The Growth of Democracy 1824-1840

Chapter 11

Philadelphia craftsman emblem and motto. Pennsylvania enfranchised all men who were taxpayers in 1776.

During the winter of 1826-1827, more than 800 Philadelphians were jailed in a debtors' prison as a consequence of not having paid off their loans.[2] One anonymous prisoner working from his prison cell wrote an open letter, "To the Mechanics and Working-Men of the Fifth Ward, and those friendly to their Interests," describing the difficult work conditions suffered by working-class Philadelphians. The letter inspired a few outspoken writers to publish a widely circulated article demanding the workday be cut from twelve hours to ten hours. In June 1827, carpenters in Philadelphia struck for a 10-hour workday, agreeing to no reduction in wages. According to ExplorePAhistory.com:

“ "When [the carpenters] stopped working, housing and business construction nearly halted. By August, bricklayers, painters, typographers, glaziers, and craftsmen in other trades had walked off their jobs or threatened to do so."[2] ”

By October, the protesters had established the Mechanics' Union of Trade Associations, the first trade union to cross craft lines

The Working Men's Parties (whose members were known as "the Workies") were the first labor-oriented political organizations in the United States. The first Working Men's Party was founded in Philadelphia in 1828 by William Heighton. Similar parties were also established in New York City and Boston. Additionally, party member George Henry Evans established the Working Man’s Advocate, the first labor newspaper, in 1829.[1]

The political platforms of the Working Men's Parties included such planks as state-supported public education, universal male suffrage, protection from debtor imprisonment, compulsory service in the militia, and shorter working hours. One of its most eloquent proponents was Samuel Whitcomb jr., who wrote speeches and lobbied behind the public political scenarios to promote public education.[2] The Workingmen's Party attacked both the Whigs and the Democrats for their lack of interest in labor, and they achieved sizable votes in municipal elections.[3]

Despite some local electoral successes, the Workingmen's Parties effectively died out in the early 1830s. Likely causes for this decline and disappearance include lack of experience with political organization, factional disputes over doctrine and leadership, and incursions by the increasingly pro-labor Democratic Party

The New Democratic Politics in North America

While Europe was more conservative with the end of Napoleon and the rise of the Conservative Treaty of Vienna where legitimacy took a stronger role the United States and the Western Hemisphere took on a more democratic position

The early years of the 1800 allowed growth with the evolution more democratic movement with popular democracy took its place. The were events in which slavery ended or was question and there were expansions with Suffrage.

Inexpensive Newspapers gave the common man more insight

The Boston Athenaeum was one of Boston's leading cultural institutions. The library, shown in this engraving, was probably the finest in the country in the early 19th century.

The New York Sun and New York Herald introduced a new style of journalism appealing to a mass audience by emphasizing sensationalism. Crime stories and exposes of official misconduct. By 1840 according to one estimate the total weekly circulation of newspapers in the United States whose population was 17 million exceed that of Europe with 233 million people.

Steam Engine Printing Press

Freedom of discussion will take force with John Calhoun (South Carolina) and Henry Clay (Kentucky).

Struggles over Popular Rights: Mexico, the Caribbean, Canada

Haiti was given end of slavery with British passing 1834 Abolishment of slavery bill. In Haiti the sugar industry then plummeted because of no exploitation of labor.

In 1821 Colonel Agustin de Iturbiee declared Mexico a Constitutional Monarchy

Expansion and Limits of Suffrage

After the war of 1812 the was a change in many states in voting since property less men called up for militia service in the war questioned why they were eligible to fight but not vote. States such as Rhode Island, Virginia and Louisiana eventually gave into allowing males to vote and by 1840 more than 90 percent of adult white male could vote.

Universal white manhood suffrage was for from true universal suffrage, the right to vote remained barred to most of the nation’s free African American males and to women of any race. Only in five New England states (Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts and Rhode Island could free African American Men vote before 1865

Even wealthy single women who lived alone were considered subordinate to male relatives and denied the right to vote. New Jersey was the only state where women could vote if you had property until 1807.

Racism was the reason for blacks not to vote. The assumption that African Americans were a different and less capable people accounted for much of this train of thought. Northern Democrats side with the slave south did not want the Africans Americans to vote.

The extension of suffrage to property less farm workers and members of the laboring poor in the nation’s cities left European observers wondering “mob rule” possibly could succeed.

The Election of 1824

Henry Clay gets southern electorate points to get John Q, Adams to become president. In return Adams receives the position of Secretary of State.

John Q Adams Presidency

John Quincy Adams was the sixth President of the United States. He served as American

diplomat, Senator, and Congressional representative.

A image from a broadside from the campaign of 1824,

promoting the American System of government sponsored economic

development.

Domestic accomplishments of President Adams: › Supported infrastructural and educational improvements in the shape of federal projects like road and canal building, a national university, and a national bank, but met with stiff opposition from supporters of Andrew Jackson in Congress

Foreign policy accomplishments of President Adams: › Signed the "Tariff of Abominations" in 1828, which protected American manufacturers but raised prices on many goods, especially in the South› Renowned as one of America's greatest diplomats before his presidency and one of American's greatest congressmen after his presidency, but was not a particularly effective president

The New Popular Democratic Culture

Expansion of Democracy

Mass campaigns huge political allies parades and candidates with wide “name recognition such as military heroes were the hall marks of the new popular democratic culture. So were less savory customs such as the distribution of lavish food and drink at polling places.

In New York State master political tactician Martin Van Buren forged a tightly organized broad based political group nicknamed the Albany Regency that wrested political control away from the former elite. In doing so he became a major architect of new democratic politics of mass participation.

The Albany Regency was a group of politicians who controlled the New York state government between 1822 and 1838. The group was among the first American political machines. In the beginning they were the leading figures of the Bucktails faction of the Democratic-Republican Party, later the Jacksonian Democrats and finally became the Hunkers faction of the Democratic Party

The Bucktails may refer to one of two organizations that were particularly characterized and identified by the wearing of the tail of a buck (male deer) in their hat.

1) The Bucktails (1818–1826) were the faction of the Democratic-Republican Party in New York State opposed to the canal policy of Governor DeWitt Clinton. It was influenced by the Tammany Society. The name derives from a Tammany insignia, a deer's tail worn in the hat. The name was in use as early as 1791 when a bucktail worn on the headgear was adopted as the "official badge" of the Tammany Society. The wearing of the bucktail was said to have been suggested by its appearance in the costume of the Tammany Indians in the vicinity of New York.

2) Also, during the American Civil War, the members of the 13th Pennsylvania Reserves were widely known in the Union Army as Bucktails because each soldier wore a bucktail in his hat. The flagstaff of the companies which formed the nucleus of this regiment was a green hickory pole surmounted by a bucktail.

Bucktail headquarters and meeting center

Richmond Junto, Nashville Junto and New Hampshire Concord Regency were groups which aspired to create faith in the capacity of the masses of people to govern themselves and exercise voting.

Motivation of these various Junto’s came from Ben Franklin

The Junto was a club for mutual improvement established in 1727 by Benjamin Franklin in Philadelphia. Also known as the Leather Apron Club, its purpose was to debate questions of morals, politics, and natural philosophy, and to exchange knowledge of business affairs.

The print revolution had begun in 1826 when a reform organization the American Tract Society installed the country’s first steam powered press and rapidly turned out 300,000 bibles and 6 million religious tracts. The number of newspapers soared from 376 to 1810 to 1200 in 1835

Philadelphia Artisan Association used banners, fireworks, party slogans, songs, badges of candidates. They created a movement of democratic force.

This large piece of cheese was given to political campaigners. Candidates wanted to gain support through giving gifts.

Election of 1828

A broadside from the 1828 campaign illustrates how

Andrew Jackson’s supporters promoted him as a military

hero and “man of the people”.

Adams supporters depicted Jackson as an illiterate backwoodsman, a murderer, he ordered the execution of deserters in the Tennessee militia and adulterer ;he married Rachel Robards before her divorce was final. Calhoun was the vice president for John Quincy Adams.

When Andrew Jackson migrated to Nashville, Tennessee in 1788, he boarded with Rachel Stockley Donelson, the mother of Rachel Donelson Robards. Shortly after, they married in Natchez, Mississippi, believing that her husband had obtained a divorce.[1][2] As the divorce had never been completed, their marriage was technically bigamous and therefore invalid.[2] Historians found that a friend of Lewis Robards had planted a fake article in his own newspaper, saying that the couple's divorce had been finalized.[citation needed] The Jacksons later found out about Robards' action in planting the article, and that he had never completed the divorce. Later, Rachel ensured the divorce was completed.[citation needed] She and Jackson remarried in 1794. During the presidential election campaign of 1828, supporters of John Quincy Adams, Jackson's opponent, accused his wife of being a bigamist, among other things. Despite the accusations

The Jackson Presidency

When Jackson was elected this was victory for the common man. The common man ransack the White House and Jackson spent the night of his Inauguration in a hotel.

Domestic accomplishments of President Jackson: › Forefather of the modern Democratic Party› Dismantled the Second Bank of the United States in 1832 on policy grounds› Faced down South Carolina during the Nullification Crisis when state politicians declared they had the right to nullify tariff legislation and any other Federal law that went against state interests› Strengthened the power of the presidency and expanded the spoils system to strengthen his political base through patronage› First and only president to pay off the entire national debt, although severe economic depression from 1837 to 1844 caused it to increase again two years later

Foreign policy accomplishments of President Jackson: › Initiated forced relocation and resettlement of Native American tribes from the Southeast to west of the Mississippi River through the Indian Removal Act› Negotiated an exchange of shipping rights with the British West Indies in 1830

Photographs of Birthplace of Rachel Donelson Jackson - Wife of President Andrew Jackson

When they emigrated to America in 1765, Jackson's parents probably landed in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. They would have traveled overland down through the Appalachian Mountains to the Scots-Irish community in the Waxhaws region, straddling the border between North and South Carolina.[7] They brought two children from Ireland, Hugh (born 1763) and Robert (born 1764

Large conventions where state leaders gathered to hammer out a platform . Newspapers played a greater and greater role in politics. Nearly 400 were published in 1830 compared to 90 in 1790. Democratic and Whig papers whose job was not so much to report the news as to present the party’s position on the issues of the day

Jackson’s birth place

The Kitchen Cabinet of Jackson did not include John Calhoun the vice president or either of the two great sectional representatives, Henry Clay and Daniel Webster. Jackson never forgave Clay for his role in the Corrupt bargain and he saw Daniel Webster as just the privileged elite.

The Kitchen Cabinet was a term used by political opponents of President of the United States Andrew Jackson to describe the collection of unofficial advisers he consulted in parallel to the United States Cabinet (the "parlor cabinet") following his purge of the cabinet at the end of the Eaton affair and his break with Vice President John C. Calhoun in 1831.[1][2]

In an unprecedented dismissal of five of the eight Cabinet officials in the middle of his first term, Jackson dismissed Calhoun's allies Samuel D. Ingham, John Branch, and John M. Berrien as well as his own supporters, Secretary of State Martin Van Buren and Secretary of War John Eaton. However, Jackson retained Van Buren in Washington as the minister to Great Britain.Jackson's Kitchen Cabinet included his longtime political allies Martin Van Buren, Francis Preston Blair, Amos Kendall, William B. Lewis, Andrew Jackson Donelson, John Overton, and his new Attorney General Roger B. Taney. As newspapermen, Blair and Kendall were given particular notice by rival papers.[2][3]

Blair was Kendall's successor as editor of the Jacksonian Argus of Western America, the prominent pro-New Court newspaper of Kentucky. Jackson brought Blair to Washington, D.C. to counter Calhounite Duff Green, editor of The United States Telegraph, with a new paper, the Globe. Lewis had been quartermaster under Jackson during the War of 1812; Andrew Donelson was Jackson's adoptive son and private secretary; and Overton was Andrew Jackson's friend and business partner since the 1790s

The Kitchen Cabinet was a term used by political opponents of President of the United States Andrew Jackson to describe his ginger group, the collection of unofficial advisers he consulted in parallel to the United States Cabinet (the "parlor cabinet") following his purge of the cabinet at the end of the Eaton affair and his break with Vice President John C. Calhoun in 1831.[1][2]

Secretary of State Martin Van Buren was a widower, and since he had no wife to become involved in the Eaton controversy he managed to avoid becoming entangled himself. In 1831 he resigned his cabinet post, as did Secretary of War John Eaton, in order to give Jackson a reason to re-order his cabinet and dismiss Calhoun allies. Jackson then dismissed Calhounites Samuel D. Ingham, John Branch, and John M. Berrien. Van Buren, whom Jackson had already indicated he wanted to run for Vice President in 1832, remained in Washington as a member of the Kitchen Cabinet until he was appointed as Minister to Great Britain. Eaton was subsequently appointed Governor of Florida Territory.

Jackson's Kitchen Cabinet included his longtime political allies Martin Van Buren, Francis Preston Blair, Amos Kendall, William B. Lewis, Andrew Jackson Donelson, John Overton, Duff Green, Isaac Hill, and his new Attorney General Roger B. Taney. As newspapermen, Blair and Kendall were given particular notice by rival papers.

About 1816, at age 17, Margaret O'Neale married John B. Timberlake, a 39-year-old purser in the Navy. Her parents gave them a house across from the hotel, and they met many politicians who stayed there. In 1818 they met and befriended John Henry Eaton, a 28-year-old widower and newly elected senator from Tennessee. Margaret and John Timberlake had three children together, one of whom died in infancy.[3]

John Timberlake died in 1828 while at sea in the Mediterranean, in service on a four-year voyage. When Margaret married Senator John Henry Eaton (1790–1856) shortly after the turn of the year, there were rumors that Timberlake had committed suicide because of despair at an alleged affair between the two.

Margaret "Peggy" O'Neale (or O'Neill or O'Neal) was the daughter of William O'Neale, who owned a Washington, D.C. boarding-house called the Franklin House, a social center for many politicians. Margaret was well-educated; she studied French, among other subjects, and was known for her ability to play the piano.[1] She was also renowned for having a "vivacious" temperament. In 1816, Margaret married her first husband John B. Timberlake, a purser in the United States Navy. She was 17, and he was 39. Timberlake had been heavily in debt for years. They had three children together, with one dying in infancy.

The Timberlake couple had been friends with Senator John Henry Eaton since 1818, when Eaton was a 28-year-old widower and newly-elected U.S. Senator. After Timberlake told Eaton about their financial problems, Eaton unsuccessfully attempted to get the Senate to pass a petition to pay Timberlake's debts accrued while in the Navy. While away on a four-year sea voyage on the USS Constitution, Timberlake died of pulmonary disease in 1828, although there were allegations he committed suicide.[1]

Scandal[edit]

With the encouragement of President Andrew Jackson, who liked them both, Peggy and Eaton married shortly after her husband's death, although according to the social mores of the day, it would have been more proper for them to wait for a longer mourning period. Their actions scandalized respectable people of the capital, especially many women. Second Lady Floride Calhoun, the wife of Vice President John C. Calhoun, led a phalanx of other Cabinet wives in an "anti-Peggy" coalition. Andrew Jackson's wife, Rachel, had a niece, Emily Donelson, whom Jackson called on as his surrogate "First Lady"; she sided with the Calhoun faction. Martin Van Buren, a widower and the only unmarried member of the Cabinet, allied himself with the Eatons.

Jackson was sympathetic to the Eatons, in part, perhaps, because his own beloved late wife, Rachel Donelson Robards, had been the subject of innuendo, as it was revealed that her first marriage had not yet been legally ended at the time of her wedding to Jackson. Jackson believed such rumors were the cause of Rachel's heart attack and death on December 22, 1828, several weeks after his election.

Jackson appointed Eaton as his Secretary of War, hoping to limit the rumors, but the scandal intensified. Jackson felt political opponents, especially those around Calhoun, were feeding the controversy.[1] The controversy finally resulted in the resignation of almost all members of the Cabinet over a period of weeks in the spring of 1831. Postmaster General William T. Barry would be the lone member to stay.

Andrew Jackson“King Andrew”

Nullification Crisis

A cartoon during the nullification controversy, shows John C. Calhoun climbing steps, including those marked “nullification”, “treason”, and “civil war” toward the goal of “despotism”.

John Calhoun’s Political Theory:

Exposition and Protest which was the Nullification Theory for states to break off from the Union.

Conflicts in the Cabinet:Calhoun's wife Floride, Washington society women ostracized Peggy Easton the wife of Jackson’s secretary of war because she was the daughter of Washington tavern Keeper.

The Tariff of Abomination was an attack on Free-Trade.

Henry Clay

Henry Clay engineered a second Missouri Compromise according to which Congress accepted the state’s constitution as written but instructed Missouri that if could not deprive the citizens of any states of their rights under the US Constitution. Missouri largely ignored this provision

American System

A younger generation of “Republicans led by Henry Clay and John Calhoun believed these infant industries deserved national protection.” “Tariffs”“Wanted a centralized Bank“More elastic with presidential control”“Wanted Soft Currency or Loans:

Indian Removal

Black Hawk and his son, Whirling Thunder, painted after the Black

Hawk War.

Sequoia with the alphabet of the Cherokee language that he

developed.

Johnson versus McIntosh the Court had proclaimed that Indians were not in fact owners of their land but merely had a right of occupancy. Chief Justice John Marshall himself a speculator in western lands, claimed that from the early colonial era Indians had lived as nomads.

Marshall described Indians as ward of the Federal; government. They deserved paternal regard and protection but were not citizens. The justices could not block Georgia’s effort to extend its jurisdiction over the tribe. Yet will change its mind with Worcester v. Georgia.

The court seemed to change its mind holding that Indian nations were a distinct people with the right to maintain a separate political identify. They must be dealt with by the federal government not the states and Georgia's action violated the Cherokees treaties with Washing. Jackson refuse to recognize the validity of the Worcester ruling

John Ross was elected as the principal chief under the Cherokee constitution adopted a policy of passive resistance it work for a while . Yet Federal soldiers forcibly removed 18,000 Indians with the Trail of Tears.

Procession of Victuallers, commemorating a parade of

butchers through the streets of Philadelphia on 1821.

Liberty means absence of government from private affairs. Need for “Free Agency”

Internal Improvements

Jackson veto the Maysvill Road Bill and other infrastructure improvements. He was fine with private business or states. but not government spending.

The states actually spent more than the federal government on internal improvements with five fold increase from 1820 to 1840 ($26 million to $108 million). By 1842 nine states (Arkansas, Florida, Illinois, Indiana, Louisiana, Maryland, Michigan, Mississippi and Pennsylvania).

Federal State Support for Private Enterprise

The Federal Court vetoed the poser of the state government to sell the monopoly of trade on the Hudson River.

Charles River Bridge v. Warren Bridge, 36 U.S. 420 (1837),[2] was a case regarding the Charles River Bridge and the Warren Bridge of Boston, Massachusetts, heard by the United States Supreme Court under the leadership of Chief Justice Roger B. Taney.In 1785, the Charles River Bridge Company had been granted a charter to construct a bridge over the Charles River connecting Boston and Cambridge. When the Commonwealth of Massachusetts sanctioned another company to build the Warren Bridge, chartered 1828, that would be very close in proximity to the first bridge and would connect the same two cities, the proprietors of the Charles River Bridge claimed that the Massachusetts legislature had broken its contract with the Charles River Bridge Company, and thus the contract had been violated. The owners of the first bridge claimed that the charter had implied exclusive rights to the Charles River Bridge Company. The Court ultimately sided with Warren Bridge. This decision was received with mixed opinions, and had some impact on the remainder of Taney's tenure as Chief Justice.

The Panic of 1819 and Federal Reserve Bank

The Panic of 1819 was the first major peacetime financial crisis in the United States [1] followed by a general collapse of the American economy persisting through 1821.[2] The Panic announced the transition of the nation from its colonial commercial status with Europe [3] toward a dynamic economy, increasingly characterized by the financial and industrial imperatives of laisser-faire capitalism[4] - and susceptible to boom and bust cycles.[5][6]

Though driven by global market adjustments in the aftermath of the Napoleonic wars,[7] the severity of the downturn was compounded by excessive speculation in public lands,[8] fueled by the unrestrained issue of paper money from banks and business concerns.[9]

The Second Bank of the United States (BUS), itself deeply enmeshed in these inflationary practices,[10] sought to compensate for its laxness in regulating the state bank credit market by initiating a sharp curtailment in loans by its western branches, beginning in 1818.[11] Failing to provide metallic currency when presented with their own bank notes by the BUS, the state-chartered banks began foreclosing on the heavily mortgaged farms and business properties they had financed.[12] The ensuing financial panic, in conjunction with a sudden recovery in European agricultural production in 1817[13] led to widespread bankruptcies and mass unemployment.[14]

The financial disaster and depression provoked popular resentment against banking and business enterprise,[15] and a general belief that federal government economic policy was fundamentally flawed.[16] Americans, many for the first time, became politically engaged so as to defend their local economic interests.[17]

The "New" Republicans and their American System [18] – tariff protection, internal improvements and the BUS – were exposed to sharp criticism, eliciting a vigorous defense.[19]

This widespread discontent would be mobilized by Democratic-Republicans in alliance with "Old" Republicans, and a return to the Jeffersonian principles of limited government, strict construction of the Constitution and Southern preeminence.[20] The Panic of 1819 marked the end of the Era of Good Feelings [21] and the rise of Jacksonian nationalism

Panic of 1837

The Bubble of 1837 was when the government sold 20 million acres of federal land in 1836 ten time the amount sold in 1830 nearly all of the it paid for in paper money often of questionable value in July 1846 the Jackson administration issued the Specie Circular declaring that hen forth it would only accept gold and silver as payment for public land. At the same time the Bank of England demanded that American merchants pay their creditors in gold. Prices feel by 25 % in the first year of the down turn. Jobs disappear. Labor collapsed.

The Whigs abandoned their most prominent leader Henry Clay and nominated William Henry Harrison. Like Jackson when he first sought presidency.

By the time only North Carolina, Rhode Island, and Virginia still retained property requirements. The large slaveholders who dominated Virginia politics successfully resisted demands for changes in voting qualifications in 1829. By 1860 no qualifications for land for voting were needed.

This 1832 cartoon uses that theme to show Jackson, dressed as a king, trampling on the Constitution.

While the cartoon garnered support for the opposing Whig Party, it did little to thwart Jackson's desire to

increase the power of the presidency.

Bank of the United States

To break up the Federal Bank money was given to “Pet Banks” Favorite banks of the federal government

The Downfall of Mother Bank

Portland, Maine bank was a Pet Bank it was run by Levi Woodbury a member of Jackson’s cabinet.

A satire, probably issued during August or September 1837, on the tug-of-war for influence on the President between Jacksonian Democrats and the "soft money" or conservative elements of the party. Here the artist portrays Van Buren as indecisive and secretive about his treasury policy.Sitting on a rail fence, Van Buren is pulled to the left by former President Andrew Jackson, Senator Thomas Hart Benton, and other representatives of the hard money faction. One man holds up the June 1836 "Letter to Sherrod Williams" published during the presidential campaign as a statement of Van Buren's views on monetary matters, internal improvements, and other cogent issues. On the opposite side Van Buren is pulled by a man (possibly editor Thomas Allen) holding a copy of the "Madisonian," a conservative Democratic newspaper initiated in August 1837, and four others. Jack Downing stands to the far right, watching and commenting, "Well I swan, if the Old Gineral aint pullin' tu! Look out Matty or you'll commit yourself this time!"

Jackson: "Oh! Major Jack Downing, The base treachery & perfidy of the Deposite Banks! The money making concerns, devoid of patriotism & interest. By the Eternal! They are & ever have been a curse."

Benton: "Gold! Gold! Gold! . . . Solitary & alone I still cry Gold! . . Partially obscured man behind Benton: "The proud Isle! Every man, woman & child is taxed to pay her our debts."

Van Buren: "Take care gentlemen, you'll have me off the fence."

"Madisonian" man: "Preserve & regulate the spoils but do not destroy them."

The issue of the Bank’s future came to a head in 1832. Although persuaded Congress to approve a bill extending it for another twenty years. Jacks saw the tactic as form of black mail. Jackson veto tough the institutions charter would not expire until 1836. Biddle’s allies he renewal. Jackson was the first president to use the Veto for something of importance

Biddle was born in Philadelphia, the son of Charles Biddle and Hannah Shepard. Biddle's mother was the daughter of a North Carolina merchant; his father was a successful merchant. Biddle was a precocious student and was admitted to the University of Pennsylvania when he was ten years old. His parents took a keen interest in his education. At age thirteen they had him transferred to Princeton University as a sophomore. He graduated in September 1801. At the age of fifteen, Biddle was the highest ranking student in his class.In 1804 Biddle went to France as a member of the American legation, where he worked on claims resulting from the Louisiana Purchase. After one year, he took a tour of Europe and Greece, then settled in London where he worked for two years as secretary for future President James Monroe (1817–1875). During the time he spent overseas, Biddle acquired valuable insights into the problems and techniques of international finance.

Girard College is an independent boarding school on a 43-acre (17 ha) campus in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in the United States.

Girard is for academically capable students, grades one through 12, and awards a full scholarship with a yearly value of approximately $42,000 to every child admitted to the school. The scholarship covers most of the costs of attending Girard, including tuition, room and board, books, and school uniforms. The scholarship is renewable yearly until high-school graduation. Applicants must be at least six years old, demonstrate good social skills and the potential for scholastic achievement, and come from a single-parent, lower-income family. Girard accepts students on the basis of school records, admissions testing, a visit, and interviews, without preference for race, gender, religion, or national origin.

Girard's mission is to prepare students for advanced education and life as informed, ethical, and productive citizens through a rigorous educational program that promotes intellectual, social, and emotional growth

Steve Girard gave his money for a college prep school and Nicholas Biddle outlined the plan for Girard College (high school in Philadelphia. Became an elite school in the world 1845)

Girard College, Philadelphia

In 1822 Biddle assumed the presidency of the Second Bank of the United States—the first effective central bank in U.S. history. The bank carried out regular commercial functions, and also acted as a collecting and disbursing agent for the federal government. Under Biddle's guidance, the bank expanded to twenty-nine branches and controlled one-fifth of the country's loans and bank notes in circulation.

Biddle was a brilliant administrator who maintained complete control over the Bank of the United States. His political instincts, however, were less astute: He believed that any reasonable person must agree with him on the value of the bank to the nation's economy. His hard—headed convictions proved disastrous for the bank.

By 1828 the central bank was under attack from President Andrew Jackson (1829–1837) whose personal experience had given him a deep mistrust of financial institutions. Uncertain of the bank's future, Biddle decided to press for re-chartering the bank in 1832, four years before the bank's original charter required the action. Jackson vetoed the move, publicly denouncing the bank as a monopoly that was under foreign influence. Though the reputation of the bank had improved under Biddle's leadership, public opinion favored Jackson's position.

Soft Money easy more money made versus Hard money which limit supply of money

The value of bank notes in circulation rose from $10 million in 1833 to $149 million in 1837

Arts and Letters

In New York City the immensely popular “penny papers began appearing in 1833 fostered a distinctive urban culture.

Penny Newspapers were much apart of American culture

Police Gazette was one o the populate penny papers. Violence and gossip was sold

Franklin Evans was a dime novel written by Walt Whitman. These dime novels increased the appetite for people to read.

Frank Leslie’s Penny papers and Beadle’s Dime Novels were much apart of the market for everyday reading in 19th century America

Samuel Morse was able to send messages across the name instantaneously.The first message was from Washington to Baltimore in 1844. Communication was never the same after the Morse Code invention.

What hath God wrought is the first message of the Morse Code.

Massachusetts General hospital took notice of studying international and worked with Harvard for new methods of Medicine.

Boston Anthenaeum was a gentlemen's library and reading room. It was an elite library and made Boston an attractive place to come. Great universities of Boston used and complimented this library.

The Christian Advocate was the first paper published weekly under the authority of the General Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church. It was commenced in New York City, 9 September 1826. It continued publication for many years as the first official and leading paper of the M.E. denomination.Zion's Herald, published in Boston, actually preceded The Christian Advocate, but was not officially owned by the General Conference. It was later merged with The Missionary Journal. Later, Methodists in New England re-established Zion's Herald as a separate publication.[1]The Missionary Journal, published in Charleston, was another publication which preceded The Christian Advocate. Neither, however, was owned by the General Conference.The Christian Advocate and Journal and Zion's Herald was a merger of The Christian Advocate with the earlier Zion's Herald and The Missionary Journal.The Western Christian Advocate was another early publication of the M.E. General Conference. It was published in Cincinnati especially to serve the needs of the Methodist Church as it spread westward with the frontier.The Christian Recorder was the title of an early official periodical of the African Methodist Episcopal Church, begun in 1863. It was published in Philadelphia.The Ladies' Repository was the monthly magazine founded in 1841 by Cincinnati Methodists.The Nashville Christian Advocate was a weekly newspaper, founded in 1836, that served as the official organ and preeminent weekly of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South Carolina.

Thomas Hinde was a Methodist writer for the Advocate but spoke at the Second Great Awakening.

The story is set in 1790 in the countryside around the Dutch settlement of Tarry Town (historical Tarrytown, New York), in a secluded glen called Sleepy Hollow. Sleepy Hollow is renowned for its ghosts and the haunting atmosphere that pervades the imaginations of its inhabitants and visitors. The most infamous spectre in the Hollow is the Headless Horseman, said to be the ghost of a Hessian trooper who had his head shot off by a stray cannonball during "some nameless battle" of the American Revolutionary War, and who "rides forth to the scene of battle in nightly quest of his head".

The "Legend" relates the tale of Ichabod Crane, a lean, lanky and extremely superstitious schoolmaster from Connecticut, who competes with Abraham "Brom Bones" Van Brunt, the town rowdy, for the hand of 18-year-old Katrina Van Tassel, the daughter and sole child of a wealthy farmer, Baltus Van Tassel. Crane, a Yankee and an outsider, sees marriage to Katrina as a means of procuring Van Tassel's extravagant wealth. Bones, the local hero, vies with Ichabod for Katrina's hand, playing a series of pranks on the jittery schoolmaster, and the fate of Sleepy Hollow's fortune weighs in the balance for some time. The tension between the three is soon brought to a head. On a placid autumn night, the ambitious Crane attends a harvest party at the Van Tassels' homestead. He dances, partakes in the feast, and listens to ghostly legends told by Brom and the locals, but his true aim is to propose to Katrina after the guests leave. His intentions, however, are ill-fated.

Emerson and New York Herald stated a woman had no rights

Artists

Thomas Cole (February 1, 1801 – February 11, 1848) was an American artist. He is regarded as the founder of the Hudson River School, an American art movement that flourished in the mid-19th century. Cole's Hudson River School, as well as his own work, was known for its realistic and detailed portrayal of American landscape and wilderness, which feature themes of romanticism

Oxbow painting

Layout of the

American Woman’s

Home

We find a remarkable model home in an 1869 book, The American Woman's Home. Written by two famous sisters,

the book is devoted to the wide range of subjects known in the 19th century as "domestic economy," which included

cooking, care of children, and all things related to the home.

A guide to domestic life by the Beecher sisters Catharine

Beecher and Harriet Beecher Stowe.

Catharine Esther Beecher was an American educator known for her

forthright opinions on female education as well as her vehement support of the many benefits of the incorporation of

kindergarten into children's education.

The Principles of universal suffrage declared the United States Magazine and Democratic Review in 1851. White males of age constituted the political nation. Universal did not mean blacks and women

Radical Democracy

In Rhode which required voters to own real estate valued at $134 or rent property for at least $7 per year. In October 1841 proponents of democratic reform organized a People’s Convention. It enfranchised all adult whit men while eliminating entirely blacks, who previously could vote if they owned the required land. Thomas Dorr a prominent Rhode Island lawyer as governor. Dorr would not allow President John Tyler’s troops to come in to stop law. Dorr was thrown in jail but

William Apess wrote “How much better it would be if the whites would act like civilized people and give every on his due.”

A piece of sheet music from 1843