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CHAPTER - 2
LITERATURE REVIEW & OBJECTIVE
CHAPTER - 2
LITERATURE REVIEW AND OBJECTIVE
2.0 INTRODUCTION
Conventional Energy sources are becoming scarce day by day in India's
context due to paucity of Natural Petroleum Fuels on one side and the ever raising
prices in the market on the other side. Therefore, common user I customer is
finding different to meet the energy requirements. Hence, the academicians,
researches and experts are doing their level best to find-out the alternative sources
of energy. In the process, it is observed that the usage of Bio-Fuels was found not
only to be in the forefront but also in practice since 1930s but only in emergency
situations, Elsbett and Bialkowsky (2003) [54]. But in the recent past, the increase
in crude oil prices, environmental pollution and depletion of petroleum reservoirs
has led to the research on the better usage of Bio-Fuels. Any research requires to
know the earlier contribution to the area / subject. In the process it is to mention that
a review on 42 contributions is brought-out on the use of vegetable as IC Engine
Fuels, Ramadhas, et al., (2004) [163]. Later-on, a comprehensive review is brought-
on through 150 articles on the utilisation of Bio-fuels in IC Engines by Bhanodaya
Reddy, et al., 2007 [18]. The Literature and the practical observation reveal that
there are more than 100 vegetable oils (Refer Table-2.1), Elsbett and Bialkowsky,
(2003) [54]; out of which only 30 or so being tried as Bio-Diesel. Thus it is evident
that still lot of potential for research in the area of Bio-Diesel as an alternate fuel.
For convenience, the Literature Review is divided into the following. Usage of
Methanol and Ethanol, Vegetable Oils and their Blends, LHR Engine, Exhaust
Emissions and Models.
2.1 METHANOL AND ETHANOL
The research started with the running of diesel engines with alternate fuels,
after the invention of Diesel Engine in 1893, by Rudolf Diesel and the same is
further investigated by Bhanodaya Reddy, et al., (2001) [27] due to the reasons
mentioned earlier. To start with, the usage of Alcohol as the principal fuel to run
the Diesel Engine, Jones, (1944) [87] and upto 48% Diesel substitution was
achieved on road without reduction in thermal efficiency by the introduction of a
novel Air-Alcohol Inductor with inter-cut flexibility to increase the Alcohol flow
rate in a multi cylinder, variable speed, vehicular diesel engine to enable operation
in the Alcohol-Diesel - Bi-fuel mode, Havemann, et al., (1953) [76]. That was
followed by the use of Power Alcohols (rectified spirit), Bio-gas, Biomass - Wood
waste, Agriwaste, etc., Hydrogen and Producer gas in CI Engine late in1940s,
Bolt, (1954) [30]; and the rectified spirit is a substance abundantly available in
tropical countries where the vegetable growth is abundant, Sreenivasayya, (1954)
[I 981. The utility of power alcohols and heavy fuels to run a Diesel Engine has been
proved by experiments, Prabhukumar, et al., (1 983) [ I 571; the cooling with the
higher latent heat of alcohols results in the lesser emission of NOx and the increase
in the delay can result in a larger fraction of fuel burning in the form of the
premixed flame, Broukhiyan and Lestz (1981) [33]. The viability of alcohols as a
Diesel fuel extender was proceeded with the increase in thermal efficiency by 6%
with 10% blend of alcohol in Diesel, Gollahalli and Atluri, (1982) [68]. The
suitability of alcohols to petrol or diesel fuel is also reported in the literature with
minor modifications and for further improvement of the performance of Bio-fuels
with usage of Glow plugs, Nanni, et al., (1980) [132].
It was found that it would be difficult to blend Methanol, Diesel oil and
therefore, the C.I. Engine run on Bi-he1 approach in which diesel was admitted in
the conventional manner and methanol was taken into the engine through carburetor
along with air, Arnold et al., (1958) [5]. A comparative study has been carried-out
between the usage of neat diesel and by mixing methanol and ethanol in propanol
and butenol by Ryan et al; (1971) [180]. In the process of identification of
alternate fuels, it is suggested that Methanol, Ethanol, Hydrogen and Ammonia
could be considered as substitutes for petroleum fuels, Gregory and Rosenberg,
(1973) [72]. The usage of Methanol in DI diesel engine is found to be
satisfactory and proved that the overall increase in the thermal efficiency was 3%,
Kanitkar, (1979) [89]. Methanol has been utilised in a single cylinder research
engine filled with Comet-V swirl combustion chamber and it was found that 20%
energy substitution by Methyl Alcohol at full load and upto 35% energy
substitution at part load, Mathur, et al., (1979) [113]. Methanol with aldehyde by
MBTH Method (3-Methyl-2-Benzo-Thiazolone Hydrazone Hydrocholoride) has
been used in a single cylinder SI Engine to study the emission characteristics and
found that the aldehyde emissions are minimum at equivalence ratio 1 (one) and
increase both at leaner and richer mixtures, Ayyasamy, et al., (1979) [9].
2.1.1 Methanol in SI Engine
The SI Engine has been tested using Benzole gasoline alcohol blends and
found that there was an overall improvement in the engine performance and the fuel
blends have no adverse effects on any component of the engine. Though the non-
conventional (such as blends of Benzole) fuels were used from the period 1920 -
1939 in Germany, UK and France, and during the Second World War, no reliable
technical data available regarding the performance the engine, Madan and Mathur,
(1979) [108]. Effects of fbel-air ratios and compression ratios on engine
performance under knock ftee operation using gasoline and rectified spirit in the SI
engine were investigated to optimize the carburetor design, Reddy, (1 982) [175].
The methanol was also used in SI engine to estimate the combustion and emission
characteristics by Subbi Reddi, et al., (1983) 12071; proved that the Methanol has
been a versatile fuel to run multi-cylinder automotive S.I. Engine and found that
the performance of the vehicle was satisfactory, Murthy, et al, (1983) [124].
2.1.2 Ethanol in DI Diesel Engine
The usage of Ethanol has got the advantages of increased power, reduced
specific energy consumption, reduced NOx emissions and increased fuel octane
quality, David, [43], Harrigton and Pilot, [74], Adelman and Andrews, [I], Mast
and Longwell, [112], Ebersole and Manning, [52]. The use of ethanol is proved by
the reduction in exhaust temperature in a single cylinder Ricardo Variable
Compression Engine, Murthy and Gopalakrishnan, (1977) [126]. Further, the NOx
emissions reduce with Ethanol, Khan and Gollahalli (1981) [98], Broukhiyan and
Lestz (1981) [33] but the NOx increases with small amounts of Methanol and
ethanol but decreases with larger additions, Heisy and Lestz, (1981) [79]. It was
supported by a design to evaluate the feasibility and optimal conditions of particle
substitutions of diesel with proponal and butonol, Gollahalli and Atluri, (1982) [67];
Khan and Gollahalli (1981) [98]; whereas Vinyard, et al., (1981) [223], had dealt
with the use of "butanediol", bio-mass-divided alcohol in a single cylinder - Four
stroke cycle CI Engine. Good results are obtained with Ethanol as the neat Fuel
(20% Coconut Oil and 80% Castor Oil) on the performance test of a two wheeler,
two stroke Scooter engine, Asokan, et al., (1982) [ 7 ] . Pure Ethanol (25%) can be
used with diesel (75%) to meet the requirements of renewable energy sources,
Bhanodaya Reddy and Reddy, (2000) [26]. Ethanol, an alcohol found to be the
promising option for countries like India, because the carcass obtained from the
plants available fiom agricultural products to run diesel engines, Sunil Kumar
Reddy, et al., (2007) [212]. Emulsions of alcohol and diesel &el proportions of
ethanol with different bio-diesels were used to run diesel engine and found that
performance of the engine was similar to that of diesel, Indumathi, (2007) [81].
Methyl alcohol (CsH5-OH) is preferred to liquid petroleum fuels and
C2Hs-OH can be produced from coal, natural gas, sugarcane, corn, etc., Durga
Prasad, et al., (2000) [SO] and they have physical 1 chemical properties
approximately 80-90 % similar to that of petrol or diesel, Raja Gopal, et al., (2000)
[I611 and hence they can be used to run Dl Diesel engine. In the process, the Paddy
husk, Agricultural waste, Cowdung, Groundnut husk, Sugarcane refuse, etc. have
been used as an alternate source for diesel fuel and put back the old E.C. Engine - Stirling engine to meet the present energy crisis, Sharneel, et al., (2000) [192]. Such
usage of alternate fuels has been established by the statement "Agricultural residues
such as Corn Stover as the potential feedstock for bio-energy and bio-based / fuel
products are the potential alternate substitute for diesel and that they could reduce
the U.S dependence on foreign oil", Graham et al., (2007) [71]. Methane which has
higher calorific value than the producer gas can be produced from anaerobic
bacteria of wood, Janakirama Naidu, (1 997) [85].
2.1.3 Kerosone and Other Gases
Many publications have reported on the usage of Kerosene, its mixtures and
other gases as alternate fuels to run the Diesel Engine and some of them are
reported briefly in the following.
While doing experiments with alternative fbels, the performance of diesel
engine was tested with Light Diesel Oil (LDO) - ie., Kerosine 5% Machine Oil
(K+5M) and Kerosene with 20% Machine oil (K + 20 M), and found that the diesel
Engine could be run with out any troubles, Rao and Natarajan, (1954) [171].
Kerosine mixed with 20% machine oil (lubricant oil) and on comparison with
diesel, the thermal efficiency could be increased by 30% and reduction in SFC,
Shah, et a1.,(1969) [190]. Furnace oil and Kerosene blends were used to run a diesel
engine and proved that the engine performance was almost equal to that of the
diesel with ratio of 2: 1 blend, Varunny i d Thomas, (1 979) [219].
The Producer Gas and Natural gas have been used to run the Diesel Engine
in dual fuel mode, Boyer, (1949) [31]. Hydrogen was used to run S I Engine to
determine the Nitric Oxide (NO) emission, Fagelson, et al., (1978) [57]. Hydrogen
was used as fuel to run diesel engine on duel cycle and compared the performance
of the engine considering two different shapes of pistons - (one usual cup-shaped
pistons and the both flat topped piston) and found that the absence of engine knock
even at higher hydrogen flow rates, Ganti Gopal, et al., (1 982) [64].
Experiments were conducted on Dual Fuelled, single cylinder four stroke
agricultural stationery diesel engine with Hydrogen, Hydrogen - Diesel. Deepak
Kurnar, et al,, (2007) [45]. The emission results from a diesel engine run with
cooking oil blends have resulted in the emissions CO (upto 12 %), increase in NOx
(upto 20 %), Murillo, et al., (2007) [122].
2.2 GOBARGAS
Gobar gas-cum-diesel as duel fuel for operation of Diesel Engine, Jain,
(1976) [84]; the combustion characteristics of a Gobar Gas in a Gobar-Diesel
Engine, Parikh and Jain, (1 977)[145] and the Gobar gas blends, Viswanadham,et al,
(1977) [224]; Gobar gas as good subsidiary fuel for diesel engines, Balusamy and
Subrarnanian, (1982) 1121 have suggested to run diesel engine in duel fuel cycle
engine. By doing so, some of the problems with duel fuel engines found are: loss of
efficiency at part load, Steven, (1953) [204]; Ignition delay, Moore and Mitchel,
(1955) [I 191; Knocking, Karirn, (1980) 1921; Cruz, et al., (1980) [42]. But such
findings are contradicted by Pandya, et al., (1983) 1143) and Vyarawalla, et al.,
(1983) [226] and Parikh, et al., (1983) [146]. Hence, the community bio-gas plants
would be he lp l l to the people the Rayalaseema area which has fairly big cattle
population, thus robust milk and dung yielding but also for utilisation to run IC
Engines, Sreeramulu Reddy, (1997) [199]. Further, the gaseous fuel can be
obtained through the anaerobic fermentation of wet live stock wastes to produce
biogas, Ahmed, (2000) [3].
The some other principal fuels or energy sources used to run diesel engines
were natural gas, sewer gas, liquid petroleum gas (LPG) and alcohols, Jagadeesan,
(1988) [82]; Wind energy systems not only occupy lesser area but also non-
polluting, Ramprasad, (1997) [I691 and Pyrolysis derived fuel can be used as
alternate fuel to run CI Engine, Murugan and Ramaswamy, (2007) [128].
2.3 WATER AND ITS EMULSIONS:
Water - Diesel emulsions with Oxygen enriched air, Subramanian and
Ramesh, (2001) [209] and diethyl ether and water-diesel emulsion have been used
to run a DI diesel engine, Subrarnanian and Ramesh, (2002) [210], Crooker, et al.,
(1985) [41].
It was established that the usage of Wind Energy, Solar Energy, etc. are
alternate energy sources. The solar energy is being used as an alternative energy
source and the solar energy applications by rural mass, Narasimhan et al., (1956)
[I331 are not so economic to run Diesel Engines. Therefore, the feasibility of
vegetable oils as alternative fbels for C.I. Engines is emerged. Further, in a small
city like Tirupati, not less than 3000 automotive vehicles pass per day through and
emit enormous amount of CO and CO;! to the atmosphere and therefore, the usage
of Bio-Diesel fuels are necessary for pollution free atmosphere, Eswara Reddy,
(1999) [56].
2.4 VEGETABLE OILS IN DI DIESEL ENGINES
The vegetable oils have been tried to run the Internal Combustion (IC)
during the invention stage of the Compression Ignition Rudolf Diesel (1 858 - 191 3)
(before taking pattern), run the Diesel Engine (1893) and had conducted
experiments using Peanut (Groundnut) oil as fuel to his compression ignition and
IC Engine, Knothe (2001), [99]. The diesel engine run with bio-fuel proved that
the diesel he1 was saved about 37% and increased thermal efficiency upto 4% by
running the engine at an output range of 65% to 85% and rated RPM, Parikh,
(1978) [144]. The notable contribution in such direction in early 1980s came from,
Bruwer, et al., [I9801 [35], Barsic and Humke, (1981) [IS], Nagarajaiah, et al.,
(1982) [130].
2.4.1 Sunflower Oil
The Sunflower oil has been tried to run the DI Diesel Engines. At this
juncture, some of the contributions are given in the following. 100% Sunflower oil
used to run tractors in place of diesel and established that the performance of the
tractor was same as that of the diesel Bruwer, et al., (1 981) [34]; Tahir, et al.,
(1982) [214], though the viscosity of Sunflower oil which is 14% higher than
Diesel. Sunflower and groundnut oil have been used in running the diesel engine
and found that the results obtained are similar to that of the Diesel hel, Dinesh
Kumar and Pundir, (1983) [49]. The experiments carried-out on the four stroke
single cylinder diesel engine using Sun Flower oil, Palm Kemal oil and Karanj oil
with their esters and have proved that all the vegetable oils have higher thermal
efficiency than the Diesel, Govindarajan, et al., (1982) [70]. Therefore, the
Sunflower oil, Baransescu, et al., (1982) [13] and Vegetable oils are also potential
alternate fuels for DI Diesel engine, Ziejewski and Kanfman, (1983) [230]; Morel,
et al., [120]. The performance of a turbocharged DI Diesel LHR Engine to run with
Biodiesel blends of Sunflower 'oil and found that the performance of the LHR
Engine was better than that of the conventional Diesel engine, Hasimoglu, et al.,
(2008) [75].
2.4.2 Mahua Oil and its Blends: Mahua oil and diesel (25%+75%) was
suggested to be a good blend, Bhatt, et al., (2004) [29]. It has also been established
that the 20 % Mahua Oil could easily be substituted Diesel Engine without any
significance difference in power output, BSFC and Brake Thermal Efficiency,
Bhatt, et al., (2004)[29]. But the results were not compared to any other non-edible
oils.
A two stage technique is developed to produce Bio-Diesel from Mahua Oil
(Madhuca Indica) having high frequency fatty acids (19% FFA). The technique
could help to reduce FFA les than 1 %. Each step is carried-out with) 0.30-0.35 v/v
level of Methanol-to-oil ratio in the presence of 1 % v/v H2S04 as an acid catalyst
in I -hour reaction at 60 degrees C followed by the transesterification using 0.25 v/v
Methanol and 0.7% w/v KOH as alkaline catalyst to produce Bio-Diesel,
Shashikant and Hifjur, (2005) [195]. Better results of Mahua oil and diesel (25 to
28% + 70% Mahua + diesel) blend, as well as 25% + 75% (Neem oil+ diesel)
blends are found to be alternative to diesel for usage in diesel engine, Bhanodaya
Reddy, et al., [22]. There is no cold start problem with the Pongarnia oil - Diesel
blends with blends of 10% to 50%, Bhanodaya Reddy, et al., (2001) [27]. Mahua
oil and Diesel blend is found to be suitable for diesel engine and the performance of
the engine was found to be similar to that of diesel engine at all loads, Subba
Reddy, et al., (2007) [206].
2.4.3 Pongamia and its Blends: The Pongamia oil also known as Honge oil
which has got medicinal value has been tried after esterification in diesel engine,
Varaprasad, et al., (1977) [217]. Esterified oils as substitute fuels in diesel engine
were used and successfully conducted experiments with Pongarnia oil, Samaya,
(1 983) [I 821. The blends of Karanja oil with Diesel and though the diesel engine
can be run with raw vegetable oils, it was observed that the combustion residues
and deposits try to pose problems with injectors, piston rings and oil flow, Murthy,
(1996) [125], Performance evaluation of semi-adiabatic diesel engine was
conducted with non-edible vegetable oils namely Pongamia and Jatropha for
various injection pressure at room temperature and estimated the NOx emission
and other pollutants, Prabhakar Reddy, et al., (2000) [156]. The Mechanical
Efficiency of a CI engine while running with Pongamia oil blend was found to be
the same as that of the diesel engine, Bhanodaya Reddy, et al., (2004) [19] and also
better with an unmodified diesel engine fbeled with Pongamia Pinnata Methyl Ester
(PPME), Suresh Kumar, et al., (2008) [2 131. The experimental results revealed that
the energy content in Pongamia is less in comparison to Soyabean oil but the Brake
Thermal Efficiency is high and it is due to the availability of more Oxygen leading
to better combustion, Shailaja, et al., (2007) [191]. But the other vegetable oils not
considered. The experiments were limited to the usage one oil. The DI Diesel
engine performance was tested by the use of esterified Mahua and Pongamia Oils
and found that there is no much variation in the performance of the engine during
the running of the engine with both the oils, viz., The Brake thermal efficiency
with Diesel is 26.22 %, followed by Esterified Mahua, 26.02% and esterified
Pongamia 26 %; Ranganath, et al., (2007) [170j, thus indicating the potential
replacement for Diesel in DI Diesel Engine. The experimental results of the 593
hours of engine operation with B20 Neern Diesel Blend are comparable with Diesel
and established that there is no undue damage except on cylinder head, spots on
crown of piston but are within the wear limits, Dilip Sharma, et al., (2007) [47].
Rural women use Jatropha carcass for medicine and Bio-production in
addition to bio-diesel, Kathyayani and Manasa, (2004) [93]. Modified Karanja Oil
Methyl Ester (MEKO) shows better power output, less SEC, higher exhaust
temperature and less pollutants but slightly increase in SFC in comparison to
Diesel, Rajesh Kumar, et al., (2007) [162]. Thus, further studies on Karanja Oil are
needed.
2.4.4 Jatropha and its Blends
Later on due to the economic aspects (as discussed in Chapter -1) , the non-
edible oils such as Jatropha and Pongamia in crude and estified oils have been tried
successfully to run Diesel Engine, Muthuveerappan, (1987) [123]. The fact that
Jatropha can be grown in any wastelands particularly in the Drought Prone area like
Rayalaseema, with less imgation and water facilities, gives it diesel distinct
advantage for consideration as the prime bio-diesel feed stock in Indian conditions,
Jayachandraiah, et al., (2006) [86].
The influence of the Injection Pressure on IC engine was tested while
running with esterified Jataropha oil and its blends to run a DI Diesel Engine found
that the: (i) COz and CO emissions are very less in comparison to that of the engine
run with diesel, Bhanodaya Reddy, et al., (2007) [17]; (ii) performance on a
computer interfaced diesel engine is similar to that of the performance on
convocational diesel engine but the running time and loading time are found to be
faster, Bhanodaya Reddy, et al., (2007) [21]: (iii) CO and smoke intensity are in
lower levels in comparison to diesel emission and thus established the reduced
pollution with bio-diesel, followed by the study on the effect of Injection Pressure
on the performance of the diesel engine at a pressure of 220 bar for the absorptivity
and opacity Krishna, et al., (2007) [loo]; (iv) Proved that the emissions of CO;! and
hydrocarbons with Jatropha 20% + diesel 80% are almost same as that diesel
engine, Sravan Kurnar, et al., (2007) [197]. Experiments are conducted on a three
cylinder, naturally aspirated, constant speed, four stroke, DI diesel engine with the
three non-edible Jatropha oil, Karanja oil and Rice bran oil, to compare the
performance of the Bio-fuels by considering BSEC, since the BSFC is not a very
reliable parameter to compare the performance of Bio-fuels which have different
calorific values. The results of the BSEC thus obtained from Bio-Diesels are better
in comparison to Diesel, Singh, et al., (2007) [196]. The existing diesel engine
design and operating parameters are needed to be optimised for improvement of
fuel economy followed by the performance and also reduction in emissions for
using hundred percent Jatropha based Bio-Diesel in DI Diesel Engine, Ganapathy,
et al., (2007) [62]. Though, the three oils are used but the influence of Injection
Pressure effect is not considered. Therefore, the Jatropha oil is taken for study in the
present work.
' The studies on Bio-Diesel Blends of Neem Oil and Deccanhemp are very
very limited and therefore, they have been referred wherever possible. But they are
considered in the present Research Work.
2.5 ROLE OF VEGETABLE OILS AS BIO-DIESEL
Though there are more than 100 vegetable oils (Table - 2.1, Elsbett and
Bialkowsky, (2003) [54]), only about 30 different vegetable oils have been used to
run CI diesel engines since 1900s, Quick, ( I 980) [160]. Out of them, Rapeseed Oil
has similar energy out-puts to that of the diesel fuel and suitable to run diesel
engines, Schoedder, (1 982) [I881 and other eleven vegetable oils properties were
studied and found to be suitable for usage in diesel engines. The oils are: Corn,
Rapeseed, Sesame, Cotton seed, Soybeans, Palm, Neern, Batonssa, Linseed,
Jathropha, Georing, (1982) [65], Vegetable Oils as substitute to Diesel, Peterson, et
al., (1983) [I 551, use of Vegetable Oils, their developments and opportunities for
development, Bagby, (1987) [I 11, and cracked Soybean oil, Niehaus, et al,, (1985)
[138], Ziejewski, et al., (1986) [229], Ziejewski, and Gill, (1988) 12281, Soybean
and Sunflower oil, Scholick, et al., (1988) [187], Palm oil, Sapvan, et al., (1996)
[183], Sunflower oil, Rosca Radu and Mircea (1997) [179], Cigizoglu, et al.,
(1997) [40], Palm Oil, Lim, (1998) [I061 and Coconut Oil, Machacon, (2001)
[lo71 are reported in the Literature.
The presence of molecular oxygen in vegetable oils helps the stochiometric
Air Fuel ratio to raise, Gerhard, (1983) [66]. Fuels must expeditiously have to
ensure that the safe running and survival of the existing working engines while
running with plant oils and animal fats, Muniayappa, et al., (1996) [121]. One of
the best ways for utilization of vegetable oils in a diesel engine is to blend with
alcohols for making the corresponding ester, Mittelbach, (1 496) [ 1 161,
Vegetable oils have better properties than alcohols to run CI engines,
Senthil Kumar, et al., (2001) [189], Babu and Devaradjne, (2003) [lo],
Vijayakumar Reddy, (2000) [222]. Vegetable oils are good alternatives for fossil
fuels for use in diesel engines, Pestes and Stanislao, (1984) [151]. Use of non-
edible oils, Srinivasa Rao and Gopalakrishnan, (1989) [200], that result in the
improvement in the engine performance was established with modified vegetable
oils when compared to base vegetable oils, Kevin Schmidt and Jon Van, (1996) [97]
and Perkins, et al., [ I SO].
Esterified vegetable oils in diesel engines as fuels had been suggested,
Srinivasa Rao and Gopalakrishna, 1989 [201], Ozaktas, et al., (1997) [141]. Five
different vegetable oil esters (Coconut oil, Rapeseed oil, Mustard oil, Safflower oil,
Soy oil were tested and established that the Iodine Number increases from 7.88 to
129.5, the NOx increases to 29.3%, Peterson, et al., (2000) [154]. But the effect of
Injection Pressure is missing. The combustion properties of vegetable oils depend
on refining techniques and oil seed growing, Chand, (2002) 1381. The engne
performance can be improved with the other esterification and atomization
techniques on vegetable oils, Eiji, et al., (2004) [53]. The main and more harmful
emissions like carbon monoxide and unburnt hydro-carbons are from the S1 and CI
Engines can be reduced by the usage of Vegetable Oils, Bhanodaya Reddy, et al.,
(2004) [20]. Bio-diesel comes from plants and plants breathe CO2 and hence there
is no net gain in COz from Bio-diesel, Saimurugan, et al., (2004) [18 11. The effect
of Injection Pressure on diesel engine performance with vegetable oil blends was
tested by considering cotton seed oil, Coconut oil, Sunflower oil and Mustard oil
and with 30% oil + 70% diesel blends follow the same performance as that of diesel
engine, Ashok Kumar, et al., (1997) [6]. The percentage of oil content in each of the
seeds of Rape Seed / Canola / Mustad - 40-45 %; Sunflower - 25-40%; Neem - 45-50%; Karanja - 27-39%, which indicate the suitability for Bio-Diesel
production, Neil Noble, (2006) [137]. The effect of Bio-Diesel Fuels on Diesel
Emissions are clearly brought-out by Magin, et al., (2008) [109].
The density, cloud point, pour point, fire and flash points of Palm oil are
not only higher than that of the diesel but also its methyl esters unsuitable in cold
climate conditions, Ravi Kumar, et al., (2008) [ I 721. Therefore, other than Palm oil
are taken-up for research in the present work.
Experimental values of diesel and bio-diesel fuel properties were used in the
spray structure simulation and the simulated sprays show good agreement for both
fbels, Pagorevc, et al., (2007) [142]. A stationery single cylinder CI Engine
typiqally used in agricultural sector for its performance based on BSFC, BSEC,
Brake Thermal Efficiency and exhaust emissions, and found to be on par with that
of Diesel, Avinash Kumar and Rajamanoharan, (2009) [8]. Some amount of fresh
mixture get lost to the exhaust line and contributes for H.C. emission while running
with Bio-Diesel Blends, Reddy, et al., (2000) [176]. The octane number of
alcohols, from non-edible vegetable oils, is quite high and hence the engines may
be operated at higher compression ratios, to improve the operational efficiency of
the engine and the emission from diesel engines consists of diesel odor which
causes irritation to human eyes and nose, Bhanodaya Reddy and Reddy, (2004)
[24], To overcome such emission odors, Bio-Diesel is preferred. Some other
problems that are being encountered with the usage of vegetable oils are (i)
Alteration of injector spray pattern inside the engine cylinder. (ii) Fuel impingement
on the piston and cylinder surfaces Franz, (1980) [60] and leading to Carbon
deposits and piston stuck-up, Nag, et al., (1995) [129]. Such problems can be
avoided by suitable improvements to cylinder walls. Therefore, the research on
LHR is gained importance and hence, the LHR Engine is being developed in the
present Research Work.
2.6 LHR ENGINE PERFORMANCE WITH DIESEL
The feasibility of fbrther improvement in the performance of the DI Diesel
Engine run with Bio-Diesel Blends of vegetable oils is being tried by various
methods. Among them, the concept of Low Heat Rejection (LHR) engine is one,
where-in some physical modifications are made to the conventional engine. In this
context, some of the contributions from the Literature are briefly discussed here-
under. The energy losses due to conduction can be reduced by providing glow
plugs on the plain engine cylinder head towards the down stream side of one of the
fuels sprays as close as to the nozzle as possible and away from the hot surface,
Nanni, et al., 1980 [132], using hot surface, Franz, et al., (1986) [59] and Ceramic
hot surface, Ramesh, et al., (1988) [167]. Esterified Thurnba Oils have low
volatility and hence exhibit poorer performance than that of Diesel but better than
that of vegetable oils, Kusy, (1982), [loll . Suggestions like esterification or
trasesterification are made for the use of vegetable oils in LHR Engines, Misipa,
(1984) [115]. Therefore, Transesterification is a process to improve the volatile and
physical properties of the oils, Mittelbach Martin, (1996) 11171; Devakumar, et al.,
(2000) [461,
The experimental results proved that the ceramic coated single cylinder DI
Diesel engine performance is better than the convention engine in terms of 7 % fuel
economy and reduction in HC and CO emissions, Thring, [2 161; and similar is the
result with coatings of PSZ and Cintered Silicon Nitride (SSN), Miyairi, et al.,
[I 181, Modifications are suggested to improve the thermal efficiency of the diesel
engines running with vegetable oils, Yoshimoto, et al., (1990) [227]. The Jatropha
Oil and its blends were used to run the LHR Diesel Engine, Bhaskar, et al., (1992)
[28]. The Thermal Efficiency can be improved with Ceramic Thermal Barrier
Coatings, Parker (1993) [I 471.
Climate will contribute to variation in vegetable oil properties and test
results, Sturnborg, (1996) [205]. Therefore, the engine modifications or LHR
Engines are being developed. Some experiments have been canied-out on
conventional and LHR engines using Thumba oil and Simarouha oil, Vijayakumar
Reddy, et al., (2000) [221]. The CI Engine has been coated with ceramic namely,
Partially Stabilised Zerconia (PSZ) on the cylinder and insulated liner the
performance thus the LHR performance was found to be better than the published
results of Lakshmi Nagesh, (2000) [102]. A PSZ slab of 4 mrn thick in the form of
sector over which a Kanthal heating wire of 1 mm diameter has been connected at
different points along its length to make the hot surface and then attached on the
cylinder head to develop the LHR Engine. Experiments were conducted on the
engine and proved that the performance of the LHR engine with Alcohols was
better than that of the conventional Diesel Engine, Durga Prasad, (2001), [5 11. The
LHR engine with coatings of CaZr03 and MgZr03 onto the base of the NiCrAl
bond coat and then the engine output results have indicated reduction in fuel
consumption and improvement in efficiency in comparison with that of the
conventional engine, Taymaz, (2007) [215]. A turbocharged DI Diesel has been
converted to LHR Engine to run with Biodiesel blends of Sunflower Oil and found
that the performance of the LHR Engine is better than that of the Diesel engine,
Hasimoglu, et al., (2008) [75]. Therefore, proper transesterification is needed. The
use of Water - Diesel Emulsions in a DI Diesel Engine using a thermally insulated
cylinder head has been suggested for LHR Engine, Subramanian and Ramesh,
(2007) 12081.
The recent noted works with non-edible oils are (i) Modification to the
conventional DI Diesel Engine by coating cylinder head, valves' faces and piston
face with PSZ and spraying the parts with Plasma Guns so as to resist the
temperature of 2000 Deg. C. and run the engine Blends of Deccanhemp Oil,
Hebbal, et al., (2006) [78] and compared the results with other non-edible oils
blends. This is followed by the modification to piston with PSZ coatings to run the
LHR Engine and observed that the performance improvement in Brake Thermal
efficiency at the fbll load operation Srinivasa Reddy and Raja Gopal, 2007 [202]. It
is also observed that on comparison with that of the base engine, the volumetric
efficiency drop is maximum of 12 % . The CO emission was reduced by 0.28 by
volume followed by HC emission level was around 250 ppm. Further, the smoke
levels also decreased with the increase in Injection Pressure in the LHR engine,
Murthy, et al. 2007 [127].Thus, better studies on such LHR Engines are required.
The experimental results on the two LHR Engines with crude Pongamia oil
marginally decreased the smoke levels due to efficient combustion and less amount
of fuel accumulation on the hot combustion chamber walls of LHR Engines at
different operating conditions of the vegetable oils compared to the conventional
engines. The cylinder head, exhaust valve and inlet valves of a Diesel engine are
coated with the ceramic materials MgO-ZrO, and the Piston surface with Zr02 for
LHR and the engine has been tested canola methyl ester. The increase in output
power, decrease in SFC and improvement in exhaust gas emissions are observed
with LHR Engine, Hazar, (2009) [77]. The approximate energy distribution from
the LHR Engine is shown in Figure - 2.1.
The Aluminum Piston was replaced by Cast Iron piston and the surface was
coated with PSZ to develop and studied the performance by conducting experiments
and showed that the LHR Engine performance was found to be better than that of
DI Diesel Engine, Nagesh, 1999, [131]; Deccanhemp oil at 150 bar, Hebbal, et al.,
[78]. Though many of the experiments have been conducted, the performance of
the Computer Interfaced LHR Engine with modifications of the piston and its
crown run with Deccanhemp Oil and its Diesel Blends has not been tried.
Therefore, to over-come such wide gap, suitable parameters have to be considered
while conducting the experiments with five non-edible oils on LHR Engine are
carried-out in this research work.
2.7 INJECTION PRESSURE
The injection of the fuel is an important parameter that influences the
combustion process in a DI Diesel Engine. If the Injection Pressure is low, it
affects the fuel atomization and evaporation, fuel penetration and wall impingement
of fuel. The injection rating depends on the Injection Pressure and the mixing with
air in the combustion chamber. High Injection pressures influence the exhaust
emissions and thermal efficiency to certain extent. Thus it is necessary to find the
best Injection Pressure. The research is being concentrated in many ways to
improve the performance of the engine. As such, the effect of the variation in the
Injection Pressure has been studied experimentally on the performance and
emission with Jatropha he1 on air cooled, single cylinder, DI Diesel Engine. It has
been identified that the thermal efficiency could not be improved at the static
injection timing of 335 degrees BTDC, Injection Pressure 220 bar, injection rate
corresponding to 9 mm plunger diameter with swirl level except that the reduction
in HC smoke levels, Narayana Reddy and Rarnesh, (2005) [135]. The increase in
pressure results, in most cases, an increase in NOx emissions and decrease in
particulate matter, Maiboom and X-Tauzia, (2008) [ill]. Thus the study on
Injection Pressure is needed, Therefore, there is a need for more .detailed study on
the effect of Injection Pressure on the performance characteristics of the engine.
The effect of Injection Pressure on the performance and the emission
characteristics of a Bio-Diesel Engine was studied at four Injection Pressures - 160,
180,200 and 220 bar taking Coconut Methyl Esters (CME) for blends of B20, B30,
and B100. The maximum Brake Thermal Efficiency was recorded at full load
conditions for blends of B20 and B30 respectively at an Injection Pressure of 200
bar, Shankar, et al., (2007) [193]. The experiments are conducted only on
conventional engine but not on LHR Engine. The results indicate the scope for
fixther research to study the effect of Injection Pressure on the performance LHR
e&ne run with the non-edible oils. As such, the studies on Neem oil is extended
further in the present research work and it is also available abundantly in tropical
countries like India and limited work is on Neem based Bio-Diesel.
The effect of Injection Pressure in a 4-Stroke Single Cylinder Diesel Engine
was tested by modifying the engine to work on dual fuel and Methyl Esters of
Gingili Oil (Bio-diesel) as pilot &el followed by LPG as primary hel. The engine
was run at 200 bar and established that the performance of the engine with dual fuel
mode was close to that of the neat Diesel operation at full load, Eswar Rao, et al.,
(2007) [55 ] . The performance of the DI Diesel engine run with Methyl Ester of
Mahua Oil (MEMO) at the injection pressure of 200 bar and the advanced injection
time of 30 degrees BTDC is close to that of the performance of the Diesel when run
on Dual Fuel mode., Kapilan and Reddy, (2007) [91]. Thus, it establishes Mahua
fuel can be used to run Diesel Engine.
The effect of Injection Pressure on the performance of a Diesel Engine run
with Jatropha Methyl ester blends of B20, B40, B60, B80, and 100 % Jatropha by
varying the pressure from 160 to 300 bar was studied experimentally. It has been
established that the SFC decreases from 160 bar 250 bar of Injection Pressure and
after 250 bar, the SFC increases. Further, it is observed that the Diesel Engine can
be run with 100% Jatropha oil without any modifications to the engine but
suggested some more investigations, Rarnbabu, et al., (2007) [166]. Though the
experiments revealed that the SFC decreases from 160 to 250 bar, the best pressure
at which the engine could be run is not specified and 160 to 250 bar is a wide range.
Therefore, the present study is taken-up to identify the near optimal Injection
Pressure.
The usage of Bio-Diesel or Bio-Fuels ensures energy security, economic
development by providing employment opportunities and cultivating the waste
lands effectively. The tropical climate which India experiences is ideal for
Pongamia Pimata and Jatropha since they can be cultivated in places of water
shortages, Lakshmi Narayana and Meganath, 2007 [I031 and the combustion
properties also depend on the technique and seed growing, Chand (20021, 1381.
Therefore, the present research is taken-up not only on the Pongarnia and Jatropha
but others Neem, Karanja and Deccanhemp, which are grown in the tropical
climate, particularly in South India.
2.8 EXHAUST EMISSIONS
Increasing concern about combustion related pollutants, such as particulate
matter (PM), Sulphur and Nitrogen oxides, CO, Metals, Total Organic Carbon and
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs), amongst others, are driving the governments
to put more stringent requirements on fuel regulations. Exhaust emissions from
diesel burning in motor vehicles contain hundreds of compounds, either in the gas
or particulate phases. Several of those compounds are proved, or suspected to be,
carcinogenics, such as formaldehyde, acrolein, PAHs, nitro-PAHs, Benzene,
Sulphate, etc.
Amongst vehicular fuels, diesel also produces larger quantities of fine
particulate matter, which consists basically of carbonaceous material, metals,
soluble organic fraction (SOF) and sulphate. Thus the exhaust emission is also
largely dependent on the Sulphur and aromatic content of the fuel. As a
consequence, the use of alternative fuels in order to reduce the environmental
impacts of diesel emissions has been extensively investigated. Trends in the
regional use of biomass-derived fuels, such as alcohols, biodiesel and agricultural
residues - as a proposed control initiative against elevated carbon monoxide levels
in urban areas - have expanded to a global scale. The general interest in biofuels
obviously results &om economic considerations but, more recently, increasing
attention has also been due to the role that their combustion products may have on
the question of global warming and on smog formation.
The use of Bio-diesel hels derived from vegetable oils as a substitute for
conventional Diesel Engines is receiving an increasing amount of attention as it is
evident from the above Literature. Displacing petroleum diesel with Biodiesel in
urban buses is an extremely effective strategy for reducing COz Emissions, NREL,
(1998) [139]. Such interest is because of the production Bio-Diesel from a
renewable resource and biodegradability and also reduced exhaust emissions.
Therefore, the studies on the exhaust emissions are found in the Literature, out of
which some are discussed in the following. The water injection was used in a Spark
Ignition engine and experiments showed that 90% reduction in 'NO' emission,
Lestz, (1972) [105]. The simultaneous control of the diesel particulate matter and
NOx emissions could be possible by the system developed with the use of a cerium
fuel borne catalyst / filter / EGR System, Summers, et al., (1 996) [211]. Catalyst
convectors can be located in exhaust system of an automobile vehicle so that all the
emission gases pass through them and thus pollution control could be achieved,
Deepak Jain and Parikh, (1999) [44]. The preheating of Mahua Oil helps the
reduction in the HC emission and reduced CO levels in comparison to unheated
Mahua Oil and hence preheating is important, Satyanarayana, et al., (2007) [186].
It has been established that the Mahua Methyl Esters (MME) emit less pollutants to
the extent of 0. 8 -1.7 % of C02 and 0.03 % CO, Joshua, et al., (2007) [88].,
reveals that the Mahua is eco-friendly.
The increase in Injection Pressure and exhaust gas recirculation reduce the
NOx emission, Ferguson and Kirkpatrick, (2001) [ 5 8 ] ; Prasanth, et al., (2008)
[159]. The NOx emission improvement can be done by Exhaust Gas Recirculation,
Allansson, et al. (2002) [4]. CO and HC emissions are found to be lower from a
Diesel Engine run with Jatropha based Bio-diesel irresepective of EGR levels,
Pradeep and Sharma, (2007) [158]. The cooling of exhaust gases before mixing
with fresh air introduced to the engine reduces the NOx emissions, Ramadhas, et
al., (2008) [165]. The experimental results fiom the microturbines diesel engines
run with biodiesel and their blends have revealed that the NOx emissions are lower
than that of the diesel emissions, Nasciomento, et al., (2008) [136]. Higher NOx
emission is found in Diesel Engines run with Biodiesel Blends due to higher
oxygen levels and higher temperature of combustion, Rarnesh and Sarnpathrajan,
(2008) [168].
2.9 MODELLING
The statistical models and the relevant graphs representing the Biodiesel
emissions outputs using Regression Analysis are helpful to study and know the
exhaust emission levels fiom Diesel Engines run with Diesel and Bio-Diesel Blends
and then to compare with that of the (Environmental Protection Agency) EPA
Reports, catfish.colorado.edu. (2002) [37] . Modelling Techniques are also being in
practice to analyse the exhaust emissions of DI Diesel Engines. A few of them are
cited here. Modelling was carried out for efficient use of alternate fuels by
observing the combustion flame speed with that of engine speed, Visweswaran and
Jagadeesan, (1983) 12251. The model on the prediction of the Nitric Oxide
formation in Dl Diesel Engine has established that the heat release rate and NO
formation are dependent on the pressure, Kau, et al., (1997) [94]. The engine
performance and emission characteristics of two different petroleum diesel - hels
(No. 1 and No. 2) biodiesels (from Soyabean oil and Yellow Grease and their 20 %
blends with No. 2 diesel fuel are used as experimental results and then compared
the results with ANN Model and found good agreement between both the results,
Canakci, et al., (2005) [36]. The effect of preheating on the engine performance and
exhaust emission is shown with the Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD)
Analysis on the use of Jatropha Oil Blends in a DI Diesel Engine Jayachandraiah, et
al., (2006) [86]. The specific fuel consumption and exhaust gas temperature of a
Diesel engine have been predicted by a Neural Network Model using a back
propagation learning algorithm and then the output results are in agreement with the
experimental results and within 2 % error, Parla., et al., (2006) [148]. The
Theoretical Modelling on the properties of Bio-Diesel has been developed and
proved that the properties of vegetable oil depend on the transesterification and
ethanol content, Ramadhas, et al., (2006) [I 641.
A simulation model for the failure of the fuel injector is developed to study
the harmful emissions like HC, CO and NOx of diesel engine exhaust gasegwhile
running with Rapeseed Methayl Esters (RME) and proved that the injection timing
influences the operational characteristics of the engine and the emissions to certain
extent, Lebedevas, et al., (2007) [104]. Later-on, the numerical model has been
developed by conducting experiments on a diesel engine r& with Rapeseed
Biodiesel and established that the harmful emissions (NOx, CO, and HC) could be
reduced to certain extent by adjusting the injection timing properly, Kegi, (2008)
[96]. The combustion and emission of Jatropha and Deccanhemp oils and their
diesel Blends are modelled and . :';,malysed by CFD Analysis and established that
the preheating and combustion delay influence the exhaust emission from a Diesel
Engine, Bhanodaya Reddy, et al., (2008) [22].
2.10 ESTERIFICATION
Bio-diesel (fatty acid methyl esters), the high viscosities, low volatilities and
poor cold flow properties of Vegetable oils led to the investigation like
Transesterification resulting in Biodiesel Esterification of vegetable oil to its
mythelester which reduce the molecular weight, viscosity but increases the Cetane
Number, Gopalaknshna et al, (1987) [69]. Generally it is observed that the
vegetable oils have nearly 13% less energy than that of diesel. But this energy
could compensate by the specific gravity since the vegetable oils have about 0.94
whereas the Diesel has got 0.83. Thus the vegetable oils gain the energy on mass
basis, Rehman and Singhai (1 995) [ I 771. Therefore, esterification is required. It is
also observed that the vegetable oils have nearly 13% less energy than that of
Diesel. But that energy is compensated by the specific gravity since the vegetable
oils have 0.94 whereas the Diesel has 0.83. Hence, the vegetable oils gain the
energy on mass basis, Halvorsen, et al., (1 993) [73]. Though the Diesel Engine can
run with raw vegetable oils, it was found that the combustion residues and deposits
try to pose problems with injectors, piston rings and oil flow, Raubold, (1995)
[174]. Therefore, Preheating of Jatropha oil is needed to overcome some of the
properties of viscosity and injection pressures, Maheswar, et al., (2000) [110].
~sterification of vegetable oil to its methylester reduces the molecular weight,
reduces viscosity and increases the Cetane number, Varaprasad, et al, (2000) [218].
~io-diesel (fatty acid methyl esters), the high viscosities, low volatilities and poor
cold flow properties of Vegetable oils led to the investigation like transesterification
resulting in Biodiesel, Srivastava and Ramprasad, (2000) [203]. Therefore, the
Biodiesel derived from triglycerides by transesterification with methanol requires
suitable process and therefore enzymatic transesterification using lipase has been
proposed for Biodiesel production from vegetable oils, Fukuda, et al., (2001) [61].
The heat loss through various components for energy balance and temperature
distribution in the cylinder have been analysed by experimentation on a DI Diesel
Engine run with Jatropha Oil, Ravikumar, et al., (2007) [173]. Though the heat
transfer and energy balance have been studied but the effect of Injection Pressure
was not considered. The detailed process of transesterification of the five oils
considered in this Research Work will be discussed in the next Chapter.
From the review, it can be observed that still there are some draw backs with
respect to the following issues. The production of non-edible oils drawn from the
plants that grow in the tropical and semi-arid areas and their utilisation in DI Diesel
Engines is limping. It can be observed from the above Literature Review that the
works have been carried-out with non-edible oils, either conducting the experiments
at only one pressure with one or two or three Bio-fuels or their blends for the
establishment of the usage of Bio-Diesel blends in place of Diesel. But the best
blend and the best Injection Pressure for the various blends of different oils such as
Deccanhemp, Jatraopha, Mahua, Neem and Pongarnia and also the best Bio-Diesel
among the available Bio-Diesels is lacuna.
Further, the utilization in terms of effective working parameters like
Injection Pressure, Load variations, etc., require fiu-ther research. Better non-edible
oil among the available non-edible oils and their characteristics one over the other,
decrease in the hazardous pollution contents, improvements / modifications to the
conventional Diesel Engines, etc., require fkrther research studies. As such, the
present research work is taken-up to study the performance of a DI Diesel Engine,
considering, (i) Deccanhemp Oil, (ii) Jatropha Oil, (iii) Mahua Oil, (iv) Neem and
(v) Pongamia Oil and their blends and the effect of Injection Pressure followed by
the development of LHR Engine.
2.11 OBJECTIVE OF THE PRESENT RESEARCH WORK
Based on the above discussions, a solemn attempt is made in the Present
Research to study the influence of the Injection Pressure on the performance of the
Direct Injection CI Diesel engine and Emissions characteristics with the following
objectives.
1. Transesterification to improve the Bio-fuel characteristics of five blends.
2. Running the Diesel Engine by varying the Injection Pressure to find the
characteristic curves by interfacing with the Computer system.
3. Identification of a suitable or the best Injection Pressure for the maximum
Thermal Efficiency and minimum Specific Energy Consumption.
4. Analysis of the exhaust gas emissions
'5. Identification of the best Bio-Diesel Blend among the five blends of the
differenet oils.
6. Design of an LHR Engine to improve the thermal efficiency.
2.12 SUMMARY
The contributions of various researchers and experts contained in 230
articles in the field of CI and DI Engines run with Alternate Fuels have been
reviewed. The advantages and limitations of the use of Alcohols, Ethenol,
Methanol, in earlier days and consequent developments leading to the usage of
Vegetable Oils were brought-out. The cost factors and their domestic uses led to the
concentration towards the usage and research on five non-edible oils. The need of
pre-heating, Esterification and Transesterification are explained. Then, the
theoretical and experimental studies on the conventional DI Diesel Engines and
LHR Engines have been brought-out. The need of the research on the five non-
edible oils, Deccanhemp, Jatropha, Mahua, Neern and Pongamia has been
explained. The objectives of the present research work has been outlined. The next
Chapter deals with Esterification and Data Collection.
35/838 Table - 2.1: List of the seeds available for the production of Bio-Diesel
I SI ( EnglishName 1 S1. 1 English Name
1 29 1 Jaboty palm 1 30 1 Japanese Chest 1
No.
1
3
5
7
9
11
1 3
15
17
19
21
23
25
27
( 3 1 1 Janary Palm 1 32 ( Java Almond I 1 33 1 Jatropha 1 34 1 Kagne butter 1
of the Seed
Almond
Assai-palm
Bacaba Palm
Borage
Butter nut
CarnaubeWax
Copaiba tree
Corn salad
Croton
Essang
Earth Almond
Ginkgo
Grape
Hunter nuts
No. 2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
2 8
I I I
- of the seed Apricot
Awarra
Baobab
Borneo tallow
Butter tree
Cohune Palm
Cotton seed
Crab wood
Deccanhemp
Eth. Mahagony
Evening Primerose
Gorli seed
Hemp
Indian Almond
35 ( Malabar-nut tree I I I
36 I Malabar tallow
3 7 1 Manketti nut
39
41
43
45
47
49
5 1
53
55
57
3 8 1 Madhuca Indica
59
61
Mumurupa lm
Niger
Oiricurupalm
Papaya
Peanut / Ground Nut
Peach Palm
Powder Flask Fruit
Red Pepper
Red Cotton Tree
Sandle Bead tree
R;S 62/# go2 E35
42 a4cs3
Seje Palm
Soucherry
40
42
44
46
4 8
5 0
52
54
56
5 8
Narasplant
Nutmeg
Pachira Nut Tree
Passion fruit
Peach
Pistachio
Pongarnia 1 Karanja
Neem
Rose hip
Scotch Pine
60
62
Shea Nut
Spruce
S1. No
63
65
67
69
7 1
73
75
77
79
8 1
83
85
87
89
9 1
93
95
97
99
101
103
105
107
109
111
113
115
117
English name of the seed
Sweet Chestnut
Coconut
Tarweed
Tucuma
Wainut
Meadow Foam
Cashew nut
Palm
Rubber Seed
Calendula
Coffee
Hazel Nut
Pumpkin seed
Mustard
Sesame
Safflower
Tung tree
Cocoa
Rape seed
Indaia Palm
Castor Bean
Pecan nut
Babassu Palm
Macadmia Nut
Avocado
Buriti Palm
Macahuba Palm
Ginger
English name of the seed
Suari fat
Syrian Scabious
Tallow tree
Tea-oil plant
Turpentine Tree
Water - Chestnut
Corn
Oat
Lipine
Paddy (Rice Bran)
Soy Been
Line Seed
Euphorbia
Coriander
Dodder Seed
Abyssinian Kale
Buffalo Gourd
Sun flower
opium POPPY
Olive Tree
Gopher Plant
Bacury
Jojoba
Purging nut
Brazil Nut
Oiticica
Pequi
Oil palm
S1. No.
64
66
68
70
72
74
76
7 8
80
82
84
86
88
90
92
94
96
98
100
102
1 04
106
108
110
112
114
116
118
Cooli
Conventional Dl Diesel Engine
ixhaust Energy 37%
Work Output 28%
O Exhaust Energy .Work Output O Cooling Energy - '
LHR Dl Diesel Engine
Exhaust Energy 45%
- - -- A --
[ ~ ~ y h a u a - - Energy - .FrkOutpu~OCmling Energy ~ Figure - 2.1: The Energy Distribution (approximate) from the LHR Engine.
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