chapter one introduction to psychology and methods of research

Chapter One

Introduction to Psychology and

Methods of Research

Did You Know That…

• One of the founders of modern psychology was such a poor student that he was actually left back a grade in school?

• A movement that once dominated psychology believed that psychologists should turn away from the study of the mind?

• The school of psychology originated by Sigmund Freud holds that we are generally unaware of our underlying motives?

Did You Know That… (Cont’d)

• A major school of psychology was inspired by the view from a train?

• A student successfully completed all PhD requirements at Johns Hopkins University but was refused a doctorate because she was a woman?

• You can obtain listings and abstracts of articles from major psychology journals by using your home computer (and much of it is free of charge)?

Module 1.1

Foundations of Modern Psychology

Module 1.1 Preview Questions

• What is psychology?

• What are the origins of psychology?

• What are the major early schools of psychology?

• What are the major contemporary perspectives in psychology?

What Is Psychology?

• The science of behavior and mental processes

• What makes psychology scientific?• Evidence is valued over opinion and tradition.

• What is meant by “behavior”?• Anything an organism does

• What are “mental processes”?• Our private experiences

Origins of Psychology

• The word psychology is derived from two Greek roots:• Psyche, meaning “mind”• Logos, meaning “study” or “knowledge”

• Psychological inquiries can be traced back to Ancient Greece.

• Remained largely of interest to philosophers, theologians, and writers for several thousand years

Founding of Psychology as an Independent Science

• Usually credited to the German scientist, Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920)• Established the first scientific laboratory

dedicated to study of psychology in 1879

• Marked transition of psychology from philosophy to science

Figure 1.1: Psychology, the Early Days: A Timeline

Figure 1.1: Psychology, the Early Days: A Timeline (Cont’d)

Wundt, Titchner, and Structuralism

• Wundt was interested in studying people’s mental experiences.• Used method called introspection

• Edward Titchner (1867-1927) brought Wundt’s teachings and methods to US.

• Wundt and Titchner are identified with school of psychology known as structuralism.

William James and Functionalism

• William James (1842-1910) founded the school of psychology known as functionalism.

• Focused on the roles or functions that underlie mental processes• Why we do what we do

John Watson and Behaviorism

• Watson (1878-1958) founded the school of psychology known as behaviorism.• Psychology should be a science of behavior

• Believed that environment molds behavior

• By 1920s, behaviorism became dominant force in American psychology.

B. F. Skinner (1904-1990)

• Studied how behavior is shaped by rewards and punishments

• Principles of learning apply to animals and humans alike.

Max Wertheimer and Gestalt Psychology

• Wertheimer (1880-1943) was fascinated by the illusion of movement by objects in the distance.

• Founded Gestalt psychology• How does the brain organize and structure

our perceptions of the world?

Figure 1.2: What Is This?

Gestalt maxim:“The whole is greater than the sum of the parts.”

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) and Psychoanalysis

• An Austrian physician

• Founded view of psychology called the psychodynamic perspective• Focused on the unconscious mind• Emphasized importance of early childhood

experiences

• Led to form of psychotherapy known as psychoanalysis

Contemporary Psychology

• Behavioral Perspective• Social-cognitive theory• Behavioral therapy

• Psychodynamic Perspective

• Humanistic Perspective• “Third Force” in psychology

Contemporary Psychology (Cont’d)

• Physiological Perspective• Evolutionary psychology

• Cognitive Perspective

• Sociocultural Perspective

Module 1.2

Psychologists: Who They Are and What They Do

• What are the various specialties in psychology?

• What changes have occurred in the ethnic and gender characteristics of psychologists over time?

Types of Psychological Research

• Basic Research: Focuses on acquiring knowledge, even if no practical application

• Applied Research: Focuses on finding solutions to specific problems

Figure 1.3: Psychologists’ Areas of Specialization

Source: American Psychological Association, Research Office, Current Major Field of APA Membership by Membership Status 2002, Updated April 2004.

Figure 1.4: Where Psychologists Work

Source: American Psychological Association, Employment Settings for PhD Psychologists: 2001, APA Research Office. July 2003.

Major Specialty Areas

• Experimental • Comparative • Physiological

• Clinical • Counseling • School • Educational • Developmental

• Personality • Social • Environmental• Industrial/

Organizational • Health • Consumer

Emerging Specialty Areas

• Neuropsychology• Clinical neuropsychology

• Geropsychology

• Forensic psychology

• Sports psychology

Professional Psychology: Becoming More Diverse

• Women pioneers• Christine Ladd-Franklin (1847-1930)• Mary Whiton Calkins (1863-1930)• Margaret Floy Washburn (1871-1939)

• African American pioneers• Gilbert Haven Jones (1883-1966)• Francis Sumner (1895-1954)• J. Henry Alston• Kenneth Clark

Figure 1.5: Ethnicity of PhD Psychologists

Source: National Science Foundation, Division of Science Resource Statistics, Science and Engineering Degrees, by Race/Ethnicity of Recipients, 1992-2001, NSF, 04318, Project Officers Susan T. Hill, and Jean M. Johnson (Arlington, VA), April 2004.

Figure 1.6: Women PhD Recipients in Psychology

Source: American Psychological Association, Research Office, Demographic Shifts in Psychology, September 2003.

Module 1.3

Research Methods in Psychology

• What is the scientific method, and what are its four general steps?

• What are the major research methods psychologists use?

• What ethical guidelines must psychologists follow in their research?

Figure 1.7: General Steps in the Scientific Method

Case Study Method

• In-depth study of one or more individuals

• Information drawn from interviews, observation, or written records

• Problems with case studies:• Limitations of memory• Withholding of important information• Concerns over making favorable impressions

Survey Method

• Information gathered from target groups of people through the use of:• Structured interviews• Questionnaires

• Importance of random sampling• Problems:

• Limitations of memory• Social desirability bias• Volunteer bias

Naturalistic Observation

• Direct observation of behavior in natural environment

• Problems:• May behave differently when aware being

observed• Potential observer biases

Correlational Method

• Used to examine the relationship between two variables

• Correlation coefficient is a statistical measure of association• Can range from -1.00 to +1.00• Positive vs. negative correlation coefficients

• Limitation: Correlation is not causation!

Benefits of the Correlational Method

• Offers clues to underlying causes

• Can identify groups at high risk for physical or behavioral problems

• Increases understanding of relationships between variables or events

Experimental Method

• Allows for investigation of cause-and-effect relationships

• Independent Variables: Factors that are manipulated in an experiment

• Dependent Variables: Outcome variables believed to be dependent on the independent variable

Experimental Method (Cont’d)

Participants

Independent variable: control group

Independent variable: experimental group

Random Assignment

Measure dependent variable: Is there a difference?

Experimental Method (Cont’d)

• Controlling for placebo effects

• Controlling for expectancy effects• Single-blind and double-blind procedures

Anatomy of a Research Study: To Shoot or Not to Shoot?

• Study Hypothesis• What they predicted would occur

• Procedure• What they did and how they did it• The experimental design

• Results and Discussion• What they found and what it means• Results of the study

• References Continue

Experimental Design in Police Officer’s Dilemma Game

Race of Target

Object

African American White

No Gun

Return

Figure 1.8: Reaction Times in Police Officer’s Dilemma Study

Source: Adapted from Corel et al, 2002.

Figure 1.9: Fateful Decisions: The Role of Stereotyping

ReturnSource: Adapted from Corel et al, 2002.

Ethical Principles in Psychological Research

• Purpose of code of ethics is to respect the dignity and welfare of clients and research participants.

• Role of ethics review committees

• Role of informed consent

• Use of deceptive practices

• Importance of confidentiality

• Ethical guidelines for animal research

Application: Module 1.4

Becoming a Critical Thinker

Module 1.4 Preview Question

• What are the key features of critical thinking?

What Is Critical Thinking?

• The adoption of a questioning attitude• Careful weighing of evidence• Thoughtful analysis of others’ claims and

arguments

• Requires a willingness to challenge conventional wisdom and common knowledge

Features of Critical Thinking

• Question everything.

• Clarify what you mean.

• Avoid oversimplifying.

• Avoid overgeneralizing.

• Don’t confuse correlation with causation.

Features of Critical Thinking (Cont’d)

• Consider the assumptions upon which claims are based.

• Examine sources of claims.

• Question the evidence upon which claims are based.

• Consider alternative ways of explaining claims.

Thinking Critically About Online Information

• Don’t suspend skeptical attitude when online!

• Ask questions such as:• Who is posting the material?• Is the source a well-respected institution or

one with no apparent credentials and perhaps an ax to grind?

• Most trustworthy online information comes from well-known scientific sources.

chapter one introduction to psychology and methods of research

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