1 section 1-1 reader’s guide main idea –psychologists explain motivation and why we experience...

Section 1-1

Reader’s GuideMain Idea

– Psychologists explain motivation and why we experience it in different ways through instinct, drive-reduction, incentive, and cognitive theories of motivation.

Objectives

– Discuss the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.

– Describe four theories of motivation.

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Section 1-3

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• Although all psychology is concerned with what people do and how they do it, research on motivation and emotion focuses on the underlying why of behavior.

motivationan internal state that activates behavior and directs it toward a goal

• Motivation includes the various psychological and physiological factors that cause us to act a certain way at a certain time.

Introduction

Section 1-4

• Because motivation cannot be observed directly, psychologists, like the rest of us, infer motivation from goal-directed behavior.

Introduction (cont.)

• Behavior is usually energized by many motives that may originate outside or inside of us.

Section 1-6

• Psychologists explain motivation and why we experience it in different ways.

• We will discuss instinct, drive-reduction, incentive, and cognitive theories of motivation.

Section 1-7

• In the 1900s, psychologist William McDougall (1908) proposed that humans were motivated by a variety of instincts.

instinctsinnate tendencies that determine behavior

• Instincts are natural or inherited tendencies of an organism to make a specific response to certain environmental stimuli without involving reason.

Instinct Theory

Section 1-8

• Something that motivates us moves us to action.

needbiological or psychological requirement of an organism

• That “something” that motivates us starts with a need and leads to a drive.

Drive-Reduction Theory

• A need results from a lack of something desirable or useful.

• We have both physiological and psychological needs.

Section 1-9

• A need produces a drive.

drivea state of tension produced by a need that motivates an organism toward a goal

• A drive is an internal condition that can change over time and orients an individual toward a specific goal or goals.

Drive-Reduction Theory (cont.)

• We have different drives with different goals.

Section 1-10

• Drive-reduction theory emerged from experimental psychologist Clark Hull, who traced motivation back to basic physiological needs.

homeostasisthe tendency of all organisms to correct imbalances and deviations from their normal state

• Thus, biological needs drive an organism to act.

• Homeostasis is the tendency of the body to return to or maintain a balanced state.

Section 1-11

• If a behavior reduces the drive, the organism will begin to acquire a habit.

• In short, drive-reduction theory states that physiological needs drive an organism to act in either random or habitual ways until its needs are satisfied (until the organism returns to a preset optimal state).

• Hull suggested that all human motives–from the desire to acquire property to striving for excellence and seeking affection or amusement–are extensions of basic biological needs.

Section 1-12

• The results of subsequent experiments suggested, however, that Hull had overlooked some of the more important factors in human–and animal–motivation.

• Some drive theorists overlooked the fact that some experiences (such as hugging something or someone soft) are inherently pleasurable.

• Many psychologists concluded that there could be no general theory of motivation of the type Hull suggested.

Section 1-13

• The drive-reduction theory of motivation emphasizes the internal states of the organism; however, the incentive theory stresses the role of the environment in motivating behavior.

incentivean external stimulus, reinforcer, or reward that motivates behavior

• An incentive is the object we seek or the result we are trying to achieve through our motivated behavior.

Incentive Theory

Section 1-14

• Cognitive psychologists seek to explain motivation by looking at forces inside and outside of us that energize us to move.

• They propose that we act in particular ways at particular times as a result of extrinsic and intrinsic motivations.

Cognitive Theory

Section 1-15

• Extrinsic motivation refers to engaging in activities to reduce biological needs or obtain incentives or external rewards.

extrinsic motivationengaging in activities that either reduce biological needs or help us obtain external incentives

intrinsic motivationengaging in activities because they are personally rewarding or because they fulfill our beliefs and expectations

• Intrinsic motivation refers to engaging in activities because those activities are personally rewarding or because engaging in them fulfills our beliefs or expectations.

Cognitive Theory (cont.)

Section 1-16

• In many instances, you engage in an activity because of both extrinsic and intrinsic motivations.

• If you are motivated by both intrinsic and extrinsic motivations, do you perform more effectively or persistently at a task?

• Psychologists have proposed the overjustification effect–when people are given more extrinsic motivation than necessary to perform a task, their intrinsic motivation declines.

Cognitive Theory (cont.)

End of Section 1

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Section 2-1

Reader’s GuideMain Idea

– Much of life is spent trying to satisfy biological and social needs. Biological needs are physiological requirements that we must fulfill to survive, whereas social needs are those that are learned through experience.

Objectives

– Explain Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.

– Describe the biological and social needs of humans.

Section 2-3

• Eating serves both biological and psychological (social) needs.

• People spend much of their lives trying to satisfy biological and social needs.

• We choose what, how much, and when to eat because of both biological and social factors.

Introduction

Section 2-4

• Why is it, though, that some people seem more motivated than others when it comes to achieving something, such as a win in basketball or success at a job?

• Social needs, such as achievement, also influence our lives.

Section 2-5

• Some behavior is determined by the internal, or physiological, state of the organism.

• All organisms, including humans, have built-in regulating systems that work like thermostats to maintain such internal processes as body temperature, the level of sugar in the blood, and the production of hormones.

• The tendency of all organisms to correct imbalances and deviations from their normal state is known as homeostasis.

Biological Motives

Chart 2-1

Some Biological and Social Needs

Section 2-6

• Your body requires food to grow, to repair itself, and to store reserves.

lateral hypothalamus (LH)the part of the hypothalamus that produces hunger signals

Hunger

• To what is it responding?

• If the portion of the hypothalamus called the lateral hypothalamus (LH) is stimulated with electrodes, a laboratory animal will begin eating, even if it has just finished a large meal.

Section 2-7

• If the ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) is stimulated, an animal will slow down or stop eating altogether, even if it has been kept from food for a long period.

ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH)the part of the hypothalamus that can cause one to stop eating

• This indicates that the VMH provides the “stop” signals: it tells you when you have had enough food.

Hunger (cont.)

Section 2-8

• Other factors also influence your hunger.

• The glucostatic theory suggests that the hypothalamus monitors the amount of glucose, or ready energy, available in the blood.

• Another factor affecting eating is the set-point–the weight around which your day-to-day weight tends to fluctuate.

• The hypothalamus “interprets” at least three kinds of information: the amount of glucose entering the cells of your body, your set-point, and your body temperature.

Hunger (cont.)

Section 2-9

• Besides the biological motives, other factors may be at work when you feel hungry or eat.

• Psychosocial factors have a huge impact on our eating habits and sometimes contribute to eating disorders, such as binge eating, eating when depressed, or not eating enough.

Hunger (cont.)

Hunger–Other Factors

Section 2-10

• There is a growing body of evidence that a person’s weight is controlled by biological factors.

• Stanley Schachter (1971) and his colleagues at Columbia University conducted studies that show that obese people respond to external cues.

• Obese people eat not because they are hungry, but because they see something good to eat or their watches tell them it is time to eat.

Obesity

Section 2-11

• Schachter argued that overweight people respond to external cues, while normal-weight people respond to internal cues.

• His work shows that, for people, even physiological needs like hunger are influenced by complex factors.

Obesity (cont.)

Chart 2-2

Percentage of Overweight Americans

Section 2-12

• Many psychologists have concentrated their research on social motives rather than on the unlearned, biological motives we have been discussing.

• Social motives are learned from our interactions with other people.

Social Motives

Section 2-13

• The achievement motive concerns the desire to set challenging goals and to persist in trying to reach those goals despite obstacles, frustrations, and setbacks.

• Researcher David McClelland’s main tool for measuring achievement motivation was the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT).

• Critics have claimed that using McClelland’s TAT is not a reliable method of testing the need for achievement.

Measuring the Need for Achievement

Section 2-14

• While some people are motivated by a need for achievement, others may be motivated by a fear of failure.

• How does the fear of failure differ from the need for achievement?

• People display fear of failure when they choose easy or nonchallenging tasks in which failure is unlikely or difficult.

Measuring the Need for Achievement (cont.)

Fear of Failure

Section 2-15

• Matina Horner identified another dimension of achievement motivation–the motive to avoid success.

• Horner discovered that bright women, who had a very real chance of achieving in their chosen fields, exhibited a stronger fear of success than did women who were average or slightly above average.

• Fear of success is found in both men and women.

Fear of Success

Chart 2-3

Your Performance

Section 2-16

• J.W. Atkinson developed an expectancy-value theory to explain goal-directed behavior.

• Expectancy is your estimated likelihood of success, and value is simply what the goal is worth to you.

• Others have argued instead for a competency theory; too easy a task or too difficult a task means we do not learn anything about how competent we are.

Other Theories

Section 2-17

• Abraham Maslow believed that all human beings need to feel competent, to win approval and recognition, and to sense that they have achieved something.

• He placed achievement motivation in the context of a hierarchy of needs all people share.

• Maslow’s scheme incorporates all the factors we have discussed so far in this chapter and goes a step further.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Chart 2-4

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (cont.)

Section 2-18

• Maslow asserted that people have to satisfy fundamental needs to live.

fundamental needsbiological drives that must be satisfied to maintain life

psychological needsthe urge to belong and to give and receive love, and the urge to acquire esteem

• The second level in Maslow’s hierarchy consists of psychological needs: the need to belong and to give and receive love, and the need to acquire esteem through competence and achievement.

Section 2-19

• Self-actualization needs are at the top of Maslow’s hierarchy.

self-actualization needsthe pursuit of knowledge and beauty or whatever else is required for the realization of one’s unique potential

• These may include the pursuit of knowledge and beauty or whatever else is required for the realization of one’s unique potential.

Section 2-20

• Other research does not support Maslow’s conclusion that one need must be satisfied before another can be (Liebert & Spiegler, 1994).

• Also, some people do not seem interested in fulfilling higher needs.

• These researchers are suggesting that perhaps Maslow identified types of needs that may operate in all of us, but there is no guarantee that the needs must be satisfied in order.

End of Section 2

Section 3-1

Reader’s Guide

Main Idea– All emotions consist of three parts–the physical,

cognitive, and behavioral aspects. Theories of emotion propose that emotions result from physical changes and/or mental processes.

Objectives

– Explain the cognitive theorists’ approach to the study of emotion.

– Give examples of the physiological theories of emotion.

Vocabulary– emotion Click the Speaker button

to listen to Exploring Psychology.

Section 3-2

• It is difficult to draw a clear line between motives and emotions.

• When we want to emphasize the needs, desires, and mental calculations that lead to goal-directed behavior, we use the word “drive” or “motivation.”

• When we want to stress the feelings associated with these decisions and activities, we use the word “emotion” or “affect.”

Introduction

Section 3-3

• Sometimes emotions function like biological drives: Our feelings energize us and make us pursue a goal.

• Anticipated emotions are the incentive for our actions.

• Emotions help us make decisions and communicate what is going on inside of us.

Section 3-4

• Emotional intelligence is the ability to perceive, imagine, and understand emotions and to use that information in decision making.

• Our emotional intelligence helps us gauge the situation and determine an appropriate action.

Chart 3-1

The Range of Emotions

Section 3-5

• An emotion is a subjective feeling provoked by real or imagined objects or events that have high significance to the individual.

emotiona set of complex reactions to stimuli involving subjective feelings, physiological arousal, and observable behavior

Expressing Emotions

Section 3-6

• Emotions result from four occurrences: – you must interpret some stimulus

– you have a subjective feeling, such as fear or happiness

– you experience physiological responses, such as an increased heart rate

– you display an observable behavior, such as smiling or crying (Platnick, 1999)

Expressing Emotions (cont.)

Section 3-7

• All emotions have three parts: – The physical aspect has to do with how the

emotion affects the physical arousal of an individual.

– The behavioral part is the outward expression of the emotion such as body language, hand gestures, and the tone of a person’s voice.

– The cognitive aspect concerns how we think or interpret a situation, which affects our emotions.

Section 3-8

• In The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (1872), Charles Darwin argued that all people express certain basic feelings in the same ways.

• Studies have implied that certain basic facial expressions are innate–that is, part of our biological inheritance.

• Psychologist Carroll Izard and his colleagues (Trotter, 1983) developed a coding system for assessing emotional states in people.

Section 3-9

• Another psychologist (Russell, 1994) concluded that there are universally recognized facial expressions of emotions.

• James Averill (1983) believes that many of our everyday emotional reactions are the result of social expectations and consequences.

• We learn to express and experience emotions in the company of other people, and we learn that emotions can serve different social functions.

Section 3-10

• Learning explains the differences we find among cultures once we go beyond such basic expressions as laughing or crying.

• Children are taught–either directly or indirectly–which emotions are appropriate in certain circumstances.

• All of us are born with the capacity for emotion and with certain basic forms of expression, but when, where, and how we express different feelings depend in large part on learning.

Section 3-11

• Analyzing facial expressions helps us to describe emotions, but it does not tell us where emotions come from.

• Some psychologists believe emotions derive from physical changes, while others believe that emotions result from mental processes.

Chart 3-2

Threatening ElementsWhen people from various cultures were asked to identify the the threatening shapes in each pair, they consistently selected the triangular and diagonal elements.

Section 3-12

• Trying to figure out the cognitive, behavioral, and physical parts of emotions has led to several theories of emotions.

• In Principles of Psychology, a classic work published in 1890, William James attempted to summarize the best available literature on human behavior, motivations, and feelings.

• We associate feelings with sudden increases or decreases in energy, muscle tension and relaxation, and sensations in the pits of our stomachs.

Physiological Theories

Section 3-13

• James concluded that we use the word “emotion” to describe our visceral or “gut” reactions to the things that take place around us.

• James argued that bodily reactions form the basis of labeling and experiencing emotions.

• Because Carl Lange came to the same conclusion at about the same time, this position is known as the James-Lange theory (Lange & James, 1922).

Physiological Theories (cont.)

The James-Lange Theory

Section 3-14

• Carroll Izard’s (1972) theory of emotions bears a striking resemblance to the James-Lange theory.

• He believed that our conscious experience of emotion results from the sensory feedback we receive from the muscles in our faces.

Section 3-15

• Critics of the James-Lange theory claim that different emotions such as anger, sadness, or fear are not necessarily associated with different physiological reactions.

• Although physiological changes do not cause emotions, they may increase the intensity of the emotions that we feel.

Section 3-16

• In 1929 Walter B. Cannon published a summary of the evidence against the James-Lange theory.

• Cannon argued that the thalamus (part of the lower brain) is the seat of emotion–an idea Philip Bard (1934) expanded and refined.

• This theory states that the brain sends two reactions–arousal and experience of emotion.

The Cannon-Bard Theory

Section 3-17

• Later, more sophisticated experiments showed that the thalamus is not involved in emotional experience, but the hypothalamus is.

• Cannon was the first to describe the “fight-or-flight” reaction of the sympathetic nervous system that prepares us for an emergency.

• Some of the signs of physiological arousal are measured in one of the most famous applications of psychological knowledge: lie detection.

The Cannon-Bard Theory

Section 3-18

• Cognitive theorists believe that bodily changes and thinking work together to produce emotions.

• What you feel depends on how you interpret your symptoms.

• This, in turn, depends on labeling the physical arousal with an emotion to interpret our internal state.

Cognitive Theories

Section 3-19

• Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer designed an experiment to explore this theory (1962).

• They told all their participants they were testing the effects of vitamin C on eyesight.

• In reality, most received an adrenaline injection.

Cognitive Theories (cont.)The Schachter-Singer Experiment

Section 3-20

• Their experiment showed that internal components of emotion (such as those adrenaline produces) affect a person differently depending on his or her interpretation or perception of the social situation.

• The experiment also showed that internal changes are important.

• When people cannot explain their physical reactions, they take cues from their environment.

Section 3-21

• Perception and arousal interact to create emotions.

• Critics of this theory point out that you do not need to first experience physiological arousal to feel an emotion.

• Critics also say that you use processes other than environmental cues to interpret your emotions.

Chart 3-3a

Theories of Emotion

Chart 3-3b

Theories of Emotion

Section 3-22

• Physiological processes clearly are controlled by homeostatic mechanisms that keep the body within certain narrow limits.

• The body has sympathetic and parasympathetic systems.

• The sympathetic system energizes the body for activity, while the parasympathetic system calms and relaxes the body.

• The opponent-process theory states that these two systems act in concert to regulate and manipulate our emotions.

Cognitive Theories (cont.)Opponent-Process Theory

Section 3-23

• Psychologists Richard Solomon and John Corbit (1974) proposed the opponent-process theory.

• This is a homeostatic theory of emotional reactions based on classical conditioning.

• They proposed that the removal of a stimulus that excites one emotion causes a swing to an opposite emotion.

Section 3-24

• Other emotion researchers believe that emotion may play an important role in our survival as human beings and in our ability to achieve goals, precisely because it spurs us to action.

• Emotions and physical changes are intertwined.

Chart 3-4

Fear and Relief

End of Section 3

End of Chapter Summary

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