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Copyright©2012byNelsonEducationLimited 33
CHAPTER2
ANINTEGRATIVEAPPROACHTOPSYCHOPATHOLOGY
STUDENTLEARNINGOUTCOMES*
TextbookPages
Bloom’sTaxonomy
Usetheconcepts,language,andmajortheoriesofthedisciplinetoaccountforpsychologicalphenomena.
Learningandcognition(APASLO1.2.a(1))
pp.55–60 HigherOrderLearning
Biologicalbasesofbehaviourandmentalprocesses,includingphysiology,sensation,perception,comparative,motivation,andemotion(APASLO1.2.a(3))
pp.35–55,60–63
Remember
Developmentalchangesinbehaviourandmentalprocessesacrossthelifespan(APASLO1.2.a(4))
pp.66–67 Remember
Theinteractionofheredityandenvironment(APASLO1.2.d(1))
pp.37–41 HigherOrderLearning
Usetheconcepts,language,andmajortheoriesofthedisciplinetoaccountforpsychologicalphenomena.
Integratetheoreticalperspectivestoproducecomprehensiveandmultifacetedexplanations(APASLO1.3.e)
pp.34–35,66–67
HigherOrderLearning
Explainmajorperspectivesofpsychology(e.g.,behavioural,biological,cognitive,evolutionary,humanistic,psychodynamic,andsociocultural).
Explainmajorperspectivesofpsychology(APASLO1.4)
pp.34,55,63
Remember
*PortionsofthischaptercoverlearningoutcomessuggestedbytheAmericanPsychologicalAssociation(2007)intheirguidelinesfortheundergraduatepsychologymajor.ChaptercoverageoftheseoutcomesisidentifiedabovebyAPAGoalandAPASuggestedLearningOutcome(SLO).
Copyright©2012byNelsonEducationLimited34
LECTUREOUTLINE
I. One‐DimensionalorMultidimensionalModels
A. One‐dimensionalmodelspositsinglecausesofpsychopathology
(e.g.,it’sallconditioning,it’sallbiology,it’sallsocialor
psychological).Notethattherearefewone‐dimensionalmodelsin
thesenseusedinthetextbook.Forinstance,evenbehaviouraltypes
rarely(ifever)ascribetoaone‐causemodelofconditioning;though
theywilltendtoconceptualizemostpsychopathologyasexplainedby
conditioningorlearningprocesses.Youcanusethistoillustratehow
one’sconceptualsystemwillgreatlyinfluencehowonegoesabout
explainingpsychopathology,andthatparticularlyconceptualsystems
(e.g.,behavioural,cognitive,biological,neurobiological)arequite
complexinthemselves.
B. Multi‐dimensionalmodelsaresystemicandofteninterdisciplinary,
andholdthatasystemofdifferentreciprocalinfluences(i.e.,
biological,cognitive,learning,emotional,social,cultural)interactin
complexwaystoyieldthemajoretiologicalandmaintaining
processesresponsibleforabnormalbehaviour.Assuch,any
biologicalorenvironmentalinfluencecanbecomepartofthissystem
andcannotbeconsideredinanisolatedcontext.Considerthecauses
ofJudy’sphobia,oranothercaseexampleofyourchoosing,inthe
contextofamulti‐dimensionalvs.unidimensionalframework.
II. GeneticContributionstoPsychopathology
A. GregorMendel'sworkinthe19thcenturyinitiallydemonstrated
thatourphysicalcharacteristicsarelargelydeterminedbygenetic
endowment.Examplesincludehairandeyecolor.Withrespectto
mentaldisorder,geneticinfluencesarepredominantinsomecases
(e.g.,Huntington'sdiseaseandPKU).
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B. TheNatureofGenes
1. Genesarelongmoleculesofdeoxyribonucleicacid(DNA)that
arelocatedatvariouschromosomalsiteswithinthecellnucleus.
Problemssometimesdevelopwhenthenormalcontingentof46
humanchromosomes(arrangedin23pairs)isdisturbed(an
exampleisDown'ssyndromeortrisomy21,whereaperson
inheritsanextrachromosomeonthe21stpair).
2. TheDNAmolecularstructureofgenesisreferredtoasadouble
helixorspiralladder.Thefirst22pairsofchromosomesprogram
developmentofbodyandbrainandthelastpair,calledthesex
chromosomes,determinessexphenotype.Adefectivegene
resultsifsomethingiswrongwithrespecttotheorderingofDNA
moleculesonthedoublehelix.Adominantgeneisoneofthepair
ofgenesthatdetermineaparticulartraitandtheeffectcanbe
quitenoticeable.Arecessivegene,bycontrast,mustbepaired
withanotherrecessivegenetodetermineatrait.
3. Genesseldomdetermineourphysicaldevelopmentinany
absolutewayandthesameistrueforpsychopathology.Muchof
humandevelopmentandbehaviourispolygenic(i.e.,influences
bymanygenesthatindividuallyexertatinyeffect).Becauseof
this,scientistslookforpatternsofinfluenceacrossgenesusinga
procedurecalledquantitativegenetics.
4.Moleculargeneticsfocusesonexaminingtheactualstructureof
geneswithincreasinglyadvancedtechnologiessuchasDNA
microarrays.Thesetechnologiesallowscientiststoanalyze
thousandsofgenesandidentifybroadnetworksthatmaybe
contributingtoaparticulartrait.
C. NewDevelopmentsintheStudyofGenesandBehaviour
1. Thebestestimateforgeneticcontributiontoenduringpersonality
traitsandcognitiveabilitiesinhumansisabout50%.Withrespect
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topsychologicaldisorders,geneticinfluencesseemtoaccountfor
lessthanhalftheetiologicalexplanation;however,noindividual
geneshavebeenidentifiedrelatingtoanymajorpsychological
disorders.
2. Moreimportantquestionsnowarehowgeneticand
environmentalfactorsinteracttoinfluencethedevelopment,
maintenance,andtreatmentofpsychologicaldisorders.
3. Ithasalsobecomeclearthatadverselifeeventssuchasa“chaotic”
childhoodcanoverwhelmtheinfluenceofgenes.
D. TheInteractionofGeneticandEnvironmentalEffects
1. Anexampleofgene‐environmentinteractionwasproposedby
EricKandel,whostatedthattheprocessoflearningmaychange
thegeneticstructureofcells.Thismayoccurwhenenvironmental
processesturnondormantgenesandchangesinthebrain's
biochemicalfunctioning.Thisviewlendssupporttothenotion
thatwearelesshardwiredthanpreviouslythought.
2. Thediathesis‐stressmodel
a. Accordingtothismodelofgene‐environmentinteraction,
personsinheritfrommultiplegenestendenciestoexpress
certaintraitsorbehaviours(diathesis),whichmaythenbe
activatedundercertainenvironmentaleventssuchas
stress.Examplesincludeblood‐injury‐injectionphobiaand
alcoholism.Thediathesisorvulnerabilitydoesnot
necessarilyleadtoadisorderunlesssomespecificlife
eventoccurs.
b. Apersonwithalargediathesiswould,accordingtothis
model,requireasmalleramountofstressforadisorderto
developcomparedtosomeonewitharelativelysmaller
diathesistobeginwith.
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3. Reciprocalgene‐environmentmodel
a. Thismodelstatesthatpersonsarebelievedtohavea
geneticallydeterminedtendencytocreatethevery
environmentalriskfactorsthattriggergenetic
vulnerabilities.
b. Suchamodelmaybeusedtoexplaindepression,divorce,
andpersonalitycharacteristicssuchasimpulsivity.
4. EpigeneticsandtheNon‐genomicinheritanceofbehaviour
a. Relatedtoresearchsuggestingthattherehasbeenan
overemphasisontheroleofgeneticinfluenceon
personality,temperament,andtheircontributiontothe
developmentofpsychologicaldisorders.Examplesinclude
researchongeneticallyidenticalmice(includingratsand
rhesusmonkeysusingcrossfosteringstrategies)rearedin
identicalenvironments,butperformandbehavequite
differentlyonseveralexperimentaltasksabovewhatgenes
wouldsuggest.
b. Themoralisthatitiseventoosimplistictosaythatthe
geneticcontributionstopersonalitytraitsor
psychopathologyis50%;onemustconsidertheheritable
contributioninthecontextofanindividual’spastand
presentenvironment.
c.Epigenetics:Itseemsthatgenesareturnedonandoffby
cellularmaterialthatislocatedjustoutsideofthegenome
(“epi”asintheepigeneticsmeanson‐or‐around)andthat
stress,nutritionandotherfactorscanaffectthisepigenome
whichisthenimmediatelypasseddowntothenext
generationandmaybeforseveralgenerations.
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III. NeuroscienceanditsContributionstoPsychopathology
A. Thefieldofneurosciencefocusesonunderstandingtheroleofthe
nervoussystemindiseaseandbehaviour.Knowinghowthenervous
systemandparticularlythebrainworksiscentraltounderstanding
behaviour,emotion,andcognitiveprocesses.
B. Thecentralnervoussystem(CNS)
1. Consistsofthebrainandspinalcordandprocessesall
informationreceivedfromoursenseorgansandreactsas
necessary.
2. Neuronscontroleverythoughtandaction,thebraincontainsan
averageof140billionneurons.
a. Thetypicalneuroncontainsacentralcellbodywithtwo
differentkindsofbranches.Onesetofbranches,
dendrites,extendfromthecellbodytoreceivechemical
messagesfromothernervecellswhichareconvertedinto
electricalimpulses.Theotherbranch,theaxon,transmits
theseimpulsestootherneurons.Anyonenervecellis
linkedwithmultipleothers.
b. Neuronsthemselvesoperateelectrically,butcommunicate
withotherneuronschemically.Thesynapticcleftisa
smallspacethatexistsbetweentheaxonofoneneuronand
thedendritesofanother.Itisherewhereneurons
communicatewithoneanotherviareleaseof
neurotransmittersfromdendritesofotherneurons.
c. Neurotransmittersarethechemicalsreleasedfromone
nervecelltoanotheracrossthesynapticcleft.Aftera
neurotransmitterisreleaseditisquicklydrawnbackfrom
thesynapticcleftintothesameneuronviaaprocessknown
asreuptake.Majorneurotransmittersimplicatedin
psychopathologyincludenorepinephrine(or
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noradrenaline),serotonin,dopamine,andgamma
aminobutyricacid(GABA).
d.Newneurotransmittersarefrequentlydiscoveredand
existingneurotransmitterssystemsmustbesubdivided
intoseparateclassifications.Currentestimatessuggestthat
morethan100differentneurotransmitterseachwith
multiplereceptorsarefunctioninginvariouspartsofthe
nervoussystem.
3. Thebrainisdividedintotwoparts.Thelowerbrainstemisthe
mostprimitivepartandisresponsibleformostoftheautomatic
functionsnecessaryforsurvival(e.g.,breathing,sleeping,moving).
Themoreadvancedbrainsystemsarelocatedintheforebrain.
a. Thehindbrainisthelowestpartofthebrainstem,and
containsthemedulla,pons,andcerebellum(motor
coordination).Thesestructurescontrolactivitiessuchas
breathing,heartbeat,anddigestion.
b. Themidbraincoordinatesmovementwithsensoryinput
andcontainspartsofthereticularactivatingsystem(RAS).
TheRAScontributestoarousal,tension,andwakingand
sleeping.
c. Attheverytopofthebrainstem(i.e.,abovethehindbrain)
liesthediencephalon,whichcontainsthethalamusand
hypothalamus;thesestructureshelptransmitinformation
totheforebrainandareintegraltobehaviourandemotion.
d. Attheverybaseoftheforebrain(justabovethethalamus
andhypothalamus)isthetelencephalon,containingthe
limbicsystem.Limbicmeans“border,”andthissystem
figuresprominentlyinmuchofpsychopathology.It
includesthefollowingstructures:hippocampus(sea
horse),cingulategyrus(girdle),septum(partition),and
amygdala(almond).Emotionalexpression,impulse
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control,sex,aggression,hunger,andthirstarecontrolled
bythispartofthebrain.Anotherareaatthebaseofthe
forebrainisthebasalganglia,includingthecaudate
(tailed)nucleus.Motorbehaviouriscontrolledbythis
area,anddamagecancausetwitchingorshaking.
e. Thelargestpartoftheforebrainisthecerebralcortex
whichcontainsover80%oftheneuronsintheCNS.
Reasoningandcreativeskillsarederivedfromthisbrain
area.Thecerebralcortexisdividedintotwonear‐
symmetricalhemispheres:thelefthemisphereappearsto
beresponsibleforverbalandcognitiveprocesses,whereas
therighthemisphereappearsmoreresponsibleforspatial
abilities.
f. Eachhemisphereofthecerebralcortexconsistsoffour
separateareasoflobes.Thetemporallobeisassociated
withtherecognitionofsightsandsoundsandlong‐term
memorystorage.Theparietallobeisassociatedwith
touchrecognition.Theoccipitallobeintegratesvisual
input.Thefrontallobeismostinterestingfromthe
standpointofpsychopathologyandislargelyresponsible
forthinkingandreasoningabilities,memory;itenablesone
torelatetopeopleandeventsintheworldandtobehaveas
socialanimals.
C. Peripheralnervoussystem:Worksincoordinationwiththebrain
stemtoensureproperbodilyfunctioningandconsistsofthe(1)
somaticnervoussystem,whichcontrolsmusclesandmovement,
and(2)autonomicnervoussystem(ANS),whichisdividedintothe
sympatheticandparasympatheticnervoussystems.TheANS
regulatesthecardiovascularsystem,endocrinesystem(e.g.,pituitary,
adrenal,thyroid,andgonadalglands)andaidsindigestionand
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regulationofbodytemperature.
1. ThesympatheticandparasympatheticbranchesoftheANS
operateinacomplementaryfashion.Thesympatheticnervous
systemmobilizesthebody(e.g.,increasesheartrate)during
periodsofstressordangerandispartoftheemergencyoralarm
response;theparasympatheticnervoussystemrenormalizes
arousalandfacilitatesdigestion.
2. Theendocrinesystemproducesitsownchemicalmessengers
(i.e.,hormones)andreleasesthemdirectlyintothebloodstream.
Adrenalglandsproduceepinephrine(alsocalledadrenaline)in
responsetostress,includingsalt‐regulatinghormones;the
thyroidproducesthyroxine,whichfacilitatesenergymetabolism
andgrowth;thepituitaryisthemasterglandthatproduces
severalregulatoryhormones;andthegonadsproducesex
hormones(e.g.,testosteroneandestrogen).Theendocrinesystem
iscloselyrelatedtotheimmunesystemandisimplicatedin
anxiety,stress‐related,andsexualdisorders.
3. Thehypothalamic‐pituitary‐adrenalcorticalaxis(HYPACaxis)
illustratestheconnectionbetweenthenervousandendocrine
systemsandisimplicatedinseveralformsofpsychopathology.
D. Neurotransmitters
1. Drugtherapiesfunctionbyeitherincreasingordecreasingthe
flowofspecificneurotransmitters.Agonistsincreasetheactivity
ofaneurotransmitterbymimickingitseffects.Somedrugs,
knownasantagonists,functiontoinhibitorblocktheproduction
ofneurotransmitterorfunctionindirectlytopreventthechemical
fromreachingthenextneuronbyclosingoroccupyingthe
receptors;otherdrugsincreaseproductionofcompeting
biochemicalsthatdeactivatetheneurotransmitterorproduce
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effectsoppositethoseproducedbytheneurotransmitter(inverse
agonists).Mostdrugsareeitheragonisticorantagonistic.
b. Typesofneurotransmittersinclude:
a. Serotonin(5HT)isconcentratedinthemidbrainand
connectedtothecortex,thusproducingwidespreadeffects
onbehaviour,mood,andthoughtprocesses.Extremelylow
levelsofserotoninareassociatedwithlessinhibition,
instability,impulsivity,andtendenciestooverreactto
situations(e.g.,aggression,suicide,impulsiveovereating,
excessivesexualbehaviour.Tricyclicantidepressants(e.g.,
imipramine),andnewclassesofserotoninspecific
reuptakeinhibitors(SSRIs;e.g.,Prozac)affectthe
serotonergicsystem(seealsoSt.John’s‐wort).
b. Twomajorneurotransmittersaffectmuchofwhatwedo.
Eachofthesesubstancesareintheaminoacidcategoryof
neurotransmitters.Glutamateisanexcitatorytransmitter
that“turnson”manydifferentneurons,leadingtoaction.A
secondtypeofaminoacidtransmitterisgamma‐
aminobutyricacid,orGABA.These“chemicalbrothers”
arefastacting,astheywouldhavetobeforthebrainto
keepupwiththemanyinfluencesfromtheenvironment
thatrequiresactionorrestraint.
c.Gammaaminobutyricacid(GABA)reducespostsynaptic
activitywhich,inturn,inhibitsseveralbehavioursand
emotions,particularlyanxiety.Benzodiazepines,ormild
tranquilizers,makeiteasierforGABAtoattachto
specializedreceptors.Effectisnotspecifictoanxiety.The
benzodiazepine‐GABAsystemreducesoverallarousaland
tempersanger,hostility,aggression,andpossiblyexcessive
anticipationandevenpositiveemotionalstates.
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d. Norepinephrine(alsoknownasnoradrenaline)isalso
partoftheendocrinesystemandimportantin
psychopathology.Catecholaminesaresecretedbythe
adrenalglandsandnorepinephrinestimulatesatleast
alpha‐adrenergicandbeta‐adrenergicreceptors.Beta‐
blockersforhypertensionreducethesurgein
norepinephrineandkeepheartrateandbloodpressure
down.Youmayaskstudentstothinkaboutwhatmight
happentosomeonewhooverdoesitwhentheyaretaking
beta‐blockers.
e. Dopamine(alsoclassifiedasacatecholamine)hasbeen
implicatedinschizophreniaandmayactby"switchingon"
variousbraincircuitsthatinhibitorfacilitateemotionsor
behaviour.Reserpine(fromChapter1)blocksspecific
dopaminereceptors,thusloweringdopamineactivity.
Dopamineandserotonincircuitscrossatmanypointsand
seemtobalanceoneanother.AnagonistfordopamineisL‐
DOPA,whichhasbeenshowntobeeffectivefortreating
Parkinson'sdiseasebyincreasinglevelsofdopamine.
IllustratetostudentswhathappenswhenParkinson’s
patientsaregiventoomuchdopamine–theybegintoshow
signsandsymptomsofschizophrenia,whereaswhenthe
levelsofdopaminearelowertotheextremeschizophrenic
patientsshowbehavioursassociatedwithParkinson’s
disease.
E. ImplicationsforPsychopathology
1. Methodsforstudyingbrainimageshavebeenappliedto
psychopathology.Forexample,personswithobsessive‐
compulsivedisordershowincreasedactivityintheorbitalsurface
ofthecerebralcortex,thecingulategyrus,andtoalesserextent
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thecaudatenucleus.Oneofthestrongestconcentrationsof
neurotransmittersintheseareasisserotonin,whichisrelatedto
overreactiveorcompulsivebehaviour.Damagetothisbrain
circuitisrelatedtoaninabilitytoignoreirrelevantcues,making
theorganismoverreactive.
2. Theworkofneuroscienceisonlybeginningandonecannotbe
certainabouttherelationbetweentheorbitalsurfaceandOCD.It
ispossiblethatoveractivityinthisregionofthebrainisa
consequence,notacause,ofOCD.
F. PsychosocialInfluencesonBrainStructureandFunction
1. Inadditiontopotentialbiologicalinterventions,psychological
treatmentsmaybepowerfulenoughtomodifybraincircuits;for
example,thetreatmentofOCDviaexposureandresponse
preventioncanresultinthenormalizationofbrainfunction.Also,
psychosocialfactorsmaydirectlyaffectlevelsof
neurotransmitters(animalstudiesindicatethatcertain
neurochemicalsubstanceshaveverydifferenteffectsdepending
onthepsychologicalhistoriesoftheanimals).Twoexamplesof
psychosocialinfluencesonbrainstructureandfunctioninclude:
psychosocialdwarfismandcancer.
2. Severalrecentexperimentsillustratetheinteractionof
psychosocialfactorsandbrainfunctionatthelevelof
neurotransmitteractivity.Experimentsonearlyeffectsof
controllabilityoverlifeeventsinRhesusmonkeyshaveshown
psychosocialfactorscanexertpowerfuleffectsontheactionof
neurotransmittersoversubsequentbehaviour.Learningand
experiencecanalsoaffectthestructureofneurons,includingthe
numberofreceptorsonacellandhowtheyrespondtosubsequent
experience.Oneexplanationisthatlearningandexperience
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producesmoreplasticandrichneuralconnectionsinthebrain,
andthatsuchexperiencecandeterminevulnerabilityto
psychologicaldisorderslaterinlife
IV. BehaviouralandCognitiveScience
A. ConditioningandCognitiveProcesses
1. RobertRescorlaandothers'experimentsindicatethatbasic
classicalandoperantconditioningparadigmsfacilitatethe
learningoftherelationsamongeventsintheenvironment.This
learninginvolvescomplexcognitiveandemotionalprocessingin
humansandloweranimals.
2. MartinSeligmandescribedtheconceptoflearnedhelplessness,
orthelackofbehaviourshownbyanorganismwhenitencounters
conditionsoverwhichnocontrolispossible.Peoplemaymake
certainattributionsabouttheirenvironmentwhentheybelieve
theyhavelittlecontroloverstressintheirlives.Peoplemay
becomedepressediftheydecideorthinktheycandolittleabout
thestressintheirlives(i.e.,attributionofnocontrol),evenif
othersthinkthereissomethingthatcouldbedone.
3. AlbertBanduraobservedthatorganismscanlearnsimplyby
watchingothersintheirenvironment(modelingor
observationallearning).Thistypeoflearningrequiresa
symbolicintegrationoftheexperiencesofotherswithjudgments
ofwhatmighthappentotheobserver.Banduraalsospecifiedthe
importanceofsocialcontextinlearningandmaintainedthatmuch
ofwhatwelearndependsonourinteractionswithotherpeople
aroundus.
4. Preparedlearningreflectstherecognitionthatbiologyand
geneticsinfluencewhatwelearnandhowreadilywedoso.This
viewisbasedontheobservationthatwelearntoassociatefears
andphobiaswithcertaintypesofobjectsorsituationsthathave
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someevolutionarybasisinpromotingsurvival(e.g.,snakesor
spiders.Overthecourseofevolutioncertainunconditionedand
conditionalstimulibecomemorereadilyassociatedfortheir
survivalvalueandthispreparednessispassedonviagenetics.
B. CognitiveScienceandtheUnconscious
1. Advancesincognitivesciencehaverevolutionizedourconceptions
oftheunconscious.Examplesincludetheconceptsofblindsight
(unconsciousvision),dissociationbetweenbehaviourand
unconsciousness(hypnotism),andimplicitmemory(i.e.,acting
onthebasisofthingsthathavehappenedinthepastbutbeing
unabletorememberthepastevents).
2. Onemethodforexploringtheunconscious(orblackbox)isthe
Stroopcolornamingparadigm,wheresubjectsareshowna
varietyofwordsprintedindifferentcolorinks.Delaysincolor
namingoccurwhenthemeaningofthewordattractsthesubject's
attentiondespiteeffortstoconcentrateonthecoloroftheword.
C. Cognitive‐behaviouraltherapy(CBT)referstotheintegrationof
cognitiveproceduresandbehaviouraltechniquesdirectlyinto
therapy.AmongtheoriginatorsofCBTwasAaronT.Beck,who
developedmethodsfordealingwithfaultyattributionsandattitudes
associatedwithlearnedhelplessnessanddepression.AlbertEllis’
rational‐emotive‐behaviourtherapyisanotherformofCBT.CBT
examineinsomedetailappropriateandunrealisticthoughtsand
thinkingprocessesviahavingthepatientmonitortheirthoughts.
Therapyisthendirectedatelucidatingthesethoughtsandworkingto
developadifferentsetofattitudesandattributions,aswellas
changingcertainbehaviours.
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V. Emotions
A. Emotionmeanstoelicitorevokemotion(e–motion).Excessiveor
disruptiveemotionsareoftenintimatelytiedwithformsof
psychopathology.
B. ThePhysiologyandPurposeofFear
1. ThephysiologistWalterCannonspeculatedthatfearactivatesthe
cardiovascularsystem,bloodvesselsconstrict,arterialpressure
riseswhilebloodflowisdecreasedtotheextremities,breathing
becomesfaster,increasedamountsofsugararereleasedfromthe
liverintothebloodstream,hearingbecomesmoreacute,digestive
activityissuspended,shiveringandpiloerectionalsooccur.
2. Fearisthesubjectivefeelingofterror,astrongmotivationfor
behaviour(escapeorfighting),andacomplexphysiological
arousalresponse.Thisfightorflightreactionwasfundamentally
importantinthecourseofevolutionandisverymuchwithus
todayinnormalbehaviourandinseveralformsof
psychopathology.
C. EmotionalPhenomena
1. Definingemotionisdifficult,butmostagreethatitisanaction
tendencytobehaveinacertainwaythatiselicitedbyanexternal
event,afeelingstate,andoneaccompaniedbyapossibly
characteristicphysiologicalresponse.Emotionsfunctionto
ensurethatwepassourgenesontosubsequentgenerations.
2. Emotionsareusuallyshort‐lived,temporarystateslastingseveral
minutestoseveralhours.Moodisamorepersistentperiodof
affectoremotionality.Affectusuallyreferstothemomentary
emotionaltonethataccompanieswhatwesayordo,butcanalso
beusedgenericallytosummarizecommonalitiesamongemotional
statesthatarecharacteristicofanindividual.
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3. Emotioniscomprisedofthreecomponentsthatareoften
consideredinisolationfromtheothers:behaviour,physiology,
andcognition.WalterCannonviewedemotionasprimarilya
brainfunction,whereasRichardS.Lazarusemphasizesthe
cognitiveaspectsofemotion.Manytheoristsbelievethatthe
cognitiveandemotionalsystemsinteractandoverlap,butare
fundamentallyseparate.
4. Sustainedangerandhostilityappearcloselyrelatedtothe
developmentofheartdisease.Thismayoccurbecausetheability
ofthehearttoefficientlypumpbloodthroughoutthebodydrops
significantlywhenoneisangry(placingthepersonatincreased
riskofdisturbancesinheartrhythm)butnotduringstressor
exercise.
5. Suppressingalmostanykindofemotionalresponse(e.g.,angeror
fear)increasessympatheticnervoussystemactivityandcaneven
helpproducetheunwantedemotionalstateandrelatedthoughts.
Emotionsaffectcognitiveprocesses,andmanybasicemotions
(e.g.,fear,anger,sadnessordistress,excitement)seemtoplaya
directroleinpsychologicaldisorders(e.g.,anxiety,depression,
mania)andmayevendefinethem.
VI. Cultural,Social,andInterpersonalFactors
A. Culturalfactorsinfluencetheformandcontentofpsychopathology
anddifferamongculturesandsocialgroupsthatmayco‐existinclose
proximity.Voodoo,theevileye,andotherfearsrepresentphenomena
thatarestronglytiedtochangesinthesocialenvironment.
B. Genderexertsastrongandpuzzlingeffectonpsychopathology.
Femalesareathigherriskfordevelopingparticularkindsofphobias
(e.g.,insect,smallanimalphobias)andeatingdisorders,whereas
socialphobiasaffectmenandwomenequally.Thedifferencemay
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havetodowithculturalexpectationsofmenandwomenandgender
roles.
C. Thenumberandfrequencyofsocialrelationshipsandcontactsis
stronglyrelatedtomortality.Socialrelationshipsseemtoprotect
individualsagainsthighbloodpressure,depression,alcoholism,
arthritis,progressionofAIDS,lowbirthweightinnewborns,and
susceptibilitytocatchingacoldandinfection.Animalstudiesalso
indicatethat(1)socialinstabilitymayleadtosuppressedimmune
responses,and(2)biologicalfactorssuchasdrugscanproduce
differentpsychologicaleffectsdependingonsocialcontext.
D. Olderpersonswithfewmeaningfulcontactsandlittlesocialsupport
reporthighlevelsofdepressionandunsatisfactoryqualityoflife.If
theybecamephysicallyill,theyoftenreceivemoresubstantialfamily
support,whichservestore‐establishtheirsocialbondsandmakeslife
worthliving.
E. Psychologicaldisorderscarryasubstantialsocialstigmainour
society.
F. Interpersonalpsychotherapy(IPT),developedbyMyrnaWeissman
andherlatehusbandGeraldKlerman,emphasizestheresolutionof
interpersonalproblemsandstressors.Inthisapproach,lifestressors
thatprecipitateapsychologicaldisorderareidentifiedandthepatient
andtherapistworktogetheroncurrentinterpersonalproblemsthat
areeitherthesourceofthelifestressorareintimatelyconnectedwith
it(e.g.,interpersonalroledispute,deathoflovedone,acquiringnew
relationships,correctingdeficitsinsocialskills).IPTisbrief,typically
10to15sessions,andishighlyeffectiveforpersonswithproblems
suchasdepression.
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G. Psychologicaldisordersareglobalphenomena.Approximately10–
20%ofallprimarymedicalservicesinpoorcountriesaresoughtby
patientswithpsychologicaldisorders;recordnumbersofmenare
committingsuicideinMicronesia;alcoholismlevelsamongadultsin
LatinAmericahaverisento20%.Treatmentsfordisordersthatare
successfulintheUnitedStatesoftencannotbeadministeredin
countrieswherementalhealthservicesarelimited(e.g.,China).
Socialandculturalfactorsmaintaindisordersasmostsocietiesdonot
havethemeansofalleviatingandpreventingthem.
VII. Life‐SpanDevelopment
A. Tocompletelyunderstandpsychopathology,onemustappreciatehow
disorderschangewithtime.Personsarenottheirdisordersandare
oftennotdisorderedatalltimesandparticularlyovertime.Justlikea
fever,cliniciansandresearchersrecognizethataparticularbehaviour
ordisordermayhavemultiplecauses.
B. Forexample,theprincipleofequifinalityisusedindevelopmental
psychopathologytoindicatethattheremaybeanumberofpathstoa
givenoutcome.Thesedifferentpathsmayresultfrompsychological
factorsthatinteractwithbiologicalcomponentsduringvariousstages
ofdevelopment.
KEYCONCEPTS:WHYISTHISCHAPTERIMPORTANTTOPSYCHOLOGISTS?
Thischapteroutlinestheprimarycomponentsofamultidimensionalmodelof
psychopathology.Themultidimensionalmodelconsidersgeneticcontributions,the
roleofthenervoussystem,behaviouralandcognitiveprocesses,emotional
influences,socialandinterpersonalinfluences,environmentalfactors,epigenetic,
developmentalfactorsinexplainingthecauses,andeventhefactorsthatmaintain,
psychologicaldisorders.Thischapterdescribestheseareasofinfluenceaswellas
theirinteractioninproducingmentaldisorder.
Copyright©2012byNelsonEducationLimited 51
STUDENTMOTIVATION
Psychologyidentifiestwobasicformsofmotivation,intrinsicandextrinsic
motivation.
1. Theintrinsiclearnerdesireslearningnewconceptsandtheoriesforitsinherent
interests,forself‐fulfillmentandsatisfaction,enjoymentandtoachievea
masteryofthesubject.Studentswhotakeagenuineinterestinembracingtheir
learningareintrinsicallymotivated.
2. Theextrinsicmotivationismotivationtoperformandsucceedforthesakeof
accomplishingaspecificresultoroutcome.Studentswhoareverygrade‐
orientedareextrinsicallymotivated.
MotivationalSuggestions
Provideopportunitiesforstudentsuccess
Offerpositivefeedback
Assiststudentsindiscoveringpersonalmeaningandvalueintheirlife
Createapositivelearningenvironment
Becaringtostudentsasmembersofacommunity
Developasupportiveteachingstyle
Teachingstrategies
Engagestudentswithcurrentnewsevents
Connectchapterobjectivesandcontentthecommunity,culture,activitiesand
topicsrelevanttostudents’educational,personalandprofessionallife.
CreateaVenndiagramofintrinsicandextrinsicmotivation.
DISCUSSIONQUESTIONS
Discussionquestionshighlightthewaysthatthetopicisengagingforstudents.
Thefollowingquestionssupportchaptercontentandlearningoutcomes,generate
interest,andencouragestudentstopromptlyanswerquestions.Constructive
Copyright©2012byNelsonEducationLimited52
feedbackacknowledgesstudentsfortheirresponsestothesequestions.The
discussionquestioncanbeansweredindividually,asapairshare,smallgroupor
class.
1. Howdoesanindividual’sdevelopment,behaviour,personalityandIQmake
predictionscomplex?
2. Describethefourcomponentsofamultidimensionalintegrativeapproachto
psychopathology.Howdoeseachcomponentinfluenceeachother?Whichoneof
thesecomponentsismostinfluentialtopsychopathology?Explainyouranswer.
3. Explainthesimilaritiesanddifferencebetweenthe“OneDimensionalModel”
andthe“MultidimensionalModel”forpsychopathology.
4. Howdogenesandtheenvironmentintherolesofpsychopathologyand
behaviour?Howdotheyimpactandaffecteachother?
5. Adverselifeeventssuchasa“chaotic”childhoodcanoverwhelmtheinfluenceof
genes.Whatisthereasonforanindividual’schaoticchildhoodeffectongenes?
6. Whatroledoculture,gender,andsocialrelationshipsplayinthedevelopmentof
psychopathology?
BARRIERSTOLEARNING
1. Strategiesforstrugglingstudentsareteachingstudents“howtolearn”.This
includesidentifyingstrengthsandweaknesses,notetaking,mindmapping,
outliningmaterial,andread,reciteandreviewforexams.
2. Learningisasocialprocessandlearnerscandevelopgreaterknowledgeand
skillswhenworkinginpairsandgroups.Studentscanparticipateinpairshares
andgrouppresentations.
3. Howcantheteachingenvironmentaccommodateallofthestudent’slearning
needs?Difficulttopicsmayneedseveralactivitiesfordeeperunderstanding.
4. Identifydifficultcontenttopicsandapplythemtoreallifesituations,subjective
applications,outofclasswork,newspaperormagazinearticles,currenttopics,
newsevents,andworldandglobalissues.
Copyright©2012byNelsonEducationLimited 53
Questions
Studentsreadaselectionofthecoursecontentandcomeupwiththeirown
questionsaboutthematerial.Thesequestionscanbeusedforaclassdiscussion.
Notes
Studentstakenotesfromalectureandunderlineandnumberthemost
importantpoints.Studentsoutlinethetextbookmaterialandunderlineand
numberthemostimportantpoints.
Brainstorming
Studentsbrainstormaboutwhattheyknowaboutthetopic
Afterreadingthetextbook,materialorlecturestudentscanbrainstormtheir
newknowledgeaboutthetopic.
FlashCards
Studentswritedowntheimportantpointsofeachchapteronindexcards.
Assessments
Assessingstudentknowledgeandlearningaboutthecoursecontentthrougha
quizorquestionnaire.
GraphicOrganizers
Agraphicorganizerislikeamapinaone‐pageformwithblankareasforthestudent
tofillinwithrelatedideasandinformation.Someorganizersarespecificandothers
aremoregeneralandcanbeusedwithmanytopics.Theinformationonagraphic
organizercanbeinadditiontonotetaking,flashcards,informationonaformor
writtenasalist.Examplesofgraphicorganizersincludecharts,maps,Venn
diagramsandflowcharts.
Copyright©2012byNelsonEducationLimited54
LearningStyles
Presentdifferentlearningstylesandmodalitiesforthevisual,auditoryand
kinesthetic/tactilelearners.
1. VisualLearner
Presentvisualstimulation,withfilms,experiments,newspaperarticles,note
taking,magazines,YouTube,PowerPointpresentations,observingstudents,
classroomdemonstrations,creatingposters,classpresentations,graphic
organizers,charts,illustrations,performingaskit.
2. AuditoryLearner
Listenandheartheinformationwithlectures,readingaloud,conversationalpair
shares,andsmallgroupandclassdiscussions.Studentsreadthecoursematerial
anddiscussitwithapartner.Studentscreatetheirownquestionsaboutthe
coursecontentandshareitwithapartnerorclassdiscussion.
3. Kinesthetic/TactileLearners
Wholebodyinvolvementisneededtoprocessinformationthroughgroup
activities,notetaking,createaVenndiagrams,createtheirowntexts
representationsasadrawingortextofthecoursecontent,outlining,creating
posterboardsofchartsandgraphs.
Identifyingcommonmisconceptionsordifficulttopicshelpsinstructorstoaddress
themexplicitly,inlectures,throughout‐of‐classwork,andwithin‐classactivities.
(Wherethetextbooktakesonthesemisconceptionsorhelpstoparseoutdifficult
concepts,therewillbereferencetoparticularpagesorfeaturesinthebook).
CLASSROOMACTIVITIES,DEMONSTRATIONSANDLECTURETOPICS
Exercise1:Naturevs.Nurture:CanandShouldWeGeneticallyEngineer
MentalHealth?
KeyTerms: NatureandNurture,Periodicals
Geneticistshaveshownthatcloningispossibleandmanyresearchersare
scramblingtobethefirsttocloneahumanbeing.Cloningitselfraisesahostof
ethical,legal,moral,andscientificquestions.Thefundamentalpremiseofcloning
Copyright©2012byNelsonEducationLimited 55
humansisthepotentialtoreproduceapersonthatwouldbesomehowbetteroff–
smarter,stronger,moreattractive,andphysicallyandpsychologicallymorehealthy
–thantheuncloned.Anotherpremisebehindthismoveisthatgenes(i.e.,nature)
aremoreimportantthanexperience(i.e.,nurture).Yourtextbookauthors,
however,presentadifferentview.
Outlineevidencesupportingyourpositioninthecontextofthefollowing
scenario:Youarethedirectorofalargebehaviouralgeneticsresearchfacilitywith
afederalmandateandblankchecktoeradicatementalillnessinsocietyviagenetic
engineering.Howdoyourespond?Doyougoahead?Howsuccessfulwillyour
missionbe(assumingyoudecidetogothroughwithit)inlightofwhatyouhave
read?Whatistheevidencethatthisprogramwillachieveitsgoalsofgenetically
engineeringmentalhealthandshoulditbedone?Limityouranswerto3–5typed
double‐spacedpages.
Exercise2:WhatDoestheAmygdalaHavetodoWithEmotion?
KeyTerms:Amygdala(Brain),Periodicals
Theamygdalaisatinyalmondshapedbrainstructurethatcanpackawallopwhen
itcomestoemotionalexperienceandexpression.Describewhatisknownaboutits
natureandfunctionwithregardtoemotionalexperienceandexpressioninnormal
behaviourandpsychopathology.Limityouranswerto3–5typeddouble‐spaced
pages.
Exercise3:IsEcstasytheRave?
KeyTerms:EMdma(Drug),AdverseandSideEffects
Ecstasyisasyntheticdrugthatcanproduceprofoundeffectsofbehaviour,emotion,
andcognition.Describewhatisknownabouthowthisdrugoperatesatthe
neurotransmitterlevel.Inyouransweralsodescribetheshortandlongtermeffects
ofbehaviour,cognition,andemotion.Limityouranswerto3‐5typeddouble‐
spacedpages.
Copyright©2012byNelsonEducationLimited56
CLASSROOMACTIVITIES,DEMONSTRATIONS,ANDLECTURETOPICS
1. Activity:BrainAreas&TheirFunction.Toteachyourstudentsneuroanatomy
andthecontributionsofneurosciencetopsychopathology,preparetwosetsof
indexcards.Ononesetyoushouldwritethebrainstructuresdiscussedinthe
text.Thesecondsetofcardsshouldlistthefunctionsofthesestructures.For
example,yourcardswouldinclude:
STRUCTURE FUNCTION
Centralnervoussystem Consistsofthebrainandspinalcord
Medullaandpons Breathing,pumpingofheart,digestion
Cerebellum Motorcoordination
Midbrain Coordinatemovementwithsensory
input
Reticularactivatingsystem Processesofarousalandtension
Limbicsystem Emotionalexperiences/basicdrivesof
sex,aggression,hunger,andthirst
Caudatenucleus Controlsmotorbehaviour
Cerebralcortex Containsover80%ofneuronsinthe
centralnervoussystem
Lefthemisphere Verbalandothercognitiveprocesses
Righthemisphere Perceivingsurroundingeventsand
creatingimages
Temporallobe Recognizingvarioussightsandsounds
Parietallobe Recognizingvarioussensationsoftouch
Occipitallobe Integratesvariousvisualinput
Frontallobe Thinkingandreasoningabilities
Peripheralnervoussystem Coordinationwithbrainstemtoensure
bodyisworkingproperly
Somaticnervoussystem Controlsourmuscles
Autonomicnervoussystem Regulatesthecardiovascularsystemand
Copyright©2012byNelsonEducationLimited 57
STRUCTURE FUNCTION
endocrinesystem
Endocrinesystem Releaseshormonesintothebloodstream
Sympatheticnervoussystem Mobilizesbodyduringtimesofstress
Parasympatheticnervoussystem Renormalizesbodyafterarousalstates
Pituitarygland Masterorcoordinatorofendocrine
system
Thegoalofthisquickactivityistohavestudentsmatchvariousstructuresof
thebrainwiththeirrespectivefunctions.Dividetheclassinhalfanddistribute
onesetofindexcardstoeachgroupofstudents.Eachstudentshouldreceive
onecard.Instructstudentstofindthematchfortheirstructure/function,and
tellthemtodotheactivitywithouttalking.
2. Activity:EliminatingTestAnxietythroughBehaviourTherapy.Eison(1987)
hasdevelopedawayforstudentstoeliminatetheirtestanxietywiththeuseof
popularbehaviouraltechniques.Toeliminatetestanxietythroughtheuseof
systematicdesensitization,allowstudentstofirstbecomefamiliarwith
relaxationtraining;then,whilerelaxed,askstudentstoimagineananxiety‐
provokingsituationinvolvingtests.Todemonstratetheeffectivenessofrational
emotivetherapy,askstudentstocomprisetwolists(rationalversusirrational)
regardingcommonbeliefsabouttests(thingstheysaytothemselvesduring
exams).Trytoencouragestudentstoexamineeachbeliefcritically;soonthey
shouldbeabletorealizewhymanyfearsregardingtestsareirrational.
SourceInformation.Eison,J.A.(1987)Usingsystematicdesensitizationand
rationalemotivetherapytotreattestanxiety.Activitieshandbookforthe
teachingofpsychology,vol.2.Washington,DC:AmericanPsychological
Association.
Copyright©2012byNelsonEducationLimited58
3. Activity:MentalIllnessinSocialContext:BeingSaneinInsanePlaces.In
1973sociologistDavidRosenhansoughttoexaminehowdifficultitwouldbefor
peopletoshedthe"mentallyill"label.Hewasparticularlyinterestedinhow
psychiatrichospitalstaffprocessinformationaboutpatients.Rosenhanand
sevenassociateshadthemselvescommittedtodifferentmentalhospitalsby
complainingthattheywerehearingvoices(asymptomcommonlybelievedtobe
characteristicofschizophrenia).Thestaffdidnotknowthe"pseudopatients"
wereactuallypartofanexperiment.Beyondtheallegedsymptomsand
falsificationofnamesandoccupations,theimportanteventsofthe
pseudopatients'lifehistorieswerefactuallypresentedtohospitalstaffasthey
hadoccurred.Thepseudopatientswereinstructedtoactcompletelynormal
uponadmissionintothehospital.Infact,Rosenhantoldthemthatactingnormal
wastheonlywaytheycouldgetout.Despitethefactthattheydidnothingoutof
theordinary,thepseudopatientsremainedhospitalizedforanaverageof19
days(range9to52days).Ironically,theirsanitywasnotdetectedbyhospital
staff,butitwasdetectedbytheactualpatientsinthehospitals.AllofRosenhan's
associatesretainedthedeviantlabelevenafterbeingdischarged.Their
schizophreniawassaidtobe"inremission,"implyingthatitwasdormantand
couldpossiblyresurface.Atnotimeduringtheirstayinthehospitalwasthe
legitimacyoftheirschizophreniclabelquestioned.Itwassimplyassumedthat
theywereschizophrenic,andeverythingthepseudopatientsdidandsaidwhile
inthementalinstitutionswasunderstoodfromthispremise.Normalbehaviours
wereoverlookedentirelyorwereprofoundlymisinterpreted.Minor
disagreementsbecamedeep‐seatedindicatorsofemotionalinstability.Boredom
wasinterpretedasnervousnessoranxiety.Eventheactofwritingonanotepad
wasseenbythestaffasasignofsomedeeperpsychologicaldisturbance.
Furthermore,eventhoughtherewasnothing"pathological"aboutthe
pseudopatients'pasthistories,theserecordswerereinterpretedtobeconsistent
withtheschizophreniclabel.Rosenhanconcludedthatthestaffweredoingtheir
jobsasdesignedandmadenoconsciousefforttomisconstruetheevidence.The
moralisthatpsychiatriclabelsaresopowerfulthattheycanprofoundlyaffect
Copyright©2012byNelsonEducationLimited 59
thewayinformationisprocessedandperceived.Hadthesamebehavioursbeen
observedinadifferentcontext,theynodoubtwouldhavebeeninterpretedinan
entirelydifferentfashion.Youmayusethisstudyandotherslikeittodiscuss
theroleofcontextininfluencingourinterpretationsofabnormalbehaviour.
Alternatively,thisisagreatspringboardfordiscussionaboutthestigmaof
mentalillness,andeventhedangersofone‐dimensionalmodels.Youmayalso
askstudentsiftheycancomeupwithotherbehavioursthatwouldhavebeen
misinterpretedinthissituation.
SourceInformation.Rosenhan,D.(1973).Onbeingsaneininsaneplaces.
Science,179,250‐258.
4. Activity:TheUbiquityofEmotion&Conditioning.Conditioningisso
ubiquitousineverydayexperiencethatitisoftenhardtosee.Havestudents
comeupwithexamplesofclassicallyconditionedemotional/evaluative
responsesandusesuchexamplestoillustratethatmostconditioningisquite
adaptive.Ifstudentshavetroublecomingupwithexamples,youmaystartwith
conditionedtasteaversions,objectsoreventsthatstudentsfear,or
words/imagesthatelicitanemotionalresponse(e.g.,fear,anger,disgust;seeing
flashingbluelightsinyourrear‐viewmirrorandgettingcaughtforspeeding
whiledrivingonthehighway).Havestudentstalkaboutthedimensionsthatare
involvedintheconditionedresponsesinkeepingwiththetextdescriptionof
emotionasinvolvingcognition,behaviour,andphysiology.Asatrick,youmay
askstudentswhethertheyhaveeverfeltthatanexamtheyhadtakenwasunfair.
Don’taskforashowofhands.Moststudentswillraisetheirhands.Youcan
thenask,“Whydidyouallraiseyourhands?”Usethisexampletoillustratethe
roleofexperienceandsocializationinlearningandbehaviour(inthiscase,
automaticallyraisingone’shandinresponsetoaquestionintheclassroom
withoutbeingaskedtodoso).
5. Activity:SusanMineka’sWorkonVicariousLearningofFearinPrimates.
SusanMinekaandhercolleagueshaveperformedsomeinterestingexperiments
Copyright©2012byNelsonEducationLimited60
demonstratingvicariouslearningoffearinlab‐rearedmonkeys.Herworkto
daterepresentsthemostcompellingevidenceforobservationallearningoffear.
Manystudentsfindthedescriptionofherclassicstudiesinterestinginitself.
6. Activity:CreateTwoorThreeCharacterswithPsychopathologiesDividethe
classintogroups.Eachwillcreatecharacter,withadifferentpsychopathology.
EachgroupwilldrawthephysicalcharacteristicsofthispersonORadda
psychopathologyftothecharactersfromChapter1.Eachgroupwillanswerthe
followingquestions.Whatisthepsychopathologyofeachcharacter?Whatisthe
causeandsourceofthepathology?Whatspecificbehavioursdoeseach
character/individualdisplayasaresultofthespecificpsychopathology?Each
teamwillsharetheircharacterwiththeclass.
REFLECTIONSONTEACHING:HOWCANIASSESSMYOWNPERFORMANCE?
1. Didmyacademicperformancemeasurethequalityofstudentlearning?
2. Howdidmyinstructionalperformanceimproveinthisclass?Whatinstructional
strategiesweresuccessfulinthepresentationofobjectivesandchaptercontent,
studentparticipationandqualityfeedback?
3. Whatstrategicteachingmethodsandactivitiesenhancedstudentengagement?
4. Whichonesdidnotengagestudentlearningandparticipation?
5. Whatmethodsofconstructivefeedbacktomeasurestudentprogressand
evaluationweremostsuccessful?
6. Whathigherlevelsofthinkingactivitiesenhancedstudentlearning?Howdid
studentscriticallyanswerquestions?
Copyright©2012byNelsonEducationLimited 61
7. Wasexpertiseandexperienceintegratedintothecourselecturesand
discussions?
8. Howdidconstructivefeedbacktoenhancestudentlearning?Whichhelped
studentperformancethemost?Least?
9. Whichgroup/classroomactivitiesworked?Whichonesdidnot?
10. Whichmethodsoffeedbackassistedthestudentslearningprocessandprogress?
SUPPLEMENTARYREADINGMATERIALFORCHAPTER2
Barber,C(2008).Thebrain:amindlessobsession:despitestunningadvances
inneuroscienceandboldclaimsofrevelationsfromnewbrain‐scantechnologies,
ourknowledgeaboutthebrain'sroleinhumanbehaviourisstillprimitive.The
WilsonQuarterly,Winter2008,v32i1,p.32(13).
Blows,W.T.(2000).Neurotransmittersofthebrain:Serotonin,
noradrenaline(norepinephrine),anddopamine.JournalofNeuroscienceNursing,
32,234‐238.
Carroll,V.S.(2008).Throughthelookingglass—ourpast,ourpresent,and,
perhaps,ourfuture.(Then&Now).JournalofNeuroscienceNursing,40,i1,p5(2).
Damasio,A.R.(1995).Descartes'error:Emotion,reason,andthehuman
brain.NewYork:AvonBooks.
Ellis,A.,&Harper,R.A.(1976).Aguidetorationalliving.NorthHollywood,
CA:WilshireBookCompany.
Gross,C.G.(1998).Brain,vision,memory:Talesinthehistoryof
neuroscience.Cambridge:MITPress.
Copyright©2012byNelsonEducationLimited62
Hundert,E.(1991).Asyntheticapproachtopsychiatry’snature‐nurture
debate.IntegrativePsychiatry,7,76‐83.
Kihlstrom,J.F.(1987).Thecognitiveunconscious.Science,237,1445‐1452.
Marshall,L.H.,&Magoun,H.W.(Eds)(1998).Discoveriesinthehuman
brain:Neuroscienceprehistory,brainstructure,andfunction.Totowa,NJ:Humana
Press.
Mineka,S.,Davidson,M.,Cook,M.,&Keir,R.(1984).Observational
conditioningofsnakefearinrhesusmonkeys.JournalofAbnormalPsychology,93,
355‐372.
Radford,B.(1999).Theten‐percentmyth(people'suseofonly10%oftheir
brains).SkepticalInquirer,23,1‐3.
Ramachandran,V.S.,&Blakeslee,S.(1998).Phantomsinthebrain:Probing
thehistoriesofthehumanmind.NewYork:WilliamMorrow&Company.
Sacks,O.(1985).Themanwhomistookhiswifeforahatandotherclinical
tales.NewYork:SummitBooks.
SUPPLEMENTARYVIDEORESOURCESFORCHAPTER2
CNNToday:AbnormalPsychology2000,vol.1.(Availablethroughyour
NelsonEducationLtd.representative).Thesegmenttitled“AnIntegrativeApproach
toPsychopathology:EmotionsandTheirInfluencesontheBody”focusesonthe
emotionofangerinmenandwhatcanbedonetoalleviateit.Abriefmentionisalso
madeofdepressionandhowitcanimpactoneshealth(e.g.highbloodpressure,
heartattacks).Presentsaviewthatemotionscanbedangerous.(2min,5sec)
Copyright©2012byNelsonEducationLimited 63
DeficitsofMindandBrain.(McDonnellSummerInstituteofCognitive
Neuroscience,Eugene,Oregon;availablethroughyourNelsonEducationLtd.
representative).Partoneofthisvideotapeprovidesanoverviewofneuroimaging
techniquesandtheneuropsychologyofcognitiveimpairments(particularlyneglect
syndrome)thatresultfromstrokes;parttwoprovidesaneuropsychologicalviewof
schizophrenia.(60min)
DiscoveringPsychology:TheResponsiveBrain.(Annenburg/CPB
Collection).Examinestheinteractionofthebrain,behaviour,andtheenvironment.
Alsoshowshowbrainstructureandfunctionareinfluencedbybehaviouraland
environmentalfactors.(30min)
InsideInformation:TheBrainandHowitWorks.(FilmsfortheHumanities
andSciences:P.O.Box2053,Princeton,NJ08543‐2053/(800)‐257‐5126).This
videotapedescribeshowthemanyareasofthebrainfunctionandincludes
interviewswithresearchersinthefieldofneuroscience.(58min)
TheBrain,Mind,andBehavior.(PBSVideoCatalogue,1‐800‐344‐3337).This
seriesfocusesonthenatureandfunctionofthehumanbrain,consciousness,andthe
effectsofthebrainandhormonesonbehaviour.(8parts,60mineach)
TheEnchantedLoom:ProcessingSensoryInformation.(Filmsforthe
HumanitiesandSciences:P.O.Box2053,Princeton,NJ08543‐2053/(800)‐257‐
5126).Discusseshowthebrainiscapableofsortingthroughvastsensory
informationandinterpretingitonthebasisofpastexperienceandexpectations.
(60min)
TheHumanBrain.(InsightMedia:2162Broadway,NewYork,NY10024/
(800)‐233‐9910).Investigatorsdiscusshowthebrain’sabilitiescanbeenhanced
throughtheproperenvironmental.Alsopresentsthecaseofamanwhoimproves
hisconditionafteraseriousbraininjury.(25min)
Copyright©2012byNelsonEducationLimited64
TheMind.(PBSVideoCatalogue,1‐800‐344‐3337).ThisPBSseriesfocuses
onmentaldevelopmentinthecontextofnormalandabnormaldevelopment.
TheNervousSystem.(InsightMedia:2162Broadway,NewYork,NY10024/
(800)‐233‐9910).Exploresthefunctionofneuronsaswellasthecentral,peripheral
andautonomicnervoussystems.(25min)
INTERNETRESOURCESFORCHAPTER2
AlbertBandura
http://www.ship.edu/~cgboeree/bandura.html
Awebpagedevotedtothemanwhodiscoveredobservationallearningand
modelingtherapy.
BehaviourGenetics
http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/elsi/behavior.shtml
BiochemistryofNeurotransmitters
http://themedicalbiochemistrypage.org/
Thissitedescribesthenatureandfunctionofseveralneurotransmitters.
CognitiveScience
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/cognitive‐science/
ThisentryintheStanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophycontainsthehistory,methods
andtheoreticalconceptsusedbycognitivescience.
Etiologyissues
http://www.sparknotes.com/?psychology%20abnormal
Anoverviewofmanyapproachestopsychopathologydividedalongthelinesofthe
nature/nurturedebate.
Copyright©2012byNelsonEducationLimited 65
HistoryofNeuroscience
http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/hist.html
Thissitelistssomeofthemostimportanteventsthatoccurredinneuroscienceand
psychologyinchronologicalorder,datingbackto4000B.C.
MessengersoftheBrain
http://bipolar.about.com/cs/neurotrans/l/aa0007_msngrs.htm
Thisstudentresourcedescribeshowneurotransmittersworkwithillustrations.
NeuropsychologyCentral
http://www.neuropsychologycentral.com/
Thissiteoffersaprimerofneuropsychologyincludinglinkstoother
neuropsychologytopicsanddiscussiongroups.
NIMHNIH
http://www.nimh.nih.gov/
Thiswebsiteisamustforinformationrelatedtothebrain.
StroopTest
http://www.snre.umich.edu/eplab/demos/st0/stroopdesc.html
ThisisanonlineversionoftheStrooptestwherestudentscantestthemselves.
WhousesPsychologicalservicesinCanada?
http://www.crhspp.ca/Docs/huns.htm
ThisisanarticleaboutJohnHunsley’sresearchcollectedduringtheNational
PopulationHealthSurvey.
TheWholeBrainAtlas
http://www.med.harvard.edu/AANLIB/home.html
Thisisanexcellentsitereviewingthestructureandfunctionofthehumanbrain.
Copyright©2012byNelsonEducationLimited66
AnatomicFeaturesoftheHumanSpinalCord
AnatomicFeatures:Spinalnervesandinternalorganizationofthespinalcord
(greyandwhitematter)
Function:Relaysinformationtoandfromthebrain;responsibleforsimple
reflexivebehaviour.
Copyright©2012byNelsonEducationLimited 67
AnatomicFeaturesoftheHumanskull
AnatomicFeatures:Afusedconnectionofbonyplatescoveringthebrain
Function:Protectionofthebrain
Copyright©2012byNelsonEducationLimited68
AnatomicFeaturesProtectiveMeningesoftheCNS
AnatomicFeatures:Duramater,arachnoidmembrane,andpiamater
Function:Protectivecoveringofthecentralnervoussystem(CNS),locationof
venousdrainage,andcerebrospinalfluidabsorption
Copyright©2012byNelsonEducationLimited 69
AnatomicFeaturesoftheVentricularSystem
AnatomicFeatures:Lateral(1stand2nd),3rd,and4thventricles,choroidsplexus,
cerebralaqueduct,andarachnoidgranulations
Function:Balancingintracranialpressure,cerebrospinalfluidproduction,and
circulation
Copyright©2012byNelsonEducationLimited70
AnatomicFeaturesoftheBrain’sVascularSystem
AnatomicFeatures:Arteries,veins,circleofWillis
Function:Arteriesprovidenourishment,oxygen,andothernutrientstothebrain’
theveinscarryawaywasteproducts
Copyright©2012byNelsonEducationLimited 71
AnatomicFeaturesoftheLowerBrainStem
AnatomicFeatures:Hindbraincontainsthemedullaoblongata(myelencephalon),
andpons(metencephalon);Midbraincontainsthetectumandtegmentum,cranial
nerves,reticularactivatingsystem
Function:Relaysinformationtoandfromthebrain;responsibleforsimple
reflexivebehaviour
Copyright©2012byNelsonEducationLimited72
AnatomicFeaturesoftheCranialNerves
AnatomicFeatures:Locatedwithinthebrainstem
Function:Conductingspecificmotorandsensoryinformation
Copyright©2012byNelsonEducationLimited 73
AnatomicFeaturesoftheReticularFormation
AnatomicFeatures:Neuralnetworkwithinthelowerbrainstemconnectingthe
medullaandthemidbrain
Function:Non‐specificarousalandactivation,sleepandwakefulness
Copyright©2012byNelsonEducationLimited74
AnatomicFeaturesoftheHypothalamus
AnatomicFeatures:Hypothalamicnuclei,majorfibresystems,andthirdventricle
Function:Activates,controls,andintegratestheperipheralautonomic
mechanisms,endocrineactivity,andsomaticfunctions,includingbodytemperature,
foodintake,andthedevelopmentofsecondarysexualcharacteristics
Copyright©2012byNelsonEducationLimited 75
AnatomicFeaturesoftheBasalGanglia
AnatomicFeatures:Structuresofthecaudatenucleus,putamen,globuspallidus,
substantianigra,andsubthalamicnuclei
Function:Importantrelaystationsinmotorbehaviour(suchasthestriato‐pallido‐
thalamicloop);connectionsfrompartoftheextrapyramidalmotorsystem
(includingcerebralcortex,basalnuclei,thalamus,andmidbrain)andcoordinate
stereotypedposturalandreflexivemotoractivity
Copyright©2012byNelsonEducationLimited76
AnatomicFeaturesoftheLimbicSystem
AnatomicFeatures:Structuresoftheamygdala,hippocampus,parahippocampal
gyrus,cingulategyrus,fornix,septum,andolfactorybulbs
Function:Closelyinvolvedintheexpressionofemotionalbehaviourandthe
integrationofolfactoryinformationwithvisceralandsomaticinformation
Copyright©2012byNelsonEducationLimited 77
Anatomicfeaturesofthecerebralhemispheres
AnatomicFeatures:Structuresofthefrontal,parietal,occipital,andtemporal
lobes
Function:Highercognitivefunctioning,cerebralspecialization,andcortical
localization
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