free radicals, antioxidants and culinary spices: in …. free radicals - full.pdf · synthetic...
Post on 28-Mar-2020
4 Views
Preview:
TRANSCRIPT
International Journal of Botany
and Research (IJBR)
ISSN 2277-4815
Vol. 3, Issue 3, Aug 2013, 1-14
© TJPRC Pvt. Ltd.
FREE RADICALS, ANTIOXIDANTS AND CULINARY SPICES: IN HUMAN HEALTH AND
DISEASE RESPONSE
DIVYA SINGH, TARA CHANDRA RAM, AKHILESHWAR KUMAR SRIVASTAVA & BIJOY KRISHNA ROY,
Department of Botany (CAS), Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
ABSTRACT
Free radicals and other reactive species have attracted attention to mitigate abiotic or biotic stress in recent years.
These are mainly derived from reactive oxygen species as well as reactive nitrogen species. The scientific studies in human
have described links of various metabolic pathway produced by-products acting as free radicals and other reactive species.
The free radicals could damage biomolecules and resulting for severe diseases. The organisms have several defence
mechanism to neutralize the effect of free radicals by synthesizing enzymes and vitamins. Spices and herbs have been used
as condiments and traditional medicines since ancient time, however in recent studies have established about the presence
of many bioactive components in spices and herbs that possess pharmacological and biochemical activities. Therefore
spices and herbs in regular diet may improve to health and lower the risk of many diseases. This review explores the
central actions of bioactive components of spices and herbs.
KEYWORDS: Reactive Oxygen Species, Diseases, Food, Natural Antioxidants, Spices
INTRODUCTION
About 5% or more inhaled oxygen is converted to reactive oxygen species. Since past decades, it became obvious
that reactive oxygen species exert deleterious effects on human health under certain conditions. Antioxidants neutralize the
harmful effects of free radicals and that may prevent body from invading the various diseases. Recent studies in the field of
free radicals and antioxidants have provided a new age for management of health against several diseases.
Free Radicals
The free radicals are comprised into reactive oxygen species and reactive nitrogen species produced as by-product
in various metabolic processes (for example aerobic respiration in mitochondria, destruction of pathogen infected cells by
phagocytes, degradation of fatty acid by peroxisomes and p 450 mediated degradation of toxins) of living beings. Various
environmental factors, xenobiotics, and anthropogenic sources alter biological activities of organisms causing production
of reactive oxygen species in the body (Halliwell, 1994; Wong et al., 2000). Excess production of reactive oxygen species
(hydroxyl radical, superoxide radical, peroxyl radical and hydrogen peroxide) above the normal physiological levels could
damage bio molecules (lipids, proteins, enzymes, and nucleic acid) (Chen et al., 2005) which may lead to number of
diseases such as cancer, aging, cardiovascular disease, Alzheimer disease, brain dysfunction and rheumatoid arthritis etc.
(Langseth, 1993; Halliwell, 1994).
Antioxidants
Antioxidants are the substances that present naturally in plants and animal and protect the cell from harmful
effects of free radicals (Bjelakovic et al., 2007). Antioxidants work as scavenger for free radicals and inhibit their
excessive production in organisms (Niwa et al., 2001).
2 Divya Singh, Tara Chandra Ram, Akhileshwar Kumar Srivastava &Bijoy Krishna Roy
Antioxidants are classified into two groups (Kahl and Kappus, 1993):
Natural antioxidants
Synthetic antioxidants
Natural antioxidants like vitamin E (tochopherols and tocotrie-nols), vitamin C (ascorbic acid), carotenoids and
polyphenols are generally found in fruits and vegetables. Vitamin E included tocopherols and tocotrienols, in which α-
tocopherol has been most studied. Functionally, α-tocopherol is more active which quenches singlet oxygen and also acts
against peroxyl radicals (Rietjens et al., 2002). Vitamin C is a well known natural antioxidant which has reactive oxygen
species scavenging activity due to presence of enediol group (Kim and Lee, 2004). More than 700 naturally occurring
carotenoids have been reported from plants that act as antioxidant (Rietjens et al., 2002). Flavonoids, stilbenes, phenolic
acids and lignans are the most abundantly occurring polyphenols in plants (Escarpa and Gonzalez, 2001). However,
flavonoids scavenge of free radicals species and also act as powerful metal chelators (Amić et al., 2003). Some natural and
synthetic antioxidants are being presented with their structural formula as in Fig .1 and Fig. 2.
Many synthetic antioxidants have been used in a wide variety of food products and cosmetics. Nonetheless,
Butylatedhydroxytoluene (BHT), butylatedhydroxyanisol (BHA), propylgallate (PG), tertiary butyl hydroquinone (TBHQ),
2,4,5-trihydroxybutyrophenone (THBP), di-tertbutyl-4-hydroxymethylphenol (IONOX-100), octylgalate (OG),
nordihydroguaiaretic acid (NDGA) and 4-hexylresorcinol (4HR) are more common. The use of excess synthetic
antioxidants in foods might produce toxicities and mutagenicities, and thus harmful for health (Xiu-Quin et al., 2009).
However, wide varieties of natural antioxidants have different properties like their constituents, mechanisms of
action and site of target (Jacob and Michael, 1999). Some main categories of natural antioxidative enzymes are being
described below:
Enzymes: It is a natural gift to plants and animals to synthesize proteins, enzymes and secondary metabolites.
Like enzymes activity, also several antioxidants acting as biocatalysts in metabolic pathways are referred as
antioxidative enzymes like catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), superoxide dismutase (SOD) etc.
transfer reactive oxygen species and reactive nitrogen species into stable compounds (Tiwari, 2001).
High molecular weight compounds: Albumin, transferin, ceruplasmin come under this category which prevent the
production of metals catalyzed by free radicals (Bostwick et al., 2000).
Low molecular weight compounds: These can be subdivided into two categories: water soluble antioxidants and
lipid soluble antioxidants. Water soluble antioxidants include ascorbic acid, uric acid and some polyphenols and
lipid soluble antioxidants are tocopherol, quinines, carotenoids, bilirubin and some polyphenols (Halliwell, 1991).
Minerals: Minerals or micronutrients like manganese, copper, zinc and selenium etc. have been well recognised
for antioxidative properties (Shirwaikar et al., 2004).
Vitamins: Vitamin A, C and E are well known stable antioxidants which play important role in minimizing the
risk of damage in the biological system from peroxidation (Fogliano et al., 1999; Mantena et al., 2003).
Plants antioxidants: Vegetables, fruits and medicinal plants are the main sources of natural antioxidants (Ali et al.,
2008). Recently, a great deal of interest has been developed by consumers towards novel spices and herbs for
good sources of natural antioxidants, some of which have been reviewed and discussed here (Tsai et al., 2005).
Free Radicals, Antioxidants and Culinary Spices: In Human Health and Disease Response 3
Mechanism of Action of Antioxidants
Mainly two types of mechanism of action have been proposed for antioxidants. The first mechanism is chain
breaking by which primary antioxidant neutralizes free radicals by donating an electron to it. The second preventive
mechanism involves removal of ROS/RNS initiators (secondary antioxidants) by quenching chain initiation step (Krinsky,
1992).
Level of Antioxidant Action
Antioxidants, capable to neutralize free radicals act at different levels of defence such as preventive, radical
scavenging, repair and adaptation.
First line defence consists of superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione reductase, glutathione peroxidase,
selenoprotein, transferrin, lactoferrin, ferritin some minerals Mn, Zn, Cu, Se and non-enzymatic proteins etc. which are
considered as preventive antioxidants and restrict the formation of free radicals. Superoxide dismutase converts superoxide
radical (O-2) to hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). The breakdown of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) to water (H2O) and oxygen (O2) is
catalyzed by catalase. Glutathion peroxidase is a selenium dependent enzyme which detoxifies lipid hydro peroxides to
alcohols. The cytosolic superoxide dismutase is a Cu containing enzyme which removes superoxide radicals from cytosol.
Selenium is an essential element for removal of peroxide from cytosol and cell membrane. Zinc is a component of several
enzymes like alcohol dehydrogenase, carbonic anhydrase, alkaline phosphatase, cytosolic superoxide dismutase etc and
also play important role in growth and reproduction.
Second line defence include glutathion (GSH), vitamin E, vitamin C, uric acid, bilirubin, albumin, carotenoids,
flavonoids etc. have radical scavenging activity. Glutathion scavenges reactive oxygen species like lipid peroxyl radical,
peroxynitrite and hydrogen peroxide. It also helps in the detoxification of inhaled oxidizing air pollutants. Vitamin E
protects poly unsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) and low density lipoprotein by scavenging peroxyl radical intermediates which
are generated in lipid peroxidation reactions. It prevents coronary heart disease and atherosclerosis. Vitamin C quenches
radicals like singlet oxygen, superoxide radical, hydroxyl radical. β-carotene is helpful in removal of singlet oxygen.
Flavonoids inhibit lipoxygenases and lipid peroxidation.
Third line defence comprises group of enzymes required for repairing mechanism of damaged DNA, proteins,
lipids. These enzymes are capable to stop chain propagation of peroxyl lipid radical. e.g. DNA repair enzymes, protease,
lipase, transferase, methionine sulphoxide reductase etc.
Fourth line defence is an adaptation where immunology plays important role in production and reaction of free
radicals with appropriate antioxidants (Escarpa and Gonzalez, 2001., Nichenametla et al., 2006).
Spices as Antioxidants
It has been reported that balance loss between production of reactive oxygen species and antioxidative defence
system resulting into oxidative stress leads to various hazardous diseases such as cancer, gastric ulcer and other conditions
(Smith et al., 1992). Antioxidants prevent from deleterious effects of oxidative stress. In recent years, interest in the plant
derived food additives has been increased to know their role in health promoting effects (Wang and Lin, 2000). The
various metabolic products and its derivatives derived from spices and aromatic herbs were identified as an important
antioxidants (Sabir and Rocha, 2008). A spice can be defined as a herbal plant, which specific parts provide colour and
flavour along with stimulating odour used in culinary and condiments, as well as in cosmetics, fragrances and medications.
These peculiar properties of herbs and spices have supported it to be applied to functional food for nutrients, bioactive
4 Divya Singh, Tara Chandra Ram, Akhileshwar Kumar Srivastava &Bijoy Krishna Roy
compounds, disease prevention and health promotion. The different plants parts used as spices are rhizomes, leaves, buds,
flowers, fruits, seeds, secretary products and even bark of a tree (Williams, 1999). Since long periods, herbs have been
used for nearly all medicinal therapy until in development of synthetic drugs. Spices influence on various body systems
such as cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, reproductive and nervous systems (Kochhar, 2008). The antioxidant activity of
spices was described by Chipault et al (1956) in different substrates. Previously it has been reported that the presence of
phenolic compounds in spices also shown antioxidant properties for different substrates (Chipault et al., 1956).
Some Specific Antioxidative Compounds in Spices
Except some, common antioxidants present in all group of plants, in which some specific antioxidative
compounds were reported in spices and aromatic herbs (Kulisic et al., 2004). Among them rosmadial, rosmanol,
rosmaridiphenol, rosmariquinone, carnosol, carnosic acid and various ethyl and methyl esters of these compounds were
reported in rosemary and sage; caffeic acid, protocatechuic acid, rosmarinic acid, a phenyl glycoside and 2-caffeoyloxy-3-
[2-(4-hydroxybenzyl)-4,5-dihydroxyphenyl] propionic acid in oregano (Pizzale et al., 2002) (Figure 3); eugenol, eugenyl
acetate and gallates in clove (Lee and Shibamato, 2001); gingerol, zingerone and diarylheptanoids in ginger (Kikuzaki and
Nakatani, 1993; Kikuzaki et al., 1994); thymol, carvacrol and p-cumene-2,3-diol in thyme (Schwarz et al., 1996) (Figure
4); curcumin and its derivatives in turmeric (Masuda et al., 1999) (Figure 5); apigenin, camphene and terpinolene in
coriander (Rajeshwari and Andallu, 2011); piperine, ferulic acid, phenolic amide feruperine in black pepper (Nakatani et
al., 1986) (Figure 4).
Rosmarinic acid is a dominant compound in herbs of family Labiateae with four hydroxyl groups (catechol
structures) in the structure, are responsible for antioxidative property. Caffeic acid, carnasoic acid and gallic acid are also
present in these herbs and possess antioxidant activity because of catechol structures (Cuvelier et al., 1996).
Eugenol and its derivatives contain a phenolic group in the structure have relatively lower antioxidant activity
than other phenolics with more hydroxyl groups. The phenolic group plays important role in free radical scavenging
activity of eugenol (Lee and Shibamoto, 2001). Eugenol, cuminaldehyde, curcumin, piperine, zingerone and linalool have
been reported as effective antioxidants. These compounds inhibit lipid peroxidation mainly by two ways 1. By quenching
free radicals and 2. By increasing activity of endogenous antioxidative enzymes (catalase, superoxide dismutase, glutathion
transferase and glutathion peroxidase). Eugenol and curcumin can inhibit lipid peroxidation at lower concentrations while
zingerone is effective for the same process at high concentrations. On other hand, linalool and cuminaldehyde may have
marginal effects on peroxidation even at very high concentrations (Reddy and Lokesh, 1992, 1994). The structures of
antioxidative compounds are demonstrated in Figure 3-5.
Oil Chemistry
An essential oil in herbs and spices demonstrated fruitful to biological activities, the major components of
essential oil were identified as polyphenols, terpenes, monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes (Kulisic et al., 2004). A list of
major essential oil components of some known spices are being presented in Table 1.
Among the constituents of essential oils, eugenol, carvacrol, thymol and 4-allylphenol can exhibit potent
antioxidative activities. Linalool, estragol, methylsalicylate, 1,8-cineole, benzylaldehyde and 4-terpineol are reported for
their slight antioxidant activity at a level of 50 µg/ml (Lee et al., 2005). γ-Terpinene retards lipid peroxidation. The typical
chain reactions are involved in peroxidation of linoleyl acid in which linoleyl hydroperoxides are formed after transferring
of chain by linoleyl peroxyl radicals. γ-Terpinene may retard linoleic acid peroxidation by rapid cross-reaction between
linoleyl peroxyl radicals and hydroperoxyl radicals in the chain reaction of peroxidation (Foti and Ingold, 2003 ).
Free Radicals, Antioxidants and Culinary Spices: In Human Health and Disease Response 5
Therapeutic Importance of Spices
Essential oils extracted from rosemary, sage and thyme were shown to inhibit osteoclast activity in bone as well as
increase bone density in vitro condition (Putnam et al., 2007). Atsumi and Tonosaki (2007) found that essential oils of
lavender and rosemary decrease level of stress hormone like cortisol and protect body from oxidative stress. Functionally
ethanol extract of rosemary delayed in oxidation of lipid fraction of minced meat ball during storage in the freezer
(Karpinska et al., 2000).
In a study antioxidant activities of crude hot water extract of 13 spices (clove, thyme, rosemary, savory, oregano,
basil, cumin, caraway, coriander, marjoram, turmeric, mace, fennel) were compared and found clove, thyme, and rosemary
exhibited higher DPPH radical scavenging activity. Whereas extracts of marjoram, rosemary, and oregano were found to
have higher superoxide radical scavenging activity differ from extracts of turmeric and mace have higher hydroxyl radical
scavenging activity. The total phenolic and flavonoid contents in clove and turmeric was highest among these spices (Kim
et al., 2011).
The carcinogens activities of benzo(a)pyrene [B(a)P] induced forestomach tumorigenesis in stomach and 3-
methylcholanthrene (MCA) uterine cervix tumorigenesis in cervices were inhibited by different doses of cumin seed with
mixed diet (Gagandeep et al., 2003). Cardioprotective effect of fenugreek on antioxidative defence system and lipid
peroxidation was observed in isoproterenol-induced mycocardial infractions in rats. The reason was explained that
fenugreek significantly decreased thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) in rats and enhanced the antioxidant
status (Murugesan et al., 2011).
Gastroprotective activity of coriander has been shown in case of gastric mucosal injuries caused by NaCl, NaOH,
ethanol, and indomethacin due to activities of antioxidative components (linanool, catechins, coumarins, terpines, and
polyphenolic compounds) present in it (Al-Mofleh et al., 2006).
A study was conducted to test effect of ajowain extract on hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) induced oxidative stress
and toxicity in rats. Pre-feeding of ajowain extract to rats enhanced the activity of antioxidative enzymes and showed
decrease in hepatic level of lipid peroxides. It was concluded that ajowain extract could reduce toxic and oxidative effects
of HCH (Anila et al., 2009).
Pradhan et al (2008) examined and reported the cytoprotection activity of methanolic extract of Foeniculum
vulgare and Helicteres isora against normal human blood lymphocytes. The culture of lymphocytes treated with 70%
methanolic extract of Foeniculum vulgare and 50% methanolic extract of Helicteres isora showed three times less
micronucleus as compared to widely used standard drug doxorubicin (Pradhan et al., 2008).
Biochemically it has been investigated that saffron have modulatory effects on some phase II detoxifying enzymes
(GST, GPx, CAT, and SOD) in mice which were induced by 7-12 dimethyl benzy[a]anthracin (DMBA) and promoted with
croton oil (Das et al., 2004). In another experiment use of black pepper expressed same kind of role to detoxify of enzymes
in rats fed a high fat diet (Vijayakumar et al., 2004).
Therapeutic role and antioxidative effects of curcumin was examined after oral administration of curcumin to rats
in exposed to mercury. Curcumin was found to have protective effect on lipid peroxidation, glutathion levels, superoxide
dismutase, glutathion peroxidase and catalase activities in the liver, kidney and brain (Agrawal et al., 2010). In a study, n-
hexane extract of curcumin showed cytotoxic and telomerase inhibitory effect on cell line A549 and could be appropriate
source for developing drugs against lung cancer (Mohammad et al., 2010).
6 Divya Singh, Tara Chandra Ram, Akhileshwar Kumar Srivastava &Bijoy Krishna Roy
The crude methanolic extracts and its fraction of Amomum subulatum and Elettaria cardamomum, viz. essential
oil, petroleum ether and ethyl acetate inhibited gastric lesions induced by ethanol, but not those that were induced by
pylorus ligation and aspirin (Jafri et al., 2001; Jamal et al., 2006).
Overall it can be concluded that on the basis of all reports that spices have crucial therapeutic properties and
antioxidant activity so it can be useful for food preservation and reduction of peroxidation in biological systems.
CONCLUSIONS
The increasing health consciousness has been one of the most important stimulation factors for spices production
and herbs products. Herein, sources of spices and herbs products have received much attention since a large number of
phytochemicals and bioactive components present in spices and herbs. Notably, phytochemicals present in spices and herbs
have been evidenced to play a vital role in human health and nutrition due to their numerous biological activities and health
benefit effects. Reactive oxygen species are continuously produced inside our body due to many endogenous and
exogenous factors. They can damage cellular biomolecules, resulting into several types of diseases. This becoming a
burning problem and it is necessary to find out alternatives to protect tissues and organs against oxidative damage induced
by free radicals. Many approaches were made in this direction and significant results have come in light. Traditional
spices, herbs and medicinal plants are rich sources of natural antioxidants. The antioxidant activity of spices and herbs may
help in inhibiting the lipid peroxidation. As several diseases and age related disorders are closely related to oxidative
process in the body so the use of spices and herbs in regular diet may be effective in reducing the risk of diseases. Spices
and herbs are rich with different types of chemical constituents and possess remarkable antioxidant activity. Antioxidant
activity is not restricted to particular part or in the specific families. The presence of curcumin in rhizome and monoterpine
hydrocarbon may inhibit the replication of DNA and disturb the bonding of DNA, which is thought to stop the formation
of cancerous tissues. All herbs and spices discussed in this review have clinical and medicinal activity with very less side
effects, but since they are ingested continuously in certain amount as part of diet, they may have a remarkable long-term
physiological effect. Therefore it is necessary to standardize the doses which are crucial in treatment for mankind.
REFERENCES
1. Abdullaev, F. I. (1993). Biological effects of saffron. BioFactors 4: 83-86.
2. Agrawal, R., Goel, S. K., & Behari, J. R. (2010). Detoxification and antioxidant effects of curcumin in rats
experimentally exposed to mercury. Journal of Applied Toxicology 30: 457-468.
3. Ali, S. S., Kasoju, N., Luthra, A., Singh, A., Sharanabasava, H., Sahu, A., & Bora, U. (2008). Indian medicinal
herbs as sources of antioxidants. Food Research International 41: 1-15.
4. Al-Mofleh, I. A., Alhaider, A. A., Mossa, J. S., Al-Sohaibani, M. O., Rafatullah, S., & Qureshi, S. (2006).
Protection of gastric mucosal damage by Coriandrum sativum L. pretreatment in Wistar albino rats.
Environmental Toxicology and Pharmacology 22: 64-69.
5. Amić, D., Davidović-amić, D., Bešlo, D., & Trinajstić, N. (2003). Structure-radical scavenging activity
relationships of flavonoids. Croatica Chemica Acta 76: 55-61.
6. Anilakumar, K. R., Saritha, V., Khanum, F., & Bawa, A. S. (2009). Ameliorative effect of ajwain extract on
hexachlorocyclohexane-induced lipid peroxidation in rat liver. Food and Chemical Toxicology 47: 279-282.
Free Radicals, Antioxidants and Culinary Spices: In Human Health and Disease Response 7
7. Atsumi, T., & Tonosaki, K. (2007). Smelling lavender and rosemary increases free radical scavenging activity and
decreases cortisol level in saliva. Psychiatry Research 150: 89-96.
8. Awasthi, P. K., & Dixit, S. C. (2009). Chemical composition of Curcuma longa leaves and rhizome oil from the
plains of Northern India. Pharmacognosy 1: 312-316.
9. Bjelakovic, G., Nikolova, D., Gluud, L. L., Simonetti, R. G., & Gluud, C. (2007). Mortality in randomized trials
of antioxidant supplements for primary and secondary prevention: systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA
297: 842–857.
10. Bostwick, D. G., Alexander, E. E., Singh, R., Shan, A., & Qian, J., Santella, R. M., Oberley, L. W., Yan, T.,
Zhong, W., Jiang, X., & Oberley T. D. (2000). Antioxidant enzyme expression and reactive oxygen species
damage in prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia and cancer. Cancer 89: 123-134.
11. Chen, K., Plumb, G. W., Bennett, R. N., & Bao, Y. (2005). Antioxidant activities of extracts from five anti-viral
medicinal plants. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 96: 201-205.
12. Chipault, J. R., Mizuno, G. R., & Lundberg, W. O. (1956). The antioxidant properties of spices in foods. Food
Technology 10: 209-211.
13. Chopra, R. N. (1982). Chopra’s Indigenous Drug of India. Calcutta (India): Academic Publishers.
14. Chowadhury, J. U., Bhuiyan, M. N. I., & Yusuf, M. (2008). Chemical composition of the leaf essential oils of
Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng and Murraya paniculata (L.) jack. A Journal of the Bangladesh Pharmacological
Society 3: 59-63.
15. Cuvelier, M. E., Richard, H., & Berset, C. (1996). Antioxidative activity and phenolic composition of pilot-plant
and commercial extracts of sage and rosemary. Journal of American Oil Chemists Society. 73: 645-652.
16. Das, I., Chakrabarty, R. N., & Das, S. (2004). Saffron can prevent chemically induced skin carcinogenesis in
Swiss albino mice. The Asian Pacific Journal of Cancer Prevention 5: 70-76.
17. Escarpa, A., & Gonzalez, M. C, (2001). An overview of analytical chemistry of phenolic compounds in foods.
Critical Reviews in Analytical Chemistry 31: 57-139.
18. Fang, R., Jiang, C. H., Wang, X. Y., Zhang, H. M., Liu, Z. L., Zhou, L., Du, S. S., & Deng Z. W. (2010).
Insecticidal activity of essential oil of Carum Carvi fruits from china and its main components against two grain
storage insects. Molecules, 15, 9391-9402.
19. Fogliano, V., Verde, V., Randazzo, G., & Ritieni, A. (1999). Method for measuring antioxidant activity and its
application to monitoring the antioxidant capacity of wines. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 47:
1035-1040.
20. Foti, M. C., & Ingold, K. U. (2003). Mechanism of inhibition of lipid peroxidation by γ-terpinene an unusual and
potentially useful hydrocarbon antioxidant. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 51: 2758-2765.
21. Gagandeep, S., Dhanalakshmi, E., Mendiz, A., Rao, R., & Kale, R. K. (2003). Chemopreventive effects of
Cuminum cyminum in chemically induced forestomach and uterine cervix tumors in murine model systems.
Nutrition and Cancer 47: 171-180.
8 Divya Singh, Tara Chandra Ram, Akhileshwar Kumar Srivastava &Bijoy Krishna Roy
22. Gulcin, I., Oktay, M., Kirecci, E., & Kufrevioglu, I. O. (2003). Screening of antioxidant and antimicrobial
activities of anise (Pimpinella anisum L.) seed extracts. Food Chemistry 83: 371-382.
23. Gulfraz, M., Mehmood, S., Minhas, N., Jabeen, N., Kausar, R., Jabeen, K., & Arshad, G. (2008). Composition
and antimicrobial properties of essential oil of Foeniculum vulgare. African Journal of Biotechnology 7: 4364-
4368.
24. Halliwell, B. (1991). Drug antioxidant effects. A basis for drug selection? Drugs 42: 569-605.
25. Halliwell, B. (1994). Free radicals and antioxidants free radicals, antioxidants, and human disease: curiosity,
cause, or consequence. Lancet 344: 721-724.
26. Iacobellis, N. S., Lo Cantore, P., Capasso, F., & Senatore, F. (2005). Antibacterial activity of Cuminum cyminum
L. and Carum carvy L. essential oils. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 53: 57-61.
27. Ishikawa, T. M., Kudo, M., & Kitajima, J. (2002). Water-soluble constituents of dill. Chemical and
Pharmaceutical Bulletin 55: 501-507.
28. Jacob, V., & Michael, A. (1999). Nutritional antioxidants: mechanisms of action, analysis of activities and
medical applications. Nutrition 49: 1-7.
29. Jafri, M. A., Javed, K. F., & Singh, S. (2001). Evaluation of the gastric antiulcerogenic effect of large cardamom
(fruits of Amomum subulatum Roxb). Journal of Ethnopharamacology 75: 89-94.
30. Jamal, A., Javed, K., Aslam, M., & Jafri, M. A. (2006). Gastroprotective effect of cardamom, Elettaria
cardamomum Maton. fruits in rats. Journal of Ethanopharmacology 103: 149-153.
31. Jirovetz, L., Buchbauer, G., Shafi, M. P. C., & Leela, N. K. (2003). Analysis of the essential oils of the leaves,
stems, rhizomes and roots to the medicinal plant Alpinia galanga from southern India. Acta Pharm 53: 73-81.
32. Kahl, R., & Kappus, H. (1993). Toxicology of the synthetic antioxidants BHA and BHT in comparison with the
natural antioxidants capacity and total vitamin E. Z, Lebensm Unters Forsch 196: 329-338.
33. Kapoor, I. P. S., Singh, B., Singh, G., Isidorov, V., & Szczepaniak, L. (2009). Chemistry, antimicrobial and
antioxidant potentials of Cinnamomum tamala Nees & Eberm. (Tejpat) essential oil and oleoresins, Natural
Product Radiance 8: 106-116.
34. Karpinska, M., Borowski, J., & Danowska-Oziewicz, M. (2000). Antioxidative activity of rosemary extract in
lipid fraction of minced meat balls furing storage in a freezer. Nahrung 44: 38-41.
35. Kikuzaki, H., & Nakatani, N. (1993). Antioxidant effects of some ginger constituents. Journal of Food Science
58: 1407-1410.
36. Kikuzaki, H., Kawasaki, Y., & Nakatani, N. (1994). Structure of antioxidative compounds in ginger. In C-T. Ho,
T. Osawa, M-T. Huang, & R. T. Rosen, Food Phytochemicals for Cancer Prevention, II. Teas, Spices and Herbs,
ACS Symposium Series 547 (pp. 237-243). Washington: ACS Press.
37. Kim, D. O., & Lee, C. Y. (2004). Comprehensive study on vitamin C equivalent antioxidant capacity (VCEAC)
of various polyphenolics in scavenging a free radical and its structural relationship. Critical Reviews in Food
Science and Nutrition 44: 253-273.
Free Radicals, Antioxidants and Culinary Spices: In Human Health and Disease Response 9
38. Kim, I. S., Yang, M. R., Lee, O. H., & Kang, S. N. (2011). Antioxidant activities of hot water extracts from
various spices. International Journal of Molecular Sciences 12: 4120-4131.
39. Kizhakkayil, J., & Sasikumar, B. (2012). Characterization of ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) germplasm based
on volatile and non-volatile components. African Journal of Biotechnology 11: 777-786.
40. Kochhar, K. P. (2008). Dietary spices in health and diseases (II). Indian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology
52: 327-354.
41. Krinsky, N. I. (1992). Mechanism of action of biological antioxidants. Proceedings of the Society for
Experimental Biology and Medicine 200: 248-254.
42. Kulisic, T., Radonic, A., Katalinic, V., & Milos, M. (2004). Use of different methods for testing antioxidative
activity of oregano essential oil. Food Chemistry 85: 633-640.
43. Langseth, L. (1993). Antioxidants and diseases of the brain. Antioxidant Vitamins Newsletter 4: 3.
44. Lee, K. G., & Shibamato, T. (2001). Antioxidant property of aroma extract isolated from clove buds. Food
Chemistry 74: 443–448.
45. Lee, K. G., & Shibamoto, T. (2001). Inhibition of malonaldehyde formation from blood plasma oxidation by
aroma extracts and aroma components isolated from clove and eucalyptus. Food and Chemical Toxicology 39:
1199–1204.
46. Lee, S. J., Umano, K., Shibamoto, T., & Lee, K. G. (2005). Identification of volatile componemts in basil
(Ocimum basilicum L.) and thyme leaves (Thyme vulgaris L.) and their antioxidant properties. Food Chemistry
91: 131-137.
47. Leela, N. K., Prasath, D., & Venugopal, M. N. (2008). Essential oil composition of selected cardamom genotypes
at different maturity levels. Indian Journal of Horticulture 65: 366-369.
48. Liu, L., Song, G., & Hu, Y. (2007). GC-MS analysis of the essential oils of Piper nigrum L. and Piper longum L.
Chromatographia 66: 785-790.
49. Mann A. (2011). Biopotency role of culinary spices and herbs and their chemical constituents in health
and commonly used spices in Nigerian dishes and snacks. African Journal of Food Science 5(3): 111-
124.
50. Mantena, S. K., Jagdish., Badduri, S. R., Siripurapu, K. B., & Unikrishnan, M. K., (2003). In vitro evaluation of
antioxidant properties of Cocos nucifera Linn. water. Nahrung 47: 126-131.
51. Masaada, K., Hosni, K., Taarit, M. B., Chahed, T., Kchouk, M. E., Marzouk, B. (2007). Changes on essential oil
composition of coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.) fruits during three stages of maturity. Food Chemistry, 102,
1131-1134.
52. Masuda, T., Hidaka, K., Shinohara, A., Maekawa, T., and Takeda, Y., & Yamaguchi, H. (1999). Chemical studies
on antioxidant mechanism of curcuminoids: Analysis of radical reaction products from curcumin. Journal of
Agricultural and Food Chemistry 47: 71-77.
53. Mazza, G. (1985). Gas chromatographic and mass spectrometric studies of the constituents of the rhizome of
calamus, I. The volatile constituents of the essential oil. Journal of Chromatoggraphy 328: 179-194.
10 Divya Singh, Tara Chandra Ram, Akhileshwar Kumar Srivastava &Bijoy Krishna Roy
54. Mohammad, P., Nosratollah, Z., Mohammad, R., Abbas, A., & Javad, R. (2010). The inhibitory effect of curcuma
longa extract on telomerase activity in A549 lung cancer cell line. African Journal of Biotechnology 9: 912-919.
55. Murugesan, M., Revathi, R., & Manju, V. (2011). Cardioprotective effect of fenugreek on isoproterenol-induced
myocardial infarction in rats. Indian Journal of Pharmacology 43: 516-519.
56. Nakatani, N., Inatani, R., Ohta, H., & Nishioka, A. (1986). Chemical constituents of pepper (Piper spp.) and
application to food preservation: Naturally occurring antioxidative compounds. Environmental Health
Perspectives 67: 135-142.
57. Nichenametla, S. N., Taruscio, T. G., Barney, D. L., & Exon, J. H. (2006). A review of the effects and mechanism
of polyphenolics in cancer. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 46: 161-183.
58. Niwa, T., Doi, U., Kato, Y., & Osawa, T. (2001). Antioxidant properties of phenolic antioxidants isolated from
corn steep liquor. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 49: 177-182.
59. Pande, K. K., Pande, L., Pande, B., Pujari, A., & Sah, P. (2010). Gas chromatographic investigation of
Coriandrum sativum L. from Indian Himalayas. New York Science Journal 3: 43-58.
60. Pande, K. K., Pande, L., Pande, B., Pujari, A., and Sah, P., & Sah, S. (2011). Limonene dominates the
phytochemistry of Trigonella foenum-graceum in nature. Nature and Science 9: 17-20.
61. Patra, N. K., Siddiqui, M. S., Akhila, A., Nigam, M. C., & Naqvi, A. A. (1982). Chemical composition of the
volatile oil from the pericarp (husk) of large cardamom (Amomum subulatum Roxb.). Pafai Journal 4: 29-31.
62. Pizzale, L., Bortolomeazzi, R., Vichi, S., & Conte, L. S. (2002). Antioxidant activity of sage and oregano extracts
related to their phenolic compound content. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 82: 1645–1651.
63. Pradhan, M., Sribhuwaneswari, S., Karthikeyan, D., Minz, S., Sure, P., Chandu, A. N., Mishra, U.,
Kamalakannan, K., Saravanankumar, A., & Sivakumar, T. (2008). In-vitro cytoprotection activity of Foeniculum
vulgare and Helicteres isora in cultured human blood lymphocytes and antitumor activity against B16F10
Melanoma cell line. Research Journal of Pharmacy and Technology 1: 450-452.
64. Pruthi, J. S. (1993). Major Spices of India–Crop Management and Post Harvest Technology (pp. 114-179). New
Delhi: ICAR Publications.
65. Putnam, S. E., Scutt, A. M., Bicknell, K., Priestley, C. M., & Williamson, E. M. (2007). Natural products as
alternative treatments for metabolic bone disorders and for maintenance of bone health. Phytotherapy Research
21: 99-112.
66. Rajeshwari, U., & Andallu, B. (2011). Medicinal benefits of coriander (Coriandrum Sativum L.). Spatula D D 1:
51-58.
67. Reddy, A. C., & Lokesh, B. R. (1992). Studies on spice principles as antioxidants in the inhibition of lipid
peroxidation of rat liver microsomes. Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry 111: 117-124.
68. Reddy, A. C., & Lokesh, B. R. (1994). Studies on inhibitory effects of curcumin and eugenol on the formation of
reactive oxygen species and the oxidation of ferrous iron. Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry 137: 1-8.
Free Radicals, Antioxidants and Culinary Spices: In Human Health and Disease Response 11
69. Rietjens, I. M., Boersma, M. G., Haan, L., Spenkelink, B., Awad, H. M., Cnubben, N. H., van Zanden, J. J.,
Woude, Hv., Alink, G. M., & Koeman, J. H. (2002). The pro-oxidant chemistry of the natural antioxidants
vitamin C, vitamin E, carotenoids and flavonoids. Environmental Toxicology and Pharmacology 11: 321-333.
70. Rios, J. L., Recio, M. C., Giner, R. M., & Manez, S. (1996). In update review of saffron and its active compounds.
Phytotherapy Research 10: 189-193.
71. Sabir, S. M., & Rocha, J. B. T. (2008). Water extractable phytochemicals from Phyllanthus niruri exhibit distinct
in vitro antioxidant and in vivo hepatoprotective activity against paracetamol induced liver damage in mice. Food
Chemistry 111: 845-851.
72. Sadraei, H., Ghannadi, A., & Malekshahi, K. (2003). Composition of the essential oil of Asa-foetida and its
spasmolytic action. Saudi Pharmaceutical Journal 11: 136-140.
73. Saleh, M. M., Zwaving, J. H., Malingre, T. H. M., & Bos, R. (1985). The essential oil of Apium graveolens var.
secalinum and its cercaricidal activity. Pharmaceutisch Weekblad Scientific Edition 7: 277-279.
74. Schwarz, K., Ernst, H., & Ternes, W. (1996). Evaluation of antioxidative constituents from thyme. Journal of the
Science of Food and Agriculture 70: 217-223.
75. Shirwaikar, A., Rajendran, K., & Kumar, C. D. (2004). Invitro antioxidant studies of Annona squamosa Linn.
leaves. Indian Journal of Experimental Biology 42: 803-807.
76. Singh, G., Maurya, S., Catalan, C., & De Lampasona, M. P. (2004). Chemical constituents, antifungal and
antioxidative effects of ajowain essential oil and its acetone extract. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry
52: 3292-3296.
77. Smith, C., Mitchinson, M. J., Arouma, O. I., & Halliwell, B. (1992). Stimulation of lipid peroxidation and
hydroxyl-radical generation by the contents of human atherosclerotic lesions. Biochemistry Journal 15: 905-910.
78. Srivastava, A. K., Srivastava, S. K., & Syamsundar, K. V. (2005). Bud and leaf essential oil composition of
Syzygium aromaticum from India and Madagascar. Flavour and Fragrance Journal 20: 51-53.
79. Tiwari, A. K. (2001). Imbalance in antioxidant defence and human diseases: Multiple approach of natural
antioxidants therapy. Current Science 81: 1179-1186.
80. Tsai, T. H., Tsai, P. J., & Ho, S. C., (2005). Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities of several commonly
used spices. Journal of Food Science 70: C93-C97.
81. Vijayakumar, R. S., Surya, D., & Nalini, N. (2004). Antioxidant efficacy of black pepper (Piper nigrum L.) and
piperine in rats with high fat diet induced oxidative stress. Redox Reporter 9: 105-110.
82. Wang, S. Y., & Lin, H. S. (2000). Antioxidant activity in fruits and leaves of blackberry, raspberry, and
strawberry varies with cultivar and developmental stage. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 48: 140-
146.
83. Williams, D. (1999). Flavors for snack-food application. Perfumer and Flavorist 29: 31-32, 34.
84. Wong, C. K., Ooi, V. E., & Ang, P. O. (2000). Protective effect of seaweeds against liver injury caused by carbon
tetra chloride in rats. Chemosphere 41: 173-176.
12 Divya Singh, Tara Chandra Ram, Akhileshwar Kumar Srivastava &Bijoy Krishna Roy
85. Xiu-Qin, L., Chao, J., Yan-Yan, S., Min-Li, Y., & Xiao-Gang, C. (2009). Analysis of synthetic antioxidants and
preservatives in edible vegetable oil by HPLC/TOF-MS. Food Chemistry 113: 692-700.
86. Yanishlieva, N. V., Marinova, E., & Pokorny, J. (2006). Natural antioxidants from herbs and spices.
European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology 108: 776-793.
APPENDICES
Figure 1: Chemical Structures of Some Natural Antioxidants
Figure 2: Chemical Structures of Some Synthetic Antioxidants
Free Radicals, Antioxidants and Culinary Spices: In Human Health and Disease Response 13
Figure 3: Formulae of Antioxidative Compounds Isolated from Rosemary and
Sage (16-21), Thyme (22-24) and Oregano (25-29) (Yanishlieva et al., 2006)
Figure 4: Formulae of Antioxidative Compounds Isolated from Clove (30-32), Ginger (33-34)
and Black Pepper (35-39) (Yanishlieva et al., 2006; Mann, 2011)
14 Divya Singh, Tara Chandra Ram, Akhileshwar Kumar Srivastava &Bijoy Krishna Roy
Figure 5: Formulae of Antioxidative Compounds Isolated from Turmeric (Yanishlieva et al., 2006)
Table 1: A Brief Description of Common Spices and Herbs
Botanical Name Common/English Name Family Part Used Major Components of Essential Oil References
Acorus calamus Sweet flag Araceae Rhizome β-asarone, isocalamendol, sesquestrine ketones, α-asarone,
eugenol, monoterpine hydrocarbons Mazza, 1985
Alpinia galanga Greater galanga Zingiberaceae Rhizome 1,8-cineole, α-fenchyl acetate, camphor Jirovetz et al, 2003
Amomum
subulatum Large cardamom Zingiberaceae Fruit 1,8-cineole, limonene, monoterpene hydrocarbon Patra et al., 1982;
Pruthi, 1993
Anethum
graveolens Dill Apiaceae Fruit Carvone, limonene, α-phellandrene Ishikawa et al.,
2002
Apium graveolens Celery Apiaceae Arial parts α-pinene, β-pinene, limonene, γ-terpinene, allo-ocimene,
myrcene, senkyunolide Saleh et al., 1985
Carum carvy Caraway Apiaceae Fruit R-carvone, D-limonene, α-pinene, cis-carveol, β-myrcene Fang et al., 2010
Cinnamomum
tamala Tejpat Lauraceae Leaf
Eugenol, β-caryophyllene, aomadendrene, viridiflorene, δ-
cadinene, spathulenol, sesquiterpenoid Kapoor et al., 2009
Coriandrum
sativum Coriander Apiaceae Seed Linalool, cis-dihydrocavone, thymol
Msaada et al., 2007;
Pande et al., 2010
Crocus sativus Saffron Iridaceae Stigma Safranal, crocin, picrocin, crocetin Rios et al., 1996;
Abdullaev, 1993
Cuminum
cyminum Cumin Apiaceae Seed Cumin aldehyde, γ-terpinene , β-pinene
Iacobellis et al.,
2005
Curcuma longa Turmeric Zingiberaceae Rhizome ar-tumerone, α-tumerone, β-tumerone, (Z)-β-ocimene Awasthi and Dixit,
2009
Elettaria
cardamomum Cardamom Zingiberaceae Seeds 1,8-cineole, α-terpinyl Leela et al., 2008
Ferula asafoetida Asafoetida Apiaceae Oleo gum
resin
(Z)-1-propenyl sec-butyl disulfide, (E)-1-propenyl sec-butyl
disulfide, α-pinene Sadraei et al., 2003
Foeniculum
vulgare Fennel Apiaceae Fruits Trans anethole, fenchone, methyl chavicol Gulfraz et al., 2008
Murraya koenigii Curry leaves Rutaceae Leaf 3-carene, caryophyllene, β-myrcene Chowadhury et al.,
2008
Pimpinella
anisum Anise Apiaceae Fruit Trans-anethole, estragole Gulcin et al., 2003
Piper longum Long pepper Piperaceae Fruit β-caryophyllene, 3-carene, eugenol, D-limonene,
zingiberene, cubenol Liu et al., 2007
Piper nigrum Black pepper Piperaceae Fruit β-caryophyllene, 3-carene, D-limonene, β-pinene, α-pinene Liu et al., 2007
Syzigium
aromaticum Clove Myrtaceae Bud Eugenol, β-caryophyllene, eugenyl acetate Srivastava et al.,
2005
Trachyspermum
ammi Ajwain Apiaceae Seeds
p-cymene, γ-terpinenine, α-pinenes, β-pinenes, dipentene,
α-terpinene, terpinene-4-ol
Chopra, 1982;
Singh et al., 2004
Trigonella
foenum-graecum Fenugreek Fabaceae Seeds
Palmidrol, octanamide n-(2-hydroxyethyl), dioctyl
phthalate, d-limonene, 1-carvone, o-cymene, γ-terpinene Pande, 2011
Zingiber
officinale Ginger Zingiberaceae Rhizome
Zingiberene, β-sesquiphellendrene, α-curcumene, farnasene,
sesquiterpene alcohols Kizhakkayil and
Sasikumar, 2012
top related