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10/28/16
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Chapter 37The StormySixties,
1963–1973
Presented by:
Mr. Anderson, M.Ed., J.D.
I.TheLBJBrandonthePresidency
• LyndonBaines Johnson (LBJ):– BecamepresidentuponJFK'sassassination– SenttoCongressin1937atage29– FDRwashispolitical“Daddy,” Johnsonclaimed
• LBJstronglysupportedNewDealmeasures• WhenhelostabidforSenate(1941),LBJlearnedthatliberalpoliticsdidnotwinelectionsinTexas
• WonaSenateseatin1948byshiftinghispoliciestorightandbyaquestionable87-votemargin—hencenickname“LandsideLyndon”
I.TheLBJBrandonthePresidency(cont.)
• InSenate, Johnson developed into masterwheeler-dealer:– BecameDemocraticmajorityleader in1954
• Usedwhatwascalledthe“Johnsontreatment”—intimidatingdisplayofbackslapping,flesh-pressing,andarm-twistingthatoverborefriendsandfoesalike
• Hisegoandvanitywerelegendary• Aspresident,heshreddedconservativecolorationofhisSenateyearstoreveallatentliberalunderneath
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I.TheLBJBrandonthePresidency(cont.)
• Congress passedCivil Rights Actof1964:– Bannedracialdiscriminationinmostprivatefacilitiesopentopublic• Includingtheaters,hospitals,restaurants
– Strengthenedfederalgovernment'spowertoendsegregationinschoolsandpublicplaces
– TitleVIIbarredemployersfromdiscriminatingonraceornationalorigininhiring
– EmpoweredEqualEmploymentOpportunityCommission(EEOC)toenforcelaw
I.TheLBJBrandonthePresidency(cont.)
– TitleVIIpassedwithgenderclauseintact• Provedtobepowerfulinstrumentoffederally-enforcedgenderequality
– Johnson(1965)issuedexecutiveorderrequiringallfederal contractorstotakeaffirmativeactionagainstdiscrimination
• Johnson alsopushedthrough Congress:– Kennedy'sstalledtaxbill– Proposalsforbillion-dollar“WaronPoverty”
I.TheLBJBrandonthePresidency(cont.)
• Concerns about povertyraisedbyMichaelHarrington's TheOtherAmerica (1962):– Revealed that20%ofpopulation,andover40%ofblackpopulation,sufferedpoverty
• WaronPovertypartofLBJ'sGreatSociety:– SweepingNewDeal-styledomesticreforms
• Targetedremainingpocketsofpoverty• Majornewinvestmentsineducationandarts
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II.JohnsonBattlesGoldwaterin1964
• Election of1964:– Johnson'snominationaforegoneconclusion
• ChosenbyacclamationinAtlanticCity• DemocratsstoodfoursquareonmostliberalplatformsinceTruman'sFairDealdays
– Republicans• MetinSanFrancisco,nominatedSenatorBarryGoldwater,arock-ribbedconservative
• Stagesetforhistoricclashofpoliticalprinciples
II.Johnson BattlesGoldwaterin1964(cont.)
• Goldwater'sforcestrouncedmoderate“easternestablishment”• Goldwaterattacked:
– Federal incometax, social security system, TVA– Civil rights legislation, nuclear test-ban treaty– Most loudly, theGreatSociety
• Hisnominationreflectedgrowingconservativemovement– Gathered strength inmushrooming middle-class suburbs ofSunbelt
– LedbyWilliam F.Buckleyand YoungAmericans forFreedom– Well-received bywhite southerners angryatCivil Rights Actof1964
• Democrats' attackonGoldwater:– Exploited imageofGoldwater as trigger-happy cowboy
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II.Johnson BattlesGoldwaterin1964(cont.)
– Johnson'simageasresolutestatesman• SeizeduponTonkinGulfepisodeinAugust1964:
– Covert U.S.help toSouthVietnamese raids onN.Vietnam
– LBJpublically calledalleged attacks“unprovoked”– Ordered “limited” retaliatory air raid– Claimed hesought “nowider war”– GotCongress topass all-purpose Tonkin GulfResolution:
» Congress abdicated war-declaring powers» Handed president ablank checktouse further forceinSoutheast Asia
II.Johnson BattlesGoldwaterin1964(cont.)
• Election results:– VotersflockedtoJohnsonbecause:
• FondnessforKennedylegacy• FaithinGreatSocietypromises• FearofGoldwater
– Count:• Popularvote:
– Johnson—43,129, 566; Goldwater—27,178 ,188
• Electoralcount:– Johnson's 486 to52 forGoldwater (seeMap 37.1)
Map 37-1 p886
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II.Johnson BattlesGoldwaterin1964(cont.)
• Goldwater:• CarriedonlyhisnativeArizonaandfivestatesinSouth• SouthtraditionallyDemocraticbutnowraciallyrestless
• Johnson:• Recordbreaking61%ofpopularvotesweptlopsidedDemocraticmajoritiesintobothhousesofCongress
III.TheGreatSocietyCongress– Johnson'swintemporarilysmashedconservativecongressionalcoalitionofsouthernDemocratsandnorthernRepublicans
– RoadopenforGreatSocietyreforms:• LBJhelpedbygrowingeconomy• WaronPoverty:
– Doubled appropriation ofOfficeofEconomicOpportunity to$2billion
– Granted more than$1billion toredevelop Appalachia
• Createdtwonewdepartments:» Department ofTransportation» Department ofHousing and UrbanDevelopment (HUD)
III.TheGreatSocietyCongress(cont.)
– Named first blackcabinet secretary innation's history—respected economist Robert C.Weaver—to HUD
• EstablishedNationalEndowmentsfortheArtsandfortheHumanities:
– Designed to lift levelofAmerican cultural life
– BigFourlegislativeachievementscrownedLBJ'sGreatSocietyprograms:• Aidtoeducation
– Toavoid separation ofchurchandstate issue, LBJawardedaiddirectly tostudents
» Signed bill inhumble one-room Texasschool-house heattended asachild
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III.TheGreatSocietyCongress(cont.)
• MedicareforelderlyandMedicaidforpoor:– Created “entitlements”
» Rights forcertain categories ofAmericans in perpetuity» Without need for repeated congressional approval
– Partof spreading “rights revolution” thathelped millions, butalsocreated long-term financial problems for federalgovernment
• Immigrationreform:– Immigration andNationality Actof1965 abolished “national-origins” quota system inplace since1921 (seeChap.30)
– Doubled number of immigrants allowed toenterannually to290,000
– For first time, set limits on immigrants fromWestern Hemisphere(120,000)
III.TheGreatSocietyCongress(cont.)
– Provided foradmission ofclose relatives ofU.S.citizens,outside numerical limits
» 100,000 people peryear tookadvantageof“familyunification” provision indecades after1965
– Sourceof immigration shifted fromEurope toLatinAmericaandAsia
– GreatSocietyprogramscame inforpoliticalattacksinlateryears:• Conservativeschargedbillionsspentfor“socialengineering” wasted
• Yetpovertyleveldeclinedinensuringdecade(seeFigure37.1)
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III.TheGreatSocietyCongress(cont.)
• Medicaredramaticallyreducedpovertyamongelderly• ProjectHeadStart—sharplyimprovededucationalperformanceofunderprivilegedyouth
• GreatSocietyprogramsreducedinfantmortalityratesinminoritycommunities
Figure 37-1 p888
IV.BattlingforBlackRights
• VotingRights Actof1965:– OneofAmerica'smostpersistentevils—racialdiscrimination• CivilRightsActof1964:
– Gavefederal government moremuscle toenforceschool-desegregation orders
– And toprohibit racialdiscrimination inpublicaccommodations andemployment
• Problemofvotingremained:– Mississippi: only 5%ofeligible blacks registered tovote– Similar throughout South
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IV.BattlingforBlackRights(cont.)
– Ballot-denying devices:poll tax, literacy tests, barefacedintimidation
– Mississippi required names ofprospective black registrants bepublished for twoweeks in local newspapers—virtual lyguaranteed economic reprisals, orworse
• 1964:votingbecomechiefgoalofblackmovement– Twenty-fourth Amendment, ratified January 1964, abolished polltaxin federalelections (seeAppendix)
– Freedom Summer 1964:blacks joined with whites inmassivevoter-registration drive in Mississippi
» InJune, oneblackand two white civil rights workersmurdered
» Mississippi officials refused toprosecute those responsible
IV.BattlingforBlackRights(cont.)
• August:integratedMississippiFreedomDemocraticpartydelegationdeniedseatsatDemocraticconvention
• Early1965,MartinLutherKing,Jr.,resumedvoter-registrationcampaigninSelma,Alabama:
– 50%ofcity's population black, butonly 1%of itsvoters– AUnitarian minister killed
– Fewdays later, awhite Detroit woman murdered byKlansmen
IV.BattlingforBlackRights(cont.)
– JohnsonshepherdedthroughCongresslandmarkVotingRightsActof1965;signedintolawAugust6• Outlawedliteracytests• Sentfederalvoterregistrarsintoseveralsouthernstates• Overtimebroughtdramaticchangetosouthernpoliticsandbusinesses
• Soonblacksbegantomigrateinto Southforfirsttimesinceemancipation
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V.BlackPower
• VotingRights Actof1965:– Lastmajorlegislativevictoryofsouthern-focused,integrationist,nonviolentcivilrightsmovement
– IncreasedfocusonstrugglesinurbanNorthagainstdiscriminationandpolicebrutality• FivedaysafterLBJsignedVotingRightsAct,bloodyrioteruptedinWatts,ablackghettoinLosAngeles
– 31blacksand 3whites killed; more than athousand peopleinjured; hundreds ofbuildings charred andgutted
• Heraldedshifttomilitancy,radicalism,andseparatism
V.BlackPower(cont.)
• Leadership ofMalcolm X:– BornMalcolmLittle,hewasinspiredbymilitantblacknationalistsinNationofIslam• LikeNation'sfounder—ElijahMuhammed(bornElijahPoole),MalcolmchangedhissurnametoadvertiselostAfricanidentityinwhiteAmerica
• MalcolmXtrumpetedblackseparatism• LaterbrokewithElijahMuhammed'sseparatism;movedtowardmainstreamIslam
• Early1965,killedbyNationofIslamgunmen
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V.BlackPower(cont.)• Socialist BlackPanther party used “citizens'patrols” toresist police brutality
• In1966, StokelyCarmichael, SNCC leader:• BegantopreachdoctrineofBlackPower• LikeGarveyof1920s(seeChap.30),CarmichaelbreathedseparatistmeaningintoconceptofBlackPower
– Emphasized African American distinctiveness
– Promoted “Afro” hairstyles and dress– Shed“white” names fornew African identities– Demanded blackstudies programs ineducation
V.BlackPower(cont.)• 1967:moreriots inblackurban ghettos
– Newark,NewJersey(killed25people)– Detroit,Michigan(killed43people)
• AsinWatts(1965),rioterstorchedneighborhoods• Attackedpoliceofficersandevenfirefighters
– RiotsangeredmanywhiteAmericans,whothreatened toretaliate
– Riotsbafflednorthernerswhoconsideredracialproblemsa“southern” question
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V.BlackPower(cont.)
– Blacksmovednorthover1900s– Facedresidentialdiscrimination,whiteoutmigrationtosuburbs,anddeindustrialization• Blackunemploymentnearlydoublethatofwhites
– DespairdeepenedwhenMartinLutherKing,Jr.,murderedonApril4,1968• Triggeredmoreriots
– Riotersmadenews,butthousandsofotherblacksquietlymadehistory• BlackvoterregistrationinSouthshotupward
V.BlackPower(cont.)• Bylate1960s,severalhundredblacksheldelectedofficeinOldSouth
• Cleveland,OhioandGary,Indianaelectedblackmayors
• By1972,nearlyhalfofsouthernblackchildreninintegratedschools
– More schools integrated inSouth than North
• Aboutathirdofblackshadrisenintomiddleclass• Kingleftshininglegacyofracialprogress,buthewascutdownwhenjobfarfromdone
VI.VietnamVexations
– VietCong(guerillasloyaltoNorthVietnamesecommunists)attackedU.S.airbaseatPleiku,SouthVietnam,February1965
– Johnsonorderedretaliatorybombingraidsagainstmilitary installationsinNorthVietnam
– Forfirsttime,orderedU.S.combattroopstoSouthVietnam• Bymid-March,“OperationRollingThunder” infullswing—regularbombingagainstNorthVietnam
• Before1965ended,184,000Americantroopsinvolved
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VI.VietnamVexations(cont.)• Johnsonhadtakenslipperypathtoward“escalation”ofU.S.troopstodriveenemytodefeat
• GuerrillaenemymatchedeveryAmericanincrease• SouthVietnamesebecamespectatorsaswarbecameAmericanized
• CorruptandcollapsiblegovernmentsinSaigonsucceededeachother
• YetU.S.A.claimedtobedefendingademocratically• “Hawks” defendedwarasnecessarytoshowU.S.“commitment” tofulfillnumeroustreatypledgestoresistcommunistencroachment
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VI.VietnamVexations(cont.)• JohnsonsteadilyraisedmilitarystakesinVietnam
– By1968, ahalf million troops thereand annual bill forwarexceeded$30billion
– Still endnowhere in sight
• U.S.A.couldnot defeatenemyinVietnam, butitseemedtobebringing defeatupon itself– Worldreactions:
• SeveralnationsexpelledPeaceCorpsvolunteers• deGaullewithdrewFrancefromNATOin1966
– Ordered all American troops outofFrance
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VI.VietnamVexations(cont.)
– OvercommitmenttiedAmerica'shandselsewhere– InSix-DayWar (1967),Israel:
• DefeatedEgypt,Jordan,andSyria• GainedterritoriesinSinaiPeninsula,GolanHeights,GazaStrip,andWestBankofJordanRiver,includingJerusalem(seeMap39.2)
– VictorybroughtonemillionresentfulPalestinianArabsunderdirectIsraelicontrol
– Another350,000PalestinianrefugeesfledtoneighboringJordan
VI.VietnamVexations(cont.)• IsraellateragreedtowithdrawfromSinaiaftersigningapeacetreatywithEgypt
• Israelrefusedtorelinquishotherareaswithoutatreaty
• BeganmovingJewishsettlersintoheavilyArabdistrictofWestBank
– Six-DayWarintensifiedproblemsofvolatileMiddleEast• IntractablestandoffbetweenIsraelisandPalestinians
VI.VietnamVexations(cont.)
– DomesticdiscontentfesteredoverVietnam:• Campus“teach-ins” in1965• Graduallyprotestsgrewtotidal-waveproportions• Draftclaimedmoreandmoreyoungmen• ThousandsofdraftregistrantsfledtoCanada• Otherspubliclyburneddraftcards• Hundredsofthousandsmarchedinprotest• ManyAmericansfeltpangsofconscienceatburningpeasanthutsandusingdestructiveweapons
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VI.VietnamVexations(cont.)
– Congress'soppositiontoVietnam:• CenteredinSenateCommitteeonForeignRelations,headedbySenatorWilliamFulbright
– Heldseries of televised hearings in1966 and1967
– Public cameto feel theyhadbeendeceived about causesand“winnability” ofwar
• “Credibilitygap” openedbetweengovernmentandpublic
– Withinadministrationitself:• DoubtsdeepenedaboutwisdomofwarinVietnam
– When Defense SecretaryMcNamara expressed misgivingsabout war, hewas easedout ofoffice
VI.VietnamVexations(cont.)• By1968,brutalandfutilestrugglehadbecomelongestandmostunpopularforeignwartodateforU.S.A.
• Casualties(killedandwounded)alreadyexceeded100,000
• MorebombsdroppedonVietnam,thanonallenemyterritoryinWWII
• GovernmentutterlyfailedtoexplaintothepeoplewhatwassupposedtobeatstakeinVietnam
VI.VietnamVexations(cont.)
• Johnson:• OrderedCIA,inclearviolationofitscharter,tospyondomesticantiwaractivists
• EncouragedFBItoturnitscounterintelligenceprogram,“Cointelpro,” againstpeacemovement
– “Cointelpro” falsely labeled leading “doves” ascommunistsympathizers
– TacticsmadeFBIlook like totalitarian state's secretpolicerather thanguardian ofAmerican democracy
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VI.VietnamVexations(cont.)
• Evidencemounted thatUSAtrapped inacivilwar(motivated rebels vs.brutalgovernment)– YetLBJclungtostrategyofratchetinguppressurebitbybit
– StubbornlyassuredAmericansthathecouldsee“thelightattheendofthetunnel”
– TogrowingnumbersofAmericans,itseemedLBJbenton“saving” Vietnambydestroyingit
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VII.VietnamTopples Johnson
• January1968, communist offensivelaunchedonTet, VietnameseNewYear
• VietCongattacked27SouthVietnamesecities,includingcapitalSaigon
• ShowedJohnson'sstrategyofcontinualescalationnotworking
• TetoffensiveendedinmilitarydefeatbutpoliticalvictoryforVietCong
– U.S.public opinion increasingly demanded end towar
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VII.VietnamTopples Johnson(cont.)
– Americanmilitaryleaders respondedtoTetwithrequestfor200,000moretroops• Requeststaggeredmanypolicymakers
– LBJchallengedwithinhisownparty:• EugeneMcCarthyreceived41.4%ofvoteinNewHampshireprimaryonMarch12,1968
• Johnson'sstarfellfurtherfourdayslaterwhenRobertF.Kennedyenteredracefornomination
– Kennedy stirred passionate response amongworkers,African Americans, Latinos, andyoungpeople
VII.VietnamTopples Johnson(cont.)
– Mar.31:Johnsonannouncedhewouldfreezetroopslevelsandscalebackbombing• Declaredhewouldnotbeacandidatein1968election
– Johnson's“abdication” hadeffectofpreservingmilitary statusquo• Heheld“hawks” incheck,whileofferinghimselfasasacrificetomilitant“doves”
• U.S.A.couldmaintainmaximumacceptablelevelofmilitaryactivityinVietnam,whiletryingtonegotiateasettlement
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VIII.ThePresidentialSweepstakesof1968
– 1968oneofhottestpoliticalseasonsinU.S.history• VicepresidentHubertH.HumphreywasLBJ'sheirapparentforDemocraticnomination
• MeanwhileMcCarthyandKennedydueledinprimaries– OnJune5, 1968, Kennedy killed byArab immigrant resentful ofRFK's pro-Israel views
• AntiwargroupsconvergedonDemocraticconventioninChicago,August1968
• Exasperatedbysomemilitantdemonstrators,policebrokeintoa“policeriot” onguiltyandinnocentalike
• Humphreygainednominationonfirstballotbecauseprocessprivilegedpartyofficialsoverprimaryresults
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VIII.ThePresidentialSweepstakesof1968(cont.)
– Republicanconvention,MiamiBeach• RichardM.NixonbecamecandidateacceptabletoGoldwaterconservativesaswellaspartymoderates
• TappedMaryland'sGovernorSpiroT.Agnewasrunningmatetoappealtowhitesoutherners
– Agnew tough ondissidents andblackmilitants
• PlatformcalledforvictoryinVietnamandstronganticrimepolicy
• “Spoiler” thirdpartyticket—AmericanIndependentparty—headedbyGeorgeC.Wallace
– Gained famewith hisopposition toCivil Rights Movement
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VIII.ThePresidentialSweepstakesof1968(cont.)
– BetweenpositionsofRepublicansandDemocratsonVietnam,therewaslittlechoice:• Bothcandidatescommittedtocontinuewaruntilenemysettledfor“honorablepeace” (i.e.,U.S.win)
• Millionsof“doves” hadnoplacetoroost– Manyrefused tovoteatall
• Humphrey,scorchedbyLBJbrand,wentdowntodefeatasloyalprisonerofhischief'spolicies
VIII.ThePresidentialSweepstakesof1968(cont.)
– Nixonwon:• 301electoralvotes,43.4%ofpopulartally(31,785,480)• Humphrey:191electoralvotes,42.7ofpopularvotes(31,275,166)(seeMap37.2)
• HoweverNixon– FacedDemocraticmajorities in bothhouses ofCongress– Carried not asingle majorcity– Received noclearmandate todoanything– Aminority president whoowed his election todivisions overwarandprotest against unfairdraft, crime, and rioting
Map 37-2 p895
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VIII.ThePresidentialSweepstakesof1968(cont.)
– Wallace:• Wonimpressive9,906,473popularvotes• 46electoralvotes,allfromfivestatesofDeepSouth
– fourofwhich Goldwater hadcarried in 1964
• Wallaceamassedlargestthird-partypopularvoteinU.S.historytothatpoint
• Lastthird-partycandidatetowinanyelectoralvotes– Ross Perot in1992enjoyed agreaterpopular votemarginbutwon nostates (seeMap 40.1)
• Wallacedemonstratedcontinuingpowerof“populist” politics—appealtovoters' fearsandresentments
VIII.ThePresidentialSweepstakesof1968(cont.)
– JohnsonreturnedtoTexasinJanuary1969,onlytodiefouryearslater:• Hadsignificantachievementsincivilrightsandhelptopoor
• By1966LBJsinkingintoVietnamquicksand• Soaringwarcostsconsumedtaxdollars• WaronPovertymetresistanceandwouldeventuallygodownindefeat
VIII.ThePresidentialSweepstakesof1968(cont.)
• JohnsoncrucifiedhimselfoncrossofVietnam• ChosetodefendU.S.footholdandenlargeconflictratherthanwithdraw
• Decisionnottoescalatefightingfurtherin1968offended“hawks,” andhisrefusaltobackoffaltogetherantagonized“doves”
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IX.TheCulturalUpheavalofthe1960s
– Strugglesof1960sagainstracism,poverty,andwarinVietnamhadmomentousculturalconsequences:
– Negativeattitudes toward all kinds ofauthority tookhold– Manyyoungpeople lost traditional moral rudders– Conventional wisdom and inherited ideas cameunder fire
– MainlineProtestantdenominationsweakened• Weeklychurchgoingdeclinedfrom48%inlate1950sto41%in1970s
• LiberalProtestantchurchessufferedmost– Increasingly cededreligious authority toconservative evangelicals– While surrendering cultural authority tosecular professionals andacademicsocial scientists
IX.TheCulturalUpheavalofthe1960s(cont.)
• AseducatedAmericansbecameincreasinglysecular,lesseducatedbecamemorereligious
• Religiousupheavaloccurredintradition-boundRomanCatholicChurchaftersecondVaticanCouncil
• SkepticismaboutauthorityhaddeephistoricalrootsinAmericanculture,includingin1950s:
– “Beat” movement rejected culture andpolitics ofdecade– Movies like RebelWithout aCause (1955)with youngactorJamesDeanexpressed restless frustration ofmanyyoungpeople
IX.TheCulturalUpheavalofthe1960s(cont.)
– Disaffectionofyoungcrescendoedin1960sasBabyBoomreachedcollegeage:• 1offirstprotestsagainstauthoritybrokeoutatUniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeleyin1964
– FreeSpeechMovement—students objected toadministrative banonuse ofcampus space forpolitical debate
• ProtestsblossomedoverVietnamandsoonsawriseofself-conscious“counterculture” opposedtotraditionalways
• SocialupheavalfarfromAmerican-onlyphenomenon– Across globe, youth-driven political andsocial conflict roiled
– Helped byglobal reachofyouthpopculture, especially music
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IX.TheCulturalUpheavalofthe1960s(cont.)
• 1960switnessed“sexualrevolution”:– Introduction ofbirth controlpill (1960)madepregnancieseasier toavoidand sexualappetites easier tosatisfy
– Mattachine Society, founded inLosAngeles in1951, apioneering society advocating gayrights
– Stonewall Rebellion atNewYorkCity's Stonewall Inn(1969)proved turning point asvictims ofpolice brutality foughtback
– In1980s, worries about sexually transmitted diseases likegenital herpes and AIDS(acquired immunodeficiencysyndrome) slowed, butdid not reverse, sexual revolution
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IX.TheCulturalUpheavalofthe1960s(cont.)
• Launchedinyouthfulidealism,manyofdecade's“revolutions” sputteredoutinviolenceandcynicism
• StudentsforaDemocraticSociety(SDS):– Onceat forefrontofantipoverty andantiwar campaigns– Spawned underground terrorist group called Weathermen
• Peacefulcivilrightsdemonstrationsgavewaytourbanriots
• ExperimentswithmarijuanaandLSDspawnedunderworldofdruglordsandaddicts
• Criticsdenouncedself-indulgentromanticismof“flowerchildren”
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IX.TheCultureUpheavalofthe1960s(cont.)
– Supportershailed“greening” ofAmerica• Materialismandimperialismreplacedbynewconsciousnessofhumanvalues
– Upheavalsof1960scanbeattributedtothreeP's:• Youthfulpopulationbulge• ProtestsagainstracismandVietnamWar• Prosperitythatseemedpermanentfixtureofpostwarera
– “Counterculture” maynothavereplacedoldervalues,butitweakened theirgrip,perhapspermanently
X.Nixon“Vietnamizes”theWar– InauguratedonJan.20,1969,Nixonwas:
• AnunlikelyconciliatorofclashingforcesrippingAmericansocietyapart
– Solitary andsuspicious
– Brittle and testy in faceofopposition– Bitterly resented “liberal establishment”
• Yet,hebroughtonehugevaluableassettoWhiteHouse:
– Broad knowledge and thoughtful expertise in foreign affairs
– Applied himself toputAmerica's foreign-policy inorder
• Firstgoal:quietuproaroverVietnam
X.Nixon“Vietnamizes” theWar(cont.)
• Vietnamization policy:• Withdrawthe540,000troopsinSouthVietnamoveranextendedperiod
• SouthernVietnamese—withU.S.money,weapons,training,andadvice—wouldgraduallytakeoverwar
• NixonDoctrine thusevolved:• ProclaimedU.S.A.wouldhonoritsexistingdefensecommitments
• Infuture,allieswouldhavetofighttheirownwarswithoutsupportoflargebodiesofU.S.troops
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X.Nixon“Vietnamizes” theWar(cont.)
• NixonsoughttowinVietnamwarbyothermeans– Without further spilling American blood
• Advocatingimmediatewithdrawal,antiwarprotestersstagedbignationalVietnammoratoriuminOct.1969
• Nixonlaunchedcounteroffensivebyappealingtosilentmajoritywhopresumablysupportedwar
– Hisappeal deeply divisive
– VPAgnew attacked“nattering nabobs ofnegativism” whodemanded quick end towar
– In1970, Nixon sneered at student protesters as“bums”
X.Nixon“Vietnamizes” theWar(cont.)
– ByJan.1970,Vietnamhadbecameveryunpopular,evenamongU.S.troopsinfield
– Armed forcesinVietnamlargelycomposedofleastprivilegedyoungAmericans
– Early inwar,AfricanAmericans:• Disproportionatelyrepresentedinarmy• Accountedforhighestshareofcombatfatalities
X.Nixon“Vietnamizes” theWar(cont.)
– U.S.soldiers:• FoughtVietnameseaswellasbooby-trappedswampsandsteamingjungles
• Unabletotellfriendfromfoeamongpeasants• Drugabuse,mutiny,andsabotagedulledfightingedge
• Moraleplummetedfurtherwithrumorsthatsoldiers“fragged” theirofficers—murderedthemwithfragmentationgrenades
• Revelationsin1970about1968slaughterinMyLaideepeneddomesticdisgustwithwar
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XI.CambodianizingtheVietnamWar
– OnApr.29,1970Nixon,withoutconsultingCongress,orderedU.S.troopstocleanoutenemysanctuariesinofficiallyneutralCambodia
– Massivecampusriotsoverthisnewestescalation:• AtKentStateUniversity inOhio,jumpyNationalGuardfiredintonoisycrowd,killingfourandwoundingmanymore
• AthistoricallyblackJacksonStateCollege,Mississippi,highwaypatroldischargedvolleys,killingtwostudents
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XI.Cambodianizing theVietnamWar(cont.)
– NixonwithdrewtroopsfromCambodiaonJune29,1970,afteronlytwomonths
– ResultsofCambodianinvasion:• Amplifiedbitternessbetween“hawks” and“doves”• Disillusionmentwith“whitey'swar” increasedamongAfricanAmericansinarmedforces
• Senate(butnotHouse)repealedGulfofTonkinblankcheckthatCongressgaveJohnsonin1964
• Youthonlyslightlymollifiedwhengovernmentreduceddraftcallsandshortenedperiodofdraftability
– Ona lotterybasis, fromeight years tooneyear
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XI.Cambodianizing theVietnam(cont.)
• Youthpleased,thoughnotpacified,in1971when26thAmendmentloweredvotingageto18(seeAppendix)
• NewcombustiblesfueledfiresofantiwardiscontentinJune1971:
– FormerPentagon official leaked toNewYorkTimes thePentagon Papers, a top-secret Pentagon study
– Documented war's blunders and deceptions, especiallyprovoking of1964North Vietnamese attack inGulfofTonkin
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XII.Nixon'sDétentewithBeijing(Peking)andMoscow
• Dramatic initiatives inBeijing andMoscow:• TwomajorCommunistpowersclashedoverinterpretationofMarxismaswellasborderbetweenthem
• NixonrealizedChinese-SoviettensionaffordedU.S.A.opportunitytoplayoneantagonistagainsttheother
• AndenlistaidofbothinpressuringNorthVietnamintopeace
• HenryKissingerhadbeenmeetingsecretlywithNorthVietnameseofficialsinParistonegotiateendtowar
• Hewasmeanwhilepreparingpresident'spathtoBeijingandMoscow
XII.Nixon'sDétentewithBeijing(Peking)andMoscow (cont.)
– July1971: Nixonannounced hehadaccepted invitation tovisit Communist China the following year
– Made hishistoric journey inFebruary 1972– Capped visit with Shanghai Communiqué:
» Inwhich two nations agreed to“normalize”relationship
» Important partofaccordwas America's acceptanceof“one-China” policy
» Implied lessened American commitment toindependence ofTaiwan
XII.Nixon'sDétentewithBeijing(Peking)andMoscow (cont.)
– Nixonnext traveled toMoscow inMay1972:» Toplay“China card” ingameofhigh-stakes diplomacywith Kremlin
» Soviets ready todealwith United States
• Nixon'svisitusheredineraofdétente:– Relaxed tension—with majorcommunist powers
• Andproducedseveralsignificantagreementsin1972– Most important, USAandUSSRagreed toanti-ballisticmissile (ABM) treatyand toseries ofarms-reductionnegotiations known asSALT(StrategicArms Limitation Talks)
» Aimed at freezing numbers oflong-range missiles forfiveyears
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XII.Nixon'sDétentewithBeijing(Peking)andMoscow (cont.)
– ABM andSALTaccordsafirst step toward slowing arms race– Yetboth forgedahead with development of“MIRVs”(multiple independently targeted reentryvehicles)
» Putanumber ofwarheads ona single missile
• Nixon's détente diplomacy did, tosomeextent, de-ice ColdWar
XII.Nixon'sDétentewithBeijing(Peking)andMoscow (cont.)
• Nixon remained staunchly anticommunist• Opposed election ofMarxist SalvadorAllende topresidency ofChile in1970
• Allende diedduring anarmyattackonhisheadquarters in1973
• Nixon warmlyembraced Allende's successor,military dictator General AugustoPinochet
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XIII.ANewTeamontheSupremeBench
• Nixon andSupreme Court• In1968,Nixonlashedoutagainst“permissiveness”and“judicialactivism” ofWarrenCourt
• WarrenCourtaffectedsexualfreedom,criminalrights,practiceofreligion,civilrights,andrepresentation
• Griswoldv.Connecticut(1965):Courtvoidedstatelawthatbanneduseofcontraceptives,evenamongmarriedcouples,becauseof“rightofprivacy”
• Gideonv.Wainwright(1963):Courtheldthatallcriminaldefendantsentitledtolegalcounsel,eveniftoopoortoaffordit
XIII.ANewTermontheSupremeBench(cont.)
• Escobedo(1964)andMiranda(1966)ensuredrightofaccusedtoremainsilentandenjoyprotections
• Mirandawarning–policemustreadtosuspects
– Rulingssoughttopreventabusivepolicetactics• Toconservativesseemedtocoddlecriminalsandsubvertlawandorder
– ConservativesalsoobjectedtoCourt'sviewsonreligion:
XIII.ANewTermontheSupremeBench(cont.)
– InEngelv.Vitale(1962)andSchoolDistrictofAbingdonTownshipv.Schempp(1963):• JusticesarguedFirstAmendment'sseparationofchurchandstatemeantpublicschoolscouldnotrequireprayerorBiblereading
• Socialconservativesraisedanewbattlecry“ImpeachEarlWarren” (seeChap.36)
– From1954,Courtcameunderrelentlesscriticism,bitterestsinceNewDealdays• Grappledwithproblemslegislaturesfailedtoaddress
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XIII.ANewTermontheSupremeBench(cont.)
• Fulfilling campaignpromise, Nixon tried tochangeCourt's philosophical complexion:
• Soughtappointeeswhowould:– Strictly interpret Constitution– Cease “meddling” in social and political questions– Notcoddle radicals orcriminals
• AppointedWarrenE.BurgertosucceedEarlWarren• Beforeendof1971,NixonhadappointedfourconservativestoCourt
XIII.ANewTermontheSupremeBench(cont.)
• Nixon learned that onceseated, justicesdecide according to conscience, notaccordingtopresident's expectations
• Burger Court provedreluctant todismantle“liberal” rulings ofWarren Court– ControversialandmomentousRoev.Wade(1973)whichlegalizedabortion(seeChap.38)
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XIV.NixonontheHomeFront
• Oversawbigexpansion ofwelfare programsthatconservative Republicans denounced:
• IncreasedappropriationsforFoodStamps,Medicaid,andAidtoFamilieswithDependentChildren(AFDC)
• Addednewprogram:SupplementalSecurityIncome(SSI)toassistindigent,aged,blind,anddisabled
• AutomaticSocialSecuritycost-of-livingincreases• Implementedso-calledPhiladelphiaPlan (1969):
– Required trade unions toestablish “goals and time-tables”forhiring blackapprentices
XIV.NixonontheHomeFront(cont.)
• Philadelphia Plan:• Required1,000sofemployerstomeethiringquotasorestablish“set-asides” forminoritysubcontractors
• Alteredmeaningof“affirmativeaction”– Fromprotect individuals against discrimination– Toprogram thatconferred privileges oncertain groups
• SupremeCourtwentalongwithNixon'sapproach– Griggs v.DukePower Co.(1971): Court banned intelligencetests orother devices thathad effectofexcluding minoritiesorwomen fromcertain jobs
XIV.NixonontheHomeFront(cont.)
• Onlysureprotectionagainstchargeofdiscriminationwastohireminoritiesoradmitminoritystudents
– Inproportion to their presence inpopulation
• NixonandCourtopenednewemploymentandeducationalopportunitiesforminoritiesandwomen
• Criticsprotestedchangesas“reversediscrimination”– AnotherNixonlegacy:
• 1970creationofEnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA)• RachelCarson'sSilentSpring(1962)exposedpoisonouseffectsofpesticides
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XIV.NixonontheHomeFront(cont.)
• April22,1970,millionsaroundworldcelebratedfirstEarthDay:
– Toraise awareness and toencourage leaders toact– Congress passed Clean Air Act (1970)and Endangered SpeciesAct (1973)
– EPAmadeprogress in reducing automobile emissions andcleaning upbefouled waterways and toxicwaste sites
• Federalgovernmentexpandedregulatoryreachonbehalfofworkersandconsumers
– 1970Nixon signed Occupational SafetyandHealthAdministration (OSHA) into law
XIV.NixonontheHomeFront(cont.)
– Created agencydedicated toimproving working conditions» Prevent work-related accidents anddeath» Issue safety standards
• ConsumerProductSafetyCommission(CPSC):– Heldcompanies accountable for selling dangerous products
• Businesscriticsdecried“nannystate”• 1971:Nixonimposed90-daywageandpricefreeze• HethentookU.S.A.offgoldstandardanddevalueddollar
– Twoactions ended “Bretton Woods” system ofinternationalcurrencystabilization thathad functioned sinceend ofWWII(seeChap. 35)
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XIV.NixonontheHomeFront(cont.)
– Devisedplan—calledsouthernstrategy—togainreelection in1972
– Appointed conservative Supreme Court justices– Soft-pedaled civil rights– Opposed school busing toachieve racialbalance
– Goal:convertdisillusionedwhitesouthernDemocratstoRepublicans
– Set inmotionsweepingpoliticalrealignmentthateventuallytransformedpartysystem
XV.TheNixonLandslide of1972
• Fouryearssince Nixon promised toendVietnamwarand“win” peace
• 1972:whenNorthVietnamburstthroughdemilitarizedzoneseparatingtwoVietnams,Nixonlaunchedmassivebombingattacks
• ContinuingVietnamconflictspurredriseofSouthDakotasenatorGeorgeMcGovernto1972Democraticnomination
• Helpedbychangesinnominationsystemthatincreasedimportanceofprimaryelections
– Newsystem emphasized media politicking andactivist base
XV.TheNixonLandslide of1972(cont.)
• McGovern usednewpopulist process– PromisedtopullremainingtroopsoutofVietnaminninetydays:• Earnedhimbackingoflargeantiwarelementinparty• Hisappealtoracialminorities,feminists,leftists,andyouthalienatedtraditionalworking-classDemocrats
• Nixon emphasized hehadwound down“Democratic war” inVietnam– From540,000toabout30,000troops
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XV.TheNixonLandslide of1972(cont.)
• HiscandidacyreceivedaddedboosttwelvedaysbeforeelectionwhenKissingerannounced
– “Peace isathand” andanagreement would be reached inafewdays
• Nixonwonlandslide:– Won everystate exceptMassachusetts andnonstate DistrictofColumbia (seeAppendix)
– Received 520electoral votes to17 forMcGovern– Popular majority of47,169,911 to29,170,383 votes
• McGoverncountedonyoungvote,butlessthanhalf18-20agegroupevenbotheredtoregistertovote
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XVI.TheSecretBombingofCambodiaandtheWarPowersAct
– Doveofpeace“athand” justbeforeballoting,tookflightafterelection:• Nixonlaunchedfurioustwo-weekbombing• NorthVietnamagreedtocease-fireinTreatyofParis(Jan.23,1973)nearlythreemonthsafterpeaceprematurelyproclaimed
• Nixonhailedcease-fireas“peacewithhonor,”butboastranghallowas“peace” littlemorethanU.S.retreat
– United Stateswould withdraw its remaining 27,000 troops andreclaim 560American prisoners ofwar
– North Vietnam allowed tokeep145,000 troops in SouthVietnam
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XVI.TheSecretBombingofCambodiaandtheWarPowersAct(cont.)
• Constitutionality ofU.S.warinCambodia:– July1973:publiclearnedAirForcehadsecretlybombedCambodia3,500timessinceMar.1969• Whileforaysgoingon,U.S.officials,includingNixon,hadswornCambodianneutralitybeingrespected
• Defiancefollowedsecretiveness:– Nixoncontinued bombing Cambodia evenafterVietnamcease-fire
– Repeatedly vetoedcongressional efforts tostop bombing
XVI.TheSecretBombingofCambodiaandtheWarPowersAct(cont.)
– YearsofbombingwoundedCambodia:• Blasteditspeople• Shreddeditseconomy• Revolutionizeditspolitics
– CambodianssufferedsadisticheelofPolPot:• Twomilliondied• Potforcedfromofficeby1978Vietnameseinvasion
XVI.TheSecretBombingofCambodiaandtheWarPowersAct(cont.)
• 1973 WarPowersAct overNixon's veto:• RequiredpresidentreporttoCongresswithin48hoursaftercommittingtroopstoforeignconflictor“substantially”enlargingcombatunitsabroad
• Suchalimitedauthorizationwouldendwithin60daysunlessextendedbyCongressfor30days
• Actmanifestationof“NewIsolationism,”moodofcautionandrestraintabroad
• DraftendedinJanuary1973– Future members ofarmed forceswould bevolunteers
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XVII.TheArabOilEmbargoandtheEnergyCrisis
• YomKippur Warerupted October 1973• SyriaandEgyptattackedIsraeltoregainlandlostduringSix-DayWar(1967)
• KissingerflewtoMoscowtorestrainSoviets,whowerearmingattackers
• Nixonplacednuclearforcesonalertandorderedairliftof$2billioninwarmaterialstoIsrael
• IsraelisturnedtideandthreatenedCairobeforeU.S.A.brokereduneasycease-fire
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XVII.TheArabOilEmbargoandtheEnergyCrisis (cont.)
– U.S.policyofbackingIsraelagainstitsoil-richneighborsexactedheavypenalty:• Oct.1973,OPECannouncedoilembargotoU.S.A.andthoseEuropeanalliessupportingIsrael
• Oil-richArabstatesalsocutoilproduction• Oilshortagetriggeredmajoreconomicrecession,notonlyinUnitedStates,butalsoFranceandBritain
• Inincreasinglyglobalized,interconnectedworld,allnationsfeltcrunchof“energycrisis”
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XVII.TheArabOilEmbargoandtheEnergyCrisis (cont.)
– Fivemonthsofembargoendederaofcheapandabundantenergy
– Since1948,U.S.A.hadbeennetoilimporter• U.S.oilproductionpeakedin1970,thandeclined• YetAmericanstripledtheiroilusagesinceWWII• Automobilesincreased250%between1949and1972• By1974,Americaoil-addictedandvulnerabletoanyinterruptioninsupplies
• MiddleEastattainednewimportancetoU.S.interests
IVII.TheArabOilEmbargoandtheEnergyCrisis (cont.)
• OPECquadrupled price forcrude oil afterlifting embargo in1974– Results:
• HugeoilbillsdisruptedU.S.balanceofinternationaltradeandfurtherfueledragingfireofinflation
• U.S.tookleadtoformInternationalEnergyAgencyin1974ascounterweighttoOPEC
• VarioussectorsofU.S.economy,includingautos,begantoadjusttodawningageofenergydependency
• E.g.,nationalspeedlimit(55)toconservefuel
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