essay research & writing chst 540 may 24, 2005. choosing a topic what interests you? what has...
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Essay Research & Writing
CHST 540
May 24, 2005
Choosing a topic
What interests you?
What has lots of source material available?
(If you’re really thinking strategically:) What will be useful for the exam?
Finding SourcesStart with the bibliography provided in the course outlineIf there isn’t a lot of material on your topic, or you aren’t sure which of the sources mentioned are most relevant, speak with meSearch library catalogues: Ryerson, Toronto Public (www.tpl.toronto.on.ca) and the University of Toronto (www.library.utoronto.ca)
Finding Sources (cont’d)
Search Intelligence and National Security and International Journal of Intelligence and CounterIntelligence
Online access to Intelligence and National Security only dates back to 2000; for issues published 1985-99 go to John W. Graham Library (Trinity College, U of T)
Check footnotes/bibliographies for other sources
Researching
Compile a list of relevant materials
First consult the most targeted material (usually journal articles/essays)
Then broaden your research - to specific books, more general books & articles, etc.
Read intros and conclusions before reading the body of a work
Mine intros and conclusions for all they’re worth
How much research?
Enough to sustain your argument
You shouldn’t be left with too many unanswered questions
Minimum 5 sources
Using more sources can enrich your paper
Determining your argument
If you haven’t done so already, phrase your topic as a question
Consider the evidence
Draw conclusions and frame these into an answer (your thesis) to your original question
Planning your essay
Structure will depend partly on the type of essay you’re writing:
‘Compare and contrast’ - identify the main areas you will be comparing/contrasting; assess each in turn
Planning your essay (cont’d)
‘Evaluate’ - identify and address relevant criteria before making a judgment
‘Discuss’ - consider arguments for or against the statement being examined
Writing the introduction
Broad > narrow
Start with a general statement about your topic
With each following sentence, focus more on your argument, ending with your thesis
Keep it succinct: too much can be confusing
Organizing paragraphs
Use a topic sentence at the start of each paragraph
i.e. Occasionally, signals intelligence was so clear as to suggest immediately a course of action.
i.e. In addition to measuring successes, signals intelligence could point to failures within the Allied organization.
Organizing paragraphs (cont’d)Make transitions between paragraphs as smooth as possible - one should flow into the next
i.e. …The psychological effect of Yamamoto’s death upon the Japanese populace as a whole, not to mention that of those in the armed forces, must have been great.
Signals intelligence was not always employed to such spectacular effect…..
Organizing paragraphs (cont’d)
Chronology may partly determine your paragraph order; but remember these are analytical papers, so theme may take precedence over chronology
Save your strongest points for last - build up to something
Integrating quotationsDon’t just quote facts; include opinions and analysisChoose quotations that are well writtenYou can paraphrase and footnote if it sounds betterALWAYS FOOTNOTE/REFERENCE WORDS AND IDEAS THAT AREN’T YOUR OWNStrive for seamlessness
Seamlessness
Useful verbs: argues, believes, considers, contends, demonstrates, illustrates, maintains, observes, notes, etc.
i.e. Even historians of today have not abandoned such melodramatic judgments, contending that Midway “caused the Rising Sun to set.”
Seamlessness (cont’d)
Phrases: according to, in X’s view, etc.
i.e. In Layton’s view, Yamamoto’s death was “a trauma for most Japanese.”
Seamlessness
Work from the quotation itself to find something that flows into it.
i.e. The consequences of this were “so simple and yet so shattering that it can be summed up in a sentence: American strike-forces, primarily submarines, ultimately destroyed the Japanese merchant fleet.”
Polishing your language
Go over your transitions between paragraphs
Ensure your quotations are well integrated
Watch out for repeated words (get a friend to check for them); replace them with synonyms
Eliminate colloquial language
i.e. replace ‘says’ with ‘observes’, ‘states’, etc.
Common mistakesVerb and subject don’t agree (usually in long sentences)
Wrong: The tension between Japanese and Americans were rising.
Right: The tension between Japanese and Americans was rising.
Common mistakesRun-on sentences
i.e. Churchill found the intelligence services in a fragmented state when he took his place as Prime Minister, for instance Sigint, espionage and counter espionage lacked any adequate means of co-ordination, each suffering from internal confusion, indeed the rivalries in counter espionage between Kell’s MI5 and the special branch at Scotland Yard were proving to be highly counter productive.
Its versus it’sIts (possessive) means belonging to it.i.e. The dog wagged its tail.It’s (conjunction) means it is.i.e. It’s time to go.
Than (NOT then) is used in comparisonsi.e. His book is more interesting than hers.
•Common mistakes (cont’d)
Common mistakes (cont’d)
Between ten and fifteen (and, NOT to)
Affect versus effect
It greatly affected intelligence procedures. [verb]
It had many effects on intelligence. [noun]
It effected great changes in intelligence procedures. [verb, meaning ‘to prompt’, ‘to bring about’, ‘to catalyze’]
Common mistakes (cont’d)
Use commas around ‘however’
i.e. Kahn argues, however, that German spies….
i.e. However, Kahn argues that German….
Writing the conclusion
Narrow > broad
Restate your thesis (try to vary your wording somewhat from the thesis statement in your intro paragraph)
Discuss the wider implications of your argument/topic
Bibliography
Include all sources you have consulted for your paper, even those you haven’t directly quoted from
Be consistent
Sample:
Richelson, Jeffrey. A Century of Spies: Intelligence in the Twentieth Century (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997)
Tips
Start early
Read lots and take detailed notes
Spend time planning before you write
Ensure your argument is clear
Choose a logical structure
More tips
Spend most of your words discussing, arguing and analyzing, not merely describing what happened
Leave lots of time to edit
Have someone else proofread your work - they’ll likely catch more mistakes than you will since they’re less familiar with it
For further help:
Look online - for example http://www.sou.edu/history/carney/writing.htm or http://www.lancs.ac.uk/depts/history/course-sites/hist213/writing.htm or http://webster.commnet.edu/grammar/Consult the Ryerson Writing Centre (Mon-Thurs, 3:30 to 6:30, RD Besse Commons, 2nd floor, Library)Speak with/email me (the earlier, the better!) - aluce@ryerson.ca
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