. She was onlythe third queen to rule Englandin her own right; the other twoexamples, her cousin Lady JaneGrey and half-sister Mary I, weredisastrous. Even her supportersbelieved her position dangerousand uncertain. Her only hope,they counseled, was to marryquickly and lean upon herhusband for support. But

Elizabeth had other ideas
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Made1560,printed

1572

Nicholas Hilliard
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c o as a d


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The Peace Portrait 1580-5, by Marcus

Gh h


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Gheeraerts theElder. In thisportrait, the queen isthe harbinger ofpeace. She holds an

olive branch in herleft hand and asheathed sword liesat her feet. She is

possibly wearing thesame headdress,collar and girdlefrom the 'Ermine

' The Ermine Portrait, 1585, byNicholas Hilliard. This portrait can be

viewed at Hatfield House. Why isElizabeth seated with an ermine? Itwas the symbol of royalty; and if you


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was the symbol of royalty; and, if youlook closely at the animal, you cansee the gold crown it wears. The

crown symbolizes majesty andpurity. As for the bejeweled blackgown and background - black andwhite were the queen's favoritecolours. Also, the deep, dark colorreinforces the symbolic gravity of thepainting.

In this portrait, Elizabeth wears thefamous 'Three Brothers' jewel - agem made of three diamonds set in atriangle around a pointed diamond. Itwas one of her most treasuredjewels. The sword of state rests on

the table beside the queen andsymbolizes justice; she also holds anolive branch to symbolize peace

The 39 Articles of Religionare the essentialbeliefs of the Anglican church codified. The


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beliefs of the Anglican church codified. Thearticles were established by a Convocation of

the Church in 1563, using as a basis the 42Articles written under the direction of ThomasCranmer in 1553. The 42 Articles wereoverturned under the fervently Catholic Mary I,but under Elizabeth I the pendulum swung back

in favour of reform. But what flavour of reform should Elizabethadopt? There were extremists on both hands,some calling hopefully for a return to moreCatholic forms of worship, and othersclamouring for various extreme reformist viewsto be advanced.


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Under Elizabeth the Church of England wasofficially established (1563) with Protestantdogma, but a liturgy, rites, and churchorganization which were essentially Catholic in

form.There were many non-conformingProtestant sects at this time, most of which weretolerated under Elizabeth's policies. Life was noteasy for Catholics, though. There were as many

executions of Catholics under Elizabeth as therewere Protestants under Mary, though over areign nine times as long.

1533 Born and christened at Greenwich, she was thesecond daughter of King Henry VIII.


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second daughter of King Henry VIII. 1558 Became Queen after the death of her sister

Mary. 1585 Elizabeth sides with the Netherlands against

Spain. 1587 The English successfully attack a Spanish fleet

at Cadiz. 1588 Defeat of the Spanish Armada.

1595 Spanish land in Cornwall and burn Penzance.

1597 Essex leads an unsuccessful expedition againstthe Spanish, but bad weather defeats the secondSpanish Armada.

1603 Elizabeth dies and is succeeded by James VI of

Scotland who becomes James

Walsingham had studied as a lawyer and was intelligent, seriousand disciplined. He held strong Protestant beliefs, and had goneto live abroad during the reign of the Catholic Mary I But when


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to live abroad during the reign of the Catholic Mary I. But whenProtestantism was re-established under Elizabeth I, he returned

to England and became Secretary of State in 1568. Quick-wittedand ruthless, he was soon playing a critical role in intelligence-gathering operations. Without the other commitments which hadtaken up much of Cecil's time, Walsingham could devote himselfto overseeing Elizabeth's secret service which he did with zeal.He was strict, almost Puritan in his religious beliefs, andpassionate about protecting the country from Catholic threat.Spies were posted to live abroad who could supply him withintelligence on the politics and attitudes of Catholic countries

towards England. This information enabled Walsingham to piecetogether, for example, the policy of the Pope towards Elizabeth.

Armed also with information from spies based in this country,Walsingham could trace lines of communication between

Catholics here and abroad and keep track of any plots

For reasons of security Mary, Queen of Scots was regularlymoved from one residence to another. She still had herentourage and spent her days sewing, reading or hunting,


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g p y g g gbut in reality Mary was a prisoner. She did not, however,

realise the level of scrutiny she was under. Walsinghamloathed Mary and everything she stood for, and vowed tobring her down. It was to take him almost 20 years. Butwhen he discovered in 1586 that she was correspondingwith a group of Catholics led by the young Anthony

Babington, he seized his chance. For the first stage of hisplan, Walsingham used a spy named Gifford to act as adouble agent.


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Having outlined his plans to Mary, Babington nowtried to secure her participation in the plot. Thiswas the moment Walsingham had been waiting


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for. When the vital letter from Mary asking fordetails was intercepted, a postscript was forged inher hand asking for the identities of the plotters.The names were duly supplied, and their fate wassealed. Mary's involvement in the plot had beenproven, and a gallows was drawn on the page by

the decoding expert. Walsingham could nowmove in for the kill.

By now Babington and the others, realisingsomething was wrong, had gone into hiding. But

Walsingham was one step ahead and they werequickly captured and tried. Elizabeth, keen tosignal a warning against further plots, ordered thattheir executions be public and brutal. The men

were hung drawn and quartered Mary was also

Buckland Abbey,bought by Drake in 1581


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Sir Walter Raleigh (1552-1618)was a courtier, politician,soldier, seaman, explorer, businessman, philosopher,historian and poet. He organised and financed exploration inNorth America with the aim of finding and mining gold and
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g g gincreasing trade. In 1585, Raleigh sent a party of coloniststo found a settlement on the east coast of North America.They landed in North Carolina, which Raleigh later named'Virginia' in honour of Elizabeth, the Virgin Queen. In May1553, Sir Hugh Willoughby sailed from Ratcliffe with a fleetof three ships to find a north east trade route to the east. He,along with the crews of two of the ships, were shipwrecked

off Lapland and died. The third vessel sailed onwards andreached Russia. The crew travelled overland to Moscowand met the Russian Tsar, Ivan the Terrible. Their meetingled to trade between England and Russia. Captain JohnSmith Smith led the 1606 expedition to Virginia fromBlackwall. He was responsible for the establishment of atrading settlement at Jamestown. During his stay in Virginiahis life was saved by the Indian Pocahontas. Legend has itthat Pocahontas fell in love with Smith and, when he wasdue to be clubbed to death by the Algonquians, put herhead over his, so that no blows would fall on him.

To share the risks, merchants with similarinterests joined together in a joint stock


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interests joined together in ajoint stockcompany. This could raise capital from

landowners and other investors. Examples included the Turkey Company,

established in 1581, and the Venice Companyin 1583. The government promised such

companies a monopoly if they opened up tradewith new countries. The East India Companyreceived its letters patent in 1600

During the 16th century London's world-wide

trading links grew because of the activities of thejoint stock companies


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Sir Hugh Willoughby and RichardChancellor sailed from Deptford in 1553 incharge of a venture arranged by London

merchants. Its aim was to find a north-east passage to the Far East.

They did not find a route to the East and

Willoughby and his men died in the frozenwastes of Lapland.

Chancellor, however, landed in Russia andb t di i M ith I th


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began trading in Moscowwith Ivan the

Terrible. This led to the founding of the RussiaCompany in 1555, one of the mostsuccessful early maritime companies.

It imported furs, tar, iron and copper to London.

Queen Elizabeth herself was one of theshareholders.

Sebastian Cabot, son of John Cabot, who had

sailed to North America in 1498, headed thecompany.

The most important of the new companies

was the East India Company.


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was the East India Company.

For many years, the Dutch had monopolised thespice trade and in 1599 they raised the price ofpepper from 3 shillings (15p) a pound to 8shillings (40p) a pound.

Exasperated London merchants called ameeting, chaired by the Lord Mayor. As a result,in 1600, Queen Elizabeth I signed theCharter creating the English East India

Company.
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A Portuguesecarrack before the

i d

In 1601, Sir James Lancaster sailedfrom Woolwich for the East Indies witha fleet of five ships. The fleet sailed forthe Banda Islands off Indonesia which
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wind the Banda Islands off Indonesia, whichwere the centre of eastern spicegrowing. Lancaster found it hard toexchange his English cloth for spices inthe East Indies. However, after hecaptured a Portuguese carrack full ofIndian cottons, he was able to trade

these instead. Two and a half years later, he returned

with a cargo of pepper. Soonafterwards the Company developed itsown shipbuilding yards andwarehouses on the west side ofDeptford Creek. The Companyprospered and later played a key rolein the growth of the British Empire
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Other events helped the growth of London'scommerce during the 16th century. Early on inthe century Antwerp had become the great


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the century Antwerp had become the greatstorehouse of Europe, but it was destroyed in

1576 when the people of the Low Countries roseup against the Spanish. London merchants and financiers took

advantage of this to make London the new

commercial and financial centre of Europe. Thegreatest of these was Sir Thomas Gresham(1517/1879), advisor to Elizabeth I.

Gresham was chiefly responsible forestablishing the Royal Exchange in 1565. It

soon became a symbol of London's wealth andpower.

The Royal Exchangewas built in 1565 at thejunction of Cornhill and Threadneedle Street inthe City It was a meeting place for merchants


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the City. It was a meeting place for merchants

and brokers and became the centre of London'sbusiness life. Space was

also providedfor over 100shops within itscourtyard. Theoriginal

building wasdestroyed inthe Great Fireof 1666.

The expedition finally reachedVirginia after four months atsea. The leader of theBlackwall party was Captain


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Blackwall party was CaptainJohn Smith, who helped to set

up a trading settlement atJamestown. At this time, the life

expectancy of settlers in the

Americas was only two years. Life was almost impossible forthe merchant adventurersbecause of:

the harsh winter climate the lack of fresh water the spread of disease attacks by the Native

Americans.

In 1609 the VirginiaCompany was established.The company tradersexchanged woollens and

f f ith th


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weapons for furs with theNative Americans.

Virginia has a warm, fertileclimate, perfect for growingtobacco. Sir F

all tudors early stuarts

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