amazons: comparative study of amazon mythology in ancient

Macquarie Matrix: Special edition, ACUR 2013

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Amazons: Comparative study of Amazon mythology in ancient literature and art

A E Lego

Macquarie University

Abstract

“I myself, a helper in war, was marshalled among them on that day when the Amazon women came,

men’s equals” - Priam in Homer’s Iliad iii.182-189

Throughout the course of history the Amazons have continued to capture the fascination and

imagination of scholars, historians and archaeologists alike. Accounts of these mysterious female

warriors can be found scattered amongst ancient Greek and Roman literature. They also featured

prominently in the artwork, both public and private, that emerged from these cultures. It is the aim

of this paper to explore these representations and develop a clear understanding of the ways in

which the Amazon myths were used to shape and manipulate the views of their audiences. As such

this paper will begin by considering the extant ancient Greek literature which offers recounts of

these women. It will then consider the ancient Greek iconography available which portrays these

women. This will be followed by a reflection of the extant ancient Roman literature, before an

overview of Roman iconography and how the Amazons featured in this is provided. Final remarks

and conclusions will then be presented.

Keywords: Amazons, mythology, representation, manipulation, art, literature

Comparative study of Amazon mythology in ancient literature and art A E Lego

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Amazon Mythology

Many attempts have been made over history to understand the use of Amazon mythology

by the Ancient Greeks and Romans. Whilst modern historians and classicists have studied

these uses extensively and somewhat exhaustively, no apparent efforts have been made to

complete a comparative study of these uses. As such this paper will explore how these

myths were employed by both the Ancient Greek and Roman culture in order to shape and

manipulate the views of their societies. It will attempt to highlight obvious similarities and

differences that emerge from this study. To achieve this it will focus on the extant literature

and artworks, both public and private, as well as a number of modern interpretations that

are available.

Greek literature

During the Classical and Hellenistic Ages the Amazons maintained a prominent position in

both the ancient Greek world and imagination. This becomes apparent through the

discovery of a substantial amount of literature and iconographical evidence depicting the

Amazons. Our earliest known account of the Amazons comes from Homer, a Greek poet

composing in the eighth century B.C.E. (West, 2010). In his account Homer refers to the

Amazons as the ‘peers of men’ (Hom. Il.3.181-191 & 6:178-190). This idea is similarly

conveyed in the now lost Aethiopis, a Greek epic from the eighth century B.C.E. (AETH 1).

Here the Amazon Queen, Penthesileia, the daughter of Ares, comes to the aid the Trojans.

The association of the Amazons with the Greek God of war, Ares, as well as the

development of a battle ready, warrior identity is further developed by ancient Greek


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authors Apollodorus, Aeschylus, Quintus Smyrnaeus and Herodotus. 1 In these accounts,

epithets such as ‘warrior-like’ and ‘killers or men’ are used frequently (Apd. II.5.9; Plu.

The.XXVII.1-2). Such epithets become so popular that fourth century writer Palaephatus

conceives the idea that the Amazons were not women but barbarian men (Pal. Per

Apistōn.XXXIII). Even at such an early stage of Greek literature it quickly becomes clear that

the Amazon imagery was used to express the Greek concept of ‘the other’ (Stewart, 1995).

In addition to their portrayal as persons who engaged in the practise of war and war-

like activities, the Amazons were presented as bold, licentious women who operated

outside the patronage and control of the Greek patriarchal society. In his Geography Strabo

recounts that the Amazons spent most of their time by themselves occupied with the duties

normally completed by men (Strab. XI.5.1). These duties included ploughing, training horses

and hunting. Herodotus and Aeschylus are similar to place the Amazons beyond the borders

of the Greece, identifying them in the district of Themiscyra (Hdt. IV:110; Aes. Pro.707). The

placement of the Amazons outside the boundaries of the Greek World ensures that the

Amazons were perceived as ‘barbarians’ in the pejorative sense (Marincola, 2011). Ancient

writers add to this image by recounting that it is here that the Amazons ruled amongst

themselves through an elected Queen. In The Fall of Troy, the Amazon Queen Penthesileia

leads the Amazons into battle (QS. I). In Apollodorus’ Bibliotheca we learn of the Amazon

Queen Hippolyte who contended Hercules in his labours (Apd. II.5.9). These accounts clearly

illustrate a matriarchal society; the opposite of a Greek ‘civilised’ society.

From the Greek perspective, women during the eighth century B.C.E. were expected

to be submissive, sexually chaste and ardent wives who kept home and family (Powell,

2010). This was the practised norm of society and anything that differed from this image 1 It should be noted that this list is by no means exhaustive of the epithets attributed to the Amazons.


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was considered other, barbaric and even monstrous (Stewart, 1995). Such ideals are

affirmed in the writings by Greek authors Homer and Aristotle. In the Iliad Homer’s view

becomes clear: women should not concern themselves with tasks such as war; instead they

should apply themselves to completing the role(s) society has assigned them like keeping

house (Hom. Il. VI. 490-493). Aristotle further develops this idea through the statement ‘the

male is, by nature, more suited to rule than the female’ (Aris. Pol 1259 b 2-4). The survival of

Greek society is dependent on its male figures; women serve the sole purpose of producing

children, in particular male children (Tyrell, 1984).

As established in the earlier paragraphs, the Amazons were not submissive or ardent

wives that kept house. They engaged in the practises of men, operated outside the Greek

borders, and were guided by a matriarchal system of governance. The Amazons, by this

standard, embodied every feature that was deemed a direct antithesis to ordinary Greek

practise. Herodotus records, that the Amazons recognised this: ‘we shoot the bow and

throw the javelin and ride, but have never learned women’s work’ (Hdt. IV.114). As such, it

is of great importance to note that almost every ancient Greek account of the Amazons

seeks to highlight these existing differences. By elucidating the differences and identifying

those as ‘barbaric’ or ‘the other’ the ancient Greek writers sought to manipulate their

audiences, reinforcing the correct conduct, behaviour and identity expected by these

ancient cultures.

Whilst at first it appears that Greek literature was determined to see the Amazons

perceived as barbaric, divergent and other; a closer analysis suggests that the Amazons may

also have been recognised as heroic or heroines. Heroes, in the Greek sense, were beings

that exhibited supernatural elements or traits, went on quests or journeys, faced a variety


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of challenges or obstacles before returning as enlightened beings (Powell, 2010). As the

daughters of Ares, skilled in the arts of combat and horse training with bodies that were

‘stronger and larger than male ones’, the Amazons may have been seen, and deliberately

depicted, as heroines in the Greek culture (Ephorus. 70). This theory is supported by

modern scholars Blok (1995), Hardwick (1998) and Lefkowitz (1984). By depicting the

Amazons as heroines, the ancient Greeks were able to glorify their victories against the

Amazons; against beings that were considered strong and heroic.

Greek art

Our earliest depiction of the Amazons occurs on a fragmentary terracotta votive shield

(Appendix Figure 1). On this fragment two chief figures can be identified. The first figure,

located on the left, wears a short tunic and high crest helmet, and holds a sword similar to

those found on early proto-attic fragments. This figure is thought to be Achilles. Achilles

holds the helmet of the other key figure, identified by Bothmer (1957) as an Amazon. The

Amazon wears a kind of peplos2 and features crude indications of feminine breasts. They

also hold a spear. It has been suggested that the Amazon illustrated is Penthesileia. Whilst

the exact interpretation of the shield remains uncertain, it has been proposed that the

illustration depicts an Amazon at the mercy of a victorious Greek. This suggestion appears to

conform to an emerging and reoccurring motif in which the Amazons, the worthy but

uncultured opponents, are conquered by the Greek or other worthy heroes.

The development of this motif can be seen in an increasing number of depictions of

Ἀμαζονομαχίαι3 during the sixth and fifth centuries B.C.E. On a black figure amphora

attributed to the painter Timiades, the Amazonomachy of Herakles and Andromache is 2 A type of skirt common for this period and location.

3 Amazonomachy; the Greek world for “Battles of the Amazons”.


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illustrated (Appendix Figure 2). In this depiction Andromache, is forced into a kneeling

stance by the dominating Herakles who wears the skin of the Nemean lion. Two other

Amazons, equipped with round shields and spears, are featured engaging in battles of their

own. Illustrations like this are increasingly popular during this period and feature on a

number of household items. Whilst these depictions highlight the Amazons’ strength and

worthiness as opponents, the motive of these illustrations is clearly to reinforce the Greeks’

successes over the ‘other’. Another example of this motif can be seen in the Amazonomachy

of Theseus and the Amazons (Appendix Figure 3). Constructed in the Classical Period, the

Amazons in this example grasp hoplite spears and ride horses. They wear panther skins

which are thought to have emphasised their wildness of character and exoticism (Osborne,

1998). Their Greek opponents in contrast are armed with round shields and swords typical

of this period. They do not feature clothing. In this example it appears that the Amazons are

about to be overwhelmed by the Greeks who outnumber them, three to two.

In addition to Greek paintings, Amazons also feature in Greek sculpture from the

Classical period onwards. On the western walls of the Parthenon, marble metopes capture

the various conquests of the Greeks against the Amazons (Ebersole, 1899). In almost all of

these scenes the Amazons are shown being overcome by the Greek forces. In addition to

metopes, stand-alone sculptures of the Amazons have also been uncovered. In these the

Amazons are often portrayed as wounded or suffering greatly (Appendix Figure 4). With

supple, yet muscular, bodies the Amazons are often shown leaning on their weapons or

supporting posts (Appendix Figure 5). In some instances the Amazons carry no arms or

equipment (Appendix Figure 6). This depiction of the Amazons, as injured and defenceless,


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strongly indicates the view held by Greek society towards persons classified as the other or

‘divergent’.

Greek women, in contrast, did not feature largely in art until the end of the fifth

century B.C.E. When they did come to feature they were depicted fully clothed and

performing duties deemed ‘feminine’. Examples of these duties included performing rituals,

nurturing children and performing household tasks. The diverse nature of these images,

when compared, compels the observer to consider the idea that these illustrations were

created in order to manipulate and shape the views of their relevant audiences. By

portraying the Amazons in a particular way, the Greek artists sought to reinforce what were,

and what were not, acceptable practises and behaviours as defined by ancient Greek

society.

Roman literature

Amazon mythology continued to experience great popularity under the Roman Empire.

Following the defeat of Marc Antony at Actium in 31B.C.E. and the subsequent

establishment of the Roman Empire by Octavian, a number of literary and iconographical

works emerged featuring Amazon(s). These works aimed at redefining the ambiguous

Roman identity as well as promoting the Roman eminence; its culture and its people. An

excellent example of such a work produced during this period is Virgil’s Aeneid.

Publius Virgilius Maro, was a Roman who lived from 70B.C.E. to C.E.19 during the

transition of the Roman state from Republic to Empire (West, 2010). He is particularly well

known for his contribution of the Aeneid, an epic poem which tells the story of Aeneas and

his battles against barbarian people of Italy in his quest to found a new home. It is in this


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poem that Virgil introduces the Volscian Queen Camilla who, with her troops, assists Turnus

in his battle against Aeneas (Vir. Aen.VII.803). Camilla, as Virgil first describes her, is a

mixture of warrior and pastoralist who is similar to the Amazons of Thrace (Vir. Aen.XI.648).

Bearing a quiver and pastoral myrtle ‘tipped with steel’, Camilla is the ‘warrior-maid’ who

leads ‘her troop of horse and squadrons gay with brass’ (Vir. Aen.XI.376-444). Having been

raised amongst the shepherds in the lonely mountains to bare a weapon, she has never

‘trained her woman’s hand to Minerva’s distaff or basket of wool’ (Vir. Aen.XI.550-580).

Camilla, it would appear, represents a Roman adaptation of the Amazon. Like the Greek

Amazons, Camilla embodies the warrior spirit, choosing to immerse herself in the art of war

and weaponry. She has also not received training in the art(s) of weaving, a skill highly

prized amongst the cultured Greek and Roman women. In addition she is said to have worn

the skin of a tiger (Vir. Aen.XI.550-580). The only difference that separates Camilla from the

Greek Amazons relates to the sexual adventures and morals of these women. The Amazons,

according to the Greeks, were licentious women whose sexual encounters were driven by

passion and the desire to procreate. Camilla, by contrast, cherished her ‘maidenhood’, and

was content serving Diana, the Roman virgin goddess of childbirth and women (Vir.

Aen.XI.580-590).

By including a character like Camilla, who exhibited characteristics strikingly similar

to those found amongst the Amazons of Greek literature, Virgil was able to reconstruct the

Roman identity as well as reinforce the idea of a predetermined fate that awaited those

who opposed the expanding Roman supremacy. As highlighted above, following the tumult

of civil wars in 30B.C.E. the Roman identity was left very much in question. This was mainly

due to the diverse group of people that the Empire now encompassed (Vel. Rom. 2.15). It


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was therefore essential that the Roman identity was both restored and refashioned in order

to minimise the chances of further civil wars (Toll, 1997). One way that the Roman identity

could be restored was by reminding the Roman people of the foundation of the Roman city

and the historicity of their past. In his quest to subdue the Italians and surrounding barbaric

groups, Aeneas showed great courage, piety and virtue; characteristics that were regarded

highly by the Romans throughout their history (Vir. Aen.VI.845-840). By detailing Aeneas’

defeat of the Italians and importantly Camilla, Virgil clearly demonstrated an example in

which the Roman identity was expressed and Rome’s eminence highlighted.

Another example of Roman literature which featured the Amazon figure is Plutarch’s

Life of Theseus. A philosopher and prolific writer, Plutarch held strong beliefs and theories

concerning a symbiotic partnership between Greece as educator and Rome as a hegemonic

power (West, 2010). These beliefs and theories become evident in his works. A specific

example can be seen in his recount of the actions of Theseus in battle against the Amazons.

In this Plutarch concentrates on how Greek hegemony, as a result of the battle, had a

civilising influence on barbarian traits (Duff, 1999). According to Plutarch the battle between

the Amazons and the Athenians was sparked by Theseus’ abduction of the Amazon Queen

Antiope (Plu. The Rise and Fall.13.). The Amazons, outraged at this abduction of their

Queen, raise arms and challenge the Athenians for their Queen. Interestingly, before

Plutarch describes the battle, he cites the historian Menecrates who comments on the

effect Greek hegemony has on the Amazon Antiope. Menecrates reflects that Antiope whilst

captive on Theseus’ ship quickly develops the proper womanly attributes and rejected the

advances of all men other than Theseus (Plu. The Rise and Fall.32.). This anecdote in many

ways implies the potential transition of the Amazons from uncultured barbarians to women

of the Greek society. Plutarch follows this with a refocus on the battle between the


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Athenians and the Amazons. Plutarch carefully details that the Amazons, at one stage during

the battle, gain the upper hand on the left wing and force the Athenians to retreat (Plu. The

Rise and Fall.33.). This illustration of strength is deliberate, and allows the Amazons to be

viewed as worthy adversaries for the heroic Greeks. This strength is short lived and the

Amazons are eventually routed back to their homeland. Plutarch’s use of the Amazon

mythology in his account is often seen as an attempt to highlight Rome’s identity as the new

educators of the world. It is also seen to send a clear message to groups that dare challenge

Rome’s supremacy during the early C.E. second century; become an allied province of

Rome, or become Rome’s slave(s) (Erin, 2010).

Roman art

As mentioned above, following the establishment of the Roman Empire by Octavian after his

victory at Actium, a number of iconographical works emerged featuring the Amazons. These

works aimed to reinforce the Roman identity and dominance of the Empire by drawing on

the differences between the Roman people and those classed as the other such as the

Amazons. An excellent example of this can be seen in the murals uncovered in Pompeii

(Appendix Figures 7 and 8). In these murals the men, who are not identified, are illustrated

grabbing the Amazons by the hair in an attempt to pull them to the ground. The Amazons,

who wear short chitons4, are depicted on horseback and wielding axes. By pulling the

Amazons by their hair to the ground and into submission, the men are clearly illustrating

their strength and dominance over the barbaric warrior women and, by extension, any

4 A type of skirt common in this period.


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person or group that opposed Roman rule. Such illustrations send clear and concise

messages to their Roman viewers regarding the Roman identity and eminence.

Another example in which the Amazon imagery has been used to promote Rome’s

eminence can be seen on the Temple of Apollo in Circo in Rome. Built by C. Sosius the

temple features an encounter between the Greeks and the Amazons. Roman art expert

Zanker proposes that this artwork may have been compared favourably by Roman viewers

with Augustus’ defeat of the eastern female barbarian threat of Cleopatra (Zanker, 1988).

Like the Amazons, Cleopatra is often regarded as a female warrior who wielded enormous

power and influence during her time (Smith, 2008). Having managed to captivate two elite

Roman men, Julius Caesar and Marcus Antonius, Cleopatra presented a real threat to the

Roman forces. It was only after her defeat at the battle of Actium by Octavian and

subsequent suicide that the Roman forces could proclaim complete dominance and power.

This representation is important as it acts as a warning to barbaric nations of Rome’s

position of power and control.

Before the Later Roman Empire, Amazons were rarely depicted as positive

characters or protagonists in Roman art or literature (Erin, 2010). At the end of the Julio-

Claudian dynasty however we see the transformation of the Amazons in Roman art from the

barbaric female warriors to the founders and goddesses of Roman provinces. In Asia Minor

a statute of Tiberius is decorated on all four sides by a relief of partially nude Amazons who

represent six cities in the area (Appendix Figure 9). In addition to the statute, the Amazons

also make an appearance on a number of important coins. On a coin minted under Domitian

two Amazons can be seen facing and offering their hands to each other (Appendix Figure

10). The Amazons personify a treaty between the cities of Ephesus and Smyrna. A similar

example depicts the treaty between eponymous heroines Myrina and Cyme (Appendix


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Figure 11). It is thought that these coins illustrate the blending of Romans and Non-Romans

that followed the conquering of new territory and areas (Aldhouse-Green, 2006).

Conclusion

As stated earlier, the aim of this paper was to explore the various representations of the

Amazons and develop a clear understanding of the ways in which Amazon myths were used

to shape and manipulate the views of the audiences reviewing them. To achieve this, it

considered a range of sources produced by both the Ancient Greeks and Ancient Romans.

After a detailed analysis and comparison of the Ancient Greek Literature and Art, with the

Ancient Roman Literature and Art, it has become clear that both cultures used the Amazon

mythology greatly to shape, manipulate and influence the views of their audiences, and

bring them into alignment with the views of those deemed important or influential by

society.


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References

Ancient Scholarship

Aescyhlus. (1926). Prometheus Bound. (H.W. Smyth, Trans.). Loeb Classical Library, 145.

Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Apollodorus. (1921). Bibliotheca. (J.G. Frazer, Trans.). Loeb Classical Library, 121-122.

Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann Ltd.

Herodotus. (1920). The Persian Wars. (A.D. Godley, Trans.). Loeb Classical Library, 117-120.

Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann Ltd.

Homer. (1924). Iliad. (A.T. Murray, Trans.). Loeb Classical Library, 170-171. Cambridge, MA:

Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann Ltd

Plutarch, Lives in Perrin. B., (1914), Plutarch Lives, London.

Plutarch, The Rise and Fall of Athens in Scott-Kilvert, I., (1973), Nine Greek Lives, London.

Quintus Smyrnaeus, The Fall of Troy in Way, A.S., (1913), The Fall of Troy, London.

Strabo, Geography in Jones, H.L., (1929), Strabo’s Geography, Vol. 6, Harvard.

Virgil, Aeneid in Mandelbaum, A., trans (1971), Virgil’s Aeneid, CA.

Modern Scholarship

Aldhouse-Green, M. (2006). Boudica Britannia: Rebel, war-leader, and queen. New York:

Pearson.

Blok, J. (1995). The early Amazons: Modern and ancient perspectives on a persistent myth.

The Netherlands: Leiden.

Boardman, J. (1989). Athenian red figure vases: The classical period. London: Routledge.

Carpenter, T.H. (1991). Art and myth in Ancient Greece. London: Routledge.

Duff, T. (1999). Plutarch’s Lives: Exploring virtue and vice. Oxford: Oxford University Press.


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Erin, L. (2010). The Empire’s Muse: Roman interpretations of the Amazons through

Literature and Art, Diss, San Diego State University.

Ebersole, W.S. (1899). The Metopes of the West End of the Parthenon. AJA, 3, 409-432.

Lefkowitz, M.R. (1984). Review: Wonder Women of the Ancient World. The Women’s

Review of Books, 1, 12.

Lexicon iconographicum mythologiae classicae (LIMC) (1981-1999). Zurich: Artemis

Marincola, J. (2011). Greek and Roman Historiography. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Osborne, R. (1998). Archaic and Classical Greek Art. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Powell, B. (2010). Classical Myth. London: Pearson.

Smith, B.G. (2008). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Women in World History. Oxford: Oxford

University Press.

Stewart, A. (1995). Imag(in)ing the Other: Amazons and Ethnicity in Fifth-Century Athens.

Poetics Today, 16, 576.

Toll, K. (1997). Making Roman-ness and the Aeneid. Classical Antiquity, 16, 37.

Tyrell, W.B. (1984). Amazons: A Study in Athenian Mythmaking. Baltimore: John Hopkins

University Press.

Von Bothmer, D. (1957). Amazons in Greek Art. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

West, M.L. (2010). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome. Oxford: Oxford

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Zanker, P. (1988). Power of Images in the Age of Augustus. Michigan: Michigan University

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Appendix

Figure 1. Von Bothmer, D. (1957). Amazons in Greek Art. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Plate. I, 1a-b.

Figure 2. Carpenter, T.H. (1991). Art and Myth in Ancient Greece. London: Routledge.

Image no. 195.


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Figure 3. Boardman, J. (1989). Athenian Red Figure Vases: The Classical Period. London:

Routledge. Image no. 230.


Plate. LXXXIX no. 1.


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Figure 6. Von Bothmer, D. (1957). Amazons in Greek Art. Oxford: Oxford University Press. .



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Figure 7. LIMC, Vol. 1. (1981), Image no. 485

Figure 8. LIMC, Vol. 1. (1981), Image no. 488.



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