chapter 5: the skeletal system
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Chapter 5: The Skeletal System
Anatomy & Physiology Kasprowicz
Parts of the Skeletal System
·Bones (make up the skeleton)
· Joints (articulations)
·Cartilages
·Ligaments (dense, regular connective tissue connecting bone to bone)
Divisions of the Skeleton
Axial Skeleton• bones that form the longitudinal axis• skull, vertebrae, rib cage
Appendicular Skeleton• bones of the limbs (appendages) & girdles• arms, legs, pelvis
Functions of the Skeleton
1) Support for the body our internal framework
2) Protection of soft organs ex. skull brain rib cage lungs & heart vertebrae spinal cord
Functions of the Skeleton
3) Movement skeletal muscles use the bones as levers to
move the body & its parts
4) Storage Bone tissue stores minerals, such as calcium
and phosphorus Fat is stored in yellow marrow
Functions of the Skeleton
5) Blood Cell Formation Hematopoiesis occurs in red marrow
The adult skeleton is composed of 206 bones!
Classification of Bones
Bones can be classified based on their SHAPE or HISTOLOGICAL ORGANIZATION (STRUCTURE)
Classification of Bones: Shape
1) Long bones Typically long & slender Shaft with heads at both ends Mostly compact bone
Examples: arms, legs, fingers, toes
Classification of Bones: Shape
2) Short bones Typically box- or cube-shaped Mostly spongy bone
Examples: wrists & ankles
Classification of Bones: Shape
3) Flat bones thin, flattened usually curved thin layers of compact bone surrounding
spongy bone
ribs
Classification of Bones: Shape
4) Irregular bones Do not fit in other categories
Examples: VertebraeHip bones
Types of Bone (Osseous) Tissue
Compact Bone• dense, smooth &
homogenous
Spongy Bone• open network of struts
& plates
All bones contain both types of bone tissue. Their relationship & proportions vary depending on bone shape.
Gross Anatomy of a Long Bone
1) diaphysis a) tubular shaft b) compact bone
2) epiphysis a) ends of the bone b) mostly spongy bone
Gross Anatomy of a Long Bone
Structures of a Long Bone
1) periosteum a) outside covering of the diaphysis b) fibrous connective tissue membrane
2) Sharpey’s fibers connect periosteum to the underlying bone
Structures of a Long Bone
3) Arteries supply the osteocytes w/ nutrients & oxygen
4) Articular Cartilage a) covers the epiphyses b) made of hyaline cartilage c) decreases friction at the joints
Structures of a Long Bone
5) Medullary Cavity a) Cavity of the shaft b) bone marrow consists of loose connective tissue - yellow marrow (fat storage) in adults - Contains red marrow (for blood cell formation) in infants c) endosteum layer of cells lining the cavity
Bone Histology
• Osseous tissue (bone) is a type of connective tissue
• Four Characteristics of Bone 1) bone matrix is very dense & contains calcium salts 2) contains bone cells (osteocytes) in pockets called lacunae
Bone Histology
Four Characteristics of Bone cont… 3) Canaliculi allow for gas exchange and diffusion of nutrients and waste products 4) except at joints, bones are covered by the a periosteum
Let’s take a look at each characteristic…
Bone Histology: Matrix
1) 2/3 of bone matrix is calcium phosphate, Ca3(PO4)2
• w/ calcium hydroxide, forms crystals of hydroxyapatite, which incorporate other calcium salts & minerals into the matrix
2) 1/3 of bone matrix is collagen fibers
Only 2% of bone mass comes from cells
Bone Histology: Cells
1) There are 4 types of bone cells osteocytes are the most common2) Osteocytes sit in a pocket-like structure
called a lacuna (lacunae, plural)3) Lacunae are arranged in concentric rings,
or layers of matrix, called lamellae (lamella, singular)
Bone Histology: Canaliculi
Canaliculi (tiny canals)1) Radiate from the central canal (blood vessels)
to lacunae
2) Form a transport system between osteocytes and between the central canal & osteocytes
Bone Histology
Bone Histology: Periosteum
1) Covers all bones, except parts enclosed in joint capsules
2) It is made up of an:–outer, fibrous layer – inner, cellular layer
Bone Histology: Periosteum
3) Functions of periosteum a) Isolate bone from surrounding tissues
b) Provide a route for circulatory and nervous supply
c) Participate in bone growth and repair
Periosteum
Compact Bone
1) Osteon (Haversian System) osteon – the basic unit of compact bone
2) Organization of an Osteon a) Osteocytes are arranged in concentric lamellae around a central (Haversian) canal containing blood vessels
Compact Bone
2) Organization of an Osteon cont… b) Central (Haversian) canal
opening in the center of an osteon containing blood vessels and nerves
c) Perforating (Volkman’s) canal perpendicular to the central canal also containing blood vessels and nerves
Compact Bone
Compact Bone
osteon
Spongy Bone 1) Does not have osteons2) A “honeycomb” matrix forms an open network of trabeculae3) Trabeculae have no blood vessels
Spongy Bone
Spongy Bone: Yellow Marrow In some bones, spongy bone holds yellow bone marrow which is used to store fat
Spongy Bone: Red Marrow The space between trabeculae is filled with red bone marrow. Red marrow forms red blood cells and supplies nutrients to osteocytes.
Bone Markings · Surface features of bones that show… 1) Sites of attachment for muscles, tendons, and ligaments 2) Passages for nerves and blood vessels
Categories of bone markings· projections or processes – grow out from the bone
surface
· depressions or cavities – indentations
Bone Markings
Bone Markings
BONE FORMATION, GROWTH & REMODELING
The structure of bone is specialized for flexibility and tensile strength.
Bone Formation
· In embryos, the skeleton is primarily hyaline cartilage
· During fetal development, much of this cartilage is replaced by bone
· By the end of the toddler years, cartilage remains only in isolated areas:
- bridge of the nose
- parts of ribs
- articular cartilage (in the joints)
- epiphyseal plates
Bone Formation
•The process of “bone formation” is called ossification.
1) Unless it is a flat bone, a hyaline cartilage model is covered with bone matrix by osteoblasts. osteoblasts - immature, bone-forming cells
Over time, the “cartilage bone” is enclosed in a layer of real bone (kind of like an arm in a cast).
Bone Formation
2. The enclosed layer of hyaline cartilage is digested away by osteoclasts.
osteoclasts - bone destroying cells; break down bone matrix for remodeling and release of calcium The breakdown of the cartilage “model” leaves a medullary cavity in the bone.
Bone Formation
Bones must grow in both length and width.
Bone Growth
Epiphyseal plates allow for growth in the length of long bone during childhood & adolescence
Bone Growth
Bone Growth
Appositional growth increases thewidth of the bone.
1) Osteoblasts in the periosteum add bone tissue to the surface
At the same time…
2) Osteoclasts in the endosteum remove bone matrix from the inner surface.
In order for bones to retain normal proportions and strength as the body changes in size and strength, bones must constantly
remodel.
Bone Remodeling
1) Bones become thicker and form larger projections to increase strength for bulky muscles. When you lift its not just the muscles that have to respond!
Bone Remodeling
2) When bones are not subject to normal stress/exercise, they atrophy (shrink, shrivel).
Bone degenerates quickly! Up to 1/3 of bone mass can be lost in a few weeks of inactivity!
Bone Remodeling
Bone building (by osteocytes) and bone recycling (by osteoclasts) must balance
http://www.dnatube.com/video/8584/Learning-about-Bone-Modeling-and-Remodeling
Hormonal Control of Bone Growth &
Remodeling
Hormonal Control
1) Calcitriol - is made in the kidneys; synthesis requires vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol)
- helps absorb calcium and phosphorus from digestive tract
Hormonal Control
2) Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) - operates on a negative feedback loop
- activates bone resorption (osteoclast activity) & increases calcium levels in the blood
Hormonal Control
3) Other Hormones - growth hormone and thyroxine stimulate bone growth - estrogens and androgens stimulate osteoblasts - calcitonin (w/ PTH and calcitriol) regulate calcium and phosphate levels
The Effect of Nutrition on Bones
Nutrition & Bone
1) Minerals A dietary source of calcium and phosphate salts, plus small amounts of Mg, F, Fe and Mn
Nutrition & Bone
2) Vitamins - vitamin C needed (collagen synthesis & osteoblast differentiation) - vitamin A stimulates osteoblast activity- Vitamin K and B12 ( protein synthesis in bone)
Nutrition & Bone
Questions: 1. A pregnant woman is not getting enough calcium in her diet. How will her body respond? (hormone released, response)
2. Sally has a history of osteoporosis in her family. She includes many calcium-rich foods in her diet and takes a vitamin D supplement. How will her body respond? (hormone released, response)
Bone Fractures
Bone Fractures
Types of bone fractures1) Closed (simple) fracture –
break that does not penetrate the skin
2) Open (compound) fracture –
broken bone penetrates through the skin
· Bone fractures are treated by reduction (realignment of the bone) and immobilization
Bone Fractures
Bone Fractures
Bone Fractures
Bone Fracture Repair
Step 1: Bleeding• produces a clot (fracture hematoma)• establishes a fibrous network• bone cells in the area die
Bone Fracture Repair
Step 2: Callus Formation• Cells of the endosteum and periosteum divide and migrate into fracture zone
• fibrocartilage“Calluses” stabilize the break
Bone Fracture Repair
Step 3: Bone Formation• Osteoblasts and osteoclasts migrate to the area and multiply. • Osteoclasts deteriorate the fibrocartilage callus as osteoblasts replace it w/new bone tissue. This is now called a bony callus.
Bone Fracture Repair
Step 4: Bone Remodeling• Osteoblasts and osteocytes remodel the fracture for up to a year, reducing the bone calluses
Bone Fracture Repair
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