allocutive pronouns in andalusia and their tendency toward
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Dialectologia.Specialissue,V(2015),241-260.ISSN:2013-2247
241
Received3March2015.
Accepted28May2015.
ALLOCUTIVEPRONOUNSINANDALUSIAANDTHEIRTENDENCY
TOWARDSTANDARDISATION
VíctorLARABERMEJO
UniversidadAutónomadeMadrid
viktoresc@hotmail.com
Abstract
Inthispaper,IwillpresentthesocialandlinguisticevolutionofaSpanishphenomenonthathas
notbeen researched indepth. Theusageof one singlepronoun to address a secondpersonplural is
attested in the southern Spanish region of Andalusia and it induces both 2nd person and 3rd person
agreements,differingfromthestandardpattern.However,thisphenomenonisstigmatisedandwedo
notcountwithanexhaustivestudyonitsactualareanorthesocialcharacteristicsofthespeakerswho
mayuse it. In this article, Iwill show the current geographic extensionof this feature, aswell as the
socialparameterswhichtheadoptionornotoftheprestigiousformdependson.
Keywords
standardisation,Andalusiadialect,allocutives
PRONOMBRESALOCUTIVOSENANDALUCÍAYSUTENDENCIAALANORMALIZACIÓN
Resumen
Enesteartículo,presentamoslaevoluciónsocialylingüísticadeunfenómenodelespañolqueno
hasidoinvestigadoenprofundidad.Elusodeunsolopronombreparalasegundapersonadelpluralse
manifiesta en la región meridional de Andalucía e induce concordancias de persona de segunda y
tercera, desobedeciendoel estándar. Sin embargo, este fenómenoestáestigmatizado yno contamos
con un estudio exhaustivo sobre la verdadera área y las características sociales de los hablantes que
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incurrenenestefenómeno.Esporelloqueaquípresentamossuextensióngeográficaactualasícomo
losparámetrossocialesdelosquedependelaadopcióndelaformaprestigiosaosurechazo.
Palabrasclave
estandarización,dialectoandaluz,alocutivos,concordancia
1.Outline
In this paper I will present the levelling of second person plural pronouns in
Andalusia(Spain)anditspersonagreementmismatches.Thelastinformationavailable
can be found in linguistic atlases from the first half of the 20th century, whose
methodologycouldhavetaintedintheinformant’sresponses.Inordertoresearchthe
evolutionofthisparticularityandtherealsocialfactorsthatinterveneintheselection
ofthepersonagreement,Iwillshowthedataobtainedthankstoanewandinnovative
methodologycarriedoutrecently.Iwillarguethattheeducationalbackground,aswell
as the geographic location and the size of the population of the municipalities
surveyed,arecrucialfortheselectionofthevernacularphenomenonorthestandard
pattern. Iwilldefend that there isa clear tendency toward standardisationand that
thisprocessisbeingledbymiddle-agedwomenfromurbanenvironments.
2.Introduction
Second person pronouns in Spanish distinguish perfectly the number of
addresseesandthedegreeofpoliteness.Therearefour:twosingular,twoplural.For
eachgrammaticalnumber,there isoneforformalityandanotheronefor informality
(seeTable1).
Singular PluralFormality Usted UstedesInformality Tú VosotrosTable1.Standardsecondpersonpronouns
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All informal pronouns induce 2nd person inflections, whereas formal pronouns
mustagreein3rdperson(seeTable2).ThisisthestandardusageinpeninsularSpanish
orSpanishspokenintheIberianPeninsula(Spain,excepttheCanaryIslands).
Singular PluralFormality 3rdperson 3rdpersonInformality 2ndperson 2ndpersonTable2.Standardpersonagreementforsecondpersonpronouns
However, at one point in history, the western part of Andalusia, the most
southernregioninSpain,eliminatedthe2ndpersonpluralpronoun,vosotros,andhas
levelledinustedesany2ndpersonplural,regardlesstheformalityortheinformality.In
spiteofthisparticularity,Lara(2010)hasprovedthatustedescanagreebothin2ndand
3rd person plural with verbs, clitics or possessives (see Table 3). These agreement
mismatches between the stressed pronoun and the other syntactic elements
anchoring ustedes, have not been explained nor investigated in depth for the time
being.
Stressedpronoun Clitics,verbs,possessivesFormality Ustedes 2nd/3rdpersonInformality Ustedes 2nd/3rdpersonTable3.Andalusiasecondpersonpluralpronounssystem
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Map1.PhenomenoninsideSpain
Theliteratureaboutthisphenomenonisfoundinworksonhistoricgrammarsor
in monographs dealing with the Andalusian dialect (Mondéjar 1974; Lapesa 2000;
Cano 2004; Penny 2004; Ménendez Pidal 2005). These authors state that this
particularityiswitnessedinthedistrictsofCórdoba,Málaga,Cádiz,HuelvaandSeville
(seeMaps1and2).
Map2.PhenomenoninsideAndalusia
They also affirm that it is stigmatised and it has always been considered as
illiterateandrural.Furthermore,ustedesalwaysagreesin2ndpersonplural,unlessthe
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verb is tensed in preterite perfect simple. In this case, the 3rd person is preferred.
Reflexiveparticlesagreein3rdperson,aswell.Allofthempointoutthatthepossessive
has changed into a prepositional phrase de ustedes, instead of the normative 3rd
personsuorthe2ndpersonvuestro(seeTable4).Finally,theynoticethattheadoption
of one specific person agreement is not based on the degree of politeness of the
communicativesituation.
Stressedpronoun
Verb Preteriteperfectsimple
Possessive Reflexive Object
Formality Ustedes 2nd 3rd 3rd / deustedes
3rd 2nd
Informality Ustedes 2nd 3rd 3rd / deustedes
3rd 2nd
Table4.AllocutivespersonagreementsinAndalusia
As formany other phenomena,whenever a linguistic change emerges, it does
notdosoinallthesyntacticcontextsitshould(Labov1995;Corbett2006).Voseo(the
useofmedievalpronounvós toaddressonepersonunderan informal context) first
arose in the stressed pronoun and its inflections spread little by little, first in the
imperative,theninthepresentindicative,laterinthepresentsubjunctiveandtheyare
not attested yet in clitics and possessives (Fontanella deWeinberg 1979; Abadía de
Quant 1992; Bertolotti&Coll 2003). In the case ofustedes, the 3rd personwas first
employed in the stressedpronounbut it hasnot forcedall syntactic elements tobe
inflectedin3rdpersonyet,asIwillshowhereinafter.Thirdperson,then,isexpectedto
extendgraduallyuntilitisestablishedinalltheustedessyntacticreferences.
2.1.Geolinguisticcorpus
Themostrecentinformationavailableonthisphenomenoncanbefoundinthe
LinguisticAtlasof the IberianPeninsula (ALPI, in theSpanishacronym),uploadedon
Heap(2003).ThisdialectatlaswasconceivedbyMenéndezPidalandcarriedoutbya
groupofresearchers,whotravelledthroughouttheIberianPeninsula,withtheaimof
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collecting the phonological, lexical and morphosyntactic phenomena of all the
Romancelanguagesinthepeninsula.Theirinterviewsweremadebetweenthe1920’s
and the 1950’s and these consisted of pre-established sentences and words that
informants had to repeat based on their vernacular variety. The lack of spontaneity
could have tainted in the informant’s response. However,we have to keep inmind
thattheydidnotcountwiththegadgetswedonowadaysandplentyoftheirlinguistic
findingshavebeenconfirmedlateron.
Within thesepre-established sentences, therewereelevenwith reference toa
secondpersonplural.Theseprovideddataaboutthestressedpronoun, thereflexive
particle, the accusative pronoun, as well as main verbs tensed in imperative and
presentindicative.Therewasalsoasentencewithanembeddedverb.Thankstothis
important work, some information on this phenomenon could be disseminated,
regarding three parameters: its geographic diffusion pattern, its grammatical
behaviouranditspragmaticincidence.
In termsof its geographicextension, theustedes phenomenonwasattested in
WestAndalusia,concretelyintheprovincesofCádiz,Seville,Huelva,Córdoba(except
the northern part) andMálaga (excepting the eastern part).Moreover, its diffusion
pattern followed the wave model, as postulated by Chambers & Trudgill (1980) or
Wolfram & Schilling-Estes (2003). This model states that a specific linguistic
phenomenonarises inaspecificgeographicpoint,calledfocusorepicentre, inwhich
allthefurtherinnovationsconcerningthephenomenonwillarisefirsttoo.
Figure1.Wavemodelpattern(Wolfram&Schilling-Estes2003:714)
In Figure1,R represents the rule changewithinan innovation. Thehypothesis
predictsthatinaninnovationinwhichthreechangeshavebeenproducedR1arisesin
a specific point where it will be diffused from toward its outlying area. When R1
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extends to the periphery, R2will have appeared in the same pointwhere R1 arose
before. Inanulteriorevolution,R2will have reached theoutlyingareaof the focus,
whileR1willhaveshiftedovertoamoredistantarea,and,atthesametime,R3will
haveemergedinthefocus.
Additionally, this pattern presents three tendencies described in Chambers &
Trudgill(1980:167-168),andshownasfollows:
a)If,oftwolinguisticforms,oneisfoundinisolatedareasandtheotherinareas
moreaccessible,theformeristheolder.
b) If, of two linguistic forms,one is found inperipheral areas and theother in
centralareas,thentheformeristheolder.
c)If,oftwoforms,oneissuedoveralargerareathantheother,thenthatisthe
older.
Ifall this information isapplied to thephenomenonunder investigation,based
on the ALPI data drawn inMap 3, several conclusions can be remarked. Level 1 is
characterisedbychange1;level2bychanges1and2;level3,bychanges1,2and3,
and,finally,level4hasreachedfourchanges.Thisspatialdiffusiondemonstratesthat
this phenomenon arose in Cádiz and southern Seville, since it is the area that has
diffused all the changes occurring in it. Themore proximate to this area, themore
changesshared;thelessproximate,thefewerchangesshared,untilthephenomenon
fades.
Map3.Andalusiageographicdiffusionpattern(Lara2012:85)
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Intermsof itsgrammaticalbehaviour,thisphenomenonpredictstheextension
ofthe3rdpersonplural inallthesyntacticelementsanchoringustedes.Sinceustedes
induces3rdpersonpluralinflections,thesemustappeargradually,untilitissettledin
alltheelementswithreferencetoustedes.AccordingtoMap3,theextensionofthe
3rdpersonfollowsanimplicativehierarchyrepresentedin1.
1.Stressedpronoun>reflexive>accusative>embeddedverb
The continuummustbe read as follows: the adoptionof the thirdperson in a
specificpieceimpliesitsappearanceintheelementsontheleft.So,ifthethirdperson
isattestedintheaccusative,italsoarisesinthereflexiveand,ofcourse,inthestressed
pronoun.Thisextensiongoesrightwardsinthehierarchy.
Intermsofpragmatics, the informant’sgrammaticalagreementdidnotchange
based on the degree of politeness. Ustedes was used both for formality and
informality. The adoption of third person or the maintenance of second person
inflectionswasnotaffectedbythetypeofaddressees.
3.Corpusandmethodology
Secondpersonpluralpronounsarethe least likely toappear inaconversation.
Thesociolinguisticinterview,thus,isnotusefulforustocollectthiskindofdata,since
theinformantstendtospeakaboutthemselves,aboutotherpeople’slivesortheyare
sure to address one interviewer only, although there may be two people posing
questions.
Inordertocompensatetheshortcomingsariseninthepre-establishedsentences
andquestionnaires,aswellasthe lowprobabilityofappearanceof2ndpersonplural
inflectionsthroughothermorerecentmethods,Idesignedanothertypeofprompting.
Alltheinformantsanalysedcollaboratedintheactivitycreatedexpresslytoobtainas
many second person inflections as possible. This consisted of having the informants
dubaseriesofscenescompiledfromthepopularsitcomsFriendsandtheSpanishAquí
no hay quien viva (‘It is impossible to live here’). Both sitcoms usually show one
charactertalkingtomorethanonepersonatthesametime.Besides,theircharacters
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have to speak to any kind of addressees, that is, elderly people, bosses, flatmates,
friends, neighbours, acquaintances, children, etc. It is, therefore, a great chance to
analyse possiblemismatches in the informants’ grammatical agreement, having also
into account the formality of the given situation. The informants had to dub the
character addressing the others, according to a previous synopsis I described. Each
scenepromptedtheemergenceofaspecificsyntacticelement(verb,reflexive,object
clitics,andsoon)thankstothesynopsis.Icompiledseveralscenesforeachsyntactic
piecetoappear,inordertoensurethequantitativepartofthecorpusanditsfurther
analysis. I did not condition the informants, since the description of the scene was
always carriedoutwith references to thirdpersons, sono secondpersonpluralwas
previouslymentionedatall.Allthefieldworkwascarriedoutalongtheyear2012.
4.Analysis
My corpus is hence constituted by 4,500 examples of second person plural
inflections, from around 250 informants. The occurrences were processed by the
computer programme SPSS and analysed statistically, based on the following social
factors:sex,age,educationallevelandgeographicarea.Below,Iwilldetailthenumber
ofpeople,dependingon the social factor analysed,who chooseU (ustedes), that is,
the vernacular alternative, or V (vosotros), that is, the standard. Furthermore, I will
pointouttherealstatisticalsignificanceofeachfactor(Pearson’schisquaredtest),in
ordertodefinethetruesocialinfluencesaffectingthisphenomenonandIwillapplya
logistic regression to the variables. Eventually, I will show three maps of the most
significant variables. Each map is drawn regarding the proportion of usage of the
vernacular particularity: a) less than a third of informants; b) around two thirds; c)
mostoftheinformants.
a)Sex
Informants in theALPIweremaleonly. I chose to findwhether therewas any
differencebetweensexes,sinceanumberofstudieshaveprovedthatwomenusually
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lead theprestigious linguistic change (Labov1966; Labov1978;Chambers&Trudgill
1980;Chambers1995;BlasArroyo2005).
In Figure 2, women are more inclined to employ the standard pattern, in
comparison with men, who prefer the vernacular particularity. However, this
advantage is quite slight and both genders are characterised by the same linguistic
behaviour.
U/V*Sex
Sex TotalMen Women
U/VU 65 67 132V 42 55 97
Total 107 122 229Table5.Sex
Figure2.Sex
Besides, thePearson’schisquaredtestappliedtovariablesexdidnotarriveat
the statistical significance,although it reached theedgeof it.On thewhole,women
seemtobeslightlyclosertotheprestige,suchasLabov(1966and1978)orHovarth
(1985)haveattested.
b)Age
Age has nearly always been key in the leadership or stigmatisation of a given
linguisticphenomenon.Although in theALPI, informantswereolder than fifty, Ialso
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interviewedyoungerspeakers.Allmyinformantsaredividedinthreegroups,basedon
theirage:youngerthan30,from30to60,olderthan60.
U/V*Age Age Total
-30 30-60 60-
U/VU 55 48 29 132V 37 55 5 97
Total 92 103 34 229Table6.Age
Figure3.Age
Figure 3 shows thatmiddle-aged speakersmostly prefer the prestigious form,
whereasyoungeronesaremoreconservative.Ontheotherhand,elderlypeoplestill
use overwhelmingly the dialect systemof pronouns. The fact that younger speakers
are more vernacular than their parents can be due to the theory of the linguistic
market, stated by Bourdieu (1978) and attested in other phenomena, like in
Macaulay’s(1977)studyabouttheelisionof[t]aroundtheGlasgowareaandSeara’s
(2000)investigationonthe1stpluralpronouninnovationinPortuguese,agenteinthe
placeofthenormativenós.Thistheorypostulatesthatthepeoplewhoareperforming
anyjobhavetogetusedtoprestigiouspatterns,alsoinlanguage,inordertosucceed
intheircareers.Whereasyoungspeakersattendhighschooloruniversity,themajority
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ofthemiddle-agedspeakersalreadyworks,sotheyhavetoadoptthepatternssociety
expectsthemtohave.
Thechi squared test for thisvariable resulted inahighsignificant factor in the
selectionoftheprestigiousorthevernacularusage.
c)Educationalbackground
The educational background is narrowly related to the age since theolder the
informantsare,thelesslikelytohaveahigheducationallevel.Societyhaschangedin
Spaininthelastdecades.Elderlypeopledidnotusetogotoschool,whilemiddle-aged
peoplestartedtoreachuniversitylittlebylittle.Nowadays,schoolisobligatoryuntil16
yearsoldandahighproportioncontinuestostudyinuniversities.
U/V*Educationallevel Educationallevel Total
Low High
U/VU 116 16 132V 53 44 97
Total 169 60 229Table7.Educationallevel
Figure4.Educationallevel
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In figure 4, speakers with a high educational level try to adopt the standard
usage of pronouns. They choose mostly the standard pattern and are clearly
differentiatedfromthepeoplewhohavenotreacheduniversity,regardlesstheirage.
Map4.Loweducationallevel
Map5.Higheducationallevel
Education has revealed as a key in the use of the prestigious forms, as Labov
(1978)orChambers’s(1997)studyonthecomplementizerqueintheMontréalFrench
havedemonstrated.Asforage,theresultofthechisquaredwashighlysignificant,and
therefore,educationisakeyfactortoemployustedesonlyortotellapartthedegree
ofpolitenessthroughdifferentpronouns(seeMaps4and5).
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d)Geographicarea
Theanalysisbasedonthegeographyofthephenomenonhasbeendouble.Ithas
been divided in two parameters: on the one hand, the province where this
phenomenonissaidtobeattestedandwasactuallyattestedbytheALPI;ontheother
hand,thezonesariseninthegeographicdiffusionpatterntakenfromALPIdata,that
is, zones from 1 up to 4 (see Map 3). I have interviewed in villages where this
phenomenon was not witnessed a century ago, in case it has spread (zone 0).
Moreover,Iaimedtofindthecurrentdiffusionpattern,incasethewavemodeldoes
notworkanylonger.
U/V*Province Province Total
Cádiz Córdoba Huelva Málaga Seville
U/VU 32 13 22 25 40 132
V 18 15 16 22 26 97
Total 50 28 38 47 66 229
Table8.Province
Figure5.Province
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U/V*ZoneALPI ZONEALPI Total
0 1 2 3 4
U/VU 0 16 63 18 35 132V 8 19 33 22 15 97
Total 8 35 96 40 50 229Table9.ZoneALPI
Figure6.ZoneALPI
U/V*POP500.000 POP500.000 Total
-500000 500000
U/VU 124 8 132V 81 16 97
Total 205 24 229Table10.Population
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Figure7.Population
Ontheonehand,CádizandSevillearethedistrictswithahigherproportionof
maintainingthephenomenon.CórdobaandMálagabehavetheoppositeway,andthe
districtofHuelvaswingsbetweeneitherthestandardtendencyorthevernacularone
(see Figure 5). This phenomenon has not extended further than it had almost one
hundredyearsearlier. Indeed, ithasnotbeenwitnessedinsomevillageswhereALPI
collectedtheusageofthisparticularity.Inthatsense,thephenomenonhasdecreased
ingeographicalterms.ThisregressionhastakenplaceinnorthernCórdoba.
On theotherhand, there isa strongvariationalso ingeography.Nevertheless,
the conclusion is that the further away from the focus, the likelier to imitate the
standardusage.TheclosertotheALPIfocusorepicentre,thatis,Cádizandsouthern
Seville,thelikeliertokeepthevernacularemployment(seeFigure6andMap6).
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Map6.ZoneALPI
Lastly,Ihaveanalysedstatisticallytheproportionofthisphenomenon,basedon
the population of the locality. Despite the high variation, there seems to be a clear
distinction between large cities, such as Seville andMálaga, and towns and villages
(seeFigure7).Theformertrytoadoptthestandardusage,whilethelatteraremore
conservativeandprefer tomaintain thevernacularphenomenon.Ofall thedivisions
basedonthepopulation,thechisquaredtestgaveahighsignificanceonlyinthecase
of thedifferentiationbetween largecities (more thanhalf amillion inhabitants)and
townsandvillages(lessthanhalfamillioninhabitants).However,inallfiguresrelated
to the population, the smaller the town was, the likelier it kept the vernacular
phenomenon.Thismayleadtotheconclusionofanewkindofspatialdiffusionofthe
standardusageindetrimentofthedialectparticularity:thegravitymodel.Thispattern
predictsthatagivenlinguisticphenomenonwillextenddependingonthepopulation
densityoftwopoints.Accordingtotheseauthors:
Changes are most likely to begin in large, heavily populated cities, which have
historically been cultural centres. From there, they radiate outward, but not in a
simplewavepattern.Rather,innovationsfirstreachmoderatelysizedcities,which
fall under the area of influence of some large, focal city, leaving nearby sparsely
populatedareasunaffected.Gradually,innovationsfilterdownfrommorepopulous
areastothoseoflesserpopulation,affectingruralareaslast,evenifsuchareasare
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quite close to the original focal area of the change. (Wolfram & Schilling-Estes,
2003:724)
e)Regressionanalysis
Themultivariate analysis carried outwith all the variables taken into account,
has resulted inahierarchical series, inwhich theeducational level is themainsocial
factor that influencesontheselectionbetweeneither thevernacularparticularityor
thestandardpattern.Afterthis,theALPIzoneiskeytochooseoneofthealternatives:
themoreproximatetothefocus,themorevernacular.Finally,thedistinctionbetween
towns bigger than half amillion inhabitants and the rest interferes in the tendency
towards the standard usage or the maintenance of the dialect phenomenon. The
biggertownsare,themoreinclinedtheyaretotheprestigepattern.Age,althoughit
hadasignificantrelevancewhenappliedthePearson’schisquaredtest,wasnarrowly
correlatedtoeducationalbackground.AselderlypeopledidnotattendschoolinSpain
somedecades ago, theybelong to the least literate groupof society: theywere the
more vernacular. The groupof peopleup to 60 years old is constitutedby speakers
thathaveornotattendeduniversity.Thehighertheireducationalbackgroundis,the
morestandardtheybehavelinguistically.
5.Conclusion
Nowadays,Andalusianspeakersarecharacterisedbyahighalternationbetween
thestandardandthevernacular,regardingthesecondpersonpluralpronounssystem.
There is a dramatic tendency toward the prestige and the standard usage, and this
behaviourisled,aboveall,bypeoplewithahigheducationalbackground,andwholive
inlargeurbanenvironments.Additionally,thisnewchangeseemstospreadfollowing
agravitymodel,unlikethewavediffusionpatternattestedlastcentury.Thestandard
pressureisfirstwitnessedinthepopulouscitiesofSevilleandMálaga.Therefore,the
smaller towns are, the likelier theymaintain the vernacular phenomenon. Although
womenhaveaslightinclinationtowardstandardisation,ithasnotresultedsignificant
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in the statistical analysis. Middle-aged informants were the closest to the prestige
pattern. However, the logistic regression correlated the factor age to educational
background.Therefore,althoughelderlypeopleareoverwhelminglyvernacular, they
didnot attend school in their childhoods. Younger speakers tend to the standardor
not,dependingontheireducationallevel,regardlesstheirage.Astheyoungestgroup,
the one up to 30 years old, is formed by peoplewho have not reached the age to
attend university or they have not completed their studies, they have kept the
vernacular particularity in a higher proportion than middle-aged people, whose
educationalbackgroundisusuallyhigher.
Linguistically,inthedialectphenomenon,the3rdpersonpluralextendsacrossan
implicative continuum. The stressed pronoun is the onewhere it is attested before,
thenitpassestothereflexive,verbanditfinishesintheaccusativeanddativeclitics,in
thisorder.Finally,possessivesarethesyntacticpieceswiththeleastprobabilitytobe
inflected in 3rd person. This hierarchy responds to Blake’s grammatical relations, as
well as the distinction between concord and index postulated byWechsler& Zlatic.
Lastly, Corbett’s statements about syntactic and semantic agreement, aswell as the
positionofcontrollerversustargetwithinthesentencehavealsobeenrelevantinthe
spreadoftheinnovativegrammaticalagreement.
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