CHAPTER - 2

LITERATURE REVIEW & OBJECTIVE

CHAPTER - 2

LITERATURE REVIEW AND OBJECTIVE

2.0 INTRODUCTION

Conventional Energy sources are becoming scarce day by day in India's

context due to paucity of Natural Petroleum Fuels on one side and the ever raising

prices in the market on the other side. Therefore, common user I customer is

finding different to meet the energy requirements. Hence, the academicians,

researches and experts are doing their level best to find-out the alternative sources

of energy. In the process, it is observed that the usage of Bio-Fuels was found not

only to be in the forefront but also in practice since 1930s but only in emergency

situations, Elsbett and Bialkowsky (2003) [54]. But in the recent past, the increase

in crude oil prices, environmental pollution and depletion of petroleum reservoirs

has led to the research on the better usage of Bio-Fuels. Any research requires to

know the earlier contribution to the area / subject. In the process it is to mention that

a review on 42 contributions is brought-out on the use of vegetable as IC Engine

Fuels, Ramadhas, et al., (2004) [163]. Later-on, a comprehensive review is brought-

on through 150 articles on the utilisation of Bio-fuels in IC Engines by Bhanodaya

Reddy, et al., 2007 [18]. The Literature and the practical observation reveal that

there are more than 100 vegetable oils (Refer Table-2.1), Elsbett and Bialkowsky,

(2003) [54]; out of which only 30 or so being tried as Bio-Diesel. Thus it is evident

that still lot of potential for research in the area of Bio-Diesel as an alternate fuel.

For convenience, the Literature Review is divided into the following. Usage of

Methanol and Ethanol, Vegetable Oils and their Blends, LHR Engine, Exhaust

Emissions and Models.

2.1 METHANOL AND ETHANOL

The research started with the running of diesel engines with alternate fuels,

after the invention of Diesel Engine in 1893, by Rudolf Diesel and the same is

further investigated by Bhanodaya Reddy, et al., (2001) [27] due to the reasons

mentioned earlier. To start with, the usage of Alcohol as the principal fuel to run

the Diesel Engine, Jones, (1944) [87] and upto 48% Diesel substitution was

achieved on road without reduction in thermal efficiency by the introduction of a

novel Air-Alcohol Inductor with inter-cut flexibility to increase the Alcohol flow

rate in a multi cylinder, variable speed, vehicular diesel engine to enable operation

in the Alcohol-Diesel - Bi-fuel mode, Havemann, et al., (1953) [76]. That was

followed by the use of Power Alcohols (rectified spirit), Bio-gas, Biomass - Wood

waste, Agriwaste, etc., Hydrogen and Producer gas in CI Engine late in1940s,

Bolt, (1954) [30]; and the rectified spirit is a substance abundantly available in

tropical countries where the vegetable growth is abundant, Sreenivasayya, (1954)

[I 981. The utility of power alcohols and heavy fuels to run a Diesel Engine has been

proved by experiments, Prabhukumar, et al., (1 983) [ I 571; the cooling with the

higher latent heat of alcohols results in the lesser emission of NOx and the increase

in the delay can result in a larger fraction of fuel burning in the form of the

premixed flame, Broukhiyan and Lestz (1981) [33]. The viability of alcohols as a

Diesel fuel extender was proceeded with the increase in thermal efficiency by 6%

with 10% blend of alcohol in Diesel, Gollahalli and Atluri, (1982) [68]. The

suitability of alcohols to petrol or diesel fuel is also reported in the literature with

minor modifications and for further improvement of the performance of Bio-fuels

with usage of Glow plugs, Nanni, et al., (1980) [132].

It was found that it would be difficult to blend Methanol, Diesel oil and

therefore, the C.I. Engine run on Bi-he1 approach in which diesel was admitted in

the conventional manner and methanol was taken into the engine through carburetor

along with air, Arnold et al., (1958) [5]. A comparative study has been carried-out

between the usage of neat diesel and by mixing methanol and ethanol in propanol

and butenol by Ryan et al; (1971) [180]. In the process of identification of

alternate fuels, it is suggested that Methanol, Ethanol, Hydrogen and Ammonia

could be considered as substitutes for petroleum fuels, Gregory and Rosenberg,

(1973) [72]. The usage of Methanol in DI diesel engine is found to be

satisfactory and proved that the overall increase in the thermal efficiency was 3%,

Kanitkar, (1979) [89]. Methanol has been utilised in a single cylinder research

engine filled with Comet-V swirl combustion chamber and it was found that 20%

energy substitution by Methyl Alcohol at full load and upto 35% energy

substitution at part load, Mathur, et al., (1979) [113]. Methanol with aldehyde by

MBTH Method (3-Methyl-2-Benzo-Thiazolone Hydrazone Hydrocholoride) has

been used in a single cylinder SI Engine to study the emission characteristics and

found that the aldehyde emissions are minimum at equivalence ratio 1 (one) and

increase both at leaner and richer mixtures, Ayyasamy, et al., (1979) [9].

2.1.1 Methanol in SI Engine

The SI Engine has been tested using Benzole gasoline alcohol blends and

found that there was an overall improvement in the engine performance and the fuel

blends have no adverse effects on any component of the engine. Though the non-

conventional (such as blends of Benzole) fuels were used from the period 1920 -

1939 in Germany, UK and France, and during the Second World War, no reliable

technical data available regarding the performance the engine, Madan and Mathur,

(1979) [108]. Effects of fbel-air ratios and compression ratios on engine

performance under knock ftee operation using gasoline and rectified spirit in the SI

engine were investigated to optimize the carburetor design, Reddy, (1 982) [175].

The methanol was also used in SI engine to estimate the combustion and emission

characteristics by Subbi Reddi, et al., (1983) 12071; proved that the Methanol has

been a versatile fuel to run multi-cylinder automotive S.I. Engine and found that

the performance of the vehicle was satisfactory, Murthy, et al, (1983) [124].

2.1.2 Ethanol in DI Diesel Engine

The usage of Ethanol has got the advantages of increased power, reduced

specific energy consumption, reduced NOx emissions and increased fuel octane

quality, David, [43], Harrigton and Pilot, [74], Adelman and Andrews, [I], Mast

and Longwell, [112], Ebersole and Manning, [52]. The use of ethanol is proved by

the reduction in exhaust temperature in a single cylinder Ricardo Variable

Compression Engine, Murthy and Gopalakrishnan, (1977) [126]. Further, the NOx

emissions reduce with Ethanol, Khan and Gollahalli (1981) [98], Broukhiyan and

Lestz (1981) [33] but the NOx increases with small amounts of Methanol and

ethanol but decreases with larger additions, Heisy and Lestz, (1981) [79]. It was

supported by a design to evaluate the feasibility and optimal conditions of particle

substitutions of diesel with proponal and butonol, Gollahalli and Atluri, (1982) [67];

Khan and Gollahalli (1981) [98]; whereas Vinyard, et al., (1981) [223], had dealt

with the use of "butanediol", bio-mass-divided alcohol in a single cylinder - Four

stroke cycle CI Engine. Good results are obtained with Ethanol as the neat Fuel

(20% Coconut Oil and 80% Castor Oil) on the performance test of a two wheeler,

two stroke Scooter engine, Asokan, et al., (1982) [ 7 ] . Pure Ethanol (25%) can be

used with diesel (75%) to meet the requirements of renewable energy sources,

Bhanodaya Reddy and Reddy, (2000) [26]. Ethanol, an alcohol found to be the

promising option for countries like India, because the carcass obtained from the

plants available fiom agricultural products to run diesel engines, Sunil Kumar

Reddy, et al., (2007) [212]. Emulsions of alcohol and diesel &el proportions of

ethanol with different bio-diesels were used to run diesel engine and found that

performance of the engine was similar to that of diesel, Indumathi, (2007) [81].

Methyl alcohol (CsH5-OH) is preferred to liquid petroleum fuels and

C2Hs-OH can be produced from coal, natural gas, sugarcane, corn, etc., Durga

Prasad, et al., (2000) [SO] and they have physical 1 chemical properties

approximately 80-90 % similar to that of petrol or diesel, Raja Gopal, et al., (2000)

[I611 and hence they can be used to run Dl Diesel engine. In the process, the Paddy

husk, Agricultural waste, Cowdung, Groundnut husk, Sugarcane refuse, etc. have

been used as an alternate source for diesel fuel and put back the old E.C. Engine - Stirling engine to meet the present energy crisis, Sharneel, et al., (2000) [192]. Such

usage of alternate fuels has been established by the statement "Agricultural residues

such as Corn Stover as the potential feedstock for bio-energy and bio-based / fuel

products are the potential alternate substitute for diesel and that they could reduce

the U.S dependence on foreign oil", Graham et al., (2007) [71]. Methane which has

higher calorific value than the producer gas can be produced from anaerobic

bacteria of wood, Janakirama Naidu, (1 997) [85].

2.1.3 Kerosone and Other Gases

Many publications have reported on the usage of Kerosene, its mixtures and

other gases as alternate fuels to run the Diesel Engine and some of them are

reported briefly in the following.

While doing experiments with alternative fbels, the performance of diesel

engine was tested with Light Diesel Oil (LDO) - ie., Kerosine 5% Machine Oil

(K+5M) and Kerosene with 20% Machine oil (K + 20 M), and found that the diesel

Engine could be run with out any troubles, Rao and Natarajan, (1954) [171].

Kerosine mixed with 20% machine oil (lubricant oil) and on comparison with

diesel, the thermal efficiency could be increased by 30% and reduction in SFC,

Shah, et a1.,(1969) [190]. Furnace oil and Kerosene blends were used to run a diesel

engine and proved that the engine performance was almost equal to that of the

diesel with ratio of 2: 1 blend, Varunny i d Thomas, (1 979) [219].

The Producer Gas and Natural gas have been used to run the Diesel Engine

in dual fuel mode, Boyer, (1949) [31]. Hydrogen was used to run S I Engine to

determine the Nitric Oxide (NO) emission, Fagelson, et al., (1978) [57]. Hydrogen

was used as fuel to run diesel engine on duel cycle and compared the performance

of the engine considering two different shapes of pistons - (one usual cup-shaped

pistons and the both flat topped piston) and found that the absence of engine knock

even at higher hydrogen flow rates, Ganti Gopal, et al., (1 982) [64].

Experiments were conducted on Dual Fuelled, single cylinder four stroke

agricultural stationery diesel engine with Hydrogen, Hydrogen - Diesel. Deepak

Kurnar, et al,, (2007) [45]. The emission results from a diesel engine run with

cooking oil blends have resulted in the emissions CO (upto 12 %), increase in NOx

(upto 20 %), Murillo, et al., (2007) [122].

2.2 GOBARGAS

Gobar gas-cum-diesel as duel fuel for operation of Diesel Engine, Jain,

(1976) [84]; the combustion characteristics of a Gobar Gas in a Gobar-Diesel

Engine, Parikh and Jain, (1 977)[145] and the Gobar gas blends, Viswanadham,et al,

(1977) [224]; Gobar gas as good subsidiary fuel for diesel engines, Balusamy and

Subrarnanian, (1982) 1121 have suggested to run diesel engine in duel fuel cycle

engine. By doing so, some of the problems with duel fuel engines found are: loss of

efficiency at part load, Steven, (1953) [204]; Ignition delay, Moore and Mitchel,

(1955) [I 191; Knocking, Karirn, (1980) 1921; Cruz, et al., (1980) [42]. But such

findings are contradicted by Pandya, et al., (1983) 1143) and Vyarawalla, et al.,

(1983) [226] and Parikh, et al., (1983) [146]. Hence, the community bio-gas plants

would be he lp l l to the people the Rayalaseema area which has fairly big cattle

population, thus robust milk and dung yielding but also for utilisation to run IC

Engines, Sreeramulu Reddy, (1997) [199]. Further, the gaseous fuel can be

obtained through the anaerobic fermentation of wet live stock wastes to produce

biogas, Ahmed, (2000) [3].

The some other principal fuels or energy sources used to run diesel engines

were natural gas, sewer gas, liquid petroleum gas (LPG) and alcohols, Jagadeesan,

(1988) [82]; Wind energy systems not only occupy lesser area but also non-

polluting, Ramprasad, (1997) [I691 and Pyrolysis derived fuel can be used as

alternate fuel to run CI Engine, Murugan and Ramaswamy, (2007) [128].

2.3 WATER AND ITS EMULSIONS:

Water - Diesel emulsions with Oxygen enriched air, Subramanian and

Ramesh, (2001) [209] and diethyl ether and water-diesel emulsion have been used

to run a DI diesel engine, Subrarnanian and Ramesh, (2002) [210], Crooker, et al.,

(1985) [41].

It was established that the usage of Wind Energy, Solar Energy, etc. are

alternate energy sources. The solar energy is being used as an alternative energy

source and the solar energy applications by rural mass, Narasimhan et al., (1956)

[I331 are not so economic to run Diesel Engines. Therefore, the feasibility of

vegetable oils as alternative fbels for C.I. Engines is emerged. Further, in a small

city like Tirupati, not less than 3000 automotive vehicles pass per day through and

emit enormous amount of CO and CO;! to the atmosphere and therefore, the usage

of Bio-Diesel fuels are necessary for pollution free atmosphere, Eswara Reddy,

(1999) [56].

2.4 VEGETABLE OILS IN DI DIESEL ENGINES

The vegetable oils have been tried to run the Internal Combustion (IC)

during the invention stage of the Compression Ignition Rudolf Diesel (1 858 - 191 3)

(before taking pattern), run the Diesel Engine (1893) and had conducted

experiments using Peanut (Groundnut) oil as fuel to his compression ignition and

IC Engine, Knothe (2001), [99]. The diesel engine run with bio-fuel proved that

the diesel he1 was saved about 37% and increased thermal efficiency upto 4% by

running the engine at an output range of 65% to 85% and rated RPM, Parikh,

(1978) [144]. The notable contribution in such direction in early 1980s came from,

Bruwer, et al., [I9801 [35], Barsic and Humke, (1981) [IS], Nagarajaiah, et al.,

(1982) [130].

2.4.1 Sunflower Oil

The Sunflower oil has been tried to run the DI Diesel Engines. At this

juncture, some of the contributions are given in the following. 100% Sunflower oil

used to run tractors in place of diesel and established that the performance of the

tractor was same as that of the diesel Bruwer, et al., (1 981) [34]; Tahir, et al.,

(1982) [214], though the viscosity of Sunflower oil which is 14% higher than

Diesel. Sunflower and groundnut oil have been used in running the diesel engine

and found that the results obtained are similar to that of the Diesel hel, Dinesh

Kumar and Pundir, (1983) [49]. The experiments carried-out on the four stroke

single cylinder diesel engine using Sun Flower oil, Palm Kemal oil and Karanj oil

with their esters and have proved that all the vegetable oils have higher thermal

efficiency than the Diesel, Govindarajan, et al., (1982) [70]. Therefore, the

Sunflower oil, Baransescu, et al., (1982) [13] and Vegetable oils are also potential

alternate fuels for DI Diesel engine, Ziejewski and Kanfman, (1983) [230]; Morel,

et al., [120]. The performance of a turbocharged DI Diesel LHR Engine to run with

Biodiesel blends of Sunflower 'oil and found that the performance of the LHR

Engine was better than that of the conventional Diesel engine, Hasimoglu, et al.,

(2008) [75].

2.4.2 Mahua Oil and its Blends: Mahua oil and diesel (25%+75%) was

suggested to be a good blend, Bhatt, et al., (2004) [29]. It has also been established

that the 20 % Mahua Oil could easily be substituted Diesel Engine without any

significance difference in power output, BSFC and Brake Thermal Efficiency,

Bhatt, et al., (2004)[29]. But the results were not compared to any other non-edible

oils.

A two stage technique is developed to produce Bio-Diesel from Mahua Oil

(Madhuca Indica) having high frequency fatty acids (19% FFA). The technique

could help to reduce FFA les than 1 %. Each step is carried-out with) 0.30-0.35 v/v

level of Methanol-to-oil ratio in the presence of 1 % v/v H2S04 as an acid catalyst

in I -hour reaction at 60 degrees C followed by the transesterification using 0.25 v/v

Methanol and 0.7% w/v KOH as alkaline catalyst to produce Bio-Diesel,

Shashikant and Hifjur, (2005) [195]. Better results of Mahua oil and diesel (25 to

28% + 70% Mahua + diesel) blend, as well as 25% + 75% (Neem oil+ diesel)

blends are found to be alternative to diesel for usage in diesel engine, Bhanodaya

Reddy, et al., [22]. There is no cold start problem with the Pongarnia oil - Diesel

blends with blends of 10% to 50%, Bhanodaya Reddy, et al., (2001) [27]. Mahua

oil and Diesel blend is found to be suitable for diesel engine and the performance of

the engine was found to be similar to that of diesel engine at all loads, Subba

Reddy, et al., (2007) [206].

2.4.3 Pongamia and its Blends: The Pongamia oil also known as Honge oil

which has got medicinal value has been tried after esterification in diesel engine,

Varaprasad, et al., (1977) [217]. Esterified oils as substitute fuels in diesel engine

were used and successfully conducted experiments with Pongarnia oil, Samaya,

(1 983) [I 821. The blends of Karanja oil with Diesel and though the diesel engine

can be run with raw vegetable oils, it was observed that the combustion residues

and deposits try to pose problems with injectors, piston rings and oil flow, Murthy,

(1996) [125], Performance evaluation of semi-adiabatic diesel engine was

conducted with non-edible vegetable oils namely Pongamia and Jatropha for

various injection pressure at room temperature and estimated the NOx emission

and other pollutants, Prabhakar Reddy, et al., (2000) [156]. The Mechanical

Efficiency of a CI engine while running with Pongamia oil blend was found to be

the same as that of the diesel engine, Bhanodaya Reddy, et al., (2004) [19] and also

better with an unmodified diesel engine fbeled with Pongamia Pinnata Methyl Ester

(PPME), Suresh Kumar, et al., (2008) [2 131. The experimental results revealed that

the energy content in Pongamia is less in comparison to Soyabean oil but the Brake

Thermal Efficiency is high and it is due to the availability of more Oxygen leading

to better combustion, Shailaja, et al., (2007) [191]. But the other vegetable oils not

considered. The experiments were limited to the usage one oil. The DI Diesel

engine performance was tested by the use of esterified Mahua and Pongamia Oils

and found that there is no much variation in the performance of the engine during

the running of the engine with both the oils, viz., The Brake thermal efficiency

with Diesel is 26.22 %, followed by Esterified Mahua, 26.02% and esterified

Pongamia 26 %; Ranganath, et al., (2007) [170j, thus indicating the potential

replacement for Diesel in DI Diesel Engine. The experimental results of the 593

hours of engine operation with B20 Neern Diesel Blend are comparable with Diesel

and established that there is no undue damage except on cylinder head, spots on

crown of piston but are within the wear limits, Dilip Sharma, et al., (2007) [47].

Rural women use Jatropha carcass for medicine and Bio-production in

addition to bio-diesel, Kathyayani and Manasa, (2004) [93]. Modified Karanja Oil

Methyl Ester (MEKO) shows better power output, less SEC, higher exhaust

temperature and less pollutants but slightly increase in SFC in comparison to

Diesel, Rajesh Kumar, et al., (2007) [162]. Thus, further studies on Karanja Oil are

needed.

2.4.4 Jatropha and its Blends

Later on due to the economic aspects (as discussed in Chapter -1) , the non-

edible oils such as Jatropha and Pongamia in crude and estified oils have been tried

successfully to run Diesel Engine, Muthuveerappan, (1987) [123]. The fact that

Jatropha can be grown in any wastelands particularly in the Drought Prone area like

Rayalaseema, with less imgation and water facilities, gives it diesel distinct

advantage for consideration as the prime bio-diesel feed stock in Indian conditions,

Jayachandraiah, et al., (2006) [86].

The influence of the Injection Pressure on IC engine was tested while

running with esterified Jataropha oil and its blends to run a DI Diesel Engine found

that the: (i) COz and CO emissions are very less in comparison to that of the engine

run with diesel, Bhanodaya Reddy, et al., (2007) [17]; (ii) performance on a

computer interfaced diesel engine is similar to that of the performance on

convocational diesel engine but the running time and loading time are found to be

faster, Bhanodaya Reddy, et al., (2007) [21]: (iii) CO and smoke intensity are in

lower levels in comparison to diesel emission and thus established the reduced

pollution with bio-diesel, followed by the study on the effect of Injection Pressure

on the performance of the diesel engine at a pressure of 220 bar for the absorptivity

and opacity Krishna, et al., (2007) [loo]; (iv) Proved that the emissions of CO;! and

hydrocarbons with Jatropha 20% + diesel 80% are almost same as that diesel

engine, Sravan Kurnar, et al., (2007) [197]. Experiments are conducted on a three

cylinder, naturally aspirated, constant speed, four stroke, DI diesel engine with the

three non-edible Jatropha oil, Karanja oil and Rice bran oil, to compare the

performance of the Bio-fuels by considering BSEC, since the BSFC is not a very

reliable parameter to compare the performance of Bio-fuels which have different

calorific values. The results of the BSEC thus obtained from Bio-Diesels are better

in comparison to Diesel, Singh, et al., (2007) [196]. The existing diesel engine

design and operating parameters are needed to be optimised for improvement of

fuel economy followed by the performance and also reduction in emissions for

using hundred percent Jatropha based Bio-Diesel in DI Diesel Engine, Ganapathy,

et al., (2007) [62]. Though, the three oils are used but the influence of Injection

Pressure effect is not considered. Therefore, the Jatropha oil is taken for study in the

present work.

' The studies on Bio-Diesel Blends of Neem Oil and Deccanhemp are very

very limited and therefore, they have been referred wherever possible. But they are

considered in the present Research Work.

2.5 ROLE OF VEGETABLE OILS AS BIO-DIESEL

Though there are more than 100 vegetable oils (Table - 2.1, Elsbett and

Bialkowsky, (2003) [54]), only about 30 different vegetable oils have been used to

run CI diesel engines since 1900s, Quick, ( I 980) [160]. Out of them, Rapeseed Oil

has similar energy out-puts to that of the diesel fuel and suitable to run diesel

engines, Schoedder, (1 982) [I881 and other eleven vegetable oils properties were

studied and found to be suitable for usage in diesel engines. The oils are: Corn,

Rapeseed, Sesame, Cotton seed, Soybeans, Palm, Neern, Batonssa, Linseed,

Jathropha, Georing, (1982) [65], Vegetable Oils as substitute to Diesel, Peterson, et

al., (1983) [I 551, use of Vegetable Oils, their developments and opportunities for

development, Bagby, (1987) [I 11, and cracked Soybean oil, Niehaus, et al,, (1985)

[138], Ziejewski, et al., (1986) [229], Ziejewski, and Gill, (1988) 12281, Soybean

and Sunflower oil, Scholick, et al., (1988) [187], Palm oil, Sapvan, et al., (1996)

[183], Sunflower oil, Rosca Radu and Mircea (1997) [179], Cigizoglu, et al.,

(1997) [40], Palm Oil, Lim, (1998) [I061 and Coconut Oil, Machacon, (2001)

[lo71 are reported in the Literature.

The presence of molecular oxygen in vegetable oils helps the stochiometric

Air Fuel ratio to raise, Gerhard, (1983) [66]. Fuels must expeditiously have to

ensure that the safe running and survival of the existing working engines while

running with plant oils and animal fats, Muniayappa, et al., (1996) [121]. One of

the best ways for utilization of vegetable oils in a diesel engine is to blend with

alcohols for making the corresponding ester, Mittelbach, (1 496) [ 1 161,

Vegetable oils have better properties than alcohols to run CI engines,

Senthil Kumar, et al., (2001) [189], Babu and Devaradjne, (2003) [lo],

Vijayakumar Reddy, (2000) [222]. Vegetable oils are good alternatives for fossil

fuels for use in diesel engines, Pestes and Stanislao, (1984) [151]. Use of non-

edible oils, Srinivasa Rao and Gopalakrishnan, (1989) [200], that result in the

improvement in the engine performance was established with modified vegetable

oils when compared to base vegetable oils, Kevin Schmidt and Jon Van, (1996) [97]

and Perkins, et al., [ I SO].

Esterified vegetable oils in diesel engines as fuels had been suggested,

Srinivasa Rao and Gopalakrishna, 1989 [201], Ozaktas, et al., (1997) [141]. Five

different vegetable oil esters (Coconut oil, Rapeseed oil, Mustard oil, Safflower oil,

Soy oil were tested and established that the Iodine Number increases from 7.88 to

129.5, the NOx increases to 29.3%, Peterson, et al., (2000) [154]. But the effect of

Injection Pressure is missing. The combustion properties of vegetable oils depend

on refining techniques and oil seed growing, Chand, (2002) 1381. The engne

performance can be improved with the other esterification and atomization

techniques on vegetable oils, Eiji, et al., (2004) [53]. The main and more harmful

emissions like carbon monoxide and unburnt hydro-carbons are from the S1 and CI

Engines can be reduced by the usage of Vegetable Oils, Bhanodaya Reddy, et al.,

(2004) [20]. Bio-diesel comes from plants and plants breathe CO2 and hence there

is no net gain in COz from Bio-diesel, Saimurugan, et al., (2004) [18 11. The effect

of Injection Pressure on diesel engine performance with vegetable oil blends was

tested by considering cotton seed oil, Coconut oil, Sunflower oil and Mustard oil

and with 30% oil + 70% diesel blends follow the same performance as that of diesel

engine, Ashok Kumar, et al., (1997) [6]. The percentage of oil content in each of the

seeds of Rape Seed / Canola / Mustad - 40-45 %; Sunflower - 25-40%; Neem - 45-50%; Karanja - 27-39%, which indicate the suitability for Bio-Diesel

production, Neil Noble, (2006) [137]. The effect of Bio-Diesel Fuels on Diesel

Emissions are clearly brought-out by Magin, et al., (2008) [109].

The density, cloud point, pour point, fire and flash points of Palm oil are

not only higher than that of the diesel but also its methyl esters unsuitable in cold

climate conditions, Ravi Kumar, et al., (2008) [ I 721. Therefore, other than Palm oil

are taken-up for research in the present work.

Experimental values of diesel and bio-diesel fuel properties were used in the

spray structure simulation and the simulated sprays show good agreement for both

fbels, Pagorevc, et al., (2007) [142]. A stationery single cylinder CI Engine

typiqally used in agricultural sector for its performance based on BSFC, BSEC,

Brake Thermal Efficiency and exhaust emissions, and found to be on par with that

of Diesel, Avinash Kumar and Rajamanoharan, (2009) [8]. Some amount of fresh

mixture get lost to the exhaust line and contributes for H.C. emission while running

with Bio-Diesel Blends, Reddy, et al., (2000) [176]. The octane number of

alcohols, from non-edible vegetable oils, is quite high and hence the engines may

be operated at higher compression ratios, to improve the operational efficiency of

the engine and the emission from diesel engines consists of diesel odor which

causes irritation to human eyes and nose, Bhanodaya Reddy and Reddy, (2004)

[24], To overcome such emission odors, Bio-Diesel is preferred. Some other

problems that are being encountered with the usage of vegetable oils are (i)

Alteration of injector spray pattern inside the engine cylinder. (ii) Fuel impingement

on the piston and cylinder surfaces Franz, (1980) [60] and leading to Carbon

deposits and piston stuck-up, Nag, et al., (1995) [129]. Such problems can be

avoided by suitable improvements to cylinder walls. Therefore, the research on

LHR is gained importance and hence, the LHR Engine is being developed in the

present Research Work.

2.6 LHR ENGINE PERFORMANCE WITH DIESEL

The feasibility of fbrther improvement in the performance of the DI Diesel

Engine run with Bio-Diesel Blends of vegetable oils is being tried by various

methods. Among them, the concept of Low Heat Rejection (LHR) engine is one,

where-in some physical modifications are made to the conventional engine. In this

context, some of the contributions from the Literature are briefly discussed here-

under. The energy losses due to conduction can be reduced by providing glow

plugs on the plain engine cylinder head towards the down stream side of one of the

fuels sprays as close as to the nozzle as possible and away from the hot surface,

Nanni, et al., 1980 [132], using hot surface, Franz, et al., (1986) [59] and Ceramic

hot surface, Ramesh, et al., (1988) [167]. Esterified Thurnba Oils have low

volatility and hence exhibit poorer performance than that of Diesel but better than

that of vegetable oils, Kusy, (1982), [loll . Suggestions like esterification or

trasesterification are made for the use of vegetable oils in LHR Engines, Misipa,

(1984) [115]. Therefore, Transesterification is a process to improve the volatile and

physical properties of the oils, Mittelbach Martin, (1996) 11171; Devakumar, et al.,

(2000) [461,

The experimental results proved that the ceramic coated single cylinder DI

Diesel engine performance is better than the convention engine in terms of 7 % fuel

economy and reduction in HC and CO emissions, Thring, [2 161; and similar is the

result with coatings of PSZ and Cintered Silicon Nitride (SSN), Miyairi, et al.,

[I 181, Modifications are suggested to improve the thermal efficiency of the diesel

engines running with vegetable oils, Yoshimoto, et al., (1990) [227]. The Jatropha

Oil and its blends were used to run the LHR Diesel Engine, Bhaskar, et al., (1992)

[28]. The Thermal Efficiency can be improved with Ceramic Thermal Barrier

Coatings, Parker (1993) [I 471.

Climate will contribute to variation in vegetable oil properties and test

results, Sturnborg, (1996) [205]. Therefore, the engine modifications or LHR

Engines are being developed. Some experiments have been canied-out on

conventional and LHR engines using Thumba oil and Simarouha oil, Vijayakumar

Reddy, et al., (2000) [221]. The CI Engine has been coated with ceramic namely,

Partially Stabilised Zerconia (PSZ) on the cylinder and insulated liner the

performance thus the LHR performance was found to be better than the published

results of Lakshmi Nagesh, (2000) [102]. A PSZ slab of 4 mrn thick in the form of

sector over which a Kanthal heating wire of 1 mm diameter has been connected at

different points along its length to make the hot surface and then attached on the

cylinder head to develop the LHR Engine. Experiments were conducted on the

engine and proved that the performance of the LHR engine with Alcohols was

better than that of the conventional Diesel Engine, Durga Prasad, (2001), [5 11. The

LHR engine with coatings of CaZr03 and MgZr03 onto the base of the NiCrAl

bond coat and then the engine output results have indicated reduction in fuel

consumption and improvement in efficiency in comparison with that of the

conventional engine, Taymaz, (2007) [215]. A turbocharged DI Diesel has been

converted to LHR Engine to run with Biodiesel blends of Sunflower Oil and found

that the performance of the LHR Engine is better than that of the Diesel engine,

Hasimoglu, et al., (2008) [75]. Therefore, proper transesterification is needed. The

use of Water - Diesel Emulsions in a DI Diesel Engine using a thermally insulated

cylinder head has been suggested for LHR Engine, Subramanian and Ramesh,

(2007) 12081.

The recent noted works with non-edible oils are (i) Modification to the

conventional DI Diesel Engine by coating cylinder head, valves' faces and piston

face with PSZ and spraying the parts with Plasma Guns so as to resist the

temperature of 2000 Deg. C. and run the engine Blends of Deccanhemp Oil,

Hebbal, et al., (2006) [78] and compared the results with other non-edible oils

blends. This is followed by the modification to piston with PSZ coatings to run the

LHR Engine and observed that the performance improvement in Brake Thermal

efficiency at the fbll load operation Srinivasa Reddy and Raja Gopal, 2007 [202]. It

is also observed that on comparison with that of the base engine, the volumetric

efficiency drop is maximum of 12 % . The CO emission was reduced by 0.28 by

volume followed by HC emission level was around 250 ppm. Further, the smoke

levels also decreased with the increase in Injection Pressure in the LHR engine,

Murthy, et al. 2007 [127].Thus, better studies on such LHR Engines are required.

The experimental results on the two LHR Engines with crude Pongamia oil

marginally decreased the smoke levels due to efficient combustion and less amount

of fuel accumulation on the hot combustion chamber walls of LHR Engines at

different operating conditions of the vegetable oils compared to the conventional

engines. The cylinder head, exhaust valve and inlet valves of a Diesel engine are

coated with the ceramic materials MgO-ZrO, and the Piston surface with Zr02 for

LHR and the engine has been tested canola methyl ester. The increase in output

power, decrease in SFC and improvement in exhaust gas emissions are observed

with LHR Engine, Hazar, (2009) [77]. The approximate energy distribution from

the LHR Engine is shown in Figure - 2.1.

The Aluminum Piston was replaced by Cast Iron piston and the surface was

coated with PSZ to develop and studied the performance by conducting experiments

and showed that the LHR Engine performance was found to be better than that of

DI Diesel Engine, Nagesh, 1999, [131]; Deccanhemp oil at 150 bar, Hebbal, et al.,

[78]. Though many of the experiments have been conducted, the performance of

the Computer Interfaced LHR Engine with modifications of the piston and its

crown run with Deccanhemp Oil and its Diesel Blends has not been tried.

Therefore, to over-come such wide gap, suitable parameters have to be considered

while conducting the experiments with five non-edible oils on LHR Engine are

carried-out in this research work.

2.7 INJECTION PRESSURE

The injection of the fuel is an important parameter that influences the

combustion process in a DI Diesel Engine. If the Injection Pressure is low, it

affects the fuel atomization and evaporation, fuel penetration and wall impingement

of fuel. The injection rating depends on the Injection Pressure and the mixing with

air in the combustion chamber. High Injection pressures influence the exhaust

emissions and thermal efficiency to certain extent. Thus it is necessary to find the

best Injection Pressure. The research is being concentrated in many ways to

improve the performance of the engine. As such, the effect of the variation in the

Injection Pressure has been studied experimentally on the performance and

emission with Jatropha he1 on air cooled, single cylinder, DI Diesel Engine. It has

been identified that the thermal efficiency could not be improved at the static

injection timing of 335 degrees BTDC, Injection Pressure 220 bar, injection rate

corresponding to 9 mm plunger diameter with swirl level except that the reduction

in HC smoke levels, Narayana Reddy and Rarnesh, (2005) [135]. The increase in

pressure results, in most cases, an increase in NOx emissions and decrease in

particulate matter, Maiboom and X-Tauzia, (2008) [ill]. Thus the study on

Injection Pressure is needed, Therefore, there is a need for more .detailed study on

the effect of Injection Pressure on the performance characteristics of the engine.

The effect of Injection Pressure on the performance and the emission

characteristics of a Bio-Diesel Engine was studied at four Injection Pressures - 160,

180,200 and 220 bar taking Coconut Methyl Esters (CME) for blends of B20, B30,

and B100. The maximum Brake Thermal Efficiency was recorded at full load

conditions for blends of B20 and B30 respectively at an Injection Pressure of 200

bar, Shankar, et al., (2007) [193]. The experiments are conducted only on

conventional engine but not on LHR Engine. The results indicate the scope for

fixther research to study the effect of Injection Pressure on the performance LHR

e&ne run with the non-edible oils. As such, the studies on Neem oil is extended

further in the present research work and it is also available abundantly in tropical

countries like India and limited work is on Neem based Bio-Diesel.

The effect of Injection Pressure in a 4-Stroke Single Cylinder Diesel Engine

was tested by modifying the engine to work on dual fuel and Methyl Esters of

Gingili Oil (Bio-diesel) as pilot &el followed by LPG as primary hel. The engine

was run at 200 bar and established that the performance of the engine with dual fuel

mode was close to that of the neat Diesel operation at full load, Eswar Rao, et al.,

(2007) [55 ] . The performance of the DI Diesel engine run with Methyl Ester of

Mahua Oil (MEMO) at the injection pressure of 200 bar and the advanced injection

time of 30 degrees BTDC is close to that of the performance of the Diesel when run

on Dual Fuel mode., Kapilan and Reddy, (2007) [91]. Thus, it establishes Mahua

fuel can be used to run Diesel Engine.

The effect of Injection Pressure on the performance of a Diesel Engine run

with Jatropha Methyl ester blends of B20, B40, B60, B80, and 100 % Jatropha by

varying the pressure from 160 to 300 bar was studied experimentally. It has been

established that the SFC decreases from 160 bar 250 bar of Injection Pressure and

after 250 bar, the SFC increases. Further, it is observed that the Diesel Engine can

be run with 100% Jatropha oil without any modifications to the engine but

suggested some more investigations, Rarnbabu, et al., (2007) [166]. Though the

experiments revealed that the SFC decreases from 160 to 250 bar, the best pressure

at which the engine could be run is not specified and 160 to 250 bar is a wide range.

Therefore, the present study is taken-up to identify the near optimal Injection

Pressure.

The usage of Bio-Diesel or Bio-Fuels ensures energy security, economic

development by providing employment opportunities and cultivating the waste

lands effectively. The tropical climate which India experiences is ideal for

Pongamia Pimata and Jatropha since they can be cultivated in places of water

shortages, Lakshmi Narayana and Meganath, 2007 [I031 and the combustion

properties also depend on the technique and seed growing, Chand (20021, 1381.

Therefore, the present research is taken-up not only on the Pongarnia and Jatropha

but others Neem, Karanja and Deccanhemp, which are grown in the tropical

climate, particularly in South India.

2.8 EXHAUST EMISSIONS

Increasing concern about combustion related pollutants, such as particulate

matter (PM), Sulphur and Nitrogen oxides, CO, Metals, Total Organic Carbon and

Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs), amongst others, are driving the governments

to put more stringent requirements on fuel regulations. Exhaust emissions from

diesel burning in motor vehicles contain hundreds of compounds, either in the gas

or particulate phases. Several of those compounds are proved, or suspected to be,

carcinogenics, such as formaldehyde, acrolein, PAHs, nitro-PAHs, Benzene,

Sulphate, etc.

Amongst vehicular fuels, diesel also produces larger quantities of fine

particulate matter, which consists basically of carbonaceous material, metals,

soluble organic fraction (SOF) and sulphate. Thus the exhaust emission is also

largely dependent on the Sulphur and aromatic content of the fuel. As a

consequence, the use of alternative fuels in order to reduce the environmental

impacts of diesel emissions has been extensively investigated. Trends in the

regional use of biomass-derived fuels, such as alcohols, biodiesel and agricultural

residues - as a proposed control initiative against elevated carbon monoxide levels

in urban areas - have expanded to a global scale. The general interest in biofuels

obviously results &om economic considerations but, more recently, increasing

attention has also been due to the role that their combustion products may have on

the question of global warming and on smog formation.

The use of Bio-diesel hels derived from vegetable oils as a substitute for

conventional Diesel Engines is receiving an increasing amount of attention as it is

evident from the above Literature. Displacing petroleum diesel with Biodiesel in

urban buses is an extremely effective strategy for reducing COz Emissions, NREL,

(1998) [139]. Such interest is because of the production Bio-Diesel from a

renewable resource and biodegradability and also reduced exhaust emissions.

Therefore, the studies on the exhaust emissions are found in the Literature, out of

which some are discussed in the following. The water injection was used in a Spark

Ignition engine and experiments showed that 90% reduction in 'NO' emission,

Lestz, (1972) [105]. The simultaneous control of the diesel particulate matter and

NOx emissions could be possible by the system developed with the use of a cerium

fuel borne catalyst / filter / EGR System, Summers, et al., (1 996) [211]. Catalyst

convectors can be located in exhaust system of an automobile vehicle so that all the

emission gases pass through them and thus pollution control could be achieved,

Deepak Jain and Parikh, (1999) [44]. The preheating of Mahua Oil helps the

reduction in the HC emission and reduced CO levels in comparison to unheated

Mahua Oil and hence preheating is important, Satyanarayana, et al., (2007) [186].

It has been established that the Mahua Methyl Esters (MME) emit less pollutants to

the extent of 0. 8 -1.7 % of C02 and 0.03 % CO, Joshua, et al., (2007) [88].,

reveals that the Mahua is eco-friendly.

The increase in Injection Pressure and exhaust gas recirculation reduce the

NOx emission, Ferguson and Kirkpatrick, (2001) [ 5 8 ] ; Prasanth, et al., (2008)

[159]. The NOx emission improvement can be done by Exhaust Gas Recirculation,

Allansson, et al. (2002) [4]. CO and HC emissions are found to be lower from a

Diesel Engine run with Jatropha based Bio-diesel irresepective of EGR levels,

Pradeep and Sharma, (2007) [158]. The cooling of exhaust gases before mixing

with fresh air introduced to the engine reduces the NOx emissions, Ramadhas, et

al., (2008) [165]. The experimental results fiom the microturbines diesel engines

run with biodiesel and their blends have revealed that the NOx emissions are lower

than that of the diesel emissions, Nasciomento, et al., (2008) [136]. Higher NOx

emission is found in Diesel Engines run with Biodiesel Blends due to higher

oxygen levels and higher temperature of combustion, Rarnesh and Sarnpathrajan,

(2008) [168].

2.9 MODELLING

The statistical models and the relevant graphs representing the Biodiesel

emissions outputs using Regression Analysis are helpful to study and know the

exhaust emission levels fiom Diesel Engines run with Diesel and Bio-Diesel Blends

and then to compare with that of the (Environmental Protection Agency) EPA

Reports, catfish.colorado.edu. (2002) [37] . Modelling Techniques are also being in

practice to analyse the exhaust emissions of DI Diesel Engines. A few of them are

cited here. Modelling was carried out for efficient use of alternate fuels by

observing the combustion flame speed with that of engine speed, Visweswaran and

Jagadeesan, (1983) 12251. The model on the prediction of the Nitric Oxide

formation in Dl Diesel Engine has established that the heat release rate and NO

formation are dependent on the pressure, Kau, et al., (1997) [94]. The engine

performance and emission characteristics of two different petroleum diesel - hels

(No. 1 and No. 2) biodiesels (from Soyabean oil and Yellow Grease and their 20 %

blends with No. 2 diesel fuel are used as experimental results and then compared

the results with ANN Model and found good agreement between both the results,

Canakci, et al., (2005) [36]. The effect of preheating on the engine performance and

exhaust emission is shown with the Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD)

Analysis on the use of Jatropha Oil Blends in a DI Diesel Engine Jayachandraiah, et

al., (2006) [86]. The specific fuel consumption and exhaust gas temperature of a

Diesel engine have been predicted by a Neural Network Model using a back

propagation learning algorithm and then the output results are in agreement with the

experimental results and within 2 % error, Parla., et al., (2006) [148]. The

Theoretical Modelling on the properties of Bio-Diesel has been developed and

proved that the properties of vegetable oil depend on the transesterification and

ethanol content, Ramadhas, et al., (2006) [I 641.

A simulation model for the failure of the fuel injector is developed to study

the harmful emissions like HC, CO and NOx of diesel engine exhaust gasegwhile

running with Rapeseed Methayl Esters (RME) and proved that the injection timing

influences the operational characteristics of the engine and the emissions to certain

extent, Lebedevas, et al., (2007) [104]. Later-on, the numerical model has been

developed by conducting experiments on a diesel engine r& with Rapeseed

Biodiesel and established that the harmful emissions (NOx, CO, and HC) could be

reduced to certain extent by adjusting the injection timing properly, Kegi, (2008)

[96]. The combustion and emission of Jatropha and Deccanhemp oils and their

diesel Blends are modelled and . :';,malysed by CFD Analysis and established that

the preheating and combustion delay influence the exhaust emission from a Diesel

Engine, Bhanodaya Reddy, et al., (2008) [22].

2.10 ESTERIFICATION

Bio-diesel (fatty acid methyl esters), the high viscosities, low volatilities and

poor cold flow properties of Vegetable oils led to the investigation like

Transesterification resulting in Biodiesel Esterification of vegetable oil to its

mythelester which reduce the molecular weight, viscosity but increases the Cetane

Number, Gopalaknshna et al, (1987) [69]. Generally it is observed that the

vegetable oils have nearly 13% less energy than that of diesel. But this energy

could compensate by the specific gravity since the vegetable oils have about 0.94

whereas the Diesel has got 0.83. Thus the vegetable oils gain the energy on mass

basis, Rehman and Singhai (1 995) [ I 771. Therefore, esterification is required. It is

also observed that the vegetable oils have nearly 13% less energy than that of

Diesel. But that energy is compensated by the specific gravity since the vegetable

oils have 0.94 whereas the Diesel has 0.83. Hence, the vegetable oils gain the

energy on mass basis, Halvorsen, et al., (1 993) [73]. Though the Diesel Engine can

run with raw vegetable oils, it was found that the combustion residues and deposits

try to pose problems with injectors, piston rings and oil flow, Raubold, (1995)

[174]. Therefore, Preheating of Jatropha oil is needed to overcome some of the

properties of viscosity and injection pressures, Maheswar, et al., (2000) [110].

~sterification of vegetable oil to its methylester reduces the molecular weight,

reduces viscosity and increases the Cetane number, Varaprasad, et al, (2000) [218].

~io-diesel (fatty acid methyl esters), the high viscosities, low volatilities and poor

cold flow properties of Vegetable oils led to the investigation like transesterification

resulting in Biodiesel, Srivastava and Ramprasad, (2000) [203]. Therefore, the

Biodiesel derived from triglycerides by transesterification with methanol requires

suitable process and therefore enzymatic transesterification using lipase has been

proposed for Biodiesel production from vegetable oils, Fukuda, et al., (2001) [61].

The heat loss through various components for energy balance and temperature

distribution in the cylinder have been analysed by experimentation on a DI Diesel

Engine run with Jatropha Oil, Ravikumar, et al., (2007) [173]. Though the heat

transfer and energy balance have been studied but the effect of Injection Pressure

was not considered. The detailed process of transesterification of the five oils

considered in this Research Work will be discussed in the next Chapter.

From the review, it can be observed that still there are some draw backs with

respect to the following issues. The production of non-edible oils drawn from the

plants that grow in the tropical and semi-arid areas and their utilisation in DI Diesel

Engines is limping. It can be observed from the above Literature Review that the

works have been carried-out with non-edible oils, either conducting the experiments

at only one pressure with one or two or three Bio-fuels or their blends for the

establishment of the usage of Bio-Diesel blends in place of Diesel. But the best

blend and the best Injection Pressure for the various blends of different oils such as

Deccanhemp, Jatraopha, Mahua, Neem and Pongarnia and also the best Bio-Diesel

among the available Bio-Diesels is lacuna.

Further, the utilization in terms of effective working parameters like

Injection Pressure, Load variations, etc., require fiu-ther research. Better non-edible

oil among the available non-edible oils and their characteristics one over the other,

decrease in the hazardous pollution contents, improvements / modifications to the

conventional Diesel Engines, etc., require fkrther research studies. As such, the

present research work is taken-up to study the performance of a DI Diesel Engine,

considering, (i) Deccanhemp Oil, (ii) Jatropha Oil, (iii) Mahua Oil, (iv) Neem and

(v) Pongamia Oil and their blends and the effect of Injection Pressure followed by

the development of LHR Engine.

2.11 OBJECTIVE OF THE PRESENT RESEARCH WORK

Based on the above discussions, a solemn attempt is made in the Present

Research to study the influence of the Injection Pressure on the performance of the

Direct Injection CI Diesel engine and Emissions characteristics with the following

objectives.

1. Transesterification to improve the Bio-fuel characteristics of five blends.

2. Running the Diesel Engine by varying the Injection Pressure to find the

characteristic curves by interfacing with the Computer system.

3. Identification of a suitable or the best Injection Pressure for the maximum

Thermal Efficiency and minimum Specific Energy Consumption.

4. Analysis of the exhaust gas emissions

'5. Identification of the best Bio-Diesel Blend among the five blends of the

differenet oils.

6. Design of an LHR Engine to improve the thermal efficiency.

2.12 SUMMARY

The contributions of various researchers and experts contained in 230

articles in the field of CI and DI Engines run with Alternate Fuels have been

reviewed. The advantages and limitations of the use of Alcohols, Ethenol,

Methanol, in earlier days and consequent developments leading to the usage of

Vegetable Oils were brought-out. The cost factors and their domestic uses led to the

concentration towards the usage and research on five non-edible oils. The need of

pre-heating, Esterification and Transesterification are explained. Then, the

theoretical and experimental studies on the conventional DI Diesel Engines and

LHR Engines have been brought-out. The need of the research on the five non-

edible oils, Deccanhemp, Jatropha, Mahua, Neern and Pongamia has been

explained. The objectives of the present research work has been outlined. The next

Chapter deals with Esterification and Data Collection.

35/838 Table - 2.1: List of the seeds available for the production of Bio-Diesel

I SI ( EnglishName 1 S1. 1 English Name

1 29 1 Jaboty palm 1 30 1 Japanese Chest 1

No.

1

3

5

7

9

11

1 3

15

17

19

21

23

25

27

( 3 1 1 Janary Palm 1 32 ( Java Almond I 1 33 1 Jatropha 1 34 1 Kagne butter 1

of the Seed

Almond

Assai-palm

Bacaba Palm

Borage

Butter nut

CarnaubeWax

Copaiba tree

Corn salad

Croton

Essang

Earth Almond

Ginkgo

Grape

Hunter nuts

No. 2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

20

22

24

26

2 8

I I I

- of the seed Apricot

Awarra

Baobab

Borneo tallow

Butter tree

Cohune Palm

Cotton seed

Crab wood

Deccanhemp

Eth. Mahagony

Evening Primerose

Gorli seed

Hemp

Indian Almond

35 ( Malabar-nut tree I I I

36 I Malabar tallow

3 7 1 Manketti nut

39

41

43

45

47

49

5 1

53

55

57

3 8 1 Madhuca Indica

59

61

Mumurupa lm

Niger

Oiricurupalm

Papaya

Peanut / Ground Nut

Peach Palm

Powder Flask Fruit

Red Pepper

Red Cotton Tree

Sandle Bead tree

R;S 62/# go2 E35

42 a4cs3

Seje Palm

Soucherry

40

42

44

46

4 8

5 0

52

54

56

5 8

Narasplant

Nutmeg

Pachira Nut Tree

Passion fruit

Peach

Pistachio

Pongarnia 1 Karanja

Neem

Rose hip

Scotch Pine

60

62

Shea Nut

Spruce

S1. No

63

65

67

69

7 1

73

75

77

79

8 1

83

85

87

89

9 1

93

95

97

99

101

103

105

107

109

111

113

115

117

English name of the seed

Sweet Chestnut

Coconut

Tarweed

Tucuma

Wainut

Meadow Foam

Cashew nut

Palm

Rubber Seed

Calendula

Coffee

Hazel Nut

Pumpkin seed

Mustard

Sesame

Safflower

Tung tree

Cocoa

Rape seed

Indaia Palm

Castor Bean

Pecan nut

Babassu Palm

Macadmia Nut

Avocado

Buriti Palm

Macahuba Palm

Ginger

English name of the seed

Suari fat

Syrian Scabious

Tallow tree

Tea-oil plant

Turpentine Tree

Water - Chestnut

Corn

Oat

Lipine

Paddy (Rice Bran)

Soy Been

Line Seed

Euphorbia

Coriander

Dodder Seed

Abyssinian Kale

Buffalo Gourd

Sun flower

opium POPPY

Olive Tree

Gopher Plant

Bacury

Jojoba

Purging nut

Brazil Nut

Oiticica

Pequi

Oil palm

S1. No.

64

66

68

70

72

74

76

7 8

80

82

84

86

88

90

92

94

96

98

100

102

1 04

106

108

110

112

114

116

118

Cooli

Conventional Dl Diesel Engine

ixhaust Energy 37%

Work Output 28%

O Exhaust Energy .Work Output O Cooling Energy - '

LHR Dl Diesel Engine

Exhaust Energy 45%

- - -- A --

[ ~ ~ y h a u a - - Energy - .FrkOutpu~OCmling Energy ~ Figure - 2.1: The Energy Distribution (approximate) from the LHR Engine.