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CONVENTION ON MIGRATORY SPECIES
UNEP/CMS/COP13/Inf.7/Annex 1 7 November 2019 Original: English
13th MEETING OF THE CONFERENCE OF THE PARTIES Gandhinagar, India, 17 - 22 February 2020 Agenda Item 26.2.6
REPORT ON STATUS, SCOPE AND TRENDS OF THE LEGAL AND ILLEGAL INTERNATIONAL TRADE IN MARINE TURTLES, ITS CONSERVATION IMPACTS,
MANAGEMENT OPTIONS AND MITIGATION PRIORITIES
– MADAGASCAR
(Prepared by the Secretariat) (
Summary: CMS Decisions 12.17 Marine Turtles refers to CITES Decision 17.222, which mandates an assessment on marine turtle trade. This CITES assessment was published in June 2019 and is contained in UNEP/CMS/COP13/Inf.7. This document contains the annexed country report on Madagascar.
Assessingthestatus,scopeandtrendsofthelegalandillegalinternationaltradeinmarineturtles,itsconservationimpacts,managementoptionsandmitigationprioritiesinMadagascar.ImplementationofCITESDecisions17.222and17.223onHawksbillturtle(Eretmochelysimbricata)andothermarineturtles(CheloniidaeandDermochelyidae)
Photo:JessWilliamsReportpreparedby:NicolasPilcher,MarineResearchFoundationJessWilliams,TartarugasparaoAmanhā,PraiadoTofo,Inhambane,MozambiqueOnbehalfoftheConventiononInternationalTradeinEndangeredSpeciesofFaunaandFlora(CITES)Suggestedcitation:WilliamsJL&NJPilcher,2018.Assessmentofthestatus,scopeandtrendsofthelegalandillegalinternationaltradeinmarineturtles,itsconservationimpacts,managementoptionsandmitigationprioritiesinMadagascar.ReporttotheCITESSecretariatProjectS-527.SSFA/2018/DKA.72pp.
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TableofContents ExecutiveSummary................................................................................................................................11.0Introduction.....................................................................................................................................2
1.1Background..................................................................................................................................21.2Countryoverview–Madagascar................................................................................................21.2.1Artisanalfisheries.....................................................................................................................41.2.2Commercialfisheries................................................................................................................51.2.3Fisheriesmanagementandlegislation....................................................................................61.2.4MarineturtlelegislationinMadagascar.................................................................................71.2.5Illegal,UnreportedandUnregulated(IUU)Fishing...............................................................101.2.6Fisheriesenforcement...........................................................................................................101.2.7Community-basedmanagementand‘Dina’..........................................................................101.3IntentionalandaccidentaltakeofmarineturtlesinMadagascar...........................................111.4Domestictradeinmarineturtles..............................................................................................121.5Exportofmarineturtles............................................................................................................141.4Cultureandtraditions...............................................................................................................151.4.1Traditionalbeliefsandtaboos(‘fady’or‘faly’).....................................................................151.4.2Vezoculture...........................................................................................................................151.4.3Consumptionandillness........................................................................................................16
2.0Methodology..................................................................................................................................162.1Literaturereview.......................................................................................................................162.2Fieldwork...................................................................................................................................162.3Rapidassessmentinterviews....................................................................................................16
2.3.1.KeyInformants..................................................................................................................172.4OnlineSurvey............................................................................................................................182.5Samplingsites............................................................................................................................18
3.0Results............................................................................................................................................183.2Fisherydescription....................................................................................................................183.3Turtleinteractions.....................................................................................................................213.4Domesticmarineturtletrade...................................................................................................253.5Casestudies...............................................................................................................................283.4.1CaseStudy1:Traffickingacross180kmfromAnalalavatoMahajanga...............................293.4.2CaseStudy2:TraffickingfromAnalalava..............................................................................293.4.3CaseStudy3:MorambaBay,MarovasaBeandAnjajavy.....................................................303.4.4CaseStudy4:TurtlemeatvendorsofMahavatse,Toliara...................................................313.5Domesticmarineturtletraderoutes........................................................................................323.6Magnitudeofdomestictradefromartisanalfishing...............................................................333.7Internationaltrade....................................................................................................................35
4.0Discussion.......................................................................................................................................364.1Artisanalfishingimpacts...........................................................................................................374.2Commercialfishingimpacts......................................................................................................384.3Internationaltradeimpacts......................................................................................................384.4Illustrativefeedbackfromkeyinformants...............................................................................394.4.1CSPMahajangaFeedback......................................................................................................394.4.2Feedbackfromanartisanalmaritimetransporter................................................................404.5Managementchallenges...........................................................................................................414.5.1Applicationandenforcementofthelaw...............................................................................414.5.2Traffickingturtleplastron......................................................................................................424.5.3Corruption..............................................................................................................................424.5.4Culturalsensitivity/bushmeatdemand...............................................................................43
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6.0Conclusions....................................................................................................................................437.0 Recommendations....................................................................................................................44
7.1Conservation&Management...................................................................................................447.2Biology&Sustainability............................................................................................................457.3Additionalprioritysurveyareas...............................................................................................46
8.0 LiteratureCited.........................................................................................................................47AnnexI:Fieldworkitinerary.................................................................................................................52AnnexII:Interviewquestionsforfishingcommunities........................................................................53AnnexIII:Interviewquestionsformanagementexecutives................................................................59AnnexIV:SurveyConstraints...............................................................................................................66AnnexV:Acknowledgements...............................................................................................................67
PhotocourtesyofMichelStrongoff,ChrisScarffeFilm&Photography
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ListofAcronyms ASH–AgenceSanitaireHalieutiqueBRD–BycatchReductionDeviceCBD–ConventiononBiologicalDiversityCCL–CurvedCarapaceLength(ofseaturtles)CITES–ConventiononInternationalTradeinEndangeredSpeciesofWildFaunaandFloraCLP–ComitéLocauxdePecheCMS–ConventioninMigratorySpeciesCPUE–CatchPerUnitEffortCSP–CentredeSurveillancedesPêchesEEZ–ExclusiveEconomicZoneEIA–EnvironmentalImpactAssessmentFAO–FoodandAgricultureOrganisationoftheUnitedNationsIHSM–InstitutHalieutiqueetdesSciencesMarinesIOSEAMoU–MemorandumofUnderstandingontheConservationandManagementoftheMarine
TurtlesanditsHabitatsintheIndianOceanandSoutheastAsiaIOTC–IndianOceanTunaCommissionIUCN–InternationalunionfortheConservationofNatureandNaturalResourcesIUU–Illegal,UnreportedandUnregulated(fishing)IWT–IllegalWildlifeTradeLMMA–LocallyManagedMarineAreaLNG–LiquefiedNaturalGasMEEF–MinistryofEnvironmentsandForestMGA–MadagascarAriary–1000MGA=approximately28USDMMA–MarineManagedAreaMNP–MadagascarNationalParksMPRH–MinistèredelaPêcheetdesRessourcesHalieutiquesMRF–MarineResearchFoundationMPA–MarineProtectedAreaNGO–Non-GovernmentalOrganisationSSF–SmallScaleFisheriesSWIO–SouthWestIndianOceanTED–TurtleExcluderDeviceUNEP–UnitedNationsEnvironmentprogramme,nowUNE–UnitedNationsEnvironmentUSD–UnitedStatesDollarsWCS–WorldConservationSocietyWIO–WesternIndianOcean
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ExecutiveSummaryMadagascarishometofivespeciesofmarineturtles:thegreen(Cheloniamydas),loggerhead(Carettacaretta),hawksbill(Eretmochelysimbricata),Oliveridley(Lepidochelysolivacea)andleatherback(Dermochelyscoriacea),whichareprotectedbynationallawandundertheinternationaltreatiesMadagascarisaPartyto.TheConventiononInternationalTradeinEndangeredSpeciesofWildFaunaandFlora(CITES)listsallspeciesofmarineturtlesonAppendixIandtheConventionontheConservationofMigratorySpeciesofWildAnimals(CMS)listsallspeciesfoundinMadagascarwatersonAppendixIandII.TheselistingsobligeMadagascarto:1)baninternationaltradeinthespeciesand2)tobantakingofthewildanimalsforanycommercialpurposesandreducethreatstothesurvivalofthesespecies,seekingtostrengtheninternationalcooperationonprotectingthem.Forthepurposeofenhancinginternationalcooperation,amongstothers,theCMSMemorandumofUnderstandingontheConservationandManagementofMarineTurtlesandtheirHabitatsoftheIndianOceanandSouth-EastAsia(IOSEAMarineTurtlesMoU)wasalsosignedbyMadagascar.TheconservationandManagementPlanoftheMoUcallsupontheSignatoriestobandirectharvestofturtleswithexceptionsfortraditionalharvest,providedthattheturtlepopulationsinquestioncansustainthatharvest.DespitethelegislativeframeworksinplacetosafeguardmarineturtlesinMadagascar,theseareregularlyandabundantlycaughtaccidentallyoraretargetedillegallybyartisanalandcommercialfishers.Commercialfisheriesofconcernincludetheshrimptrawlandthetunalonglinefishery,bothofwhichareknowntoimpactturtlesintheabsenceofbycatchreductionmeasures.TurtleExcluderDevicesaremandatedonshrimptrawlers,butnomeasurestosafeguardturtlesareinplaceinthelonglineindustryinMadagascar.Inaddition,thereiswidespreadillegal,unregulatedandunreported(IUU)fishinginMadagascarwaterswhichlikelyalsoimpactsmarineturtles.However,themainconcernlieswiththerampantcollectionofmarineturtlesforfoodandtradebytheapproximately100,000fisher-strongartisanalfishery.LegalstructuresareinplacetoprotectmarineturtlesinMadagascar,andwhiletherearelegislativeinstrumentsthatgovernthefisheriessectors,thesearelargelyineffectiveatmanagingthesmall-scalefisherysectorthatisthenormalongmuchofMadagascar’scoastalregions.Coupledwiththis,alackofresources,fundsandstaffmeansthatenforcementisseverelylacking,andillegalcollection,saleandconsumptionofmarineturtlesisrampant.OursurveyssupportearlierfindingsthattheartisanalfisherysectorisextractingthousandsofmarineturtlesfromMadagascarcoastalwaterseachyear.Amongthe153respondentstooursurveyweestimatetheserespondentsalonewereresponsibleforsome3,500turtles,bothasbycatchandmostlyasdirectedtake.Veryfewrespondentsindicatedbycaughtturtleswereeverreleased.Whileextrapolationsfromlimitedreachrapidassessmentsareproblematiconvariousfronts,suchasuniformityofeffortdistribution,varyingcustomsandbeliefs,andregionaldifferencesineachfishery,weestimatethatthepotentialtoremoveapproximately150,000to300,000turtlesperyearexistsgiventhesizeofthecountryandnumberoffishersintheartisanalfisherysector.Ofimportancehereisthemagnitudeofthetotaltake,whichisnotinthehundredsorthousands,butwhichexceeds100,000turtles.Over90%ofmarineturtlescaughtinMadagascararedestinedforlocalconsumptionorforlocaltrade.Wefoundnoevidenceofanysystematicexportmarket,andsuggestthatifthisoccursitisopportunisticandinfrequent,andofafarlesserscalethanthedomestictrade.AnumberoflocalcustomsincludingDinaandfady(traditionalbans)existwhichcouldprotectmarineturtlesfromlocalexploitation,buterosionofsocialnormsmeansthatthesearelesseffectivetodaythaninthe
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past.Oursurveywefoundthatlessthan20%offisherswouldreleaseturtlesbacktotheseaiftheywereaccidentallycaughtinfishinggear,andtheseresponseswereusuallylinkedtolocalfady.Effectivemeasurestoaddresstheillegalcapture,consumptionandtradeinmarineturtlesinMadagascararelikelytoincludestrengtheninglocaltraditionalmanagementapproachessuchasDinaandfady,andprovidingopportunitiesforlocalcommunitiestosupportenforcementofnationallegislation.Inadditiontothiswebelievethereisaneedforincreasingexposureofincidencesofpoachercapturesandturtlereleasesamongstcoastalcommunities;raisingawarenessonthelegalstatusandconservation/managementneedsofmarineturtles;buildingcapacityforenforcementamongstfisheryandtradeMinistryofficials,alongsideprovisionoffundingandresourcestoeffectivelycombatillegalturtletrade;revisingfisherylegislationtoadequatelyaddresstheartisanalfisherysector;addressingIllegal,UnreportedandUnregulated(IUU)fishingandimplementingbycatchreductionprogrammesinlicensedcommercialfisheries;eliminatingcorruptionamongstenforcementofficials;andexploringthepotentialforalternativelivelihoodandincentiveprogrammestolessendependenceonmarineturtlesamongcoastalcommunities.FromabiologicalperspectivethereisaneedtounderstandtheprovenanceofmarineturtlesbeingtakenoutofMadagascarwatersanddeterminetheoverallproductivityofthesesourcerookeriestakingintoaccountotherregionalimpactareas(suchasMozambique);andtoexpandthecurrentrapidsurveytoagreatergeographicalareaandrefinetheestimatesoftotalannualturtletakeinMadagascar.Thesedatacanthencontributetomoreeffectivemanagementofturtlestocks.
1.0Introduction1.1BackgroundTheSecretariatoftheConventiononInternationalTradeinEndangeredSpeciesofWildFaunaandFlora(CITES)incooperationwiththeSecretariatoftheConventioninMigratorySpecies(CMS)contractedtheMarineResearchFoundation(MRF)toassessthestatus,scopeandtrendsofthelegalandillegalinternationaltradeinseaturtlesinMadagascarandMozambique.ThisreportaddressesfindingsfromthisassessmentforMadagascar.ThepresentassessmentcontributestotheimplementationofCITESDecisions17.222and17.223ontheHawksbillturtle(Eretmochelysimbricata)andothermarineturtles(CheloniidaeandDermochelyidae).Particularly,theassessmentcontributestodeterminingthestatus,scopeandtrendsofthelegalandillegalinternationaltradeinseaturtles;determiningtheconservationimpactsassociatedtothistrade;identifyingwaystoimprovethemanagementofseaturtlesinthecontextofthistrade;andidentifyingareas(geographicalandoperational)whereimmediatemitigationeffortsmaybeneeded.TheMarineResearchFoundationwascontractedtocompileinformationonthetradeinseaturtleswhereupdated,scientificallysounddataareavailable,andconductprimaryresearchtogenerateandcollectdataonthetradeinseaturtleswhereitisnon-existing.ThisassessmenthasbeenfundedundertheUS-NationalOceanicandAtmosphericAdministration(NOAA)projectStrengtheningCITESimplementationforselectedmarinespecies(US-NOAAAwardNA17NMF0080186).
1.2Countryoverview–MadagascarMadagascarhostssomeofthemostbiologicallydiversemarinelifeintheWesternIndianOcean(WIO;Koopman2008).Thecountryhasacoastlineof5,697km(MEEF2014),includingextensive
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islandarchipelagos(270islets).Extensivefringingcoralreefsandmangrovesystemsoccuralongthewestcoast(MEEF2014),whichischaracterizedbyabroadshallowcontinentalshelfandishometothemajorityoftheartisanalorsubsistencefishers(LeManachetal.2013).However,whilemostsubsistencefishersoperateinthewest,theeasternpartoftheislandhasthehighesthumanpopulationdensity(SEDAC2000).FivespeciesofmarineturtleoccurinMadagascar:thegreen(Cheloniamydas),loggerhead(Carettacaretta),hawksbill(Eretmochelysimbricata),Oliveridley(Lepidochelysolivacea)andleatherback(Dermochelyscoriacea).ThesystematiccollectionofeggsandnestingfemaleshasledtosignificantdeclinesinnestingactivityonthemainlandofMadagascar(Rakotonirina&Cooke1994,Walker&Roberts2005,Humberetal.2016).It’sthoughtthatthereisaminimumofapproximately1,200nestsdepositedperyearinMadagascar(mostlygreens~75%andhawksbills~24%),withthelargestrecordednestingaggregation(approximately1,000nestsperyear)foundonislandsoffthewestandnortherncoasts(Humberetal.2016).Humberetal.(2016)reportmorethan40siteswherenestinghasnotbeenrecordedsince2000.Thereare56MarineProtectedAreas(MPAs),includingsmallLocallyManagedMarineAreas(LMMAs)andthreeMarineManagedAreas(MadagascarMPAAtlas2018;Fig.1).ProposalstoincreasemanagementeffortsandplansforanextensivenetworkofMPAs(Allnutetal.2012)havebeendevelopedbutimplementationhasvariedinsuccess.MPAmanagementcanbebestdescribedasacollectionofmultipleresource-userestrictionsanditsimplementationreliesstronglyonoutsidesupport(Rakotoson&Tanner2006,Cinneretal.2009).
Figure1:Protected/managed/conservationareasinMadagascar(datasource:UNEP-WCMC2018)
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1.2.1ArtisanalfisheriesSmall-scalefisheriesarewidespreadthroughoutMadagascar,withthebulkoffishingeffortfocusedonthewesternandsouthcoasts(Fig.2).Robustmonitoringofthefishingeffort,stockstatusesandtrendsoftheartisanalfishingsectorareseverelydatadeficient,andenforcementoftraditionalzonesagainstMalagasycommercialoperatorsremainsproblematic.Numeroussourceshavesuggestedsomestocksareclosetofisheriescollapse(i.e.elasmobranchs,seacucumbers)whileothershavealreadyundergonesignificantcatchdeclines(shrimpfishing):seriousconcernsaboutdecliningcatchesandstocksofinvertebrates,mainlycollectedthroughreef-gleaning(Cripps2009,2010),havebeennotedinseveralcases(Rasolofonirina&Conand1998,Sabatinietal.2008,Andersonetal.2010).Increasingpressures(politicalinstability,climateinsecurity)aredrivingthemigrationofartisanalfishersatunprecedentedratestoincreasinglyremoteandisolatedregionsandislandsofthewestcoastasadirectresponseandcopingmechanismofdecliningcatchrates(Cripps2010).
Figure2:Commercialfishinggrounds,mangrovehabitatsandmajorfishingportsofMadagascar(as
presentedinRazafindrainibe2010).
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Thetraditionalfisheriesaretypicallycarriedoutfromdugoutcanoesusingoarsandsailsandexploitmarinemammals,marineturtles,fish,sharksandrays,echinoderms,molluscs,crustaceansandsomeseaweeds.Inaddition,non-edibleresourcessuchasaquariumfish,coralsandspongesarealsoperiodicallycollected.Thecollectionofseacucumberfromdeeperwatersisalsoagrowingindustry(Kasprzyck2008).
1.2.2CommercialfisheriesThemajorityofMadagascar’scommercialfishingconsistsofshrimpfishing.Theshrimpfleetoperatesalongthewestcoastinwatersbetween5to30mdeep,focusingonadultPenaeidshrimp(Razafindrainibe2010).Fiveshrimpfishingportsarelocatedalongthewestcoast(fromnorthtosouth):Nosy-Be,Mahajanga,Maintirano,MorondavaandToliara.LandingsitesarelocatedinnearbyprocessingunitsoperatedbyshrimpcompaniesinNosy-Be,MahajangaandMorondava(Razafindrainibe2010).Theoverallcatchperuniteffort(CPUE)oftheshrimpfisheriesisdecreasing.Thisdeclineintheecologicalsustainabilityandeconomicviabilityofthisfisheryisnowcausingownerstoreducetheirfleets(Razafindrainibe2010,McNeish2011).Sincetheearly1980s,tunapurseseineshavebecomemorecommon,landingsome25,000tin2010,andthisfisheryisrequiredtoreportlandingstotheMinistryofFisheriesandHalieuticResources(MinistèredelaPêcheetdesRessourcesHalieutiques,orMPRH).Since2010,mudcrabsanddemersalfishhavealsobeentargetedcommercially,althoughthereisnotyetarobustobserverprogrammetodetailcatchandbycatchrecordsinanyofthesefisheries(MPRH2012).TurtleExcluderDevices(TEDs)havebeenalegalrequirement(underDecree2003-1101of23rdNovember2003)andthisDecreeincludestheuseofBycatchReductionDevices(BRDs)thatreportedlyhaveresultedinreducedincidentalbycatchofmarineturtles(Razafindrainibe2010).TEDsarereportedtohavereducedthebycatchofturtlesintheentireshrimpfleetfrom120turtlesfrom64vesselsin2004totwoturtlesfrom63vesselsin2005(Razafindrainibe2010;TableI).In2007,20turtles,mostlygreen,werereportedasbycatchbetweenFebruaryandJulyamongfivevesselsoperatingofftheEastcoast(Razafindrainibe2010).TheFisheriesSurveillanceCentre(CentredeSurveillancedesPêches,orCSP)claimsthattrawlersoperatingoffthewestcoastarehighlycompliantwiththeTEDregulation,reportingmorethan85%compliance(Razafindrainibe2010).Itisestimatedthat30%ofthewestcoastfleetcarryon-boardobserversfromtheCSPprogramme,howeveritcannotbeconfirmedwhethercrewsuseTEDsandbycatchreductiondevices(BRDs)whennotundersupervision(LeManachetal.2012).Discardedbycatch(includingdiscards,juveniles,andendangeredspecies)fromtheshrimpingsectoristhoughttoequateto12,300tonsorabout2.5millionUSDperyearthatiseitherdiscardedorillegallysoldinAsianmarkets(LeManachetal.2013).TableI:IncidentalcatchofturtlesobservedbyCSPinMadagascarin2004and2005.ZoneA:AmbaroBay;ZoneB:NarindraBay,MahajambaBayandnorthofMajajangaBay;ZoneC:southofMahajambaandCape
St.Andre;ZoneD:westcoast(presentedinRazafindrainibe2010).
Zones2004(99trips) 2005(53trips)
Total Live Dead Total Live Dead
A 30 24 2 0 0 0B 16 14 1 0 0 0C 63 56 6 1 1 0D 11 8 3 1 1 0
Total 120 102 12 2 2 0
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1.2.3FisheriesmanagementandlegislationLegalambiguityandconfusionissystemicinMadagascar’sfisheriessector(LeManachetal.2013,Carver2018).“Thepolicyandlegalframeworkgoverningthesectorisincoherentandambiguous,”aWorldBank(2013)reportstates.“ThereisnoofficialdocumentthatstatestheGovernment’sfisheriessectorpolicy.”Anewfishingcodewasdraftedin2015,buttherulesremainuncertain.AcomprehensivereviewofrelevantfisherieslegislationsisdetailedinRazafindrainibe(2010),LeManachetal.(2013)andBreuil&Grima(2014),andabriefsummaryofthekeyfisheriesdecreesispresentedinTableII.ThefisheriessectoriscurrentlygovernedbytheMinistryofFisheriesandAquaticResources(MPRH).MPRHcomprisesover40directorates,servicesandagenciesandhas184employees:87atcentralheadquartersinAntananarivo,and97staffspreadacrossthe22regions(LeManachetal.2013).
TableII:OverviewofkeyfisherieslegislationinMadagascar,sortedbyfisherysectors.
Instrument Description Details
Commercial/IndustrialSector
DecreeNo.2007-957
Definestheexploitationrulesfortheshallowwatershrimpfishery.
Effortcontrolandindividualtradablepermitsaretwomechanismsspecificallymentionedinthedecree
Ordinance93-022(4May1993)anditsassociatedDecree94-112of18Feb1994
Isthemainregulationsgoverningthefisheriesandaquaculturesectors.
MinistryofFisheriesandAquaticResourcesMinistèredelaPêcheetdesRessourcesHalieutiques(MPRH)preparesandmaintainsfisheriesmanagementplansandstockconservationplans
Decree71-238of18May1971
Allowstrawlingincoastalwaters Establishedthatthezonewithin2nauticalmilesofshoreisnotexclusivelyreservedforsmall-scalefishing
Decree73-171of22March1973
Prohibitsmotorisedtrawlingincoastalwaters.
Trawlingbyboatsover25horsepowerinthe2-mileareawasagainprohibitedin1973
Law90-033of21Dec1990accompaniedbyDecree99-954
TheMalagasyEnvironmentalCharter-Fisheriessectormustcomplywithassociatedenvironmentallegislation
Thereisalackofcompatibilitybetweeninvestmentinitiativesandenvironmentalconcerns
Decree2010-137of23Mar2010
Fisheriessectormustcomplywithassociatedenvironmentallegislation
Integratedcoastalzonemanagement.
Decree2000-415of16Jun2000
Thenumberoftrawlinglicenseswasfrozenin1999.20-yearlicensesweregrantedtoexistingtrawlerusersin2000
Newlicensescannotbeissueduntil2019,althoughthelicensescanbesold.
Traditional/ArtisanalSector
Arrêté10404/97of13Nov1997
Requiresauthorizationtofishorcollectlobsters,crabs,seacucumbers,algae,shrimp,shellfish,octopus,squid,sharkfins,fish,eels,andgobies
Thisregulationhasneverbeenappliedinpractice(LeManachetal.2013).
DecreeNo.2056/2009
Registrationandlicencingofcommercialfishersandgleaners.
Everycommercialfisherandgleanerisrequiredtohaveaprofessionalcard,suppliedforfreebyMPRH
Effectivefisheriesmanagementisalsohinderedsignificantlybyalackofrobustdataonstockresources,catchlandingsandeconomicvaluesofthefisheriesresources(LeManachetal.2013).TherearenostockassessmentsavailableforMadagascar’sfisheriesexceptforinitialestimatesforshrimpstocks(upto2008;LeManachetal.2013)andlargerpelagicspeciesrequiredundertheIndianOceanTunaCommission(IOTC)agreement(Breuil&Grima.2014).OfficialreportstotheFAObyMPRHfailtoaccountforbycatch,finfishorsharksandarethoughttounderestimateactuallandingsupto30%(LeManachetal.2012,LeManachetal.2013).Worryingly,thefisheries
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licensingsystemforforeignfleetsallowsopportunitiesforexploitation,withmanagementregulationsprescribingalimittothetotalnumberoflicenseagreementsorvesselsratherthanlimitingtotalcatchvolumes(LeManachetal.2013).Finally,theartisanalandsubsistencesectorhasnotreceivedthesamemanagerialorlegislativeattentionasthemoreprofitablecommercialandindustrialsector.Subsistencefishingisgenerallyunregulated,unknown,andunmonitored(Breuil&Grima2014).TheonlymeasuresaddressingthissectorincludeartisanalfishersandvendorsbeingrequiredtoregisterthroughaprogramrunbytheMPRH,andfishingwithmosquitonetsisillegalinonly2of13coastalregions(LeManachetal.2013).
1.2.4MarineturtlelegislationinMadagascarWhilemarineturtlesareprotectedthroughseverallegislativemeasures(TablesIII&IV),therearecurrentlynogovernmentinitiativestomanagetheircaptureanduse(Humberetal.2011).InsouthwestMadagascarinparticular,aprolificdirectedtakeofmarineturtlesiswell-documented,notwithstandingnationaldecreesprohibitingexploitation(FrontierMadagascar2003,Jones2012,Gibbonsetal.2013,Goldingetal.2017).TableIIIsummarisesthedirectandindirectlegislativetoolsthatapplytomarineturtlesinMadagascar,whileTableIVdetailsinternationalInstrumentsandConventions.TableIII:LegislationrelatedtomarineturtleprotectioninMadagascar(adaptedfromHumberetal.2015).
InstrumentswithdirectrelevancetomarineturtlesinNationallegislation
Statute Description/keygoal Relevancetomarineturtles
Ordinanceno.93-022on4thMay1993
SetsoutRegulationsforfishingandaquaculture.Article9)textonprohibitedactivitieshasnotbeenadopted
Prohibitedactivities:killing,injuringandcatchingofanyendangeredspecies.
Decreeno.94-112on18thFebruary1994
Decreeconcerningthegeneralorganisationofmarinefishingactivities.Regulationofbycatchinfishinglicenses(Article16.3.candArt27.c)Recordingofbycatch(Article28)
TheMinistryofFisheriesdeterminesthequantityofeachspeciesallowedwithinfishinglicensesincludingrestrictionsonpermissiblebycatch.Boatcaptainsarerequiredtorecordinalogbookthequantityofspecies,includingbycatchspecies.
Decreeno.2003-1101on25thNovember2003
TurtleExcluderDevice(Article12)regulatingthepracticeoftrawlingintheMalagasyterritorialsea
ShrimptrawlersonthewestandeastcoastarerequiredtohaveTurtleExcluderDevices.
Lawno.2005-018on17thOctober2005
InternationalTradeinEndangeredSpeciesofWildFaunaandFloraaddressingtrade(Article29)Penalties(Article30,32,33)
Prohibitionoftradeactivities:thepossession,buying,offertobuy,acquisitionforcommercialuseforprofit,exposuretopublicforcommercialpurposes,sale,detainingforsale,offeringforsaleortransportingforsale.Sixmonthstotenyearsimprisonmentandafineof10millionto200millionAr.TheamountofthefineandthesizeofthepenaltyisdoubledifthespeciesareonCITESAppendixI.
Decreeno.2006-097on31stJanuary2006
AddressestherulesfortheimplementationofthelawonInternationalTradeinEndangeredSpeciesofWildFaunaandFloraandissueofInternationaltradepermits(Articles6&11)
Themanagementbody,afterconsultationofthescientificauthorities,issuespermits,certificatesandauthorizationsundertheprovisionsofCITESandthenationallawonCITES,especiallyhunting,collectionorcapturepermits.
Decreeno.2006-400on13thJune2006
DecreeontheclassificationofwildlifespeciesdetailingthosewithAbsoluteprotection(Article2)
Prohibitedactivities:hunting,captureanddetention.
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Orderno.12.666/2014on28thMarch2014
Relatestotheconservationofmarineturtlescaughtbyfisheries(applicabletonationallonglinevessels).Careofinjuredmarineturtles(Article2)Bycatchequipment(Article3)Recordingofincidents(Article4)
Theboatcaptainshalltakeonboard,wherepossibleandassoonaspossible,anycaught/inanimate/inactiveturtleduringthefishingoperation,anddoeverythingpossibletoreleaseitalive.Boatsmusthaveonboardhook-cutterstofacilitatequickhandlingandreleaseofanymarineturtleshookedorentangled.ThisshouldbedoneincompliancewiththehandlingguidelinesintheidentificationsheetofmarineturtlesoftheIndianOceanTunaCommission(IOTC).Theboatcaptainshallrecordinthefishinglogbookallincidentsinvolvingmarineturtlesduringfishingoperations.Thisinformationshouldincludethespecies,locationofcapture,conditions,actionstakenonboardandtheplaceofrelease.
Draftfisherycodeof27thNovember2014
Harvestrestrictions(Article9) Itisprohibitedatanytime,anyplace,fishing,taking,detentionandsaleofallkindsofprotectedspeciesincludingmarineturtles(underadoption).
InstrumentswithindirectrelevancetomarineturtlesinNationallegislationStatute Description/keygoal RelevancetomarineturtlesNationalConstitutionofMadagascar2010
Hierarchyofinternationaltreatiesandnationallaws(Article137-4)
Treatiesoragreementsdulyratified,uponpublication,haveanauthoritysuperiortothatoflaws.
Decreeno.2010-137on23rdMarch2010
RegulatestheintegratedmanagementofcoastalandmarineareasofMadagascar.Cautionduty(Article6e)Sustainablemanagement(Article26)
Eachactorneedstoavoidcausingirreparabledamagetothenaturalresourcesandrisktothemselvesandforfuturegenerations.Actorsandlocalauthoritiestocommittorationallyandsustainablymanagingcoastalandmarineresources.
StrategicActionPlanfortheBiologicalDiversityofMadagascar.NationalBiodiversityandStrategyActionPlans2015-2025.Decreeno.2016-128ofFebruary232016,adoptingtheNationalBiodiversityStrategyandActionPlansforMadagascar2015to2025
OBJECTIVE12:«By2025,theextinctionofendangeredspeciesisreducedandtheirconservationstatusimproved»
Reducetheextinctionfactorsofendemic,migratingandthreatenedspeciesaswellasthefactorsofdestruction/degradationoftheirhabitats.
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TableIV:Conventions,treatiesandnon-ratifiedagreementsrelatingtomarineturtlesinMadagascar(adaptedfromHumberetal.2015).
InternationalInstruments/Conventions/Agreementswithdirectrelevancetomarineturtles
Instrument/Convention Description Dateimplemented/Notes
ConventiononInternationalTradeinEndangeredSpeciesofWildFaunaandFlora(CITES)
RegulatesandcontrolstheinternationaltradeofthreatenedspeciesthroughthelistinginAppendicesaccordingtothreatlevel.HasbeenenactedintonationallegislationthroughLaw2005-018andDecree2006-097thatdetailstherulesfortheimplementationofLaw2005-018.
Ratifiedin1975.CurrentlyallspeciesofmarineturtlesareincludedonAppendixI.Internationaltradeofmarineturtles(orproducts)isillegal,includingtheimportandexportofjewellerypieces(e.g.necklaces,bracelets,rings,etc.).
ConventionontheConservationofMigratorySpeciesofWildAnimals(CMS)
Aimstoconservemigratoryspeciesandtheirhabitatsthroughouttheirrange.UndertheConvention,eachPartyisrequiredtostrictlyprotectendangeredspecies,listedonAppendixIandstrivetoconcludeinternationalagreementstobenefitspecieslistedonAppendixII.ArticleIIIofCMSdescribesobligationstoprotectAppendixIspecies,andallowstakeinexceptionalcircumstances,accommodating,interalia,“theneedsoftraditionalsubsistenceusers”butthetermhasnotbeenfurtherdefinedwithintheCMStext.
Ratifiedin1979.ThefivespeciesofmarineturtlesfoundinMadagascaranditswatersarelistedonAppendixIandIIofCMS.AppendixIlistingobligesPartiestoprohibittakingofanimals,allowingtakeonlyinexceptionalcircumstances.
MemorandumofUnderstandingontheConservationandManagementoftheMarineturtlesanditsHabitatsintheIndianOceanandSoutheastAsia(IOSEA-MoU)
Anon-bindingframeworkthroughwhichStatesoftheIndianOceanandSouth-EastAsia,aswellasotherconcernedStatesandpartners,collaboratetoprotect,conserve,replenishandrecoverseaturtlesandtheirhabitats.MoU’sconservationandmanagementplan(programme1.4)prescribestheSignatoryStatesto:Prohibitthedirectharvest(captureorkilling)of,anddomestictradein,marineturtles,theireggs,partsorproducts,whilstallowingexceptionsfortraditionalharvestbycommunitieswithineachjurisdictionprovidedthat:suchharvestdoesnotundermineeffortstoprotect,conserveandrecovermarineturtlepopulationsandtheirhabitats;andthemarineturtlepopulationsinquestionareabletosustaintheharvest
MoUsignatoryinApril2003
NairobiConvention Includesprogrammesthatstrengthenthecapacitytoprotect,manageanddevelopcoastalandmarineenvironmentssustainability.Listsoliveridley,loggerheadandleatherbackturtlesinAnnexII(speciesofwildfaunarequiringspecialprotection);greenandhawksbillturtlesinAnnexIII(harvestablespeciesofwildfaunarequiringprotection);andallfiveinAnnexIV(protectedmigratoryspecies).
Ratifiedin1998butthe2010conventiononthe“ProtocolfortheProtectionoftheMarineandCoastalEnvironmentoftheWesternIndianOceanfromLand-BasedSourcesandActivities”isyettoberatified.However,fortheintentsofthisreport,thislackofratificationisnotofmajorrelevance
Indirectincidence AfricanConventionforNatureandNaturalResourcesConservation
Maingoalistoensuretheuse,developmentandconservationofsoil,water,floraandfaunaresourcesofitsmemberStatesinaccordancewiththescientificprinciplesandinterestsofitspeople.Itdoesnotexplicitlymentionmarineturtles.
Signedoffonthe2003revisionsinFebruary2004.
ConventionoftheBiologicalDiversity(CBD)
Pertainstotheconservationofthebiologicaldiversity,sustainableuseofitscomponentsandfairandequalsharingofthenaturalresourcesatagloballevel.
Ratifiedin1997
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1.2.5Illegal,UnreportedandUnregulated(IUU)FishingWhilsttheextentofIUUfisheriesisnotknown,LeManachetal.(2013)estimatedthelandingsofIUUat50,000tonsperyear.IUUfisheriesforsharkfinningandseacucumberarealsothoughttobeextensive(LeManachetal.2013).Withcontinueddeclinesinartisanalfishlandingsandmoreevidenceofprobablefisheriescollapsesforbothinvertebratesandfinfish,artisanalfishersareincreasinglymigratingfurtherinsearchofnewstocksoradoptingnewgearsandtechniques.Illegalfishingforseacucumbersindeepwaters(20–50m)usingcompressedairhasbecomewidespreadalongthewest(andnorth)coasts(Raberinarya&Benbowa2012).Seacucumberofficialexportratesarelikelytobesignificantlylowerthanactualharvestrates,asthemajorityofseacucumbersareexportedillegally(Raberinarya&Benbowa2012).It’snotyetclearhowtargetedmarineturtlehunting,ortraffickingofturtleproductsconnectstoIUUactivitiesinMadagascar.However,itisimportanttonoteIUUfishingisprolificandextensivetradenetworksalreadyexist.Newconcerns(September2018)aremountingregardingtheincreasedopportunityforIUUtotakeplaceinMadagascar’sExcusiveEconomicZone(EEZ)uptoIUUafterarecentapprovalofabetweenthegovernmentandChinatoallowtheoperationofanadditional330commercialfishingvessels(EJA2018).
1.2.6FisheriesenforcementEnforcementandpatrolofMadagascar’sfisheriesresourcesisseverelylimitedgiventheapproximately5000kmcoastline.Enforcementandpatrolscanonlybecoveredbythreemonitoringvessels,eightspeedboats,18inspectorsand22observers(R.Fanazavapers.comm.,reportedinRazafindrainibe2010).ThisdutyfallsonbehalfoftheCentredeSurveillancedesPêches(CSP)whosemandateistoenforceregulationsonfisheriesandaquaculture,aswellasfishingagreements.CommercialvesselsareinspectedbyCSPatthebeginningofeachseasontoensuretheirequipmentcomplieswithregulations,howeverthroughoutthefishingseason,enforcementandinspectionsareseverelyrestrictedduetobothlimitationsinthefinancialandhumanresourcesofthecentre(R.Fanazavapers.comm.,reportedinRazafindrainibe2010).
1.2.7Community-basedmanagementand‘Dina’Dinareferstoacommunitylevelagreementthatdictates/suggestsbehaviouramongthosethathaveagreedtoit,permittingandprohibitingactivitiesincludingthoserelatedtonaturalresourcemanagement.Dinaisapre-colonialconceptbasedonthenotionofasocialcontract(McClanahanetal.2014).Dinacanbelegallyrecognisedthroughvalidationviathecourts,oraspartofdefinedcontractualmanagementtransfersandco-managementofrenewablenaturalresources(Humberetal.2015),andhasbeenintegratedintothecountry’slegalframeworkandusedtodeveloplocalandcustomaryregulationsofnaturalresources.Dinacanbeusedasawaytocommunicatenationallegislation,enhanceitorvalidatelocalcustomsbutcannotcontradictexistingnationallegislation(althoughthisoftenhappens;seebelow).PunishmentforbreakingDinaisvariableandissetbyeachimplementingcommunity,butcanincludemonetaryfinesormaterialfines(e.g.1zebu,5kgofrice,5kgofsaltetc.).Typically,Dinarelatingtothemarineturtlefisheryimposeasizelimit,forinstancenotakeofanimalsunder70cminCurvedCarapaceLength(CCL),closedseasonsfortargetedhunting(i.e.duringthenestingseason),orprohibitingeggharvesting.Ofnote,thetwofirstexamplescontradictnationallegislation.AsummarytableoftheDina’sinplacerelatingtomarineturtlesarepresentedinHumberetal.(2015).Gouldingetal.(2017)alsodescribestheDinausedby13communitiesintheBayofRanobe,southwestMadagascartoprohibitthecatchofturtlessmallerthan70cminCCL.
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MarineturtleDinahavehadmixedresults,andsomedirectlycontradictnationallegislation.Thedifficultlyofmultiplemanagementsystemshasbeennotedaschallengingtonaturalresourcemanagement,asitrequiresmergingmodernlegislationwithtraditionalandemergingcustomssuchasDina(Rakotoson&Tanner2006).Humberetal.(2015)suggestedthatthesuccessofDinarelatingtoturtleswasduetothestrongculturalvalueplaceduponturtles,especiallybytheVezoethnicgroup,whicharebasedinToliara,southwestMadagascar.
1.3IntentionalandaccidentaltakeofmarineturtlesinMadagascarIllegaltakecomprisesdirectedfisheriesformarineturtlesandalsotheretentionofaccidentallycaughtturtles.Twostudiescomprehensivelyreviewtheintentional(illegal)marineturtlecapturesinMadagascar(seeHumberetal.2011,Goldingetal.2017).Intheformer,surveysofthemarineturtlefisheryin12majorvillagesinsouthwestMadagascardocumented699marineturtlelandingsrepresentingfourspeciesin2007,withthemajoritybeinggreenturtlesCheloniamydas(93.6%;Humberetal.2011).InToliaraProvincetheyreportedanillegaltakerateof817turtlesper60km.Usingdatafromcommunitysurveys,theyextrapolatedthesedataandestimatedthemarineturtlefisheryfromjustonesouthwesternProvincetorangebetween10,000and16,000turtlesperyear(Humberetal.2011;Figs.3&4).
Figure3:LocationsofartisanalmarineturtlefisheriesinMadagascarandrelativeestimatesoflandings
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(Source:Humberetal.2011).Goldingetal.(2017)presentsadetailedcasestudyofthemarineturtlefisheryintheBayofRanobe,insouthwestMadagascar.ThemarineturtlefisheryintheBayofRanobereportedlylandedatotalof1,521turtles,ofwhich867werekilledorsoldand654(43%)werereleasedin2016.Thisturtlefisherygeneratedanincomeof71.4millionMGA(approximately20,000USD)in2016foranestimated80fishermeninfourcommunities(Ambolomailaky,Andrevo,FitsitikieandIfaty;Goldingetal.2017).Isolatedcasestudiesalsosuggesthighlevelsofbycatch,with3,656turtlesperyearwithanaveragecaptureof20-25turtlesperfisherreportedintheartisanalfisheriesbetweenSoalaraandAmbola(Frontier-Madagascar2003).Inaddition,illegaltakeof180-300turtleswasreportedintheNorthbetweenJulyandNovember2012(Cétamada2012).Thesefindingshighlightthattheimpactasmallhumanpopulationcanhaveonmarineturtlesoveroneyearcanbesubstantial(Humberetal.2011).Consideringthesestudies,itislikelytheartisanalturtlefisheryinMadagascaristhelargestintheSouthwestIndianOceanRegion(SWIO)region,withthesouthwestMadagascarregionhostingthemostsignificantmarineturtlefisheryinthecountry(Humberetal.2011).Marineturtlelandingsfromintentionaltakeappeartohave(onaverage)remainedatconstantlevelssincethe1970s(Frazier1970,Hughes1974,Rakotonirina&Cooke1994,Humberetal.2011)despitetemporalvariancesacrosstheyear,althoughclaimssuggestthatpoachingactivitymaybeintensifyinginotherareasofthecountry(IOSEA2014).Despitethesustainedillegaltakeofmarineturtlesreceivingnationalattention(Repoblikan'iMadagasikara2013a,2013b),effectivemanagementmeasures,directassessmentsoffisheriesimpactandillegalexporthaveyettobeimplemented.
Figure4:2017and2018trendsinthemonitoredlandingsofthemarineturtlefisheryatIfaty,Madagascar.UnpublisheddataandgraphcourtesyofReefDoctorandtheInstitutHalieutiqueetdesSciencesMarines
(IHSM),UniversitédeToliara(Madagascar).
1.4DomestictradeinmarineturtlesMarineturtlesareheavilyexploiteddirectlythroughillegaltargetedfisheriesandasbycatchalongthemajorityofMadagascar'scoastline(Humberetal.2015).In1971Hughes(1974)estimatedannualcatchesamongallfivespeciesofmarineturtlestobeinthethousandsinsouthwestMadagascar.Reportssuggestthatinhistoricaltimes(ca.1970-1980),turtlefishingwasregulatedbytraditionalresourcemanagementsystems(Jones2012,Humberetal.2015).Historical(priorto
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2000)captureswereona1to2turtles/weekbasisratherthanthegreater8to20/daytrendsreportedmorerecently(pers.comm.EmmaGibbons;inJones2012).Despitetheerosionofoldermarineturtlefishingtraditionsinfavourofmorecommercial-stylehunting,localconsumptionisthoughttohavecontinuedatsimilarlevelssincethe1970s(Frazier1970,Hughes1974,Rakotonirina&Cooke1994,Humberetal.2011),andtodayKinangafano(turtlesales)havebecomeanestablishedbusiness(Lilette2006).Thehuntingofturtlestosellforprofitnowdrivesthefishery,especiallyforvillagesclosetothelargermarketsofToliaraandMorombe(Pascal2003,Lilette2007),whereturtlesfetchahighpriceincomparisonwithothermarineresources.Thishasledtothedevelopmentofmerchantsthatspecialiseinbuyingandsellingturtlemeat(Lilette2006,2007,Pascal2003,2008).Whilstthesouthwestisknownasthehubforturtlefishing,duetothehighdensityofartisanalfishers,ofwhichmostareVezowithstrongculturalandidentitytiestoturtlehunting,scatteredreportsfromthenorthandnorthwestofMadagascarsuggestturtlethatfishingandconsumptionarewidespread.Between2007and2010itwasestimatedthatmorethan40%ofthegreenandhawksbillturtlescapturedatseabylocalfishermenoffnorthernMadagascarvillageshadbeenlocallyconsumedorsold(Poonian&Whitty,unpublished).Metcalfetal.(2007)reportsmortalityeventsacrossacollectiveof115kmofbeachfromfieldsurveyscompletedinthreeregionsin2000;NosyHara(261green,119hawksbill,2oliveridleyand3loggerhead),NosyIranja(30green,33hawksbill)andtheRadamaIslands(295green,157hawksbilland3oliveridley).WhilstthelocalethnicgroupSakalavahaveafady(traditionalban)againstconsumptionofturtle,adherencetotraditionhasdeclined.Also,alargenumberofmigrantfishers(fromotherpartsofMadagascar)operateintheregiontoexploitlucrativefisheries(Metcalfetal.2007).Intentionalcaptureofturtleswasrecentlyreportedinthefarnorth,insixcommunitiesintheBayofRigny(Rahantanirina2018).Inthesouthwest,acrosseightcommunitiesspanninga60kmstretchfromAnakaotoAmbola,thevillageofMaromenahadthehighestmonthlycaptureofturtles,withareported300turtles/monthduringpeakfishingseasons(Walker&Roberts2005).AnakaovillageisalsowellknowninsouthwesternMadagascarforitsexploitationofturtlesandisthemostpopulousandthemostdependentonthattrade(Lilette2006).InIfaty,alsoinsouthwestMadagascar,morethan87%oftherespondentsinastudyontastepreference,marketdemand,andannualcatchinanindigenousmarineturtlefisheryinsouthwestMadagascarindicatedtheyconsumedmarineturtles“veryoften”;themajorityreportingtheyconsumedturtleeveryday(Jones2012).Acrosstheseeightvillages,itwasagreedthatthecatchesofturtleshaddeclinedoverthepasttenyears(Walker&Roberts2005).Diminishingcatchlevelsreportedlymadeitimpossibleforfisherstoexistsolelybasedonturtlelandings(Walker&Roberts2005)withmanytargetedturtlehuntersfocusingtheireffortonconsistentandprofitablecatchessuchasseacucumber,sharkfin,lobsterandoctopus,whileremainingonlyopportunisticturtlehunters.Lilette(2006)reportedthatturtlemeatportionsweresoldinshopsinToliara,southwestMadagascar,andmovedthroughatransportnetworkofbushtaxis,withturtlessufferingseveraldaysintransportbeforeslaughter.Ithasbeensuggestedthatshippingroutesusedbyoctopusandsquidcollectorsalsosustaintheturtletrade,ascollectorsfortheselegalproductsalsorequestturtleproducts.TheAndrokaregion(insouthwestMadagascar)isthoughttobeoneofthemajorprovidersofthedomesticsupplyofmarineturtles,wherebyturtlesaresentbymotorbike,sailboat(pirogue)orbytruckontoToliara.TurtlesarereportedtohavedecreasedinnumbersintheToliaralagoonandfromreeffringesofAnakaoduetothehighlevelsofdomestictakeanduse(Lilette2006).
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1.5ExportofmarineturtlesDespitethemarineturtlefisherybeingclearlyreportedthroughouttheliterature,robustdatadocumentingexportnumbersremainsscarce(Jones2012,Goldingetal.2017).Whilstmostbycatchandillegaltakesupplydomesticdemandforturtlemeat(Humberetal.2011,Jones2012,Goldingetal.2017),scatteredreportsoftradeincidentsindicateillegalexportdoesoccur(Humberetal.2015).TableVdocumentsallrecordsintheliteraturethatpointtotheexportofmarineturtleproductsinMadagascar.
TableV:Documentedmarineturtletraffickingincidentsreportedinthepublishedliteraturesince2010.
Year Details Location Source
? Unofficialreportsofturtleplastrontrafficking SouthwestMadagascar
Humberetal.2015
2012 Targetedturtlefishingbycollector-exportersdestinedforinternationalexport
Mahajanga Humberetal.2015
Jan2012
Trafficofplastronshellwasidentified.Discoveryofastockpileledtofivepeoplearrested
Androka IOSEA2014p148
Jul2012
Estimated40kgofplastronshellwasbeingshippedeveryweektoToliara,involvingupto50%ofthefishermenofcertainmunicipalities
Itampolo IOSEA2014p149
Jul-Nov2012
Illegaltakeofanestimated180-300turtles.TurtlesmugglingnetworkwasalsouncoveredinnorthwestMadagascarinMarokibaywherebyisolatedfishingvillagesweresupplyingtradersestablishedinMahajanga,shipping10-38liveturtlesbyspeedboateverytwoweeks.Thefinaldestinationandendbuyerofproductswasnotidentifiedbutwaspresumedtobeforillegalexport.
FishersfromMarokibay,whofishintheMarambaBayvicinityandthenshipliveturtlestoMahajanga,NWMadagascar
Rakotondrazafy&Adrianasolo2012
Nov2012
FisheriesandgendarmerieofficialsraidedMarokibayvillage.FivepeoplearrestedandtakentoAntsohihy.20turtlesreleasedalive.
Marokibay Rakotondrazafy&Adrianasolo2012
Dec2012
Illegalturtlecollectionreported.ThreepeoplearrestedandtakentoMahajanga.
SouthofAnjajavy Rakotondrazafy&Adrianasolo2012
Aug2016
13“largegillnets(jarifa)”andthreeliveturtlesfoundonsite.Authoritiesdiscoveredhundredsofgreenturtleremains.
RadamaIslands WCS2016
Apr2016
RemainsofpoachedturtlesdiscoveredinAnkivonjyMarineProtectedArea,aco-managedMPAbetweenlocalcommunitiesandWCS.
AnkivonjyMarineProtectedArea(50kmsouthwestofNosyBe)
WCS2016
Pre2012
DemandforturtlecarapacebythekilobyArab,Indo-Pakistani,andEuropeanmerchants.
Anakao Lilette2006
2004 TradenetworkinthesouthofMadagascar,wherefisherssellliveturtlestodealers,anddealersthensellslaughteredwholeorportionsofturtletotraderswhoselltothegeneralpublic.28marineturtles(21green,4hawksbill,2loggerheadand1oliveridley)passedthroughthefourdealersofAnakaoduringthestudyperiod.
Anakao,Andriangy,Maramena,Befasy,Beheloka,Ampasimahaoro,BesambayandAmbola
Walker&Roberts2005
2017 AjointpatrolorganizedbyWCSwithlocalauthoritiesidentifiedacampofillegalmarineturtletradersinthenorthpartofAntsohihynexttotheMPAborder.Therewasnobodyatthecamp,buttherewerealotofmarineturtlecarapaces,anddrymeatthattheauthoritiescollectedandburnt.Nomoreinformationontheoffendersinvolvedinthetrafficking;theissueisquitesensitive.InAnalalavaandAntsohihy,theWCSteamsawfishersusingspecificnetstocatchmarineturtle.
AnalalavaandAntsohihy(nexttotheMPAborder).
pers.comm.,WCSviaemail
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1.4Cultureandtraditions
1.4.1Traditionalbeliefsandtaboos(‘fady’or‘faly’)Traditionallythesaleofmarineturtlesandtheirproductswashistoricallyconsideredatabooknownlocallyas‘fady’(Lilette2006).Sellingturtlemeatwastaboo,butgiftingturtlemeatwassociallyacceptableandconsumptionofturtlemeatwasregardedasagift.Numerousjustificationsforfadyexistwithreasonsrelatingtoaccidentaldeathoffamilyancestorsfromconsumptionofturtlemeatinsomegroups,andothergroupsdescribingacustomnottoeatanytypeofseafoodbecauseitcanbelethal(Jones2012).Growinginterestinacquiringpurchasingpowerandsymbolsofwealthforcelebrations,weddingsandfunerals,forbuildinghouses,andforbuyingbetterfishingnetshasrecentlyerodedrespectforfady(Lilette2006).Particularlyamongtheyoungergenerationsandthoseincloseproximitytocities,traditionalbeliefsregardingmarineturtlesaretodaylargelyignored(Rakotonirina&Cooke1994,Jones2012).
1.4.2VezocultureThemarineturtlefisheryisculturallyimportantinMadagascar,particularlytotheVezopeople,withturtletraditionslinkedtoancestorworship(Humberetal.2011).VezocultureisstronglytiedtotheoceanandVezopeopleareknownfortheirritualslinkedtothehuntingandconsumptionofmarineturtlesor‘fano’(Lilette2006,Pascal2003).Vezofishersoftenrefertomarineturtlesas“cows,”wheremarineturtlesareconsideredtobeananimalofsacrificecomparabletothesize,spiritual,andmonetaryvalueofazebu(Jones2012).Greenturtlesinparticularareoftenreferredtoas‘fanoaomby’or‘zebuturtle’astheyareconsideredcomparabletothezebuasasacrificialanimal(Lilette2006).Vezoarealsonotedforbeingskilledwatermenandareconsideredsemi-nomadic.Theypridethemselvesontheirinnovativefishingtechniquesandadoptionofnewfishingmethods,forexamplejarifanets(widemeshbenthicnets).Jarifanetswereintroducedinthe1990’s(Langley2006)totargetsharks,andhavesincebeenusedtotargetturtles(Humberetal.2011).Usingjarifastotargetturtles,whilstnottraditional,makesturtlefishingsignificantlymoreeffective(Astuti1995,Pascal2003,Walker&Roberts2005,Lilette,2007).Turtlefishingwithjarifanetsrequireslessskillandphysicaleffortcomparedtothetraditionalmethodoffreedivingwithatezaharpoon(Humberetal.2011).Thesaleofmarineturtlemeatisavaluedeconomicresource,providingeconomicstabilityandbuyingpowerinVezufishingcommunities(Goldingetal.2017,Lilette2002).Thecaptureandsaleofturtlesbringsinlargesumsofmoneywheretherearenoperceivedviablealternativestosupplementincome.Growthintheturtletradehasexpandedduetotheavailabilityofeffectivegeartotargetturtles(i.e.jarifa)andincreasesinthepriceofturtlemeatandproducts(Lilette2006).Callsforasystemthatcouldregulate(andlegalise)localusebutwhichprohibitsthesaleofturtleshasbeensuggestedasasolutiontotheexpansionoftrade(Goldingetal.2017,Lilette2006).Interestingly,whencomparingconservationcasestudiesinvolvingcommunitysupportfromVezovillages,attitudesarehighlyvariable.Lilette(2006)presentedadetailedcomparisononthismatter,demonstratingthatexogenousenvironmentalpoliciescanrangefrombeingcompletelyignored(prohibitionagainsttheexploitationofmarineturtles)tobeingenthusiasticallyembraced(protectionoftheNosyVeIslandred-tailedtropicbird).Additionalsocialinsightintomotives,driversandwillingnesstoembracealternativelivelihoodsandmanagementregimesisneeded(Lilette2006).
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1.4.3ConsumptionandillnessConsumptionoccurswidelythroughoutthecountrywithfrequentreportsinthemediarelatingtointoxication,sicknessanddeathamongthosewhoeatturtlemeat.InMay2014,thedeathsofsixchildrenandthesickeningofabout50peoplewerereportedfromthe ruralcommunityinBelobaka,MahajangaIIDistrict.SicknessfromturtleconsumptionoccurredasrecentlyasJanuary2018,whereeightpeoplelosttheirlivesandanadditional14peoplefromAmbavaranoruralcommunityofMahavanonainDiegoSuarezwerereportedtobethevictimsofmarineturtlemeatpoisoning(MidiMadagasikara2018).Ithasbeenproposedthatconsumptioniswidespread(highnumberofpeopleinvolved)withturtlemeatdistributedthroughnumerouslocaltrade/barteringnetworks(IOSEA2014),andthattheincidenceofillnessmaybehigherthancurrentlyreported.
2.0Methodology2.1LiteraturereviewAliteraturereviewwasconductedtoidentifypublishedandunpublishedreportsofillegaltakeofmarineturtleswithinMadagascarwhichcouldbeattributedtoartisanalfishing,targetedhunting,reportedbycatchfromcommercialfishingfleets(artisanalorcommercial),recordsofillegaltakethatmaysuggestillegalexport,andrecordsofillnessormortalityfromconsumptionofturtlemeat.BothpublishedpeerreviewandgreyliteratureincludingtheIndianOceanTurtleNewsletter,AfricanMarineturtleNewsletter,MarineturtleNewsletter,funding/donorreportsandMalagasyacademicworkswerereviewedforpertinentinformation.Madagascardoesnotcompileanannualnationalstatusreportformarineturtles,precludingdirectaccesstonestingandtradestatistics.
2.2FieldworkInterviewswereundertakenwithartisanalfishersandconservationmanagementpractitionersacrossfivecoastalregionsofMadagascarandthecapitalcityofAntananarivo(Fig.5)inSeptember2018.Twoteamsweremobilisedtocoverthisperiodcomprisingof32daysinthefield.AdetailedmovementrecordisprovidedinAnnexI.Inadditiontothis,opportunisticsurveysofmarketsandcuriostallswereconductedtodocumenttheavailabilityofturtleshellproducts(oftenreferredtoastortoiseshellproducts,butlistedhereasturtleshelltodistinguishthesefromlandtortoisespecies).
2.3RapidassessmentinterviewsMeasuringtheeffortandtheimpactthatsmall-scaleartisanalfisherieshaveonnon-targetspeciesinastandardisedandsystematicmannerhasbeenalongstandingchallenge.Knowledgegapsacrosstheseimpactsareamajorchallengetotheeffectiveconservationandmanagementofthreatenedspeciessuchasmarineturtles.Interviewsurveysareconsideredtobeoneofthemostinexpensiveandpracticaltechniquestoderivefisherydata(Aragonesetal.1997,Ortega-Argueta2012),andmanyresearchersnowuseinterviewstoquantifyfisheryeffortandgatherinformationonbothtargetedandincidentalcatch(Mooreetal.2010,Ortega-Argueta2012).Theuseoflocalandtraditionalknowledgederivedviatheseinterviewprocessesiscost-effectiveandhasbeenshowntoberelativelyaccurateforfisherybycatchstudies.Mooreetal.(2010)developedaquestionnairetorecordthetwoprimarytypesofinformationneededtoquantifyandspatiallycharacterizeincidentalcatchinfisheriesindevelopingcountries:ameasureoffishingeffortandameasureofincidentalcatch.Pilcheretal.(2017)laterexpandedontheMooreetal.(2010)surveytodocumentincidentalcaptureofdugongsandfisherypressuresthroughouttheIndianOceanandPacificOceanregion.Williams(2017)developedasemi-structured
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questionnairetoassessimpactstomarineturtlesbyartisanalfishersinMozambique,andRiskas(2018)alsodevelopedaseriesoffisherinterviewstoimprovetheunderstandingofIUUfishingandwildlifecrimeinMalaysia.Thesurveyquestionnairesusedforthisstudyincorporateaspectsofallofthesetools,tailoredtomeettherequirementsoftheTermsofReferencefortheproject.Twoquestionnairesweredevelopedtosolicitinformationonillegaltakeandexportormarineturtles.Onequestionnairewasusedtoengagewithartisanalfishermenorsmall-scalevendors,andtheotherwastailoredforconservationmanagementpractitioners.RefertoAnnexesIIandIIIforcopiesofthequestionnaires.2.3.1.KeyInformantsInadditiontotheartisanalfishingandconservationandmanagementpractitionerinterviews,someinterviewswereconductedwithanonymouskeyinformants.Theseinformantswereidentifiedthroughasnowballsamplingapproach(Goodman1961,Biernacki&Waldorf1981),wherebypotentialknowledgeablerespondentsweresuggestedbyexpertswithextensiveexperienceinMadagascar.Duetothesensitivityoftheinformationprovided,theyrequestedanonymityasaconditionofparticipation.Intotalfouranonymousinformantswereinterviewed.
Figure5:LocationssurveyedinMadagascarduringthisstudy.
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2.4OnlineSurveyInMay2018weconductedarapidelectronicsurveysearchingforsaleofseaturtleproductsoriginatingfromMozambique,whichincludedsocialmediasources(Facebook,Instagram),andthemainwebsitesearchengine(Google)andcontentbrowsers(Firefox,Chrome).Weusedkeywordsandcombinationsofkeywordssuchas‘turtle’,‘seaturtle’,‘Madagascar’,‘sale’,‘product’tosearchforevidenceofpubliclyavailableonlinesales/marketingofanysuchproducts.Weacknowledgewewereinnopositiontosearchanydarkwebsources,nordidwehavetimetoconductexhaustiveimagerecognitionanalyses,e.g.DiMininetal.(2018).WhilesurveyssuchasthesemayinthefutureprovidelinkstoonlinemarketsforseaturtlesfromMozambique,givenourfindings(particularlylinedtothelackofinternetaccessthroughoutmuchoftheareawhereseaturtlesarelanded),wefeelthesewouldbeinconsequentialtotheon-goingdomesticcaptureandtrade.
2.5SamplingsitesFieldsurveyswereconductedinsouthernMadagascar(AtsimoAndrefana,Androy&Anosyregions)fromSeptemberto1stto23rd2018,innorthwestMadagascar(Boeny,Diana)from24thto30thSeptember,andinthenorth(Antsiranana,Sofia)fromthe1stto30thofSeptember2018byasecondsurveyteam.Atotalof153artisanalfisherswereinterviewedand4interviewswerecompletedwithconservationmanagementpractitioners(TableVI).
TableVI:LocationssurveyedinsixcoastalprovincesofMadagascarduringSeptember2018.
Date Region Location n
03/09/2018 AtsimoAndrefana Tulear 204/09/2018 AtsimoAndrefana Mahavati 2
05/09/2018–06/09/2018 AtsimoAndrefana Anakao 907/09/2018 AtsimoAndrefana Beheloky 107/09/2018 AtsimoAndrefana Ambola 2
07/09/2018–09/09/2018 AtsimoAndrefana Itampolo 710/09/2018 AtsimoAndrefana Antsikoroke 5
10/09/2018–11/09/2018 AtsimoAndrefana Ambohibola 713/09/2018–14/09/2018 Androy Lavanono 10
15/09/2018 Androy FauxCap 318/09/2018 Anosy AmbinanyBe 419/09/2018 Anosy AnalapasyII 219/09/2018 Anosy Arabaraba 320/09/2018 Anosy Lokaro 525/09/2018 Boeny AntsaBigo,Mahajanga 225/09/2018 Boeny MahajangaPort 126/09/2018 Boeny PetitePlage,Mahajanga 328/09/2018 Diana Antitoro,NosyKomba 228/09/2018 Diana Antamotamo,NosyKomba 429/09/2018 Diana AndriaBe,NosyKomba 408/09/2018 Sofia/Antsiranana NosySuarez 1009/09/2018 SofiaAntsiranana Androvohonko 10
15/9/2018–16/9/2018 SofiaAntsiranana Ambodivahibe 3022/9/2018–23/09/2018 SofiaAntsiranana Ambolobozokely 20
27/09/2018 SofiaAntsiranana BayofDiegoSuarez 7Sep/Oct2018 Online ViaGoogleforms 4
3.0Results3.2FisherydescriptionGiventhatthemajorityofrespondentswereartisanalfishers(asthisgroupinteractswithturtlesonaregularbasis),webrieflydescribehereintheartisanalfisheriesthatweinteractedwithduringthe
19
survey.However,responseswerealsogatheredfromrespondentswhoalsohadarangeofotheroccupations;Fig.6).Whilethereareslightdifferencesamonglocations,webelievethefollowingdatagenerallydescribetheartisanalfisherysectorsintheareaswherethesurveywasconducted.Fishersweregenerallyyoung,withveryfewseniorfishersputtingtosea(Fig.7).ThisisinkeepingwithagenerallylowerlifeexpectancyrecordedforMadagascar(approximately65years;WHO2018).Averageageamongstfisherrespondentswasapproximately20years,andapproximately75%ofallfisherswereaged10to40years.Theartisanalfisheryismostlysmallscale,withprimaryvesseltypescomprisingwoodenboats(Fig.8),dhows,andpirogues(localcanoes;Fig.9).Asmallproportionofvesselsaremotorisedorcarrysails,withsailsbeingpreferred,astheydonotincurfuelcosts.Vesselsaremostlysmall,withlengthsrarelyexceeding5m.
Figure6:Primaryoccupationsofrespondentsduringthefieldsurveys(n=151).CLPdenoteslocalfisheries
council,orComitéLocauxdePeche).
Figure7:Agedistributionofinterviewrespondents(n=119).
00.10.20.30.40.50.60.70.80.9
Fisher
Fishseller
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Figure8:VesseltypesusedintheartisanalfisheryinMadagascar(n=86).
Fig.9:TypicalfishingpirogueusedintheMadagascarartisanalfisheries(photocourtesyofMichelStrongoff,
ChrisScarffeFilm&Photography).
TargetcatchesinMadagascar’sartisanalfisheriescomprisedawiderangeofspecies,reflectingthewiderangeofgeartypesbeingusedinthevariedfisheries.Manyrespondentsindicatedtheytargetedcertainspecies,butacknowledgedtheykeptnearlyallcatches,irrespectiveofspecies.MarineturtlesareatargetedspeciesinMadagascar,andnotretainedsolelyfrombycatchinstances(e.g.Lilette2006,Humberetal.2011,Jones2012,presentstudy).OursurveysrevealedthattheartisanalfisheryinMadagascarismostlynon-selective,and(generally)allcatchisretained,irrespectiveifitwastargetedornot.Fishersgenerallyusemorethanonetypeofgear,andtargetdifferentspecieswitheachofthedifferentgears.Asaroughguide,freedivingandspearsareusedforlobsterandoctopus,longlineandhook&lineareusedforlargepelagicfishandsharks,andgillnetsaregenerallyusedforreefandlagoonfish.Jarifanets(alsoencounteredinMozambique)arelargemeshgillnets(upto45cmstretchedmesh)andareusuallyusedtocatchmarineturtles(e.g.Humber&Hykle2011).ThemaintargetspeciesgroupsareshowninFigure10.
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Figure10:PredominanceofmaintargetspeciesgroupsreportedinMadagascar’sartisanalfisheries,sortedbymost-targetedcatch.Therewere315responsesamong153respondentsduetofishersoftentargeting
multiplespecies.Manyrespondentsindicatedtheyusedmultiplegeartypes,withthedifferencesingearusegenerallybeingduetodifferingseasonsandtargetspecies.Figure11describesthemainfishinggeartypes,sortedbymostcommontoleastcommon.Thereportednumberofgearsexceedsthenumberofrespondentsduetomultiplegearsused.
Figure11:PredominanceofmainfishinggearsusedinMadagascar’sartisanalfisheries,comprising164
responsesamong78respondents.
3.3TurtleinteractionsThevastmajorityofrespondents(89%)indicatedtheyhadseenturtlesintheareasinwhichtheyfished,withthebalanceofrespondentsindicatingturtlesdidnotoccurintheirarea(oratleasthadnotbeenseen).Thelocationofturtlesightingswasgenerallyalignedwiththekeyfishinghabitatsfrequentedbyfishers,whotargetlagoonandreeffish,butalsolargerpelagicspeciesfurtheroffshoreFig.12).
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22
Figure12:Locationsofturtlesightingsreportedbyinterviewrespondents(n=236responsesamong133
respondents;respondentsoftenindicatedseeingturtlesinmorethanonelocation).Roughlyhalfofallrespondentsbelievedmarineturtlestocksweredeclining,withonly~10%ofintervieweesbelievingthatnumberswereincreasing(Fig.13).Oursurveysaskedrespondentstothinkacrosstimespansofoneandfiveyears,andalsowithintheirlifetimes,butwebelievetheseresponsesreflecttrendsoverthelastdecadebasedonanecdotalfeedback,roughlysince1995-2000.Asimilarsmallnumberofrespondentsbelievedthepopulationhadremainedunchanged.However,duringasubsequentfollow-upquestiononthelocaltradeinturtlesandtheirproducts,allrespondentsbelievednumbersofturtlesweredecreasingduetothetrade,andnobodysuggestedthatoverallnumberswereontherise(includingthe10%whorespondedpositivelytotheearlierquestion).Manyrespondentsindicatedthattheywerecatchingmoresmallturtlesinrecentyearsthantheydidinpastyears,suggestingmanyofthelargeradultshavebeenremovedfromthepopulation.Themostfrequentresponsesforthecauseofturtlepopulationdeclinesweretheincreaseduseofjarifanets,increasedfisherypressureoverall,changesinseagrasscoverage(presumablydecreasesincoverage),andincreaseddemandforturtlemeatandproducts.Thosesuggestingpopulationswereincreasedattributedthistothelegalprotectionstatusofmarineturtlesandadecreaseinthenumberofhunters.Giventhewidespreadandblatanttradeinmarineturtlesweobservedduringthissurvey,itisunlikelythateitherofthesetworesponsesarerealistic,andsimilarlyitislikelythatthestockisnotincreasing.
Figure13:Perceivedpopulationtrendinmarineturtlesdescribedbyinterviewrespondents(n5-years=137,
nlifetime=142).
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23
Morethanhalfofall153respondentsindicatedtheyhadcaughtturtlesaccidentallyintheirnets(manyalsotargetedtheturtlesdirectly:77respondentsindicatedthis,orroughly49%)andindicatedtheywereawarethatthemajorityoffisherscaughtmarineturtlesasbycatch(Fig.14).Afewrespondents(n=9)indicatedthatturtleswerecaughtasfrequentlyasdaily,andasubstantialproportion(~26%)ofrespondentsindicatedtheycaughtfourtosixturtleseachmonth.Itisproblematictodistinguishbetweendirectedtakeandaccidentaltake,becauseturtlesthatwerecaughtaccidentallywereretained,andrespondentoftenstruggledtounderstandthedifferencebetweenaccidentalanddirectedtake.Inmanycasestheystatedthattheysettheirnets,andanythingthatwascaughtwasretained.Overall,weestimatethatonlytherespondentsofthissurvey(153respondents)caughtapproximately3,500marineturtlesintotaloverthelast12months,eitherasbycatchorasdirectedtake.Themajorityoftheseturtleswereidentifiedasgreenturtles,andclassifiedaseitherjuvenile(18%)orsub-adult(53%)basedonthesizesreportedbyrespondents,withonly30%oflandingcomprisingadultturtles(Figs.15&16).Severaloftheadultswerereportedlycollectedonnestingbeachesratherthanatsea.Thesefindingssupporttheabovenotionthatthestocksmaybedeclining,withfisherstakingsmallerandsmalleranimalseachyear.Indeed,manyoftherespondentsindicatedthattheyusedtocatchmuchlargerturtlesinearlieryears.
Figure14:ReportedincidencesofmarineturtlebycatchinartisanalfisheriesinMadagascar(n=145).Personalreflectsinstanceswhererespondentsindicatedtheythemselveshadcaughtturtles.Byothers
referstoinstanceswhererespondentsindicatedtheyknewofotherfisherscatchingseaturtles.
Figure15:SizeclassesofmarineturtlebycatchinartisanalfisheriesinMadagascar(n=203from131
respondentswhocouldcatchmultipleturtlesofvarioussizes).
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24
Figure16:AsmalljuvenilegreenturtlecaughtintheartisanalfisheryinMadagascar(photocourtesyof
MichelStrongoff,ChrisScarffeFilm&Photography).Turtleswereeitherkeptfordomesticuse(asfood,primarily)orsoldtomiddlemenandbuyerswhoalsosoldthem(primarily)forfood(Fig.17).Veryfewrespondentsindicatedturtlesmightbeshippedoverseas(only2%of148respondents)orusedfortraditionalpurposes(medicinal,handicrafts).Only13%of148respondentsindicatedtheyreleasedbycaughtturtles,andinvirtuallyeveryinstancetheyindicatedthiswasbecauseturtleswereprotectedviafady.Theheavydependenceonmarineturtlesasafoodresourcemanyexplainthelack(orperceivedlack)ofinternationaltrade.Oursurveysfoundthat70%ofallrespondentsatebothturtlemeatandturtleeggs,andwefoundnosuggestionduringourinterviews/norespondentsindicatedthatoverseasbuyerswouldpayhigherpricesforturtlemeatandproductscomparedtolocalvillagerstofueltheinternationaltrade.Ofnote,whileweonlyencounteredgreenturtlesduringoursurveys,asubstantialnumberofrespondentsindicatedapreferenceforhawksbillsovergreensdespiterecordsofillnessfromconsuminghawksbillturtlemeat.
Figure16:Reportedfateofmarineturtlesinartisanalfisheries(n=216responsesamong148respondents).
Food43%
Sold36%
Shipped2%
Released13%
Traditionaluse6%
25
Figure17:Proportionofrespondentswhoindicatedtheyconsumedmarineturtlesormarineturtleeggs
(n=152).
3.4DomesticmarineturtletradeLivemarineturtles,turtlemeat,eggsandplastron/ligamentsareallpartofthedomestictradeinMadagascar(Fig.18).Marineturtletakeappearstobeprimarilyforfoodandfortradeinlocalmarkets,butthesemarketscanbemanyhundredsofkilometersaway.Basedonresponsestoourinterviews,thereappeartobeactivetransportnetworksthatmovemarineturtlesandtheirproductsaroundthecountry,withturtlesmovingnorthandsouthalongthewestcoast,butalsomovingtothecapitalcityofAntananarivo.45%of153respondentsindicatedthattheywereawareof/participatedintradeinmarineturtlesand/ortheirproducts.Inadditiontowholeturtles,wealsodocumentedseveralinstancesinwhichnonmeat-relatedproductswerebeingtraded(TableVII).
Figure18:Proportionaluseofmarineturtlesandmarineturtleproductsinthedomestictrade(n=133).
TableVII:Locationswheretradeinturtlescutesorplastronligamentwasdocumentedduringthesurvey.
Scutes-primarilyhawksbillturtles
Plastronligament(dryorwet)
LocationsbuyerssourcedorrequestedproductsfromAntsikoroke AnakaoAmbohibola AmbohibolaLavanono LavanonoFauxCap FauxCapArabaraba AmbinanyBeAntitoro,NosyKomba AmpasimarinyAntsaBigo,Mahajanga
00.10.20.30.40.50.60.70.80.91
Meat Eggs
No Yes
Meat45%
Eggs23%
Plastron/Liigaments
9%
Liveturtles23%
26
Theturtlecarapacesarealsoused,oftentomakejewellery(TableVIII)butwereoftenrepurposedlocallyforusesaroundthevillage,suchasanimalshelters(forducks,geese,puppies)andascontainerstostoreanimalfeedorscraps.Marineturtleshellproductsweredetectedinthreelocationsspreadacrossthreedifferentregions:inthevillageofAmbohibola(AntisimoAndrefana),NosyBe(Diana)andMahajanga(Boeny).Ontwooccasionsthecarapacehadbeenconvertedintocraftproducts,thethirdincidentinvolvedtheresaleofjuvenilecarapaces.Freshevidenceofillegaltake(liveturtlesorfreshlyslaughtered)waswitnessedonsixoccasionsduringthesurvey(TableIX),allinsouthwestMadagascar.Twojuvenilegreenturtleswerebeingheldinavillageawaitingslaughter,andtwoseparateportionsoffreshlykilledturtlewerealsofound.AnadditionaltwooccurrencesofcookedturtlemeatweredetectedwhilstconductinginterviewsinAnakaovillage.
TableVIII:TurtleshellproductsdocumentedopportunisticallyacrossthreeregionsofMadagascar.
Site Items Location Details Date Photographicevidence
AtsimoAndrefanaAmbohibola
Earrings Inhomeoffisherwoman.
AfisherwomeninvitedusintoshowusherearingwhichshefoundinAntananarivoandbroughtbacktoherhomeinAmbohibola.Itisunclearifthiswastobeusedasamodel/prototypetoreplicatelocally.
11/9/18
Photo:JessWilliams
Diana,NosyBe
Necklacependants
FasceneAirportcuriostore
Pendantsavailableforsaleinairportcurioshop,NosyBe.
3/10/18
Photo:JessWilliams
Boeny,Mahajanga
Carapace(greenandhawksbillturtles)
BazaarBetouristmarket
Turtlecarapacesavailableforsalealongwithnumerousotheranimals(seahorse,crocodile,corals,stingraytails,starfish)
25/9/18
Photo:JessWilliams
27
TableIX:Illegalturtletakeincidentswitnessedduringthestudyperiod.
Location Date Incidentdetails Photographicevidence
AtsimoAndrefana,Mahavativillage,TulearCity
4/9/18 LivejuvenilegreenturtlewasfoundbyourvillageguideatthelandingareaofMahavati,inTulear.Thefisherdisappearedintothebusyunloadingareasowewereunabletointerviewhim.TheturtlewaslikelytobekeptforpersonalconsumptiongiventhesmallsizeorresoldtooneoftwomainbuyersinMahavati.
Photo:J.Williams
AtsimoAndrefana,Anakao
6/9/18 Caughtwithspeargun.Keptaliveforadaybeforeslaughtered.Approximately50cmCurvedCarapaceLength(CCL).
Photo:J.Williams
AtsimoAndrefana,Anakao
6/9/18 Capturemethodunknown.Killedandportionedbeforewedetectedit.
Photo:M.Strongoff,ChrisScarffeFilmmaker
28
AtsimoAndrefana,Anakao
6/9/18 Averysmalljuvenilegreenturtle(approximately30cmCCL),withpartsofcarapaceandfrontshoulderjoint.Aninterviewwascompletedwiththisfisher.
Photo:J.Williams
AtsimoAndrefana,Anakao
5/9/18 Greenturtlemeat,freshlycooked,beingcutupintosmallerportions.
Photo:J.Williams
AtsimoAndrefana,Anakao
5/9/18 Greenturtlemeat,freshlycooked,beingcutupintosmallerportions.
Photo:M.Strongoff,ChrisScarffeFilmmaker
3.5CasestudiesAnumberofcasestudieshelpillustratethecomplexityandextentofthedomestictradeinmarineturtlesinMadagascar:
29
3.4.1CaseStudy1:Traffickingacross180kmfromAnalalavatoMahajangaAsourcewhorequestedanonymityprovidedacasestudyofaninvestigationconductedin2013inAnalalava.Thereporthighlightedtheexistenceofagroupthattargetedmarineturtles(mainlygreenturtles)onthenorthwestsideofMadagascarbetweenMahajangaandtheRadamaArchipelago.Thisillegaltakeactivitywasconductedbyateaminvolvingmorethan30migrantfishersfromMahajangaandAmpasibe.Thepoachersreportedlysetuptemporaryfishingcamps,buildingfencedareastoholdtheturtlesaliveuntiltheyhadenoughtotransportbacktoMahajangabyboat.Oneofthesecampswasdetectedon26thMay2013nearKomadzara,onabeachinamangroveareaataplacecalledBelalandana.Morethan70greenturtleswerefoundinholdingpens(Fig.19).Thesitewasabandonedbuthadsignsthatthefishershadrecentlyfled(warmriceinapotoverthefire).
Figure19:GreenturtleswaitingtobetransportedfromBelalandana,Komadzara,AnalalavatoArantsa,
Mahajanga.
3.4.2CaseStudy2:TraffickingfromAnalalavaAsecondinvestigationinJune2013involvedlocalauthoritiesinAnalalava,whoreleased20marineturtlesfromfencedenclosuresatAmbolobozo,inNarindraBay.Authoritiesarrestedsomeofthefishers,destroyedtheircampsandconfiscatedthenetsusedforturtlefishing(althoughthesenetswerereportedlylaterresoldinAnalalava).FurtherinquiryinKomadzaravillagerevealedthatlocalvillagerswerenotpleasedbythepresenceofthemigrantfishers,someofwhomoriginatedfromsouthernMadagascar.Analalavapolicecametodrivethemigrantfishersawayandduringthecourseoftheinvestigation,thePresidentofFokontany(villagechief)wasalsofoundtobeinvolvedandwasdismissedbyAnalalavadistrictauthorities.Reportsemergedfromvillagersthatthemigrantfishergrouphadbeenspottedfurthersouthandthisareawasthusinspected.Onarrivaltheauthoritiesfoundafishingcamp,withfivecarapacesand
30
threeholdingpens(oneofthelargestmeasured6mx4m).Localvillagersinformedtheauthoritiesthattheoffendershadbeenintheareaforafewweeksbeforerecentlyfleeing.Theyreportedlyusedseveralnetsinnearbyareas,andinwatersextendingoffshoretoNosyLavaIsland.Theyreportedlyfishedover4-5daycampaigns,catching20-25turtlesperday.AttheendofthecampaigntheywouldsailtoMahajangatoselltheturtles.VillagersreportedthatduringthelasttripbytheturtlefisherstoMahajangatheircanoesankwithmorethan40turtlesaboard.Furtherdetailsfromashrimp/fishcollectorconfirmedthatthegrouphadbeenoperatingintheareaforoverayear,basedoutofNosyLavabutusingseveraltemporarycampsinthearea.TheysenttheturtlestoMahajangaandunloadedinthefishingdistrictofArantsa.SomeoftheturtlemeatwasconsumedinMahajangaandpartofitwassenttoAntananarivo.ThefishermenarrestedbytheAnalalavapoliceweresubsequentlyreleasedanditisunlikelytheywereprosecuted.Twokeyinformantsduringourcurrentsurveyssuggestedthattheseactivitiesstillcontinuedupto2018.Theisolationoftheseareas,withthickmangrovesthatmakeiteasytohideclandestineactivities,coupledwiththeremotenessoftheareasandincipientcorruptionarelikelytofacilitatetheongoingexploitationofturtlesinthisareaandotherlocationswithsimilarconditions.
3.4.3CaseStudy3:MorambaBay,MarovasaBeandAnjajavyInMorambaBay,MarovasaBeandAnjajavyareas(Fig.20),localnewspapersreportedarrestsrelatedtotargetedhuntingandwidespreadillegalmarineturtleexploitation.Thisareaisremoteandonlyaccessiblebyboats/canoes.Respondentstooursurveyindicatedthatdirectedpoachinghasbeenincreasingsince2012inMorambaBayandcontinuestothisday,wherebyfisherscollectliveturtlesattherequestofadealerbasedinMahajanga,whichareheldinpensuntiltransportedbyspeedboatbacktothecity.Fishersusea500mlongnetinthebayareatocatch10-40turtlesperweek.AmiddlemanlocatedinMahajangacollectstheturtles,butthefinaldestinationisunknown.Theturtlesarereportedlysoldat5000MGA/kgoncetheyarriveinMahajanga.
Figure20:LocationofsitessurveyedwhereturtletraffickingwasreportedbyresearchesatCétamadain
2012(Cétamada2012).
31
AninvestigationledbytheNGOCétamadareportedthatmarineturtlehuntingandcollectionhasbeenincreasinginscaleoverthelastfewyears.Cétamada(2012)reportedthatfisherswereactivebetweenFebandNov2012andestimatedtheycaught180-300turtles(withanaveragecatchof20turtlespernetdeployment),whichweresenttoMahajangaeverysecondweek.AnothercaseofintensiveturtlefishingdestinedforMahajangawasrecordedinavillagefurthersouthofAnjajavy,wherethreepeoplewerearrestedandtakentoMahajangainDecember,2012accordingtolocalvillagers.TheownerofahotelinMarovasareportedintensiveturtlefishingtolocalauthorities,andinNovember2012,thegendarmerieandfisheryofficialscaughtfishersintheactofpoachingduringaraidonthevillageofMarokibay.FivepeoplewerearrestedandtakentoAntsohihy,andtwentyliveturtleswerereleased.
3.4.4CaseStudy4:TurtlemeatvendorsofMahavatse,ToliaraWeinterviewedthetwomainbuyersandresellersofturtlesinToliaracity-bothfemale,betweentheagesof51and60,eachofwhomhadasmallmarketstallattheirhomesinMahavatse,Toliara.Generallytheyonlypurchaseliveturtlestoensurethemeatisfresh,andtheybothestimatebuyingatleastoneturtledaily,averagingabout20turtlespermonth(accountingforbadweather,whenthefisherscouldnotgotosea).Onebuyerreportedthatfishersdonotgenerallycollectturtlesduringthenestingseason(Nov-Dec)butestimatedthatoneofevery20turtlesshepurchasedwasagravidfemale,andthattheeggsareextractedandsold.Shealsoreportedthatinthefewinstanceswhenthefishercaughtaturtlethatreleasedhereggsonboardaboardthevessel,thefishersthencollectedandsoldtheseontoher.BothwomenindicatedtheysourcedturtlesfromfishersoutsideofToliaracity(onesourcingnorthwards,theothersouthwards).Togetanideaoftheextentofthetrade,oneofthewomenwasreferredtobynameasthebuyerintwodifferentinterviewswithfishersinAmbohibola,200kmdistant.Thishighlightsthevastcoverageofthetraderoutes.Fisherstoldusthebuyerpaysaworkertokeepalookoutfortheirpiroguecomingfromthesouth,andifithasturtlestheworkerusesthezebucarttotransportthemfromtheirboattothebuyer’shouse.TheotherbuyersourcedturtlesfromfishersbasedinSalary,100kmaway,andfisherscalledaheadtobringtheturtlesinduringthenight.Bothbuyershadmultiplefishers(3-30)supplyingthem.Forthebuyersourcingfromthesouthcoast,thebestseasonwasreportedlyMarchthroughAugustwhenmoreturtlesaresupplied.TheotherbuyersuggestedJanuarytoAprilwasbetterduetocoolerweatherwhichpreventedturtlemeatgoingbad.Bothbuyerspurchasedlivegreenturtleslargerthan50cmatapproximately50,000MGA(approximately14USD)fora0.5mCCLturtleuptoapproximately200,000MGA(approximately57USD)foraturtle>1.2mCCL.Bothbuyersthenchoppedandcookedtheturtlesandselltheminportions.Portionssoldfrom100to2,000MGA(0.02-0.57USD).Themeatwasnotpreparedinanyparticularway,simplycookingtheturtlemeatinsaltywater.Carapaceswerenotusedforartisanalproducts,butwerebrokendownandfedtodomesticpigs.Bothbuyershadexperiencedencounterswithlocalauthoritiesbutneitherhadbeenfinedorissuedaninfringement.Bothhadofferedturtlemeatasabribe.ThesecondbuyersuggestedthatthecaseofarrestedfishersfromAmbohibolahaddeterredfishersfromsupplyingherandthatrecentlyshewasonlyreceivingthreetofourturtlespermonth.“Nooneisscaredtoeatturtlemeatifitsavailabletobuy,itisonlythefishersthatarescaredtocatchturtles”sheremarked.Thissuggeststhatwidelypublicisednewsofallmattersrelatingtoturtlefishingwouldlikelybenefitconservation
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efforts.ItalsosuggeststhatacampaignregardingthelegalityofturtlemeatconsumptioninToliaracityisanecessarysteptowardsstigmatisingthebushmeatconsumption.
3.5DomesticmarineturtletraderoutesDomestictraderoutescovervastdistancessupplyingturtlestothelargerinhabitedareasfromtheremotewildernessareas.Forinstance,coastalcommunitiesbetweenSt.Augustin,Anakao,Itampolo,Antsirkoroke,Ambohibola,FanambosatoLavanonocontributetotheillegaltakeandsupportdomestictraderoutes(seeFig.21).Thisareaisa300kmexpanseofcoastlineintheAtsimoAnrefanatoAndroyregion,withfisherssupplyingToliaracitywithmarineturtleseitherastheresultofopportunisticuseofbycatchorintentionaltake.Numerousparallelsbetweenthetortoiseandmarineturtledomestictraderoutesareevident.Thebushmeattradenetworkforradiatedtortoiseisthoughttoextendasfarasthecapitalcity,Antananarivo(Manjoazyetal.2017).Whilewedidnotdirectlywitnessthis,traderoutesformarineturtlesfromthesouthwesttoAntanarivowereconfirmedbyCSPMahajanga;driedturtlemeatissentfromAmbanjatoAntanarivo,andfreshturtlemeatissentthroughMahajangatoAntananarivo(Cétamada2012;seeFig.21).OurinterviewsintheAtsimoAndrefanaregionrevealedthatmarineturtlesaresentbypiroguetopre-establishedbuyersinTulear(seeFig.21).ThisisasimilarfindingtothatreportedinManjoazyetal.(2017)whosurveyeddiscardedcarapacesofAstrochelysradiatainurbanrubbishdumpstoquantifythescaleoftheradiatedtortoiseusedforbushmeattrade.Manjoazyetal.(2017)foundthatasinglerubbishdumpatMahavatse,anareaneartheartisanalfisherylandingbeaches,accountedfor93%oftheobservedcarapaces.TheyalsodocumentedthatMahavatsewasthemainarrivalpointfortortoise-ladenpiroguesatnight.OurinterviewswithturtlemeatvendorsinMahavastesuggestthesameoccursformarineturtlesthatarriveintoMahavastebypirogueatnight.ThemajorityofturtlesthataresenttoToliaraarebought,cookedandresoldbyjusttwokeyvendorsinMahavatse.BoththesebuyersanddealersinMahavatse,Toliaracityuseapre-establishednetworkoffisherstosupplythemwithturtlestocookandresell.Interviewswithoneofthetwoturtlebuyers/resellersinToliaracitysuggestedthatturtlesweresenttoherfromSalary,100kmfurtherNWofToliara,bymorethan20differentspear-fishers.ThebuyerexplainedthattradewasbetterfromJanuarytoAprilasthecoolerweatherpreventedtheturtlemeatfromdeterioratingduringtransit,asalreadyreportedabove.Regardlessofthespecies(tortoiseorturtle),itisimperativethatenforcementactivitiesinurbancentresandalongmajortransportroutesareintensifiedandrespondtoanychangesinthebehaviourofthetransporters,andbutchers(Manjoazyetal.2017).ParticularconcernshouldbefocusedtoAnakaowherewewitnessedseveralillegaltakeanddomesticconsumptionincidentsinthespanofathree-daysitevisit.AdditionaleffortsshouldalsobefocusedtotheneighbouringcommunitiesofAmbohibola,AntsirkorokeandFanambosawhichhadactiveturtlehuntinggroupsthatsailedwithpiroguesfullofliveturtlestoselltobuyersinToliara.
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Figure21:TraderoutesofturtleproductswithinMadagascar.
3.6MagnitudeofdomestictradefromartisanalfishingAsinthecaseofMozambique,extrapolatingfromashortrapidassessmenttoaNationalleveltrademagnitudeisproblematiconvariousfronts:Turtletradeandtakelikelyoccuralongtheentirecoast,whileoursurveyscoveredonlysmallextentsofthis.Similarly,publishedliteraturegenerallyreflectssmall,localisedstudiesratherthannationalassessments.Secondly,theturtletakereportedtousduringthesesurveysisunlikelytobeofthesamemagnitudeacrossallfishingareasandyears.Also,somefishersprovidedestimatesforturtletakeoverthelast12months,whileothersprovidedthisformultipleyears.Finally,fishersdonotindicatethetotalnumberoffishingdayswithclarity,soiftheyreportcatchingturtles‘weekly’thismightnotmeanthatcatchoneeveryweekoftheyear.However,inthelead-uptoourfieldresearchweselectedsitesthathadbeenreportedashotspotsofturtletakeanduse(asdenotedintheliteratureandinconversationswithNGOsthatwereactive
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inMadagascar(e.g.BlueVentures,CommunityCentredConservation[C3],ReefDoctor),andthustheestimateswehavefordirectedandaccidentaltake,whilenotnationalinscope,areinformativeandalarming.Directtakeofmarineturtlesisrampantalongthecoast,withoverhalfofallrespondentsindicatingtheypurposefullytargetedmarineturtles(Fig.22).Thenumberoftargetedturtlesinthelast12months(roughlyOctober2017toSeptember2018),onlyamongsurveyrespondents(n=148),was2,500.Thisonlycoverstargetedtake.Theestimatednumberofbycaughtturtlesoverthepreceding12monthsamongstsurveyrespondentswas2,543turtles,butgiventhechallengeofdistinguishingbetweendirecttakeandbycatch,weconsider3,500turtlestobearealisticfigureoverall.Thesenumbersareonlyestimates,becauseseasonsandbadweatherdaysarenotreported.Wehaveadjustedthefigurestoaccountfora‘season’basedontheindicationswereceivedfromturtlebuyersduringtheinterviews.Inaddition,someoftheintervieweeswerepartoforganised‘groups’whohuntedturtlesdestinedfortrade,whileotherssimplycaughtoneortwooccasionallyfordomesticuse.Extrapolatingfromthismixofrespondentswouldnotbeprudentuntilanestimatecanbemadeofthenumberofparticipantsineachformofturtleextraction.Regardless,theoverallfigurespointtowardssome3,500turtlesbeingextractedfromlocalwatersinjustthelastyearamongonlythe153respondentsreachedviathissurvey.Manyrespondentsindicatedthattheturtlecaptureswerehistoricandon-going,meaningthatthousandsofturtleshavebeenextractedovertheyears.
Figure22:Proportionofsurveyrespondentswhoindicatedtheypurposefullytargetedmarineturtles
(n=148).LeManachetal.(2012)suggestedthereweresome100,000fishersengagedinartisanalfishingin2008,thelatestfigureavailableestimatingthesizeoftheartisanalfishery.StatisticsbytheWorldBank(presentedinLeManachetal.2013)suggestthatthetwokeyprovincesinwhichturtlesareparticularlytargeted(AntsirananaandToliara;withMahajangabeingmoreofatradingcentre)arehometo~45,000fishers.Wedonotsuggestalloftheseareinvolvedindirectedoraccidentaltakeofmarineturtles,asmarineturtlesarenotspreadevenlyalongthecoast,norarelocalcustomsthesame.Thereforewesuggestthatthetworegionsweinvestigated(southwestandnorthwestMadagascar)arelikelythekeyareaswhereturtlesaretaken,giventheprevalenceofreportsonthetradeintheseregionsinearlierpublications(e.g.Humberetal.2011,Jones2012),andbasedonourpreliminaryresearch. Humberetal.(2011)indicatedthatsome6%to7%offisherstargetedturtlesmorefrequentlyandwithgreatereffortthanotherfishersintheirstudy,andweusethatfigureheretoestimateatotalnumberofturtlefishersforthesetwoprovinces.Conservativelywesuggestthatsome3,068fishers
Yes53%
No47%
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couldbeinvolvedindirectedturtletakeinbothAntsirananaandToliaraprovinces.Webelievethisfigureisfarhigherhowever,becausenot6%to7%but53%ofrespondentsinthepresentstudyindicatedthattheytargetedturtlesinthesixregionsinvestigated.Wesuggestalsothatthisislikelyanunderestimateofthetotalnumberoffishersinvolved,becausethisonlyconsidersdirectedtake–notingthechallengesingettingfisherstounderstandthedifferencebetweendirectedtakeandbycatch,butuntilmorethoroughandexhaustivestudiescanbecarriedout,wehavenowayofbeingmoreaccurate.Thepresentsurveyfoundthat,ofthe118fisherswhoindicatedtheytargetedturtles,anaverageof32turtles/fisherweretakeninayear.Thiswassimplyanaverageofthenumberseachfisherreportedintheinterviews,extrapolatedforaoneyearperiod;e.g.whenafishersaidhecaughtoneturtleperweek,thenthiswasextrapolatedto52turtlesinayear;orwhenafisherindicatedoneturtlepermonth,thiswasextrapolatedto12turtlesperyear.Ourfigureissomewhathigherbutcomparabletotheaveragecapturerateof20to25animalsperfisherreportedbyFrontier-Madagascar(2003).Giventhiswefeeltheresultsofourinterviewscapturedfairlyaccuratelytheindividualactivityofartisanalfisherswithregardstomarineturtlecaptures.Extrapolateddirectly(notwithstandingcaveatsmentionedabove),thismeansthatthedirectedtakeofmarineturtlesintheartisanalfisheryinMadagascar(restrictedtoAntsirananaandToliaraprovincesasidentifiedabove)hasthepotentialtotakecloseto100,000turtlesperyear.Whilewehavenowaytoascertaintheaccuracyofthisestimatebasedonthechallengesofextrapolatingacrossregionsthatwerenotsurveyed,wewishtodrawtheattentionofthereadertothemagnitudeofthetake,ratherthantheexactnumberperse.Turtlesarenotbeingtakenbyafewhundredorafewthousand,butbyanorderofmagnitudegreater,andthiswarrantsfurtherattention.
3.7InternationaltradeLittleisknownofinternationaltradeinmarineturtlesfromMadagascar,andoursurveyswereunabletounearthanyfreshleadsthatmighthavedocumentedinternationaltraderoutesandmagnitudes.Madagascar’snotorietyfortradeinreptilesisalmostexclusivelyduetodemandfortwotortoisespeciesendemictotheisland:theploughsharetortoiseandtheradiatedtortoise(CADS2018).Similarly,arecentreportbytheGlobalInitiativeAgainstTransnationalOrganizedCrimedidnotciteanyrecordsofonlinesaleofmarineturtlesfromMadagascar(Rumhovde2018),whileSung&Fong(2018)didnotrecordcasesofmarineturtlesbeingtransshippedviaHongKongfromMadagascar.WildAid’sreportonmarineturtletradesimilarlydoesnotreportonanyinternationaltradeoutofMadagascar(WildAid2018).ArecentnotebytheWorldConservationSocietyontheirwebsitesuggeststhatdemandforoilandmeatfromSoutheastAsiawasfuellingtheincreaseddemandforturtlesinMadagascar(WCS2016),butwehavefoundnoevidencethatpointstothisoccurring.Indeed,theirreportsimplyreportsontheturtlestheyfoundduringsurveys,notonanyinternationaltrade.TherehavebeencasesdocumentingtradeintortoisesfromMadagascartoChina(e.g.Kiesteretal.2013,Runhovde2018),andwesuggestitispossiblethesetraderoutesmayenablethetradeinasmallnumberofmarineturtles(althoughwehavenoevidencetosupportthis).Butthereisnoevidencethatthenumbersaresubstantialorthatitisanorganised,on-goingactivity.Wedidnotfindanyonlinesourcesforturtleproductsthroughsearchesonsocialmediasites(Facebook,Instagram),andneitherthroughthemainwebsitesearchengine(Google)andcontentbrowsers(Firefox,Chrome).Weacknowledgewewereinnopositiontosearchanydarkwebsources,nordidwehavetimetoconductexhaustiveimagerecognitionanalyses,e.g.DiMininetal.(2018).OneinformantwhowishedtoremainanonymousreportedontradefromthenorthofMadagascar,withmarineturtlesbeingshippedtoAntananarivo,andpossiblybeyondasexport.Howeverthiswasnoteverconfirmed.Wehadanotherinformantwhoreportedonacottonfarm
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nearAnanalavathatpurchasedandsupposedlyexportedawiderangeofexoticspeciesfromMadagascartoChina,withlocalvesselssailingoffshoretomeetupwithforeignvesselsbeyondthenationalboundary.Marineturtlehatchlingswerereportedlyinvolvedinthistrade,butthereisnoinformationifthereweresubstantialnumbersoflargerturtlesbeingexported.Keyinformantsatthemanagementlevelsuggestedthatinternationaltradewasunlikelytobesubstantialgiventhehighlocaldemandforturtlemeatandproducts.Intwoquestionsrelatedtotrade,noneoftheinformantsbelievedexportevenoccurred(Fig.23).Werecognisethatthenumberofinformantsislow,butcoupledwithabetterunderstandingofthedomesticdemand,traderoutesandmarkets,webelievethisfindingisratheraccurate.Giventhis,wefeelinternationaltradeinmarineturtlesisofsmallconsequencetomarineturtlesofMadagascar,andsuggestafocusondomestictradeandconsumptionisfarmoreofapriority.
Figure23:ResponsesfromkeyinformantsrelatedtouseofmarineturtlesinMadagascar(n=3).
4.0DiscussionOursurveyshighlighttheintensepressurefromartisanalfisheriesinMadagascar,andpointtoitsupportinglocaltradeandconsumptionratherthaninternationaltradeinmarineturtlesand/orturtleproducts.Hawksbillturtles(usuallyusedtocraftjewelleryfromcarapacescutes)wereextremelyrareinourmarketsurveys,inkeepingwiththefindingsbyHumberetal.(2011),andpointingtoalesserroleofhandicraftandcuriosintheturtletrade(only19of153or12%ofrespondentsindicatedshellproductsweretraded,and14oftheseindicatedthetradewasminimalordecreasing.Duringthepresentsurvey,onlygreenturtleswereencounteredasmeatforsale,butasmallnumberofshellhandicraftswerealsorecorded.Oursurveysrevealedthatover90%ofturtleswereeitherconsumedathome,ortradedtobeconsumedatotherhomesinMadagascar.Wedidnotdetectanynoteworthyinternationaltrade.However,themagnitudeoftheturtletakeis
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staggering:some3,500turtlesweretakenbythe153intervieweesinourstudy,whichcouldbeextrapolatedtosome100,000turtlestakenannuallyinthethreeprovincesweinvestigatedinthisstudy.Wecautionhowtheseextrapolationvaluesshouldbeinterpreted,astherearenumerousuncertaintiesrelatedtothedistributionofeffort,thenumberoffishersinvolvedinturtlecollection(accidentalortargeted),theseasonality(andthusrepresentativenessofourfindingsthroughthisrapidassessment),andthemarkeddifferencesbetweenorganisedgroupsthattargetmarineturtles(Fig.24left)andtheoccasionalhunterwhofeedshisfamily(Fig.24right).Giventhis,weurgethatthenumbersbeusedasawake-upcalltothevastpotentialforturtlemortalityinMadagascar,andtocatalyseasuiteofmanagementandconservationinitiatives.
Figure24:Organisedcollectionofmarineturtlesforcommercialtrade(left)andindividualturtlescaughtfor
householdconsumption(right).PhotoscourtesyofMichelStrongoffandJessWilliams.
4.1ArtisanalfishingimpactsThenumberofartisanalfishersinMadagascarhassteadilyincreasedoverthelasttwodecades(LeManachetal.2013)andwithitsohasthepressureonmarineturtles.ThetrajectoryoffishingpressureonturtlepopulationsinMalagasywaters,bothinmagnitudeandmethod,isconcerning(Humberetal.2011).Ourfindingssuggestthatthereislittleenforcementofnationallawsprotectingmarineturtles,andthatoftenthoseentrustedwithprotectionandmanagementwereinvolvedinthetrade.Oneofthecasestudiespointedouthowavillagechiefwasinvolvedwiththeorganisedgangswhichremovedturtlesbythehundreds,andourinterviewswiththetwokeyturtlebuyersinMahavatse,Tulearsuggestedthatlawenforcementofficersknewoftheiroperationsandwereregularcustomers.
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Wehavechosennottoseparatebycatchanddirectedtakebecausewefoundfishersrarelyconsideredthesedifferent.Iftheycaughtaturtle,itwasconsideredpartoftheday’scatch,ratherthansomeaccidentaltake.Thisisalsoreflectedinthelow‘Release’response(18%)tothequestionofwhatfisherswoulddoiftheycaughtaturtleaccidentally.OurextrapolationsdifferedsomewhatfromtheHumberetal.(2011)approach(numberoffishersvs.lengthofcoastline)becauseinthatinstancetheauthorschosetoextrapolateusinglineardistanceofcoastline,whereastherearelikelyfishersthatusethatcoastlineandbeinvolvedintheturtletrade.Webelievethatourapproachmakesamorerealisticappraisalofturtletakebyconsideringthenumberoffishersinvolvedinturtletrade,andpresentsamorerealisticviewofthenumbersofturtlespotentiallytakenoutbythefishery.Overalltherefore,takeofmarineturtlesacrossthenationcouldbeseveralordersofmagnitudehigherthanhaseverbeenreportedinthepast.Thisisbecausepastreportshaveonlyeverfocussedonsmalllocations,andhavenotattemptedtoextrapolatetoanationallevel.Weacknowledgethatthepotentialtotakesome100,000turtlesperyearmayseemunrealisticallyhigh,butwhenputintocontextconsideringthesheernumberoffishersinvolvedintheartisanaltradeacrossthevastexpanseofcoastline,webelievethisisverylikelythecase.
4.2CommercialfishingimpactsThetwokeycommercialfishingindustriesinMadagascarareshrimptrawlingandtunafishing.Theshrimpfishingfleetissmall(50vessels)andallvesselsarerequiredtouseTurtleExcluderDevices.OnestudyindicatedthatthechangetousingTEDsresultedinadropfrom120tojusttwoturtlesacrosstheentirefishery(Razafindrainibe2010).Itisbelievedthatduetolackofenforcementandmonitoring,manyoftheshrimpboatssewuptheTEDsshortlyaftertheirsingeannualinspection,withthepossibleexceptionofthe30%ofvesselsthatcarryon-boardobservers(perscomm.,J.Vahoavy,CSP).Irrespectiveofthis,theshrimpfisheryimpactonmarineturtles,whileofnote,appearsinsignificantincomparisontothedirecttakeandbycatchofturtlesintheartisanalfishery.Thereisnodataavailableontheimpactofthetunaindustryonmarineturtles,butasthefastestgrowingcommercialfishery,knowntoimpactmarineturtlesacrossotherpartsoftheworld,wesuggestthisisanareainneedofinvestigation.Madagascar’stunaindustryusesamixofseinevesselsandlonglinevessels,thelatterofthetwobeingknowntocatchturtlesaccidentally(e.g.Camiñasetal.2006)tolandsome52,000tonnesoftunaeachyear.Thereisrampantillegal,unreportedandunregulatedfishinginMalagasywatersbyforeignvessels(LeManachetal.2012)andalackofresourcestoaddresstheproblem.“MalagasyauthoritiesdonotpossesstheresourcestopatroltheirownEEZandthereforecannotaddresstheproblemofillegalfishingforsuchhigh-valuespecies”citedasJain(1995)&Cooke(1997)inLeManachetal.(2012).Thislackofcapacityandresourcestomonitorandenforcenationalfisherylawsarethesameonesthathinderthemonitoringoftheimpactsofthesefisheriesonmarineturtles.Wesuggestthatthisisapriorityareainneedoffurtherinvestigation.
4.3InternationaltradeimpactsMadagascarisknownasahubforillegalwildlifetrafficking(IWT).IWTinMadagascarcoversavastarrayofterrestrialandmarinefloraandfaunaspeciessuchaslemurs(Reuteretal.2016,Bailey&Tobiason2017),tortoises(Manjoazyetal.2017,Schwarzetal.2017),chameleons(Robinsonetal.2018),androsewood(Ke&Zhi2017).PloughshareandradiatedtortoisesareprizedtargetsforIWTinMadagascar,anditisthoughtthatover21,000tortoiseswereexportedinAsiabetween2009and2016(WWF2018).InApril201810,000tortoisesweredetectedinaraidonanabandonedbuilding
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inacoordinatedbustedbyledbyDREF(Actman2018,perscomm.S.Randrianjafizanka,NationalGeographic2018).Traffickingandillicitactivitiesoftenaggregate,sharingroutesandbuyernetworks(UNODC2016).ApromisingrecentdevelopmenttoaddressIWTinMadagascarcomesintheformofanewpartnershipbetweenWWF,TRAFFIC,andtheMinistryofJusticewithsupportfromtheUSFish&WildlifeService.Theaimofthepartnershipistooverseethetrainingoffiftymagistrates,policeofficers,gendarme,borderpolice,customofficers,andenvironmentalofficers,toprovideheightenedcapacitybuildingandawarenesstoensurethatthesystematiccondemnationoftraffickersatalllevels,assoonastheirguiltisproven(WWF2018).Detectingsmugglingactivitiesischallenging,astradersarewellinformedoftheflightroutesthatenablethemtoavoidluggagechecks(Schwarzetal.2017).OneflightrouteusedtosmuggleanimalstoBangkokisfromMahajanga,becausethisairportlacksbaggagescanners,toMayotteintheComorosIslands,thenontoReunionIsland,andfromtheretoBangkok(Kiesteretal.2013).FurtherinquiryintothehowturtleproductsleaveMadagascar(ifatall)shouldfocusondeterminingifsuchknownroutesareused.Itispossiblethatillegaltakeandtradeofmarineturtlesisconnected,orusesthesametradenetworkandroutesasotherIWT,butwehavenotfoundanyevidenceofthistodate,andsuggestthatitisoffarlesserconcernatpresentthanisthedomestictrade.
4.4IllustrativefeedbackfromkeyinformantsTwoparticularinterviewsresultedinanumberofinterestingfindingswhichhelpputtheresultsofourrapidassessment,andthedifficultiesinassessingoverallimpactofthevariedfisheries,intocontext.ThesearepresentedbelowinsupportofsomeoftheargumentsmadeinthisDiscussion.
4.4.1CSPMahajangaFeedbackOneofthekeypeoplewespoketoduringthesurveywastheDirectoroftheFisheriesSurveillabeCenter(CSP)inMahajanga,fromwhichseveralkeypointsarenotweworthy:Commercialfisheriesandturtlebycatch:CSPreportthattherearecurrently39Malagasyregisteredshrimptrawlersandthatall(supposedly)hadTEDsinstalled,andthatallboatsareinspectedattheopeningoftheseasoninMahajangaport.However,theDirectorreportedthatthesevesselswereknowntowiretheTEDdoorsshutfollowingtheseason’ssingleinspection.Thissuggeststhatturtlebycatchratesmaybesignificantlyhigherthanwhatisreportedintheliterature,suchas“Virtuallyallmortalityfromtrawlershasceased”inRazafindrainibe(2010).TheDirectorreportedthatCSPhaveanonboardobserverprogramfortheshrimpfisheryandcurrently30%oftheMalagasyfleethadobserversonboardeverydayoftheseason.Inadditiontothis,therearecurrently140othervesselsintheforeignfleetofwhichonly10%haveobserversonboard.Illegalturtletake:TheDirectorestimatedthataboutsixincidentsperyearoccurintheregion,andthatapproximately600kgofturtlemeatareconfiscatedfromvendorsinmarketsinAntsahaBigo,Cotemaandneartheport.HereportedthatrawturtlemeatistransportedintoandaroundMahajangacitybyboat.Thebiggestconstrainttoenforcementofillegalturtletakeiscatchingfishersintheactoffishingturtlestoensuretheycanbeprosecuted.
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In2016CSPMahajangainterceptedashipmentofdriedturtlemeatbeingsentfromAmbanjatoAntananarivo.Theyfoundsixfullbaskets(largebasketsapproximately1.5mtallx0.75mwidewithmorethan50kgeachbasket)ofdried,smoked/saltedturtlemeat.TheyinterceptedtheshipmentontheroadbetweenAmbanjaandAntsohihy,asthedriedturtlemeatwasbeingmovedbylocaltaxi-bus.Theybelievethatthetransporters/middlemenhadshippedproductslikethismanytimesbefore.Theoffenderswerereleasedandtheproductswereseized.Thisistheonlyrecordofdriedturtlemeat,withtheexceptionofplastronligamentproducts,thatwedetectedduringourfieldwork.Whenaskedaboutplastron/ligamentproductstheCSPwasnotawareandhadnotdetectedthistypeofproduct.Exportactivities:CSPwerenotawareofillegalturtletakeforthepurposeofexport.However,itfallswithinthejurisdictionoftheFishQualityAgency(AgenceSanitaireHalieutique,ASH)toinspectseacontainerswithmarineproductsforexport.CSPsuggestedthatitwouldbedifficulttolabelturtlemeatasseafoodproductsbeingexportedbyseacontainer,asthisiscloselycheckedbyASHandcustomsagencies.However,othershippingcontainerscontainingnon-seafoodproductsmighthaveanythinginsideduetocorruption.TheroleofDina:CSPwerepositiveoftheimpactandimportanceofhavingwelldesignedDinainlocalcommunities,especiallythosewithLocallyManagedMarineAreas(LMMAs).CSPassistlocalcommunitieswhentheyaredraftingtheDinatomakesurethattheproposedDinamirrorsandalignswithnationalpolicies.TheyreportthatareoccurringmanagementchallengeforlocalcommunitiesrelatestoenforcingtheirDinaandjustifyingthespatialareathattheDinaappliesto.TheygaveanexampleoffishersfromAmbalamangapoachingturtlesonboundarylinesorinneighbouringvillagestoescapethepenaltiesofbreakingtheirownvillageDina.Generally,itisthedutyofthecommunityassociationtohandletheissueofafisherbreakingaDina.Butifitcannotberesolvedlocally,thenthepoliceandotherauthoritiesneedtobeinvolved,inwhichcasetheDinarulesaresurpassedandthematterescalatestowhatisapplicableatthelevelofthenationallaws.Insomecircumstances,thelocalcommunitymaynotreporttolocalauthoritieswhenaDinaisbroken,notbecausethematterwasdealtwithbutbecausethewholecommunityisdisregardingtherules.“It'shighlylikelythewholecommunitypretendstoimplementDinaregardingFano(turtle)butactuallytheyareallfishingturtlesopenlyjustnotreportingordealingwithDinaissuestoCSPandPeche”,reportedtheDirector.TheDirectorconsideredthesinglebiggestmovetoimprovecompliancetoDinaandturtleprotectionlawswouldbetoeducatecommunitiestostophuntingandconsumingturtle,butthatCSPdidn'thavetimeorjurisdictionforsensitisation/awarenessbuilding.ThegovernmentreliesonNGO’stodothiswork.Thus,inareaswhereNGOsarenotactiveornotfocusedonmarineturtles,thereislikelytobeahugedeficitinawarenessprogrammes.
4.4.2FeedbackfromanartisanalmaritimetransporterNotesfromanartisanalmaritimetransporterandex-fisherrevealedthefollowinginformation:MarinetransportroutestravelsouthwardfromSoalala,Maintirano,Besalampy,andittakes4-7daystosailfromMaintiranotoMahajanga.ThevesselsfromAnalalava,NosyBe,andAntsohihywhichtypicallyrequire6-7daystoreturnbacktoMahajanga.Thevesselstypicallytransportbuildingsuppliestothesevillagesontheoutwardjourney,andonthereturnpassagetoMahajangathewoodenshipisfilledwithdriedfish,semi-preciousstonessuchasjasperandagate,ordomesticbelongings.Thevesselsalsooftentransportsharkfinandseacucumbers.Thesmallvillagesalongthecoastusuallygivetheirsuppliestothelargeshippingdhowstosellontomiddlemen/buyersinAmborovy,Mahajanga.Thevillagersputturtlemeatiniceboxesandselltotransporterswhothen
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sellitinMahajanga.Chinesebuyerspurchasetortoises,crabs,shrimps,seacucumberandsharkfin,andhethoughtitwasplausibletheywouldbuymarineturtle,butthiswasspeculative.Thevessels(seeFig.25foranexample)sailclosetothecoastandtheyoftenpassChinesetrawlerswithMalagasycrewsalongtheway.Whilstsailingalongthesouth-routes,therespondentindicatedhehadneverseenapatrolboatbetweenMahajangaandMaintirano.TherespondentindicatedthattargetedhuntingofturtleswasabundantusingjarifanetsinSoalala,butsuggestedthiswasforjustforlocalconsumption.HeconfirmedthatinMahajangacityturtlemeatcouldbepurchasedatBazaarMahabibo.Healsorelayedastoryfrom2016whenfishersfromAmbatomanompawerehuntingnestingturtlesandtheireggs.Theywouldtaketheturtles,slaughterandchopthemintoportionsandputtheseiniceboxesandsailbacktoMahajanga.Healsoheardrumoursofamiddlemanthatwasbuyingturtlemeatusingcarorboattobringitbacktothecity.Therespondentindicatedthatonthe15thofeachmonththereisashippingcontainervesselthatcomestoMahajangaandisloadedupandheadsbacktoChina,filledwithjustaboutanything.ThereareapparentlytwomainshippingboatsfromMahajanga;thosethatgotoComoresandthosethatgottoChina.Theyreportedlyoffer4X4vehiclesandtricycles,ortuk-tuks,asbribesinexchangeforassistanceintheirexportbusinesses.
Figure25:Artisanaltransportvessels.
4.5Managementchallenges
4.5.1ApplicationandenforcementofthelawOverall,thereseemstobealargeabsenceofrespectfornationallaws,andawarenessandcapacityworkisneededwithafocusonofficialsandcommunityleaderssotheycanspearheadeffortsand
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leadbyexample.Thelawisoftendismissedbysomelocalauthoritiesundertheunderstanding/notionthatmarineturtleshavealwaysbeenpartofVezofood(Lilette2002).Publicisingwidelyanyarrestsandbustsofturtletrafficking,illegaltakeandillnessfromconsumptionofturtlemeatwouldbenefitcommunityperceptionoftheseriousnessandattitudetowardsrespectingnationallegislation.NewsoftherecentarrestsofthegroupoffishersinAmbohibolahadspreadacrossmuchofthesouthcoastandfishersciteditasanexampleofhowturtlefishingwasnottoleratedbythegovernment.AsnotedbyGardneretal.(2018)thedifficultiesexperiencedinenforcingthelawinMadagascararefurtherhinderedasneithertheMadagascarNationalParks(MNP)northenewProtectedAreapromotershaveauthoritytoapplythelaw.Instead,seriousinfractionsrequiremanagerstoorganiseandfundfieldmissionsbya‘mixedbrigade’,comprisingmembersofthegendarmerie,Ministèredel'Environnement,del'EcologieetdesForêts(MEEF)agents,localandmunicipalauthoritiesandmembersoftheprotectedareamanagementcommittee.(Gardneretal.2018).
4.5.2TraffickingturtleplastronItisunclearfromourcurrentsurveyswheretheenddestination(s)forturtleplastronproductsareandwhethertheseproductsareexportedoutofMadagascar.Furtherworkwouldalsobebeneficialtodocumenttheuseofsuchproduct,inordertounderstandthedemandandmotivesofbuyersandthetrade.Tothebestofourknowledge,thisplastron/ligamenttradehasnotbeenwidelydocumentedandappearsexclusivetoMadagascar.Asisrequiredforanywildlifecrime,multisectorcollaborationbetweenenvironmentaldepartments,import/exportsectorandjudicialsystemwillbecriticaltomitigatingsuchactivities.ThisislikelytobeanongoingchallengeforMadagascar.
Inordertoaddressthisdevelopingtradeofturtleplastron,anincreasedlevelofinformationsharingbetweenallsectorsinvolvedisstronglysuggested.Limitedcapacityfordetectionisexpectedifauthorities,customsagentsarenotgivenspecialisttrainingandmotivatedtodetectsuchproducts.Alleffortstoenhancetheforensiccapacityofcustomsagentsandlawenforcementarecentraltodetectingwildlifecrimes(UNODC2016).Wesuggestthatinformationandimagesofturtleplastronproductsandknowntransitroutesbewidelydisseminatedtofacilitateauthoritiesinmonitoringthistrade.
4.5.3CorruptionIthasbeenthoroughlydocumentedthatwidespreadcorruptionwithinMadagascarfacilitateswildlifecrime(Humber&Hykle2011,Jones2012,LeManachetal.2012,Runhovde2018).Twoexamplesofcorruptionwererecordedduringthestudy,withoneinvolvingafisheriesauthoritywithtransitpermitsforshippingmarineproducts,andtheotherananecdotalaccountimplicatingcomplacency/acceptingbribesinlargeinternationalNGOstonotconductthoroughorrepeatinspectionsatfacilitiesknowntostockpileseacucumber,turtleplastronandsharkfin.BothturtlemeatvendorsinMahavatse,Toliaraconfirmedpoliceandorotherauthoritieshadmadesiteinspectionsbutnoactionstowardsissuingfinesorstrongerformsofenforcementhadbeenissued.Bothvendorsconfirmedthatofficialshadacceptedturtlemeatasabribe,withonevendorsayingsomeofficialswerepartofherregularclientele.ComplacencyofofficialstoactoninspectionsandenforcingthelawwithregardtoturtlemeatvendorsinMahavatse,Toliaraislikelytopermitsomewherebetween400-700turtlesperyeartobesoldasbushmeatgiventhateachofthetwovendorsquestionedduringthissurveydescribedsellinguptooneturtleperday.AsnotedbyLilette(2006),thewidespreadtradeofthegreenturtlesisanoutcomeofalaxenforcementofregulationsduetoindifference,corruption,andthedesireofthelawenforcement
43
agentstoeattheprohibitedgame(Lilette2006).Effortstoaddresstheseattitudes/longstandingissuesarescarceorhaveproventobeineffectivetodate.
4.5.4Culturalsensitivity/bushmeatdemandBalancingthedisharmonybetweentheculturalsignificanceofturtleforVezo/migrantfishersandthenationallawswhichprohibitsturtlefishinghasbeenalong-citedongoingproblem(Walker&Roberts2005,Jones2012,Humberetal.2015).Attemptstoreconcilethisissuehavebeenlimitedandthereisasignificantneedforincreasedmarineturtleconservationeffortstosensitisefishingcommunities(Humberetal.2015).Ourresultsdemonstrateahighdemandforturtleasmarinebushmeat.Parallelingtheterrestrialbushmeatcase,Rueteretal.(2016)documentedatrendtowardssmallerbushmeatspeciesthatreflectscarcityoflargeranimals,afindingwhichwasmirroredbyourresultswithmarineturtles.Onepotentialmanagementsolutionpostulatedtoreducedemandforbushmeatisbyusingtaboostoincreasecommunitycompliance(Westerman&Gardner2013).Thiscouldbeacompellingstrategyforreducingtradeinturtles,giventhe(occasionallyeffective)fadyagainstturtlemeatsales.Emphasismustbeplacedonestablishingconsistentlongtermcollaborativepartnershipstoguidecommunitybasedmanagement,particularlyinremoteareas.InsouthofMadagascarwewitnessedharmfulrelationships(miscommunication,distrust,lackofcapacity)betweenauthorities/NGOsandlocalcommunities.Itappearsthatproblemsstemmedwithconservationpractitionerspushingnationallegislationwithoutprovidingamplesupportandsensitisationtothecommunity.Forexample,thevillagechiefofAntsikorokesaidtheynolongerwelcomecollaborationfromWWForMadagascarNationalParks(MNP),makingeffectivefollow-upactionsextremelychallengingandopeningupanopportunityforwildlifetraffickingtobecomeanappealingeconomicalternative.Specificattentionshouldbefocusedtothedrafting,andimplementingofDinaregardingconservationmatters,asmanyexistingDinaseemtocontradictorconflictwithnationallegislation(Humberetal.2015).ThecurrentongoingcaseofthegroupofturtlefishersfromAmbohibolaisagoodexampleofthisissue.TheAmbohibolavillagersandfishingassociationexpressedconfusionandfrustrationastowhytheconvictedturtlefisherswerenotgiventheopportunitytopaytheturtlefishingfineof300,000MGAasagreeduponintheDina,althoughtheyintendedtoselleachturtleatupto450,000MGA.Effectivemanagementisnotlikelytooccurwithoutcommunityapproval(Humberetal.2011)andthussignificanteffortwillneedtobemadetobuild/restorerelationshipsbetweencommunityandtheconservationsector,aswellasgeneralenvironmentalawarenessprogrammes.
6.0ConclusionsItisevidentthatthereismuchfollow-upworkrequiredtoexpandonourresultspresentedinthisreport.Ofparticularimportancetofutureeffortswillbetheneedtoundertakeampleundercoverinvestigatoryworkinthelargercitiesthatarelikelytoactastradehubsandexportpointsformarineturtleproducts.WesuggestthatTulear,Mahajanga,DiegoSuarezandAntananarivorequireadditionalworktodeterminefinerscopedetailsontheresaleandexportoftheturtleplastronproducts,includinghowsuchproductspassthroughtheports.
Oursurveysacross153fishersorfisheryrelatedworkersandfourmanagementpractitionershaveprovidedawealthofinformationontheturtlefisheryandthepotentialimpactsofboththecommercialandartisanalfisheriesonturtles.
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Weestimateover3,500marineturtleswereextractedbytheintervieweesinoursurveyduringthepast12monthsalone,andextrapolationssuggeststhatnationallevelextractioncouldbeofamagnitudeofhundredsofthousands.Wedonotbelievethecommercialshrimpindustryishavingamajorimpactonmarineturtles,butfurtherworkinthisareaiswarrantedgiventheimpactofshrimptrawlersonmarineturtleselsewhere,andtheproximitytoshoreinwhichtheyfishinMadagascar.SimilarlywedonotbelievethatinternationaltradeinmarineturtlesinMadagascarisofalargescaleandorganised.Webelieveitislikelymoreanopportunisticissue,withdomestictradetakingprecedenceoverinternationalsales.Thisismadeallthemoresobythedearthofhawksbillsinthecatches,whichwouldotherwisebefavouredashighvaluehandicraft,withscutesmoreeasilytransportedthanwholeanimals.TherearenobeacheswithinMadagascarthatwouldsupporttheproductionofsufficienthatchlingstosupportthenumberofjuveniles,subadultsandadultsthataretakeninthefisheries,andthuswebelievethatthesearebeingseededfromnearbyrookeriesinthewesternIndianOcean.Itisunclearwhetherthisisasustainablelevelofextraction,givenastheserookeriesarealsoseedingbeachesinMozambique,wheresimilarlylargenumbersofturtlesareextractedeachyear.Notwithstandingthecurrentlegislativestatusofmarineturtles,thelowincomelevelsinMadagascarandtherequirementforproteinforsustenancemeanthatmarineturtlesare(andlikelywillcontinuetobe)afavouredandextremelycommoncommodity.Indeed,itislikelythatmarineturtleshavebeensustaininglocalcommunitiesformanyyearsHowever,whatisunknowniswhetherthecurrentexpansiontoacommercialenterpriseandtransportnetworkstoallofthemajorcitieswiththeirconcomitantresourcedemandswillbesustainable.ItisalsoimportanttonotethereremainsalackofclarityonwhereMadagascarturtlescomingfrom–whatarethenestingbeachesthatformthesourceofalltheturtlesfoundinMalagasywaters?Thesetwokeybiologicalquestionsareparticularlyrelevant,asanswerstothesemightinformmanagementagenciesandassistinthedesignofconservationoptions,addressedinthefollowingsection.
7.0 RecommendationsRecommendationsmadehereinarebrokendownintomanagementandconservationrelatedactionsandbiology/sustainabilityrelatedissues.
7.1Conservation&Management1. StrengthenlocaltraditionalmanagementapproachessuchasDinaandfady,andprovidean
opportunityforlocalcommunitiestoassumeresponsibilityforenforcingtraditionalbansthatsupportnationallegislation;
2. Conductwide-rangingawarenesscampaignsonthelegalstatusandconservation/managementneedsofmarineturtlesinMadagascaramongcoastalcommunities;
3. Increaseexposureofincidencesofpoachercapturesandturtlereleasesamongstcoastalcommunitiestoheightenawarenessoftheillegalityoftheactivities;
4. ConducttrainingofportandMinistryofficialswhoareinvolvedinthepermittingandinspectionprocessofoutgoingshipments(bothfishandnon-fish-related)tobetterassessandcontroltheexportofillegalmarineturtleproducts;
45
5. BuildcapacityamongkeyauthoritiesontheimportanceandprotocolsrequiredforsystematicgatheringofinformationandreportingofillegaltakeandtraffickingincidentsintoacentraldigitaldatabaseinordertocompleteCITESAnnualIllegalTradeReports;
6. DevelopacomprehensiveFisheriesAct/tailoredlegislationthataddressesbothcommercialandartisanalfishingandiscompliantwithCITESandCMS(includingIOSEATurtleMOURequirements);
7. Digitisepermittingsystemsfortransportoffisheriesproductstominimiseduplicationorfakepapers,possiblythroughabarcodingsystemorQRcodeinsteadofcarbonpaper;
8. Investmoreheavilyinmarineenforcementfacilitiesandinstaffandstationkeyresourcesatkeyfisheryareaswheremarineturtles,sharksandotherprotectedspeciesaretargeted;
9. Intensifyenforcementofcurrentexistingnationallegislation;
10. Supportundercoverinvestigationswhichmayprovidegreaterinsightintoanyillegalmarineturtleexportactivities;
11. Developprogrammestoeliminatecorruptionamongstenforcementofficialstoenhanceimplementationandenforcementofcurrentexistingnationallegislation;
12. ConductstudiestounderstandimpactsandscaleofIUUintheMozambiquechannelandMadagascar’sEEZ.ThereisanurgentneedtocollectabaselineinformationonIUUbeforeanincreaseinforeignfishingvesselsMadagascarEEZoccurs;
13. InvestigatetheopportunitiesforregionalcollaborationamongstcountrieswhosharethemarineturtlestocksonwhichMalagasyfishersdepend,forexample,utilizingtheexpertiseandresourcesoftheWesternIndianOceanMarineTurtleTaskForceoftheIOSEAMarineTurtlesMOU;
14. Explorethepotentialforalternativelivelihoodsasameanstoreducepressuresonmarineturtlestocks,forexample,community-basedecotourism;
15. Explorethepotentialformicro-financeschemestocatalyseconservationactionandenablecommunitiestoimprovethestandardoflivingandbecomelessreliantonmarineturtleconsumptionforsustenance;
16. EstablishanemergencyfundforgovernmentagenciestoactonIWTrelatedtomarineturtlesandothermarineproducts;
17. SeeksupportfromNGOsanddonoragenciestostrengthencurrentconservationapproaches,expandawareness-andcapacity-buildingactivities,andtodesignDinathatareeffectiveinprotectingmarineturtlestocks.
7.2Biology&Sustainability1. DeterminetheprovenanceofmarineturtlesbeingtakenoutofMadagascar’swaters
(throughgeneticstudies)anddeterminetheoverallproductivityofthesesourcerookeries,andotherregionalimpactareas(e.g.Mozambique).
2. ExpandthecurrentrapidsurveytoagreatergeographicalareainordertorefinetheestimatesoftotalannualturtletakeinMadagascar(seealsoSection7.3,below).
3. Conductathoroughandnational-levelassessmentofnestingmarineturtlesinMadagascartounderstandtheircontributiontomarineturtlestocksinMadagascar’scoastalforaginggrounds.
4. ConductstudiesinMadagascarturtleforaginggroundstounderstandpopulationsizeandstructure;
46
5. Compile(andpublicise)recordsofillness/deathrelatedtoconsumptionofmarineturtlemeat;
6. Conductdetailedstudiesonspeciespreferenceandselectionbylocalfisherstounderstandimpactsataspecies-specificlevel;
7. Developaholisticregionalsurvivalprobabilitymodelofmarineturtlepopulationdynamicswhichtakesintoaccountthethreatsfrommultiplecountries(howmanyturtlesofwhatageclassesarebeingtakenoutofthepopulation),limitationsofsourcebeaches(howmanymarineturtlesarebeingproducedeachyear),naturalsurvivalprobabilities,andmarineturtlebiologytodeterminethesustainabilityofthecurrentharvests;
8. Conductstudiesonthebycatchandsurvivalprospectsofmarineturtlesintheshrimpfishingfleets,andontheeffectivenessoftheTurtleExcluderDeviceprogramme;
9. Conductstudiesonthebycatchandsurvivalprospectsofmarineturtlesinthetunalonglinefishingfleets;
10. Understandingfishermigrationsinresponsetoincreasingclimatepressureordwindlingfishstocksandtheresultant(increased)pressuresonmarineturtles;
11. Conductexperimentaltrialsonbycatchmitigationinthelonglineindustry,suchasviacirclehooksorbaitchoices.
7.3AdditionalprioritysurveyareasOursurveyswere,bytheirverynature,rapidandlimitedinscope.GiventheexpanseoftheMalagasycoastline,thereissignificantscopeforadditionalbaselinesurveysinartisanalfishingvillagesandfollow-upinvestigationsonillegaltradenetworks.TableXsummariseskeyareasthatcouldbeaddressedbyfutureefforts.
TableX:Areasinneedofadditionalsurveysand/orpreliminarybaselinedata.
Area Knownsituation/Dataavailable Effortrequired
Fanambosa,AtsimoAndrefana
Mentionedduringinterviewsintheareaasabasefortargetedturtlefishers.
Baselinesurveys
Maintirano,Melakey VillagersreportedfishingturtleandsellingtotransporterwhosailinlargesailboatstoMahajanga.
Baselinesurveys.UndercoverinvestigationaboutproductstransportedtoMahajangaforexports
MahajangaPort,Boeny
KnowntobeahubofcorruptionforIWTexportforotherspecies,andresources.
Undercoverinvestigationaboutproductstransportedandtraffickingroutes
MonrondavaAtsimoAndrefana
IllegaltakeofLeatherbackinNov2016forlocalconsumptionreported(Williams2017).ManyfisherslikelytotargetturtlestocksaroundBarrenIslandsandJuanDeNova.
Baselinesurveys
Andavadoaka,AtsimoAndrefana
IllegaltakeofLeatherbackinNov2016forlocalconsumptionreported(Williams2017).Reportofhousestoringturtleplastronligamentsdetectedinlate2016.
Baselinesurveyswithfishers
St.MarieIsland Nodataavailable BaselinesurveysTamatave,Toamasina
Nodataonturtlesavailable.Largestport,knownforcorruptionandotherproductsbeingsmuggledoutthroughTamatave,closesttoChina.
BaselinesurveysUndercoverinvestigationaboutportexports
RadamaIslands,Sofia 2016reportsofturtlepoachingfromWCS. Baselinesurveystodetectturtle
47
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Analalava,Sofiaregion
Intensiveturtlefishingbygroupof30fishers. BaselinesurveysUndercoverinvestigationtoidentifytraffickingrouteandpartners
BarrenIslands Popularturtlefishingareaformigrantfishers. Baselinesurveystodetectturtlefishingcamps
Androka-Lavanono,AtsimoAndrefana
ThisisaremotestretchofthecoastthatwassuggestedthatmigrantfishersfromAmbohiholagotofishturtles.
Baselinesurveys
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Baselinesurveys
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Baselinesurveys
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MainlandNWcoast(AmbanjatoDiego),Dianaregion
Remoteheavilymangroveareareferencedininterviewsconductedinthisstudywhousebeachseineorjarifatotargetturtles.
Baselinesurveys
Ambanja,Dianaregion
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Atapera,Anosy Baselinesurveysneeded.Jarifafishingabundant.ReferencedassiteoftargetedfishinganddomesticuseduringsurveysintheAnosyregioninterviews.
Baselinesurveys
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RaberinaryaD&SBenbowa,2012.ThereproductivecycleofOctopuscyaneainsouthwestMadagascarandimplicationsforfisheriesmanagement.FisheriesResearch125–126:190–197.
RakotonirinaB&ACooke,1994.SeaturtlesofMadagascar-theirstatus,exploitationandconservation.Oryx28:51-61.
RakotondrazafyAMA&RMAdrianasolo,2012.PreliminaryassessmentoftheseaturtlesectorinMorambaBay,MarovasaBeandAnjajavyareas.Cétamada2012.
RakotosonLR&KTanner,2006.Community-basedgovernanceofcoastalzoneandmarineresourcesinMadagascar.Ocean&CoastalManagement49(11):855-872.
RasolofonirinaR&CConand,1998.L’exploitationdesholothuriesdanslesud-ouestdeMadagascar,re´giondeToliara.Labêche-de-mer,bulletindelaCPS10:10–3.
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RazafindrainibeH,2010.BaselinestudyoftheshrimptrawlfisheryinMadagascarandstrategiesforbycatchmanagement,ProjectTCP/MAG/3201-REBYC2.Rome(Italy):UnitedNationsFoodandAgricultureOrganization.
Repoblikan'iMadagasikara,2013a.Arrêtérégionalno.2013-009/REG/ATSIMOANDREFANAportantpréservationdestortuesmenacéesd'extinctiondanslaRégion[RegionalDecreeno.2013-009/REG/ATSIMOANDREFANArelatingtothepreservationofendangeredturtlesintheregion.]MinisteredelaDecentralisation.AtsimoAndrefana,Madagascar.16thOctober2013.
Repoblikan'iMadagasikara,2013b.Réuniontechniquesur«lesprisesdemesuresfaceautraficdetortuemarineàMadagascar».Notedepresse.Mercredi04Décembre2013.Antananarivo:ComiteNationaldeGestionIntegreedelaZoneCotiereetmarine(CN-GIZC);2013.
ReuterKE,HGilles,ARWills&BJSewall,2016.LivecaptureandownershipoflemursinMadagascar:Extentandconservationimplications.Oryx50:344–354
RiskasKA,RTobin,MPBFuentesMPB&MHamann,2018.Evaluatingthethreatofillegal,unreportedandunregulated(IUU)fishingtoseaturtlesintheIndianOceanandSoutheastAsiausingexpertelicitation.BiologicalConservation217:232-239.
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SabatiniG,ASalley&JBRamanamanjato,2008.AreviewofthespinylobsterfisheryintheTolagnaro(Fort-Dauphin)region.Tolagnaro(Madagascar):Biodiversity,ecologyandconservationoflittoralecosystemsinsoutheasternMadagascar,Tolagnaro;2008.
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SungYH&JJFong,2018.AssessingconsumertrendsandillegalactivitybymonitoringtheonlineTwildlifetrade.BiologicalConservation227:219–225.
UNODC,2016.WorldWildlifeCrimeReport:Traffickinginprotectedspecies.UnitedNations,Vienna.101pp.
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WildAid,2018.Seaturtles:Anunncertainfuture.WildAid,SanFrancisco,USA.29pp.
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AnnexI:FieldworkitineraryDate Region Activitytype Itinerary Team
1/9/18 Antananarivo Transit/Arrival ProjectteamarriveinTanaforkickoffmeeting.
1
2/9/18 AtsimoAndrefana Transit AntananrivotoTulear 13/9/18 AtsimoAndrefana Interviewsandlocalapprovals,
meetingwithMRHP,DREF+ReefDoctor
Mahatavse,Tulear 1
4/9/18 AtsimoAndrefana Transit+interviews+ TuleartoAnakao 15/9/18-6/9/18
AtsimoAndrefana interviews Anakaovillage 1
7/9/18 AtsimoAndrefana Transit+interviews AnakaotoItampolo,viaBehelokyandAmbola
1
8/9/18-9/9/18
AtsimoAndrefana Interviews+managementmeetingwithMNP
Itampolo 1
10/9/18 AtsimoAndrefana Transit+interviews ItampolotoAndroka,viaAntsikorokeandAmbohibola
1
11/9/18 AtsimoAndrefana Interviews Ambohibola 112/9/18 AtsimoAndrefana Transit AmbohibolatoLavanono 113/9/18-14/9/18
AtsimoAndrefana-Androy
Interviews Lavanono 1
15/9/18 Androy Transit+interviews LavanonotoFauxCap 116/9/18 AndroytoAnosy Transit FauxCaptoFortDauphin 117/9/18 Anosy Interviewsandlocalapprovalswith
MRHP,MIHARInetworkFortDauphin 1
18/9/18 Anosy Transit+interviews AmbinanyBe,FortDauphin 119/9/18 Anosy Transit+interviews AnalapsyII+Arabaraba 120/9/18 Anosy Transit+interviews Lokaro 121/9/18-22/9/18
Anosy Dataentry+Logistics FortDauphin 1
23/9/18 Anosy-Antananarivo
Transit FortDauphin-Antananarivo 1
24/9/18 AntananarivotoBoeny
Transit Antananarivo-Mahajanga 1
25/9/18 Boeny Interviews AntsaBigo,MahajangaPort 126/9/18 Boeny Interviews+Managementinterview
withCSPPetitePlage+CSP 1
27/9/18 BoenytoDiana Transit MahajangatoNosyKomba 128/9/18 Diana Interviews Antitoro+Antamotamo,Nosy
Komba1
29/9/18 Diana Interviews AndriaBe,NosyKomba 130/9/18 Diana Anonymousinformants NosyBe 11/10/18-2/10/18
Diana DataEntry NosyBe 1
3/10/18-5/10/18
MadagascartoMozambique
Transit ReturntoMozambiqueviaSouthAfrica.
1
8/9/18- Sofia,Antsiranana Interviews NosySuarez+Androvohonko 2
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9/9/1815/9/18-16/9/18
Sofia,Antsiranana Interviews Ambodivahibe 2
22/9/18-23/9/18
Sofia,Antsiranana Interviews Ambolobozokely 2
27/9/18–28/9/18
Sofia,Antsiranana Interviews BayofDiegoSuarez 2
*Fieldteam1:JessWilliams,MichelStrongoffFieldteam2:AmelieLandySoambola,MoiseAndriantsolyAmadaRegisNelsonandAhmedMoustoifa.
AnnexII:Interviewquestionsforfishingcommunities
CHARACTERISINGTHELEGALANDILLEGALTRADEOFMARINETURTLESINMADAGASCAR
Interviewername:______________________________Translator______________________Location(village,town,region):___________________________________________________Date:___________________________________Language_____________________________Surveynumber:_______________________________________________________________Latitude: Longitude:WaypointNumber:
A.BACKGROUNDINFORMATIONi.Yourage:ii.Occupation:fisherman□boatowner□fishseller□other(pleasespecify:_______
iiiLengthofexperienceincurrentrole:_____years_____months.Startedinyear:____
iv.Numberoffishersinvillage
v.Villagepopulationsize:
vi.Targetcatch:
vii.Whereisthefishsold?
viii.Whereisyourusualfishingarea?
B.MARINETURTLESINMADAGASCAR1.Haveyouseenmarineturtlesinyourcommunityandsurroundingareas?(Y/N)
2.IfY,where?□onthebeach;□coralreefs;□coastalwaters(<3nmfromshore);□oceanicwaters(>3nm
fromshore);□other(pleasespecify:_______________)
3.a.CanyouIDturtlespecies(Y/N)ifY;
b.Pleaseindicatehowfrequentlyyouhaveseeneachspeciesofmarineturtle
Everyday Everyweek Everymonth Everyyear Notseen Can’tquantify
Green Loggerhead Hawksbill
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4.a)Pleaseindicatehowyoursightingsofmarineturtleshavechanged:Trend A) Inpast5years B)Overfishingcareer/lifetimeIncreasing Decreasing Stayedthesame Don’tknow Comments: 5.Whydoyoubelievethisisso?__________________________________________6a.Haveyouseenanystrandedsickordeadcarcasses?Y/N6b.Whathappenedtothecarcasses/turtles:6c.Whatstateweretheyin:freshlydead/decomposed/bonesorshellonly7.Haveyouheardofpeopleinyourvillagethathaveeatenturtlesthattheyfoundwashedupdead?C.INCIDENTALCAPTUREOFMARINETURTLESINSMALLSCALEFISHERIES8a.Haveyoueverbeenfishingandwhenyoupulledupthenet/line/trapaturtlewasthere?(Y/N)
b.doyouknowifthishashappenedtoothersinyourfishingarea/village?(Y/N)
b.inwhichgeartype:
9a.howmanytimeshasthishappened?_____________________
b.Howoftendoesthishappen?(Daily,weekly,monthly,yearly.(Specifynumberorrange):___________
c.Howmanyturtlesperoccasion____________________________
d.whatsizearetheseturtles?(XS,S,M,L,XL)?__________________________________________
e.Isthiscontinuousorsporadic?(circleone),isthereseason,orcertainmonthsoftheyear_________
10.Whathappenstotheturtlescaughtincidentally?
Fateofturtle Personally Byothersincommunity
Releasedalive
Keptandusedforfood
Soldlocallyforfood
Soldtoabuyer/middleman/foreigner
Usedtraditionallyforcraftormedicine
Shippedoverseas:listcountries
Other:
D.USEANDTRADEOFMARINETURTLESINTHECOMMUNITY11a.Haveyouevereatenturtlesortheireggs(Y/N)
b.orheardofotherswhodo?(Y/N)
c.ifyes,hereinthisvillage(Y/N)oranotherarea:__________________________________
12b.Haveyoueverseen(Y/N)orheardof(Y/N)marineturtlemeat,eggsorproductsbeingsoldortradedin
yourcommunityandsurroundingareas?
13.Inyourlocalwaters,areturtlestargetedintentionallybymembersofthecommunity?(Y/N)
14a.howmanytimeshasthishappened?_____________________
Leatherback OliveRidley Notdifferentiated
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14b.Howoftendoesthishappen?(Daily,weekly,monthly,yearly.(Specifynumberorrange):___________
14c.Howmanyturtlesperoccasion____________________________
14d.whatsizearetheseturtles?(XS,S,M,L,XL)?__________________________________________
14e.Isthiscontinuousorsporadic?(circleone),isthereseason,orcertainmonthsoftheyear_________
15.Whatdoyoubelievehappenstotheturtlescaughtintentionallybymembersofthecommunity?
a.usedforfood
b.soldlocally
c.usedfortraditionalmedicineand/orcrafts
d.shippedoverseas(listcountries:______________________________)
e.other(pleasespecify):_______________________________________
16.Pleaseindicatehowfrequentlymarineturtlemeat,wholeturtle,eggsorproductsaresold/tradedforeach
ofthefollowinglocationsinyourcommunity:(specifyquantityorrange)
Never daily weekly monthly yearly Inaseason(specifymonths)
Aboardfishingboats
Ataport Fishmarkets Othermarket Inhomesinthecommunity
Otherlocation: 17.Ifthereisanyturtletradeinyourcommunityandsurroundingareas,pleaserankthemarineturtlespeciesinorderfrom1(mostcommonlytraded)to5(leastcommonlytraded):a.green_______b.hawksbill____c.loggerhead____d.leatherback____e.oliveridley____f.NOTRADE______18.Pleaseindicatehowthefollowingmarineturtleitemsareusuallyexchanged(selectallthatapply): Purchased/sold Price
(perkgor
item)
Exchanged/traded Don’t
know
Supplier
A/B/C/D/E/F
Meat
Eggs
Carapaces/turtle
shellproducts
Liveturtles
Otherturtle
prodcuts
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KEYFORTABLEA)localfishersfromthecommunityB)localnon-fishersfromthecommunity(pleaselistlikelyoccupation:___________)C)MozambicanfishersfromoutsideofthecommunityD)Mozambicannon-fishersfromoutsideofthecommunity(likelyoccupation:___________)E)Foreignfishers(pleasespecifywhichcountries:______________________)F)Other(pleasespecify)19.Dothemarineturtlemeat,eggsandproductsfromyourcommunitygetsenttootherpartsofMadagascar?(Y/N)pleaselistdestinations:______________________________________________20.PleaselistthetypesofitemssenttootherpartsofMadagascar(e.g.meat,eggs,carapaces,wholeturtles,etc):___________________________________________________________________________________21.Whydoyoubelievepeoplewouldchoosetotradelocallyinmarineturtlemeat,eggsandproducts?22.Pleaseindicatehowthetradeofmarineturtlemeat,eggsorproductsinyourcommunityandsurroundingareashaschangedinpast5years(specifyareasonsoineachbox) Increasing Decreasing Stayedthesame Don’tknow Notfound
hereMeat
Eggs Carapaces/shellproducts
Liveturtles Otherproducts:
Sameoverlifetime?(Y/N)
Comments:
23a.Doyoubelievethatthelocaltradeofmarineturtlemeat,eggsandproductswillcausethemarineturtlepopulationstoDECREASEwithinthenext10years?(Y/N)23b.Whydoyoubelievethatthisisso?________________________________________D.USEANDTRADEBYFOREIGNERS24a.Haveyouseenforeignfishers(Y/N)?
• Where:___________________
• When:____________________
• Fishingfor:_________________
• Usingwhichfishinggear:_____________________
b.Haveyouseenforeignvessels((Y/N)?
• Where:___________________
• When:____________________
• Fishingfor:_________________
• Usingwhichfishinggear:_____________________
25a.Arethereforeignbuyers(offishormarinespecies)inyourarea?(Y/N)
b.Howmany(peopleorcompanies)?
c.Whatproductsdotheybuy(pleaselist):
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d.Doyouknowthepriceperkilo/item:
e.Dotheybuyturtlesorturtleproducts?(Y/N)describe:
f.whatsizeturtles?(XS,S,M,L,XL)
OTHERDETAILS?
26a)Inyourlocalwatersarethereforeignfishers(Y/N),dotheytargetturtles(Y/N)
b)Wheredothesepeoplecomefrom?
27a.howmanytimeshaveforeignfisherscaughtturtlesinyourarea?_____________________
27b.Howoftendoesthishappen?(Daily,weekly,monthly,yearly-Specifynumberorrange):___________
27c.Howmanyturtlesperoccasion?____________________________ortotal(specifynumberovertime-
frame)________________________________________________________________________
27d.whatsizearetheseturtles?(XS,S,M,L,XL)?_________________________________________
27e.Isthiscontinuousorsporadic?(circleone),isthereaseason,orcertainmonthsoftheyear(Specify
months)____________________________________________________________________________
28.Whatdoyoubelievehappenstotheturtlescaughtonpurposebyforeignfishers?a.usedforfoodb.soldlocallyc.usedfortraditionalmedicineand/orcraftsd.shippedoverseas(listcountries:______________________________)e.other(pleasespecify):_______________________________________29.Inyourlocalwaters,aremarineturtlescaughtincidentallybyforeignfishers?(Y/N)andwithwhichfishinggear?30a.howmanytimeshaveforeignfishersincidentallycaughtturtlesinyourarea?_____________________
30b.Howoftendoesthishappen?(Daily,weekly,monthly,yearly-Specifynumberorrange):___________
30c.Howmanyturtlesperoccasion?____________________________
Ortotal(specifynumberovertimeframe)______________________________________________________
30d.whatsizearetheseturtles?(XS,S,M,L,XL)?_________________________________________
30e.Isthiscontinuousorsporadic?(circleone),isthereseason,orcertainmonthsoftheyear(Specify
months)____________________________________________________________________________
31.Whathappenstotheturtlescaughtbymistakebyforeignfishers?a.releasedaliveb.usedforfoodc.soldlocallyd.usedfortraditionalmedicineand/orcraftse.shippedoverseas(listcountries:______________________________)f.other(pleasespecify):_______________________________________32.Whatmakesyouthinkthis?E.MARINETURTLEEXPORT33.Doesthemarineturtlemeat,eggsandproductsfromyourcommunitygetsenttoothercountriesoutsideofMadagascar?(Y/N)pleaselistdestinations:__________________________________________________________________________________________34.Pleaselistthetypesofitemssenttoothercountries(e.g.meat,eggs,carapaces,wholeturtles,etc):
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__________________________________________________________________________________________35.Pleaseestimatehowmanyturtles(oreggs)(orkgsormeat)areexported(e.g.daily,weeklymonthly,etc):____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________36.Howoftendoesthishappen?E.g.daily,weekly,monthly,etc:__________________37.Howdopeopleexporttheturtles/turtleparts?38.Pleaseindicatehowthetradeofmarineturtlemeat,eggsorproductsforEXPORThaschangedinpast5years(specifyareasonsoineachbox) Increasing Decreasing Stayedthesame Don’tknow Notfound
hereMeat Eggs Carapaces/shellproducts
Liveturtles Otherproducts:
Sameoverlifetime?(Y/N)
Comments:
39.Whydoyoubelievepeoplewouldchoosetoexportmarineturtlemeat,eggsandproducts?40.Doyoubelievethattheexportofmarineturtlemeat,eggsandproductswillcausethemarineturtlepopulationstochangewithinthenext10years?(Y/N)41.Whydoyoubelievethatthisisso?_________________________________________________________
59
AnnexIII:Interviewquestionsformanagementexecutives Illegaltake,tradeandexportofmarineturtlesinMadagascar.ActingonCITESDecision17.222and17.223thisworkisbeingundertakenthroughoutAugust2018-October2018.Thespecificobjectivesofthestudyare(a)toprovideaglobaloverviewofthestatus,scopeandtrendsoftheinternationaltradeinthesevenextant,CITES-listedspeciesofmarineturtles;(b)toachieveabetterunderstandingofthecurrentandpotentialconservationimpactsassociatedtocurrenttradelevels;(c)toidentifymanagementoptions;(d)toidentifyareaswhereimmediatemitigationeffortsmaybeneeded;and(e)toencouragecommunicationamongCITESanditskeypartners,optimizingresourcesandenhancingsynergies.
Theinformationyouprovideinthisquestionnairewillcontributetowardsthenationalcountry-leveloverviewforMadagascar,andaparallelstudyisoccurringinMozambique.Ifyoudonothaveananswer,pleasedescribeabriefresponsee.g.Idon'tknowornotrelevantinmyarea.
Emailaddress:*
A. Whatisthenameofyourorganisation?*B. Whatisyourcurrentpositionhere?*C. Howlonghaveyoubeeninyourcurrentposition?(years)*.D. Geographicscopeofyourwork?Pleasespecifyregionsortowns,MPAsorother.E. E.Yourexpertisecomesfromwhichofthefollowingsectors?*
1.Haveyoueverseenorheardofmarineturtlemeat,eggsorproductsbeingexportedtoothercountriesoutsideMadagascar?
2a.HaveyoueverseenorheardofOTHERmarineproductsbeingexportedtoothercountriesoutsideMadagascar?
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2b.IfYes,pleaselisttypesofmarineproducts(i.e.sharkn,seahorse....)
3.IsmarineturtlemeatorotherturtleproductssoldwithinMadagascar?Isittransportedinternally?
4.Inyouropinion,whichismoreabundantintermsofnumbersofturtlesinvolved(tickallthatapply)
5a.Doyoubelieveorhaveevidencethatsuggestsmarineturtletradeofproducts,turtlepartsorwholealiveturtlesislinkedwithotherIllegalWildlifeTrafficking(IWT)?
5b.Ifyes,whatmakesyouthinkso?6a.Pleaseindicatehowthefollowingmarineturtleitemsareusuallyexchangedorused(selectallthatapply)
Bought/sold
Traded/exchangedforothergoods?
Bothexchangedandsold
Don’tknow
Personalconsumption
Notapplicable
Traditionalmedicine
Traditionalbeliefs
Turtlemeat
Turtleeggs
Carapaces/turtleshellproducts
Wholealiveturtles
Otherproducts?
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6b.Ifyoufilledinaresponseabovefor'otherproduct'pleasedescribewhattypeofproductyouarereferringto?7.Doyouknowthepriceperitem,orkilothatturtleproductssellfor?Pleasespecifyapriceorpricerangefor:turtlemeat,eggs,carapaceproducts,liveturtles,otherturtleproducts.Ispricebasedonsizeclassesi.e.small,mediumorlarge?Ifyes,pleasespecify:
8.DoyouknowwhoaretheMAINsuppliersofmarineturtlemeat,eggsandproductsthatareexported
9.Wheredoliveturtles,theirmeat,eggsorproductsgetsentwithinMadagascar?Pleasedescribedomesticroutesthatyouknoworthinkcouldbeinvolvedinturtletrade.Ornamespecificlocations/towns
10.Pleasetickthetypesofitemssenttoothercountries
11.Towhichcountriesdotheseproductsgetsentto?12.Doyouknowhowtheturtlesorproductsaretransportedtothesecountries?Pleasedescribeallthemeansoftransportationinvolvedinthistraderoute.13.Howaresuchproductspackagedfortransitorshipping?Pleasedescribepackagingmaterials,orprocessingtechniquesusedtotransportsuchproducts.e.g.meatiscutintoportions,smokedandpackagedintoasacktobeshippedtoamiddleman,oreggsaredisguisedasduckeggsandareexportedunderalicenseforduckeggs.14.Whydoyoubelievepeoplewouldchoosetoexportmarineturtlemeat,eggsandproducts?Pleaseconsiderthefollowingfactorsinyourresponse;Monetaryvalue,delicacy,tradition,religion,foreigndemand,lackofalternativelivelihoods,opportunisticuseofbycatch.15a.Pleaseindicatehowtheexportofmarineturtleproductshaschangedinthelastfiveyears,ifatall: Increasing Decreasing Stayedthesame Idon’tknowTurtlemeat Turtleeggs Carapaces/turtle
62
shellproductsWholealiveturtles Otherproducts? 15b.Ifyouansweredthequestionabovefor'OTHERTURTLEPRODUCTS'pleasedescribetheparticularproductyouarereferringto:15c.Fortheitem(s)whereyoubelieveexporthasINCREASED,pleasesuggestareasonastowhythismightbehappening:15d.Fortheitem(s)whereyoubelieveexporthasSTAYEDTHESAME,pleasesuggestareasonastowhythismightbehappening:15e.Fortheitem(s)whereyoubelieveexporthasDECREASED,pleasesuggestareasonastowhythismightbehappening:Enforcementandmanagementpriorities16.IsitillegaltointentionallykillseaturtlesinMadagascar?
17.Isitillegaltoaccidentallykillaseaturtle?e.g.caughtbymistakeinanetbuttheanimalisfounddead.
18.Arefishersrequiredtoreportanaccidentalturtlemortalitytotheauthorities?
19a.Areanyareasroutinely/periodicallypatrolled?
19b.Ifyes,arepenaltieseverimposed?(Frequently,Infrequently,Never,Don’tknow)?
63
20.Doyouhaveanyrelevantcommentsaboutpatrolling,enforcementorapplicationofpenalties?21a.Doesyouragencyhavespecificprogramsinplacetodeter,mitigateand/ormanageseaturtlecaptureandtrade?
21b.IfyouansweredYEStothepreviousquestion,pleaseselecttheprogramsthatareinplacetodeter,mitigateand/ormanageseaturtlecaptureandtrade.ChooseALLthatapply:
22a.Inyouropinion,howeffectivehavetheseprogramsbeeninreducingthenumberofincidentsofseaturtlecapturesandtradeinMadagascar?Chooseoneonly:a.Completelyineffective,b.Somewhatineffective,c.Somewhateffective,d.Veryeffective,e.Don’tknow
22b.Pleaseprovideanexplanationastowhyyouthinkthisisso:23.Whatadditionalprogramsormeasuresdoyouthinkareneededtoreduceseaturtlecaptureandtrade?24.Iffundingwasavailableandunlimited,whichthree(3)actionswouldyourecommendbetakenbyyouragencytoreduceseaturtlecaptureandtrade?Pleaselist3actions:
64
25.PleaseestimatehowmanyincidentsofseaturtlecaptureandtradeoccuryearlyintheAREASYOUWORKwithinMadagascar. Never 1per
yearLessthan10
11to50 51to100 Morethan101
Idon’tknow
Captureofturtles(intentional/targeted)
Captureofturtles(accidental/bycatch)
Tradeofturtle(domesticmarket/localuse)
Tradeofturtle(exportforinternationalmarket)
26a.PleaseestimatehowmanyincidentsofseaturtlecaptureandtradeoccuryearlyforMadagascaronaNATIONALSCALE.
27.Towhatextentdoyoubelievethatillegalfishingrepresentsathreattothehealthofmarineturtlepopulationsinyourcountry?ChooseONEonly:1.Nothreattoturtles,2.Minimalthreattoturtles,3.Moderatethreattoturtles,4.Highthreattoturtles,5.Veryhighthreattoturtles
28.Howimportantisittoyouragencytoaddresstheseaturtlecaptureandtradeproblem?ChooseONEonly:1.Notapriority,2.Lowpriority,3.Moderatepriority,4.Highpriority,5.Veryhighpriority
29.TowhatextentdoyoubelievethatreducingseaturtlecaptureandtradeisagovernmentpriorityinMadagascar?1.Notapriority,2.Lowpriority,3.Moderatepriority,4.Highpriority,5.Veryhighpriority
30.Inyouropinion,whenpeoplearecaughtdoingseaturtlecaptureandtrade,howoftenaretheyformallypunished?ChooseONEonly:1.Never,2.Rarely,3.Sometimes,4.Frequently,5.Veryfrequently
31.Whatdoyoubelieveisthemostimportantactionthatneedstobetakentoreduceseaturtlecaptureandtradeinyourcountry?
65
Legislationeffectivenessandapplication31a.AretherelawsrelatedtoDOMESTICtradeinseaturtlesand/ortheirproducts?
31b.Ifso,whoisinchargeofimplementing/enforcingtheselaws?32a.Arethereanychallengestoimplementingtheseregulations?
32b.Ifyes,whatarethese?33a.AretherelawsrelatedtoINTERNATIONALtradeinseaturtlesand/ortheirproducts?
33b.Ifso,whoisinchargeofimplementing/enforcingtheselaws?34.Arethereanychallengestoimplementingtheseregulations?
FinalComments35.IsthereanythingrelatedtoillegaltakeortradeofseaturtlesinMadagascarthatyouwouldliketoshare,thathasn'tbeencoveredinthequestionsabove?
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AnnexIV:SurveyConstraintsThissectiondescribesprocesslimitationstothepresentsurvey,andindicateswheretheselimitationsmayinfluencethetypesofdatacollectedandconclusionswehavedrawn.Fisherscouldhaveomittedincriminatinginformationinourpresence,whichwouldleadtounderestimatesofbycatch,consumptionortrade(domesticorinternational).Thisisacommonissuewhenconductinginterviewsofasensitivenatureoronclandestinetopicsandthereforethedatashouldbeconsideredaconservativeestimationonthetopic.Inadditiontothis,rapidassessmentsarenotthemostsuitablemethodtounderstandsuchasensitivetopicastypicallytheresearcherwouldbe‘embedded’withinthecommunityforalengthyperiodbeforegainingthefulltrustofrespondents.Thelimitedtimeframeandfundingallocatedtoconductthisworksignificantlyimpededourabilitytoconductarapidassessmentoveralargergeographicarea,andmanyexistingdatagapsareevident.Withregardstologistics,whilstinthefieldoursurveyeffortswerelimitedbypoorqualityaccessroadsandroadconditions,andbyitnotbeingsafetotravelatnight.OurattemptstosurveythejarifafishingvillageofAtaperainAnosyregion(wherewebelieveturtletakeandtradealsooccur)wereunsuccessfulduetotheremotenatureandbadaccessroutes(nosuitablebridgetocrossawaterway).Unfortunately,wewerealsolimitedinouropportunitytosurveyoffshoreislands,whicharelikelytobeahubforfishingactivitieswhetherclandestineornot.ItisbelievedthatMadagascar’soffshoreislandshostthemajorityofnestingturtleactivity(Humberetal.2016),andfutureeffortsshouldprioritisecomprehensivesurveysofoffshoreislandsespeciallygiventhelimitedcapacityofauthoritiestopatrolorenforceintheseareas.Manyfishersarehighlymigratoryandareatseaforweeksatatime.ThisaddedadditionalchallengestousinNosyKombaandMahajangawhereallthefishermenofsomevillageswereawayandonlywomenandchildrencouldbefound.Qualitativesurveymethodologydoesnotalwaysrenderwelltoproducingquantitativeestimatesthatcanbeextrapolatedtoregionalandnationalscales,especiallywheninterviewingparticipantswithlowliteracylevels.Forexample,fishersstruggledtoquantifyhowoftentheysawturtlesatsea.Thereweresomedifficultiesfindingsuitablewaystophrasequestionstoensurethatfishersunderstoodthequestion.OftenquestionsneededtobephrasedinseveralsimilarorrepetitivewaysinbothMalagsyandchangetermsintothelocaldialectstofacilitatecomprehensionofthequestion.Wemustalsoconsideranyissuedtoourinterpretationofthedatabroughtaboutthroughtranslationbiasanderrors.Whilstunavoidable,cautionshouldbemadewhenreinterpretingtranslateddata.OneparticularissueofmisinterpretationwasidentifiedhalfwaythroughsurveyinginSouthernMadagascar.Webecameawarethatfisherswerehavingdifficultyunderstandingtheconceptoftargetedvs.non-targetedhunting.Fishersdidnotclassifythemselvesastargetingturtlesbutwhentheydescribedthewayturtleswerecaptureditsuggestedintentionaltargeti.e.usingalinewithalargehookandlassoingturtlesrestingatthesurface.Giventhelimitedtimeavailablewechosetofocusoursurveystoparticularregionswhereturtletradehotspotshadalreadybeenidentified(seeSection3.6).ItwasnotpossibletosurveytheeasterncoastofMadagascarduringthisstudy.Wewereabletocollectverylimiteddataforthesoutheastcoastfromfocalpoints,andthuslimitedoursurveytimeinthisregion.Expansionofsurveysinthisregionshouldbestronglyconsideredinfollowupwork.Unfortunately,ourmanagementsurveysyieldedlimitedresponses.However,webelievethereistheliteraturewehavenotedandcitedaboveprovidesuitableinsightintothehindrancestowardseffectiveconservationmanagementinMadagascar.
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AnnexV:Acknowledgements Name Organization Position Location SupportProvidedAnthonyBracke Opti'PousseHaie Director Analalava InformationBemitera Opti'PousseHaie Unknown Analalava InformationGaetanTovondrainy WWF SOUTHWEST
coordinatorSOUTHWESTMadagascar
Jaonerav MadagascarNationalParks
Unknown Androka Information
TaylorVeriza MadagascarNationalParks
Unknown Androka Information
Prof.BerthinRakotonirina
AntananarivoUniversity
Professor Antananarivo
AnjaraSaloma Cétamada Scientificleader Antananarivo InformationPatriciaDavis Community
CenteredConservation(C3)
Director Antananarivo,DiegoSuarez
Information
Lala'LalarisoaRakotoarimino
C3 Projectcoordinator Antananarivo,DiegoSuarez
Information
AmelieLandySoambola
UniversityofAntsirasana
ResponsableduParcoursSciencesMarines/FacultédesSciences.
Antsiranana Fieldteamcoordinator-Antsiranana
MoiseAndriantsolyAmadaRegisNelson
UniversityofAntsirasana
Student Antsiranana Datacollection
AhmedMoustoifa UniversityofAntsirasana
Student Antsiranana Datacollection
GioRamora MinistryofHalieuticResourcesandFisheries(MRHP)
RegionalDirector-AnosyRegion
FortDauphin Localapprovals
JustinRetenanyVahoavy
CentredeSurveillancedesPechesMahajanga(CSP)
ChefdeservicelogistiqueetArmement
Mahajanga Interviewed
AlHarris BlueVentures Director Maintirano,Toliara,Ambanja
Information
ChrisScarffe ChrisScarffeFilmmaker
Founder NosyKomba Information,logistics,photos
MichelStrongoff ChrisScarffeFilmmaker
Assistantphotography,filmmakingandfixer
NosyKomba Fieldsupport,logistics,information,photos
AnjaraSalomavola Cétamada St.Marie InformationVatosoaRakotondrazafy
MIHARI President SOUTHWESTcoast Information,communitycontacts
Pascal MIHARI VicePresident Tolagnaro/FortDauphin
FocalPoint
EmmaGibbons ReefDoctor Director Tulear Information,communitycontacts
DrSoaryRandrianjafizanaka
RegionalDirectoratefortheMinistryofEnvironment,Ecology,seaandForests(DREEF)
SOUTHWESTregionaldirector
Tulear Information,interviewed,workapprovals
JamalMahafina InstituteHalieutiqueetdesSciencesMarines(IHSM)
Director Tulear information
Dr.Gildas ISHM,University SeniorLecturer Tulear Information,contacts
68
Todinanahary ofToliaraDr.MamyRakotoarijaona
MadagascarNationalParts
AtsimoAndrefanaregion
Contacts,siteapprovals
JeanBarnabeRavelomanankavamd
MinistryofHalieuticResourcesandFisheries(MRHP)
ChiefTulear,Zones1+2
TulearProvince Interviewed,information
FranHumber BlueVentures UK/Madagascar InformationJeremyKiszka
MarineSciencesProgram,FloridaInternationalUniversity
USA/Madagascar Information
FifouMayer Cétamada Scientificadministrator InformationProf.MaharavoJean CNRO-National
CentreforOceanography,SOUTHWESTMadagascar
NosyBe
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