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Quaternary International 233 (2011) 27e39

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Alluvial terrace systems in Zhangjiajie of northwest Hunan, China: Implicationsfor climatic change, tectonic uplift and geomorphic evolution

Guifang Yang a,*, Xujiao Zhang a, Mingzhong Tian a, Gary Brierley b, Anze Chen c, Yamin Ping a,Zhiliang Ge a, Zhiyun Ni a, Zhen Yang a

a School of Earth Sciences and Resources, China University of Geosciences, No. 29 Xueyuan Road, Beijing 100083, Chinab School of Environment, University of Auckland, Private Bag 92019, Auckland, New ZealandcChinese Academy of Geological Sciences, Beijing 100037, China

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:Available online 12 June 2010

* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ86 10 82329979; faxE-mail address: yangguifang@cugb.edu.cn (G. Yang

1040-6182/$ e see front matter � 2010 Elsevier Ltd adoi:10.1016/j.quaint.2010.05.019

a b s t r a c t

This paper reports the latest details from two comprehensive investigations of alluvial terrace sequencesin Zhangjiajie, northwest Hunan Province, China. Seven alluvial terrace units along the Maoxi River andfour terrace sequences along the Suoxi River record significant regional geomorphic history. Rates ofregional Quaternary uplift and climate change are reconstructed using topographic and stratigraphicevidence from terrace and adjacent cave deposits, along with Electron Spin Resonance (ESR) andThermo-luminescence (TL) dating controls. Between 928 ka and 689 ka the time-averaged uplift rate(or incision rate) was 0.16 m/ka. The rate decreased to 0.05 m/ka between 689 ka and 347 ka, and thenincreased slightly to 0.11e0.14 m/ka after 347 ka. The inferred incision rate increased roughly from0.21e0.32 m/ka to 0.51 m/ka from the Late Pleistocene to present. The seven alluvial phases (T7�T1) andtheir associated chronology are consistent with climatic variations at regional and/or global scales,suggesting that these terraces represent climate-driven pauses imprinted atop the record of long-termtectonically induced incision by rivers. Insights from these alluvial terrace staircases and cave featuresindicate that the spectacular sandstone peak forest landscape of the study area has emerged since themiddle period of the Middle Pleistocene.

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1. Introduction

Stepped surfaces along river courses reflect river responses toexternal and internal forces which operate over variable temporaland spatial scales (e.g., Schumm and Lichty, 1965; Maddy et al.,2001a; Wegmann and Pazzaglia, 2002). Tectonic and climaticfactors induce systematic adjustments to river systems, while localscale factors such as uplift along a fault line, volcanic input ofsediment, or land use changes are superimposed upon thesebroader-scale controls (e.g., Bull and Knuepfer, 1987; Formento-Trigilio et al., 2003; Clement and Fuller, 2007). Shifts in the flow/sediment balance induce aggradational/degradational phases onvalley floors (i.e., Merritts et al., 1994; Bridgland, 2000;Vandenberghe and Maddy, 2001). This generates alluvial terraces,as former floodplain deposits become perched above the contem-porary channel such that they are no longer inundated by floodevents. These features provide excellent geomorphological,

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ecological and sedimentary archives that reflect the differentconditions experienced during their formation (Vandenberghe,2002).

External (exogenous) controls upon terrace formation referprimarily to tectonic activities, climate variations and eustaticchanges. Sustained tectonic uplift and associated river incisionform and preserve flights of alluvial terraces. Climatic controls uponsediment availability and discharge are imprinted atop thesegeological controls (e.g., Bridgland, 2000; Vandenberghe andMaddy, 2001; Bridgland and Maddy, 2002; Suresh et al., 2007).Typically, episodes of alluviation are associated with periods oflong-term cooling, while incision is more intensive during glacial-interglacial transitions (Bridgland, 2000; Maddy et al., 2001b;Bridgland and Westaway, 2008). Terraces in lowland reaches areoften produced by base-level adjustments driven by glacioeustaticsea level fluctuations (Maddy, 1997; Maddy et al., 2001b; Bridglandand Westaway, 2008). Incision tends to occur in downstream rea-ches progressing upstreamvia knickpoint recession, as responses tolower sea level conditions. This situation is reversed during warmerintervals, often inundating and/or burying former terrace surfaces.Typically this occurs in association with regional subsidence.

G. Yang et al. / Quaternary International 233 (2011) 27e3928

However, sea level change may have a limited influence on terraceformation in some lowland settings (Litchfield and Berryman,2005). In areas that were not subjected to glacial activity, theimprint of climate change may be relatively minor, and terraceformation is largely controlled by intermittent uplift (Melton, 1959;Molnar and England, 1990; Li et al., 1997; Zhang et al., 2007).Terrace formation is also influenced by endogenous controls uponthe balance of flow/sediment interactions in a catchment (e.g.,Womack and Schumm, 1977). As terraces reflect the imprint ofconditions from the past, they represent a form of geological,climatic or anthropogenic memory, or combinations thereof(Brierley, 2010). The relative influence of tectonic, climatic andanthropogenic factors varies markedly in differing settings.

River terraces and karst caves are often used to signify long-term uplift of landscapes and/or fluvial incision (e.g., Molnar et al.,1994; Maddy et al., 2001b; Piccini et al., 2003; Bridgland et al.,2004; Litchfield and Berryman, 2007; Bridgland and Westaway,2008; Litchfield, 2008; Carcaillet et al., 2009; Claessens et al.,2009; Robustelli et al., 2009; Strasser et al., 2009; Westaway,2009). Terraces have long been used to interpret the synchroneityof landscape responses to glacial and interglacial cycles (Schumm,1977; Chatters and Hoover, 1992; Li et al., 1997; Bridgland, 2000;Pan et al., 2003; Bridgland and Westaway, 2008; Gao et al., 2008).In recent decades, the evolutionary history of alluvial terraces hasalso been related to allocyclic mechanisms, with detailed inter-pretations of depositional systems providing valuable insights intochanges in basin geometry that reflect factors such as widespreadplanation or valley development (Antoine, 1994; Fuller et al., 1998;Li et al., 2001; Macklin et al., 2002; Robustelli et al., 2009).

Despite their unique natural and scientific importance, theformation and age structure of the sandstone peak forest land-scapes of Zhangjiajie, in the Lishui River Basin of northwest HunanProvince, remains poorly understood (Hunan Geo-environmentalMonitoring Center, 1988; Chen, 1993; Zhou, 1995; Wu and Zhang,2002; Zhou et al., 2004). The widespread distribution of distinc-tive stepped landforms (including alluvial terraces and karst caves)in the middle and lower catchment enable detailed assessment ofthe geological and geomorphic evolution of this region. Thismanuscript combines geomorphologic, sedimentologic and strati-graphic evidence to characterize the alluvial terrace sequences inthis region, correlating these features with karst cave systems.Analysis of mechanisms of terrace formation is used to unravel therelative controls played by tectonics and climatic changes.

2. Study area

Relative topography in the study area of 9563 km2

(28�520e29�480N, 109�400e111�200E) extends over around 1000 m,ranging from 200e300 m above sea level (a.s.l.) on valley floors to1500 m a.s.l. on mountain peaks (Hunan Geo-environmentalMonitoring Center, 1988; Fig. 1). The area is dominated by moistmonsoonal (subtropical) climatic conditions with an annualaverage temperature of 17 �C. Average annual precipitation isaround 1400 mm, and is highest in summer. Notable alluvialterraces and karst landscapes have formed in Zhangjiajie, locatedin the Wuling Range between the Yun-Gui Plateau to the north-east and the mountainous area of northwest Hunan Province.Topography decreases to the southeast. The lithostratigraphywithin this area is comprised of Silurian, Devonian, Permian,Triassic and Quaternary strata. Silurian and Devonian strataaccount for most of the total area. Carboniferous strata are typi-cally absent, indicating tectonic movement around 390e250 Ma(Hunan Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources, 1988). Thesandstone peak forest landform developed primarily in the Upperand Middle Devonian. Karst landforms formed primarily within

Permian or Triassic strata (Hunan Bureau of Geology and MineralResources, 1988; Hunan Geo-environmental Monitoring Center,1988; Hunan Bureau of Land and Resource, 2003). Quaternarydeposits are relatively limited in this region, with fluvial anddiluvial materials dominant.

The study area extends across two first-order tectonic units,Jiangnan ancient land and Yangtze paraplatform (Hunan Bureau ofGeology and Mineral Resources, 1988; Hunan Bureau of Land andResource, 2003). In general terms, these relatively stable blocksare characterized by typical up-and-down tectonic movement. Thefold and fracture movement is not strong and magmatic activity isabsent. Fault activity is restricted to the two major tectonic-jointsites, along the Lishui River Valley (Fig. 2).

3. Methods

Comprehensive surveys were undertaken in October 2008 andMay 2009 as part of the analysis of geological heritage protectionfor Zhangjiajie Sandstone Peak Forest Geopark (or ZhangjiajieWorld Geopark). Emphasis here is placed upon alluvial terracesalong the Lishui River and its tributaries of the middle Yangtzecatchment. Dated deposits and associated sedimentary character-istics provide minimum estimates of the incision rate of riversystems and the timing of sandstone landform development inZhangjiajie. Terrace thickness and elevation above the present riverbed were measured by combining GPS data with 1:50 000 topo-graphic maps. More than 10 bulk samples were taken from sedi-ment lenses in the alluvial gravel layers from different terraces inthe Maoxi, Suoxi and Loushui River basins. As noted in previousstudies elsewhere, terrace age control was derived from carefulapplication of Thermo-luminescence (TL) and Electron Spin Reso-nance (ESR) analysis of siliceous-rich samples (e.g., Forman, 1989;Laurent et al., 1998; Chaivari et al., 2001; Wray et al., 2001;Bahain et al., 2007; Blain et al., 2007; Tissoux et al., 2008). Thesamples comprising of silty-sand materials were collected fromaround 10e15 cm below the exposure wall. Proximity to boulderswas avoided by at least 20 cm to minimize contamination of thesample material. During sampling, 10 cm wide sample tins werewedged directly into the alluvial deposits and were sealed imme-diately after sample collection. ESR analyses were performed at thelaboratory of the Institute of Geology, China Earthquake Adminis-tration (CEA), whilst TL analyses were completed by the Institute ofCrustal Dynamics, CEA. The general principles and experimentalprotocols of the ESR dating methods for terrace sediments arebased on previous publications that assert that these proceduresare well-established for dating Pleistocene fluvial terraces (Bahainet al., 2007; Yin et al., 2007). Based on prior works, the system-atic error of ESR dating was estimated to be within 10% (Bahainet al., 2007; Yin et al., 2007). The TL samples were first treatedwith warm HCL to remove carbonates and to break up aggregates.Fine grains (4e11 mm) were then collected by sedimentation indistilled water, with procedures being repeated 3e4 times. Samplesfor TL measurements were prepared following final sedimentationfrom acetone onto aluminum discs. Using Beijing (e40�N) late fall toearly winter (November and December) sun, bleaching experi-ments were carried out on a large number of discs of fine grains.The determination of equivalent dose (ED) was carried out usingmethods outlined by Lu et al. (1987, 1988). The systematic error ofTL dating was estimated to be within 10%.

Statistical analysis of gravels was completed from the wide-spread and continuous 3rd order terrace for further age verification.Weathering rinds and sedimentary features for widespread terrace(T3) were incorporated into this study to support relative-datingestimation. Additionally, detailed studies of the karst system alongthe Suoxi River are used to provide relative-dating determination.

Fig. 1. (a) Sketch map of China with specific indicating of Hunan Province; (b) Map of Hunan Province showing the location of our study area, Zhangjiajie, and associated MiddleYangtze water system; (c) Geographical sketch map of Zhangjiajie with specific emphasis on major alluvial terrace localities we investigated in the study area.

G. Yang et al. / Quaternary International 233 (2011) 27e39 29

4. Alluvial terraces and karst cave

Despite displacements in response to neotectonic movementand river erosion, a series of stepped landforms are clearly evidentin the study area (Fig. 3). Based on interpretations of large-scaletopographic maps, chronologic analysis, and field investigations,seven terraces are identified in the Maoxi River Basin, while threeterraces are evident in the Loushui River and four terraces in itstributary, the Suoxi River. These terraces units are labeled accordingto their topographic position from the highest (T7) to the present-day riverbed (Fig. 3).

4.1. Maoxi River terraces

Alluvial terraces are best preserved in the Maoxi River Basinfrom the Lishui catchment (Figs. 3 and 4). In the lower reaches of

the Maoxi catchment, terraces converge downstream as the valleywidens into broad floodplains. Altogether, seven terraces (T7� T1,in descending order from oldest to the youngest) were identified inthe Maoxi River Basin. T7 is up to 136 m above the contemporarychannel (Figs. 4 and 5, Table 1). Gravel layers in the higher terraces(T7� T6) are usually overlain by fluvial successions, with claycoatings and prominent red (iron) staining (Fig. 5). T5 is a cut orstrath terrace (Fig. 5a and b) characterized by little (<20 cm) or noclay cover, with 40e60 cm thick sand/gravel fluvial deposits restingon bedrock (Fig. 5b). The composition of T4 varies markedly, fromcomparatively thick gravel to no gravel in some instances (Fig. 5). T3is the most developed and continuous terrace, and it is especiallywell preserved in the middle and lower catchment. T2 is up to28e33 m above the contemporary river level. The most recentlyabandoned feature, T1, is 10e15 m above the present-day riverbed.Of note, most terraces of different heights show common

Fig. 2. Geological sketch map of Zhangjiajie World Geopark (modified from Hunan Geo-environmental Monitoring Center, 1988).

Fig. 3. An overview of the alluvial terrace sequences indentified in the lower Maoxi River of the Lishui River Basin

G. Yang et al. / Quaternary International 233 (2011) 27e3930

Fig. 4. Alluvial terraces from T7 to T2 in the Maoxi River; (a) indicates the highest terrace T7 and topographic as well as sedimentary features; (b) shows the poor preserved andrelatively thin gravel layer of T6; (c) denotes the surface of T5; (d) and (e) present the T4 with thin gravel layer and relative flat surface; (f) shows the gravel layer of T2.

G. Yang et al. / Quaternary International 233 (2011) 27e39 31

characteristics: they are typically characterized by channel faciesoverlain by fine-grained sand and silt; the gravel bodies arecomprised of resistant sandstone/siltstone with diverse colors,indicating that they are entirely composed of local Devonian rocks.

Terrace chronology, on the basis of ESR and TL dating, is shownin relation to elevation in Fig. 5 and Table 1. Age estimates from ESRdating indicate that T7� T4 terraces in the Maoxi catchment dateback to 928� 92 ka, 574� 57 ka, 689� 68 ka, and 347�34 ka,respectively. These can be considered as minimum age estimates ofterrace abandonment. The dating control of T6 is the most dia-chronous. This is considered to reflect the weakly developed natureof these materials along with some human disturbance at thesample site. T3 and T2 were dated at 151.05�12.84 ka/201.24�17.11 ka and 60.95� 5.18 ka based on TL control (Table 1).

The gravel composition of the most extensive terrace, T3, wascompared from several sites to validate age determinations(cf. Colman, 1981; Colman et al., 1987; Knuepfer, 1988; Tian andCheng, 2009; Fig. 6). Terrace T3 consists of channel facies overlainby facies of layered sand and silt. A prominent gravel layer, up to

150e200 cm thick, crosses much of this terrace, showing an almostimbricate structure. Within this distinct bed, the axis of gravels istypically 15e20 cm, with a maximum of 40 cm and a minimum of3e5 cm. These relatively well-sorted and well-rounded gravelshave consistent orientation and are weakly weathered (Fig. 6).These gravels show a characteristic and relatively simple admixtureof resistant sandstone/siltstone, being comparatively loose andonly differing notably in their color. Infilling fine-grained sand, siltand even clay of matrix materials are uncemented and very loose,highlighting the distinctive and consistent bimodal nature of thissediment layer.

4.2. Loushui River terraces

Terraces are less prominent along the Loushui River, probablybecause the intense tectonic uplift and hard, resistant sedimentaryrocks (mainly limestone) have impeded terrace development byfavoring vertical incision over lateral migration. This has createda narrow valley with limited space for deposition of river sediments

Fig. 5. Transverse section through the terraces of the lower Maoxi River Basin; (a) shows an overall 7 terraces in lower Maoxi River; (b) indicates 5-order terrace sequence in thelower Maoxi River

G. Yang et al. / Quaternary International 233 (2011) 27e3932

and preservation of alluvial landforms. In addition, the land surfacehas been extensively modified by human activities. Three weaklydeveloped and poorly preserved terraces are evident. Older andhigher terraces are less well preserved, probably due to tectonicactivity, while younger and lower surfaces are widespread andbetter preserved.

4.3. Suoxi River terraces

Three stepped fluvial formations are evident along the lowerreaches of the Suoxi catchment, a tributary of the Loushui River(Fig. 7a). T1 terrace is 173 m a.s.l. (7 m above the contemporarychannel bed). It is comprised of thick and fertile sediments atopwhich many crops are grown. T2 terrace is a small tread that rangesfrom 178 to 183 m a.s.l., becoming more continuous in downstreamareas at an elevation of 180 m a.s.l. The 1e1.5 m thick sediment iscomposed of round, well-sorted gravel. T3, the higher terrace levelalong this river, is locally represented in part of the Suoxi River bya 1 m thick conglomerate (Fig. 7a). In the middle segment of theSuoxi River, the alluvial terraces have similar characteristics interms of relative height and sedimentary features, though they are

found at a higher absolute height (Fig. 7b). Some small relics ofalluvial deposits are evident at a higher elevation associated withthe peak summits along themiddle Suoxi River (Fig. 7b), potentiallyrepresenting a 4th (strath) terrace. Two samples from differentprofiles in T3 terrace yielded TL age estimates of 104.45� 8.88 kaand 117.62� 9.99 ka (Table 1).

4.4. Typical karst cave: Huanglong Cave

Huanglong Cave, located 10 km east of Jundiping village on thenorth flunk of the Suoxi Valley, is the core sightseeing spot ofZhangjiajie Sandstone Peak Forest Geopark. The cave networkranges from 260 to 400 m a.s.l., with exit standing approximately5� 2 m above the present Suoxi River. It is comprised of almost alltypes of stalactite, stalagmite, stone columns, stone waterfall, andstone valance (Cheng, 1988; Hunan Geo-environmental MonitoringCenter, 1988; Yang, 2007; Fig. 8). There are four primary layers,aligned approximately east-west direction, with a total length of13 km, vertical height of 140 m, and an area of more than 20 millionm2 (Ge et al., 2009; see Fig. 8 and Table 1). A 60 cm thick bed ofrudimental clayey sand andwell-rounded gravels in the uppermost

Table 1Comparison of elevations and forming ages of the Suoxi, Maoxi and Yangtze terraces.

Classification Level Elevation/ma.s.l.

Above riverlevel/m

Forming age

HuanglongCave

L1 e345 80-90 463� 46 ka (ESR)L2 e300 40e45 Qp

2�Qp3

L3 e280 15e20 Qp3

L4 e262 2e5 Qh

Terraces of middleSuoxi River

T4 238 e35e40T3 230 e25-30 104.45� 8.88 ka (TL)

117.62� 9.99 ka (TL)T2 220 e15e20T1 207 e4e6

Terraces of MaoxiRiver

T7 311 136 928� 92 ka (ESR)T6 297 122 574� 57 ka (ESR)T5 272 94e100 689� 68 ka (ESR)T4 256 78e83 347� 34 ka (ESR)T3 235 57e62 151.05� 12.84 ka (TL)

201.24� 17.11 ka (TL)T2 206 28e33 60.95� 5.18 ka (TL)T1 188 10e15

Terrace of YangtzeRiver (Li et al., 2001;Xiang et al., 2005)

T7 1.16 MaT6 0.86 MaT5 0.73 MaT4 0.3e0.5 MaT3 0.11e0.2 MaT2 0.05e0.06 MaT1 0.01e0.03 Ma

Fig. 6. The widespread T3 from the Maoxi River Basin (shown in a and b) and associated graStrong weathering; 4. Entirely Weathered; (d) Roundness: 1. Well-rounded, 2. Subrounded

G. Yang et al. / Quaternary International 233 (2011) 27e39 33

layer is considered to be indicative of an imprint from ancient riverdeposits. ESR dating of these materials indicates that the caveinitially formed more than 463� 46 ka ago (Table 1).

5. Discussion

5.1. Terrace ages and relation to karst cave

Evidence from previous studies indicated that the ages ofterraces T7� T1 in the middle Yangtze catchment extend from1.16 Ma to 0.01e0.03 Ma (Xie, 1991; Tian et al., 1996; Li et al., 2001;Xiang et al., 2005), almost encompassing the entire period from thelate Early Pleistocene to the Holocene. ESR and TL dates derivedfrom T7� T2 terraces in this study are consistent with these find-ings (Table 1). The comparable chronology indicates that timing forinitial incision of the Lishui River began at least in the late phase ofEarly Pleistocene, at a time when the Yangtze River was adjustingits drainage network to form alluvial terraces (Yang and Chen,1988;Li et al., 2001). Variability in age control is most pronounced for T6(574� 57 ka). This may be attributed, in part, to the poorly devel-oped and relatively thin nature of the most diachronous depositsthat make up this strath terrace unit, as well as human disturbanceto this surface (Figs. 3 and 4). The dating control of T6, therefore, canbe considered ‘too young’ according to the terrace position inregional comparison with those of adjoining middle YangtzeGorges, with an age dating back toe0.86 Ma (Li et al., 2001; Yang,2006). Its greater height indicates that it must be older, consis-tent with the weathering-dominant red sediments. The lack of

vel statistical graphs; (c) Weathering degree: 1. No weathering, 2. Weak weathering; 3., 3. Subangular, 4. Angular.

Fig. 7. Alluvial terrace profiles along the lower (a) and middle (b) Suoxi River.

Fig. 8. Horizontal (a) and vertical (b) structure of Huanglong Cave Cave in the middle Suoxi River (shaded colors indicate the differentiation of multi-levels) (modified from HunanGeo-environmental Monitoring Center, 1988).

G. Yang et al. / Quaternary International 233 (2011) 27e3934

G. Yang et al. / Quaternary International 233 (2011) 27e39 35

alluviation materials and later anthropogenic disturbance post-date the deposition. This age therefore is not employed in thesubsequent discussion.

The Huanglong Cave initially emerged more than 463� 46 kaago during interglacial conditions dominated by the wettestclimate. Four horizontal or slightly inclining cave passages providesignificant evidence with which to reconstruct the formergroundwater table and its relation to the regional fluvial base level(Palmer, 1987). This conforms to the ensuing T4 formation from theadjacent Maoxi River and middle Yangtze River (0.46� 0.046 Ma,0.347� 0.034 Ma, and 0.3e0.5 Ma, respectively; see Li et al., 2001;Xiang et al., 2005; Yang, 2006; Table 1). The strongly cementedgravel layer and red infill feature in the highest level of HuanglongCave are indicative of warm and humid climatic conditions at thistime. When viewed together, this is considered to provide a repre-sentative and accurate estimate of river incision and cave formationin the entire Lishui River Basin, in a manner that is broadlyconsistent with age estimates for terraces elsewhere in the middleYangtze catchment (Li et al., 2001; Xiang et al., 2005; Yang, 2006).For example, Xie (1991) derived an age estimate of 0.31e0.54 Mafor the fourth river terrace in the Three Gorges of the Yangtze River.Interestingly, comparative studies of terrace reveal the origin of T4along the Yellow River and the Weihe River at approximately0.3e0.5 Ma (Li et al., 1997; Xiang et al., 2005; Liu and Di, 2007; Gaoet al., 2008). The good correlation between terrace and cavefeatures indicates that the formation of the Huanglong cave initiallyoccurred in the middle Mid-Pleistocene or earlier. A significantbase-level standstill is likely to have occurred during the MiddlePleistocene, at which time a new karst feature emerged at elevationapproximately 80e90 m above the contemporary river level atZhangjiajie, followed by the aggradation of T4 terrace during a coldperiod (Table 1).

TL dating ages of samples from the Suoxi and the Maoxi Riversindicate minimum ages for T3 and T2 of 0.1e0.2 Ma and 0.06 Ma,respectively (Table 1). Rock weathering rinds and sedimentarydiagnoses also provide a reliable means of age estimations forQuaternary stream terraces (e.g., Chinn, 1981; Colman, 1981;Colman et al., 1987; Knuepfer, 1988; Li et al., 1996; Oguchi, 2004;Tian and Cheng, 2009). Given the abundance of surface cobblesobserved, the relatively weak weathering rinds of the gravel (witha mean thickness of approximately 0.57 cm) in the most extensiveterrace (T3) should not have undergone the consolidation processwithin a relatively short time in the region, a pattern comparablewith an overall relative-dating determination of previous studies(Li et al., 1996; Oguchi, 2004; Tian and Cheng, 2009; Fig. 6).Consideration of the regional correlations leads us now to suggestthat terrace T3 aggraded in MIS 6, with relatively loose and lightercolor infilled sediments seemingly occurring in response to a cooland dry periodicity (Fig. 6). These conditions likely resulted in thedeposition of coarse sedimentary units (Fig. 6). Aggradation of fine-grained materials (majorly silt and clay) atop these coarser unitshas produced the dual structure of these sediments. These agecontrols and sedimentary features indicate that T3 was initiallyformed during the Late Pleistocene in both Maoxi and Suoxi Rivers,broadly contemporaneous with MIS 6 or ‘Typ-Riss’ (Chappell andShackleton, 1986; Chappell et al., 1996; Zhao et al., 2009).

5.2. Terraces as a record of Quaternary climatic change

Many previous studies have provided support for the notionthat terraces have been formed in tune with, and therefore prob-ably in response to, Milankovitch-scale climatic oscillation(Antoine, 1994; Bibus and Wesler, 1995; Li et al., 1997; Bridgland,2000; Maddy et al., 2001b; Vandenberghe and Maddy, 2001; Panet al., 2003; Starkel, 2003; Vandenberghe, 2003; Bridgland and

Westaway, 2008). This thinking relates phases of aggradation andincision to variations in sediment and water supply due to majorclimate oscillation, perhaps in response to glacial-interglacialcycles. During glacial periods, cold climatic conditions triggeredsparse vegetation cover, promoting the generation and depositionof abundant coarse sediment because of the limited transportcapability of river systems. At the glacial/interglacial transition,slopes are stabilized by colonizing vegetation, restricting mass-movement processes and thereby limiting sediment supply to thevalley floor. High rainfall events and release of considerable melt-water facilitate increases in stream power, enhancing prospects forincision by ‘hungry’ rivers. This process creates the accommodationspace for subsequent infilling and reworking of deposits. Duringinterglacial times, relatively stable climatic conditions and thor-ough weathering may enhance the availability of fine-grainedsediments. Therefore, episodes of coarser and finer alluviation canbe associated with periods of glacial and interglacial, while riverincision is more intensive during glacial/interglacial transitions(Bridgland, 2000; Maddy et al., 2001b; Vandenberghe, 2003; Changet al., 2005;Westaway et al., 2006; Bridgland andWestaway, 2008).

As noted in many other studies, a climatic imprint associatedwith glacial-interglacial cycles can be discerned atop the longer-term record of uplift-induced rejuvenation from the terraces atZhangjiajie (cf., Penck and Brückner, 1909; Li, 1991; Mather et al.,1995; Saucier, 1996; Li et al., 2001; Pan et al., 2003). A transversesection through the terraces of the Maoxi River reveals differingorders of cyclical adjustment in the study area (Fig. 5). The agecontrols presented here for T7 to T1 indicate that terrace sequenceswere broadly contemporaneous with previous cold glacial/stadialperiods. On the basis of regional correlations, these terraces (T7 andT5� T2 terrace levels) have been thought to representMIS 24,18,10,6 and 4 respectively. The attribution of terrace 5 to MIS 18 is basedon the presence in sediments as a corresponding position inadjoining middle Yangtze River of deposits dated back to 0.73 Ma(Li et al., 2001; Xiang et al., 2005; Yang, 2006). Similarly, theassignment of T3 toMIS 6 is according to the sedimentary diagnosesand dating constraint occurring at a near-equivalent height in theneighboring middle Yangtze River that has been dated back to0.1e0.2 Ma (Xie, 1990, 1991; Tian et al., 1996; Li et al., 2001; Xianget al., 2005; Yang, 2006).

From the late Early Pleistocene (e928 ka) to Late Pleistocene, theLishui River has predominantly been incising into bedrock insynchrony with Milankovitch cycles, forming cut or base terraces.The highest identified unit of T7 was formed since the late period ofEarly Pleistocene during MIS 24 when the cold climate createdconditions that promoted alluviation. The position and datingcontrol of T5 suggest that this feature most likely developed duringMIS 18, while T4, T3 and T2 were established during MIS 10, 6 and 4,respectively. The terrace aggradation periods, therefore, invariablycorrespond with cold stages, as indicated by occurrence of gravels(Bridgland, 2000; Bridgland and Westaway, 2008). Terrace erosionoccurred under strongly increased water discharge rates and rela-tively low sediment supply. This took place, in particular, duringa warming limb of the glacial-interglacial transition (Bridgland,2000; Maddy et al., 2001b; Monecke et al., 2001; Litchfield andBerryman, 2005; Westaway et al., 2006; Bridgland and Westaway,2008). Importantly, T6 was identified at an intermediate topo-graphical level, with an age control that lies between two coolingperiods (928 and 689 ka, respectively), at a time when changingclimatic conditions altered rates of fluvial processes (Raymo et al.,1997; Clark and Pollard, 1998; Wang et al., 2000). The onset ofa relatively frigid-arid climate probably increased the hillslopesediment yields. The subsequent return of humid and mesicclimatic conditions decreased sediment yields and induced riverincision.

Table 2Incision rate of the Lishui River basin

River No. Elevation/ma.s.l.

Age/ka Incisionrate/m/ka

Maoxi River T7 311 928e

0.16T5 272 689

e

0.05T4 256 347

e

0.11e0.14T3 235 151e201

e

0.21e0.32T2 206 60.95

e

0.51River level 175 0

Middle SuoxiRiver

T3 230 104.45e117.62e

0.24e0.27River level 202 0

G. Yang et al. / Quaternary International 233 (2011) 27e3936

Overall, evidence for aggradation during the glacial and glacial-interglacial incision demonstrates a remarkable climate control onriver terrace behavior. As a ubiquitous case within the non-glacialcatchment of Zhangjiajie, climatic changes seemingly triggered thevariations in vegetation, which in turn caused oscillations in sedi-ment supply. This significant increase in sediment supply resultedin aggradation and subsequent formation of fluvial terraces.Changes to the flow/sediment balance influence the switch to riverincision.

5.3. Terraces as a record of uplift and incision rates

Prior studies have highlighted the role of climate change asa trigger for terrace formation (Fuller et al., 1998; Bridgland, 2000;Maddy et al., 2001b; Clement and Fuller, 2007; Bridgland andWestaway, 2008). Although it is not always possible to isolate therelative influence of uplift and climatic variations, evidence fromnon-glacial areas where climate changes are not especiallypronounced point to the underlying role of strong or intermittentuplift upon downcutting processes (Melton, 1959; Molnar et al.,1994; Li et al., 1997; Zhang et al., 2007; Carcaillet et al., 2009;Wang et al., 2010). In the case of Zhangjiajie, the age of abandon-ment for T7, which has been mapped in the lower segments of theMaoxi River, exceeds 928� 92 ka. Inferred incision rates deter-mined from age estimates derived in this study are shown in Fig. 9and Table 2. As indicated previously, the age estimate derived fromT6 is inconsistentwith the overall incision story. Taking into accountspatial and temporal variations, themean incision rate of the terracesystem is relatively low, varying from 0.05 to 0.51 m/ka. This lowincision rate is considered to reflect the relatively stable tectonicsetting that is only subjected to minor regional tectonic activities.

Incision in the Early Pleistocene (T7eT5) had an inferred rate of0.16 m/ka. Uplift during the late Early Pleistocene (1.2e0.7 Ma,Hunan Geo-environmental Monitoring Center, 1988; Molnar andEngland, 1990; Li, 1991; Liu and Di, 2007) led to increased rates ofincision in the study area. Alternatively, this increase in incision ratemay be related to changes in sediment supply or transport capacityof rivers. Subsequent incision phases (T5 to T4 and T4 to T3) hadrelatively slow average rates of 0.05 to 0.11e0.14 m/ka. Other sour-ces also indicate relative tectonic stability of the study area duringthe period of formation of T5 and T3e conditions that supported thestabilization of hillslopes (Hunan Geo-environmental MonitoringCenter, 1988; Hunan Bureau of Land and Resource, 2003; Xie et al.,2003; Yin and Guo, 2005). In addition, there is no evidence thatwarm and moist climatic conditions at this time markedly acceler-ated alluviation processes, although the inferred slight increase inincision rate from 0.05 to 0.11e0.14 m/ka in the vicinity of T4

Fig. 9. Incision rate of the Lishui River system.

formation may reflect adjustments due to the glacial/interglacialtransition (higher moisture content enhancing erosion (incision)potential; Table 2). Since the late Middle Pleistocene, data indicatea time-average incision rate of 0.24e0.27 m/ka in the middle SuoxiRiver (fromT3 to present), approximately consistentwith the rate of0.21e0.32 m/ka derived from the Maoxi catchment. Regionally,these results are also broadly compatible with the rate of0.30e0.56 m/ka in Yuntai Mountain Area of Henan Province (TheSecond Geological Team of Henan Bureau of Geology and MineralResources, 2003; Zhao et al., 2005; Zhang et al., 2009), 0.32 m/kain the upper Weihe River (Gao et al., 2008), and 0.25 m/ka (Yanget al., 2002; Yang, 2006), 0.5 m/ka (Tang et al., 2005) ande0.2 m/ka(Xie, 1990, 1991) in the middle Yangtze River.

These summary findings are considered to indicate that terraceformation has been largely governed by intermittent uplift, whilethe influence of climatic change has slightly increased the overallincision-alluviation process in the study area (cf. Melton, 1959;Molnar and England, 1990; Zhang et al., 2007). Similar relation-ships have been reported elsewhere in theworld (e.g., Li et al., 1997,2001; Bridgland, 2000; Maddy et al., 2000, 2001b; Wang et al.,2004; Bridgland and Westaway, 2008; Claessens et al., 2009;Westaway, 2009). The temporal and spatial variations of riverincision outlined in this study also broadly agree with the numer-ical modeling of Hancock and Anderson (2002). These inter-relatedfindings indicate that the recent fluvial response reflects decliningsediment input and enhanced neotectonic movement. Climaticvariations may locally disrupt these overall trends, but these localpulses do not exert a primary influence upon the overall sequenceof terrace topography and fluvial incision.

When taking the base of the Suoxi catchment, four distinct levelsin the alluvial terraces and multi-layered karst caves correspondwell with the typical four-level sandstone peak forest landformsalong the Suoxi River (developed in middle and lower, middle, andupper reaches of Suoxi River, respectively; Figs. 7, 8 and 10). On thebasis of vertical spacing, the top level of Huanglong Cave can bereadily correlatedwith the earliest standstill level,which is followedby the highest order Suoxi terrace (T4). Also, the lowest order offluvial systems seems to represent the recent standstill level,immediately following pace with the formation of the lowest layerof Huanglong cave. The good agreement among these steppedlandforms is considered to indicate that thewarmandmoist climateduring the middle Mid-Pleistocene (e463 ka) favored karstificationprocesses. Inferred higher discharge conditions created an unstablechannel that widened the valley in this period that was character-ized by comparatively low erosion rates (around 0.05 m/ka). Laterphases of denudation and anthropogenic interference largelyaltered this terrace. Poor preservation of sediments in the highestlevel of Suoxi River limits opportunities to identify Terrace 4 (Fig. 7).

The good consistence between sandstone landform, karst cavesand alluvial terraces enables some inferences to be made aboutlandscape formation processes in the rocky area within theZhangjiajie Sandstone Peak Forest Geopark. Three rapid formation

Fig. 10. Sketch map of typical sandstone landform in the upper Suoxi River.

G. Yang et al. / Quaternary International 233 (2011) 27e39 37

stages from the Middle Pleistocene to present are inferred, withapproximate rates of 0.51e0.68 m/ka, 1.61e2.50 m/ka and 3.69 m/ka, during periods from 0.3e0.5 to 0.1e0.2 Ma, 0.1e0.2 to 0.06 Ma,and after 0.06 Ma, respectively. The relatively high formation ratewithin the sandstone area can be attributed largely to a combina-tion of river incision and mass wasting, with formation rates thatare 6e8 times greater than the river incision rate alone. The highlydeveloped conjugate joint system is considered to have acceleratedmass wasting (Hunan Geo-environmental Monitoring Center, 1988;Hunan Bureau of Land and Resource, 2003; Fig. 2). In contrast, therelatively limited availability of sediment in the lower part of theSuoxi River created conditions that are unfavorable for rivererosion, leading to the relatively low incision rate.

5.4. Implication for geomorphic evolution

In regional terms, the primary phase of uplift occurred duringthe Yanshan period (e165e135 Ma, Maruyama et al., 1989; Zhaoet al., 2004) and initially flattened during the Pliocene Himalayanmovement. Planation surface is of great significance in regional oreven global topography (Feng et al., 2005; Coltorti et al., 2007; Gao,2008). The well-recognized planation surface at 1200e1500 m a.s.l.in the Three Gorges of Yangtze River was initially formed in phase 2of the Himalayan tectonic movement during the Miocene, andended around 3.4e3.6 Ma (Xie, 1991; Li et al., 2001; Xie et al.,2006). The erosional surface around 800e1200 m a.s.l. began todevelop around 3.0e3.4 Ma and terminated in the Early Quaternary(Huang, 1991; Xie, 1991; Li et al., 2001; Feng et al., 2005). Accord-ingly, the appearance of the planation surface within the study area(elevation of 1000e1300 m a.s.l.) was probably formed prior to3.4e3.6 Ma. The erosional surface at 800e1000 m a.s.l. in theZhangjiajie area has similar characteristics with the erosionalsurface in the middle Yangtze Basin, as well as many other areas inChina (Ding, 1987; Xie, 1991; Li et al., 2001; Qin et al., 2002; Gaoet al., 2005; Xie et al., 2006).

These results are consistent with the comprehensive workreported by Frisch et al. (2002), who used geological correlationsincluding morphology, tectonics and sedimentary evidence tospecify the formation of the low lying and often hydrologicallyactive Spring Cave Level (e800� 300 m) during the Pliocene andQuaternary. The emergence of the sandstone erosional surface inZhangjiajie contemporaneous with eroded erosional surfaces in thePliocene provides further evidence for synchronous onset ofleveling process at this time, as represented by various layeredlandforms (Li et al., 2001; Frisch et al., 2002; Xie et al., 2006; Gao,2008). Subsequent tectonic movement following the last plana-tion/denudation event left this surface as a perched landform. It islikely that the ancestral Yangtze began to adjust its drainage

network and alluvial terraces formed in response to these adjust-ments (Li et al., 2001).

Chronologic data in this study provide further insight intosandstone landform evolution in the Lishui River basin. Resultsindicate that the well-recognized T7 terrace in Zhangjiajie WorldGeopark was initiated in the late Early Pleistocene. From 0.93 Ma tothe Middle Pleistocene the Lishui River was primarily incising intobedrock, forming the base or erosion terraces. As noted in manyplaces elsewhere in the world, the findings presented here suggestthat regional intermittent uplift along with climate change inducedaccelerated erosion of alluvial systems during the Quaternary. Inthis instance, erosion-driven uplift has accelerated during the latterhalf of the Quaternary. While the highest terrace has terracestaircases extending back to the late period of the Early Pleistocene,enhanced terrace generation seems to have been synchronous withglacial/interglacial cycles.

The relatively low incision rate of approximate 0.05 m/ka duringT5 and T4 alluviation implies the occurrence of a stable tectonicstage from the Early to Middle Pleistocene. Afterwards, relativelyhigh river incision occurred (approximately 0.14 m/ka). The occur-rence of four orders of fluvial terraces andmulti-layer karst caves inZhangjiajie Geopark seemingly reflect the initiation of the SuoxiRiver (Figs. 7 and 8). These agreements indicate that the develop-ment of the Suoxi River lead to initial incision into the sandstonelandform during the middle period of the Middle Pleistocene,following a period of long-term tectonic quiescence. For thesereasons, the timing of sandstone landform formation, however,should be constrained to middle Mid-Pleistocene.

6. Conclusion

River terrace sequences provide an important source ofevidence for Quaternary climatic, tectonic and geomorphic evolu-tion. In this study, field investigations and dating controls havebeen used to constrain the evolution of the Lishui River Basinwithin the Zhangjiajie region of northwest Hunan Province, China.Seven terrace units formed from 928 ka to present, primarily inresponse to relatively slow tectonic uplift (less than 0.5 m/ka).Comparison of terrace features with adjacent karst caves hasenabled the quantification of incision produced by surface uplift.Regional bulging has generated a steady increase of incision alongthe Lishui catchment from the west to the east, with downcuttingrates reaching 0.05e0.51 m/ka in the Quaternary sediment areaand formation rate of 0.51e3.69 in the upper rocky area. Theseestimates provide quantitative insight into the mid-term evolutionin response to the regional uplift over a timescale of 104e105 yr. Thehigher formation rate of the rocky area, 6e8 times higher than theriver incision rate, is attributed to mass wasting along with riverincision in this particular geological setting. In most instances, agesof terrace units correlate well with well-identified cold and dryclimate periods, confirming well-established relationshipsbetween terrace development and climate changes. A significantrise in incision rate has occurred since the Middle Pleistocene,probably in response to climate variation.

Chronologic data also aid preliminary understanding of sand-stone landform evolution in this region. The integration of fluvialterrace system and sandstone landform systemyields a preliminaryage estimate for the presence of the sandstone landscape since themiddle period of the Middle Pleistocene.

Acknowledgments

The study presented in this paper is a contribution to thespecific project entitled “Formation age of sandstone peak forestlandforms and crustal stability of Zhangjiajie”, funded by

G. Yang et al. / Quaternary International 233 (2011) 27e3938

Zhangjiajie Geopark Management Department. We greatlybenefitted from discussions on fluvial terrace system with projectteam members, Profs Zhijiu Cui, Naigong Deng and Keyi Guo. Weare indebted to Mr. Wenqiang Shi, Ms. Yan Yang and Min Wang inour research group for their participation in the geological fieldinvestigation. Special thanks to the cooperation of the staff atZhangjiajie Geopark Management Department, and the Bureau ofLand Resource Management office in Zhangjiajie, who made muchof this work possible. Professor Brierley thanks the University ofAuckland and China University of Geosciences, Beijing for ongoingsupport in his research collaboration in China. Independent reviewcomments are also gratefully acknowledged.

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