grammar ii prepositions and conjunctions

Tradução de Inglês/Ensino de Língua Inglesa e Novas Tecnologias -

Gramática II

Day I – Prepositions and Conjunctions

Day 1• The evolution of the English preposition (a diachronic approach)• Types of prepositions • Prepositions – traditional analysis: space and time• Prepositions in set expressions in place, manner and time – possible

patterns• Prepositions and meanings – literal, figurative and metaphorical• Prepositions as units of meaning• Prepositions as other parts of speech – verbs, nouns, adjectives, adverbs• Dependent prepositions• Prepositions in idioms• Prepositions or adverbs?• Prepositions as particles• Prepositions in phrasal verbs• Teaching tips

Ensino de Língua Inglesa e Novas Tecnologias - Gramática II

Day 1• Definitions of the conjunction• Types of conjunctions• A syntactic analysis of the conjunction• Conjunction as a connector• Conjunctions in compound sentences• Conjunctions in complex sentences• Conjunctions in subordinate clauses• Expressions that have a conjunction-like nature• Conjunctions as units of meaning• Conjunctions as translatable units• Discourse markers• Linkers – conjunctions and discourse markers• Teaching tips

Container, Flat surface or Point?

• a room• the beach• a plate• a bowl• a platter or a tray• a roof

• a river• a shelf• a cabinet• a bank• a company• a tree

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Container, Flat Surface or Point?

• Christmas• Weekend• Easter• The winter, spring, summer, fall• Sunday• Carnival• A fortnight• January

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Exercise 1- guess the preposition

• You can buy batteries AT/IN the corner shop.• David is studying AT/IN university.• What's on AT the cinema tonight?• Is Sam IN/ON the basketball team?• The library is not ON this side of the street.• We sat IN the living room and watched a great

classic movie.

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• Mike worked AT/IN/FOR the airport for six years.

• Go back TO bed! You should be asleep.• David is OUT/AWAY. He is not at home.• The burglar climbed OVER the fence and into

the garden.• It's not far. We're getting CLOSE to the station.

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• Jack was leaning ON/AGAINST the wall.• I was UNDER the impression that you liked it.• You are liable TO/FOR your son's debts as he

is under age.• My mum went TO hospital last week.• Traveling IN your own car is better than going

ON foot.

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The preposition – a definition - 1

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The preposition – a definition - 2

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Simple prepositions

• in, on, at, above, below, over, under, around, through, before, after, to, from, about, by, with, without, between, among, inside, outside, beside (next to), near, atop (on top of), underneath

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Example phrases

• in the house • on the desk• at school• above average • below 100• over the fireplace• under the table• around the building

• through the door• before lunch• after 10• go to Colorado• come from Arizona• about a boy• by Marius• with or without you

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Example phrases

• between you and me• among us• don't keep it all inside• think outside the box• behind blue eyes

• beside the table• near the library• sitting atop the world• underneath that harsh

interior

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Some simple prepositions raise a few doubts as to usage

• Above X Over• Below X Under• Underneath X Beneath• Between x Among• Next to X Close to X

• To X For• At X To• In X Inside• Near X Nearby• By X Until

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Above x Below: a vertical reference

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Over X Under: a level reference

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Under, underneath, beneath

• Beneath and underneath can occupy final position in a sentence:– Who knows what lies beneath/underneath?

• Beneath, under, and underneath function as the head of a prepositional phrase: – I can't find anything underneath/under/beneath all that

• Under can appear in final position when the accompanying noun phrase is omitted, but implied:– I come from the land down under.

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Between X Among: two or more referents

• There is no difference between one and the other• It would seem we have a traitor among us.• Mastering a language can be the difference between

landing a well-paid job, achieving job stability, working in a dead-end job or furthering a career.

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Next to X Close to X Near

• Next to means the same as "at the side of", close to and near imply an indefinite proximity:– Come sit near /close to me (anywhere in the vicinity of)– Come sit next to me = Come sit beside me

• Close to implies a more intimate position than near; near usually refers to buildings or locations– The closer I get to you, the more you make me feel.– The new mall is near the old train station

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In X Inside

• Inside can be used in final position of a sentence with the noun phrase omitted:– That's a big box. I wonder what's inside (it).– That's a big box. I wonder what's in it.

• In can only be used at the end of the sentence if it precedes a noun phrase , NOT a pronoun:– Are you coming with us to the market? Hop in (the car)!

• Inside is usually more specific or emphatic than in:– Get inside the house now! You could get shot!

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Near X Nearby

• Near is only used as a preposition or advebr e.g. Is there a post office near here?

• Nearby is an adverb, e.g. After the play, we can do some shopping nearby = in the vicinity.

• Nearby is also used adjectivally e.g. I'm trying to find a nearby service station.

To x For

– For: purpose, intention, favor, direction (with certain verbs): Could you send this invite out to everyone for me? Thanks so much

– To: direction, destination, receiver: Could you send this invite out to everyone by the end of the day?

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At X To

– At: final point of movement, aggression: Don't raise your voice at me young man!

– To: direction, destination, cooperation: Throw the ball to me, will ya?

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Simple prepositions – formation

• Prepositions formed by prefixing a-: aboard, above, about (from Old English abutan), across, against (from Old English gean, from the verb gan "to go"), along, amid, amidst, among (from Old English onmang, from the verb gemengan "to mingle"), amongst, around, athwart– amid = amidst = among = amongst (the first two are more

formal and more literary)– Athwart = in opposition to, contrary to; from side to side

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• Prepositions formed by prefixing Old English be-: before (replacing the older afore and tofore), behind, below, beneath, beside, besides, between, betwixt, beyond– Please find the aforementioned list in the attached file– Betwixt (in an intermediate position, indecisive or middle

position): She found herself caught betwixt her loyalty to her friend and the need to do the right thing.

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• Prepositions formed by compounding two prepositions, or a preposition and an adverb: into, throughout, toward, towards, underneath, until, unto, upon, within (also inwith in older works), without (also outwith in older works)– He climbed upon his horse and rode off into the horizon– Upon seeing her (When he saw her) after all these years,

he burst into tears– Once upon a time = There once was a time (on the

occasion of)

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• Participles that became prepositions: bating, barring, concurring, during, excepting, notwithstanding, regarding, respecting, touching, considering, excluding, failing, following, pending, and saving, concerning, considering, given, granted, pending, including– Given the time it will take to thaw we can run off to the

store and get the wine.– Barring the Supply Manager, everyone seems to be in

agreement about the campaign .

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• Imperative verbs used as prepositions: save, except– The trip went smoothly, save the airport delays (but for)

• Adjectives used as prepositions, implying a following to: nigh, near, next, opposite– Repent for the end is nigh.

• Conjunctions used as prepositions: but• Loanwords used as prepositions: vis-à-vis, anti,

versus– Vis-à- vis the current economic storm, cutbacks will have

to be made Tradução de Inglês/Ensino de Língua

Inglesa e Novas Tecnologias - Gramática II

Complex prepositions

• In the interest of• In the interest • In need of• In lieu of• In quest of• In place of• In respect of

• In search of• In settlement of• In spite of• In view of• In accordance with• In aid of• In line with

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• By courtesy of• By dint of• By means of• By permission of• By reason of• By virtue of• In consideration of• In danger of

• In favor of• In front of• As well as• Thanks to• In addition to• Due to• Contrary to• Owing to

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Exercise 2: what's the preposition?

• UNDER/GIVEN the circumstances

• BELOW/ABOVE/ON average

• UNDER the impression that

• road UNDER repair• a program ON TV

• ON/TO/AT page 4• BY heart• IN memory• ON leave• WITHOUT fail• TO my surprise

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A historical approach to prepositions

• Simple prepositions have originated from complex ones by means of grammaticalization

• N.B. morphemes go from a lexical to a more grammatical status over time

• Lexicalized prepositions can be considered an open class comprised of complex prepositions or prepositional locutions. These can be seen as chunks

– New twists and turns in search for Lisa Irwin

• More grammaticalized prepositions have an unknown or unclear lexcial origin. Their meaning can only be perceived by isolating their elements, e.g. in spite of, in view of

• Conversely, the majority of grammaticalized prepositions are simple (one-word) forms. e.g. instead of (in stead of), between (by- tweonum)

Why treat them as semantic units?

• Direct equivalence, e.g. I'm in!

• Transferred meanings e.g. Are we on for tonight?

• Possibility of compounding e.g. He was up and about soon after the surgery.

• Incorporation of verb meaning e.g. Up from down Under

• Idiomatic nature e.g. I'm into you, I'm on the case

• Lexicalizing nature e.g. The firefighters had some trouble outing the fire.

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Grammaticalization (Kurylowicz, 1965)

Affixes gain full-fledged statusSyntactic litmus test: the more prepositional, the

more grammaticalclosed class = advanced "grammaticalization" =

"desemanticization"Prepositions/adverbs fluctuate from lexical to

grammatical and vice versa. Loss of compositional meaning – separate elements,

one meaning

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Lexicalized vs. Grammaticalized prepositions

• Precise meaning (from more lexical to more grammatical): in contradiction to >> in spite of >> instead of

• Lexicalized forms belong to a single syntactic class whereas grammaticalized ones span over several classes e.g. to (prep.) (adv.); in (prep.) (adj.) (n.)

• Lexicalized forms are more transparent in meaning• Grammaticalized prepositions are inseparable and

non-inflectional units (cannot take plural forms for example):– Into– With the exception of– Up to

• Lexicalized units, however, can be separated:– This holds true till today, except, of course, for the new

areas of genetics and nanotechnology.– The local currency may appreciate in absolute terms of

one currency and yet depreciate in terms of another.

• The lexicalization of prepostions depend on frequency of usage

• Current grammaticalized units will eventually suffer lexicalization

• Lehman (1991:501) relates that the formation of new prepostions is a common grammaticalization process

• Such a process is not easily perceptible, though, to the speaker, not to mention the learner. – The reason? The duration of the process

The problem of preposition analysis

• Prepositions in many languages, including English, are a hybrid category: they can be semantically rich (lexical) on one end and syntactic (functional) on the other

• Most studies involving the preposition adopt a unified approach when its hybridic nature makes this unfeasible

The problem of preposition analysis

• Jackendoff (1973) classifies the preposition as a major lexical category along with Nouns, Verbs and Adjectives (although proven to be a closed class with limited membership)– The group has 50-60 members– The group has a slow add-rate

Key features of the preposition as a hybrid category

• Most express semantic relations, others assign Case (dative, locative, etc.) NB. The latter function no longer applies to the English preposition. Compare:– Meet me in the bank (as opposed to "at the

bank")– Parts of the car have to be repaired

Non-lexical (grammaticalized) prepositions

• They assign Case (as in the sentence on the previous slide: Parts of the car have to be repaired)

• They appear in fixed expressions (idioms included) the meaning of which is transmitted as a single unit or chunk e.g. Roger's been on a break for a month now

Non-lexical and Lexical

• Prepositions function as heads (núcleos) of noun or prepositional phrases, e.g. in time for something, at the heart of the story, till the end of time

Semantically rich (Lexical) prepositions

• According to studies with young learners (Friederici, 1983) lexicalized prepositions are more easily acquired simply due to their high semantic content

Exercise 3: prepositions and meaningA) ending B) reducing C) improving D) solving

• I'm taking evening classes to brush up on my Spanish. C

• Turn down the music, will you? It's way too loud. B

• When I figured out how much I owed my best friend, it really hit me. D

• It's taking much longer to do up the house than I expected. A

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Exercise 3: prepositions and meaningA) ending B) reducing C) improving D) solving

• I was just about to finish the deal with the delegates on the phone when the call was cut off. A

• My dad's got a job now, so now things are probably going to pick up again. C

• The USA has broken off relations with Cuba since the Bay of Pigs incident. A

• We need to sort out this problem soon D

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Prepositions in idioms

• Many idiomatic expressions in English are classified by the head of the noun phrase – the preposition

Prepositions cover a wide semantic scope and carry out several syntactic functions

• In• Of • To • For• On• About

• Adverb/Preposition + Preposition: along with, as for, away from, out of, up to

• Verb/Adjective/Conjunction + Preposition: owing to, due to, because of

• Preposition + Noun + Preposition: by means of, in comparison with, in front of

Expressing relations of space

• Above – across – against – along – around – at – behind – below – beneath – beside – between – beyond- by – down – from – in – in front of – inside – into – near – next to – off –on – onto – opposite – out of – outside – over – past – round – through – to – towards – under – underneath – up

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Expressing relationships of time

• After – at – before – between – by – during – from – in – on – past – since – throughout – to – towards – until (till) – within

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By X Until

By • The last moment in which

something has to be done.• An ultimatum• At or prior to a given time.• The deadline itself.

Until • The total amount of time to

accomplish something.• A grace period• Prior to a time that follows• Lead-up to the deadline

Any difference?

• You have to get to school by 8:00 a.m.• You have until 8:00 a.m. to get to school.

(until = no later than)

• I am to finish a task by sundown.• I can finish a task until sundown.

Expressing other relations

• About – against – at – besides – by – but – despite – except – for - from - in – like – of – on - out of – than – to – unlike – with – without - – but = except – But for me, you would all have been killed = If it hadn't

been for me,

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Preposition, Adverb or Particle?

• The preposition occupies only a pre-object position, as opposed to the adverb or the particle:– Fill up the pail OR Fill the pail up (particle)– Pick up my box OR Pick my box up (adverb)– Walk up the hill (preposition)

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• Prepositions separate pronoun objects from the verb:

• He ate it up (particle)• I'm peeling it off (adverb)• I stepped over it (preposition)

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• Adverbials can come between verb and PP (prepositional phrase):– I'll pick out the shoes quickly (particle)– She took off her bandaid quickly (adverb)– She jumped quickly off the chair. (preposition)

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• Only prepositions can be fronted :– She filled up the pail. (particle )– I picked up my things. (adverb)– Up the hill they climbed. (preposition)

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Exercise 4: adverb or preposition?

• Have you ever seen a live college basketball game before? Adverb

• A sign outside (Preposition) the arena said my two favorite teams were playing inside (Adverb).

• Come along (Adverb); let's get to our seats before (Preposition) the game.

• The teams came out (Adverb) to warm up before (Preposition) the game.

• Two aggressive players fouled each other throughout. (Adverb)

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Exercise 4: adverb or preposition?

• At half time, one team was ahead by (Preposition) eight points.

• A player threw the ball in from (Adverb/Preposition) the sideline.

• We talked around during (Adverb/Preposition) halftime.• After (Preposition) the game, the winners were given the

championship trophy inside (Preposition) the locker room.

• Despite losing in (Preposition) the playoffs, that team had a winning record for (Preposition) the season.

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Position of prepositions with phrasal verbs – Correct or incorrect?

• Thieves broke in and got away with over 10 million in jewelry. CORRECT

• Burglars broke in the house while they were at the opera. CORRECT

• The bus drew (UP) at the traffic lights up. INCORRECT• The committee will draw up a list of demands.

CORRECT• I've got so much work I'm really falling behind (WITH

it) with. INCORRECT

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Position of prepositions with phrasal verbs

• He got caught in the rain and came (DOWN) with a cold down.

• He's not very nice to his teachers. He's always sending THEM up them.

• She got a loan when she furnished the flat, but she's falling behind with the payments. CORRECT

• She really takes AFTER her father after.

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Dependent prepositions

• Like in many languages, the use of a given preposition is determined by other word classes, namely verbs, adjectives and nouns

• The choice of a given preposition is generally semantically driven, although the relationship between the word and its corresponding preposition may not be clear, e.g. worried about

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Dependent prepositions

• From one language to another, there is no guarantee of direct equivalence, which calls for more attention on the part of the learner– Get married to »» se casar com– Fall in love with »» se apaixonar por

• There are several combinations that seem to come naturally and the learner intuitively tells whether the form is corect or not. This so-called knowledge comes with practice and exposure to the language

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Exercise 4: Adjective + preposition

• My granddad is very dependent ON my parents.• The film is based ON a novel by Virginia Woolf.• I know it's rusty and everything, but I'm so attached

TO it.• Bill is emotionally detached FROM his parents. He

hardly chats with them.• MacDonald's has become synonymous OF an

unhealthy diet.

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Exercise 4: Adjective + preposition

• The employees kept quiet ABOUT/ON the case of creative accounting that was unearthed last week.

• You can't say anything to her. She's impervious TO any sort of criticism.

• The working hours are incompatible WITH family life.• His unruly behavior at school is indicative OF a

deeper psychological problem.• It is the teacher's duty to be concerned ABOUT the

weak students.

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Exercise 5: Forming three-word phrasals

• I think we've just run out OF coffee. We will have to get some in the morning.

• Does anybody feel up TO Mick's party tonight?• My boss asked me to stand in FOR him during his

week off from the office.• Being a father has helped him learn to face up TO his

responsibilities.

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Exercise 5: Forming three-word phrasals

• The Chief of Staff has been coming in FOR a shower of criticism for the way he has tried to make little of the accusations against him of fraud and embezzlement.

• I don't really go in FOR team sports; give me a tennis racket or a pair of trainers any day!

• The troops plan to pull out OF/FROM the occupied territories for economic reasons.

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Verb + preposition

• The state-funded health service accounts FOR 85% of public spending.

• In times of trouble, you can always turn TO a friend.• His conviction for reckless driving counted AGAINST

him when he tried to renew his car insurance.• Sometimes it seems almost impossible to keep up

WITH the latest news.

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Many adjectives and verbs take multiple prepositions, altering the meaning in the process

• Abide "with us for a while," "by the rules" (or "I can't abide him").

• ABIDE WITH = STAY WITH• ABIDE BY = ADHERE TO OBEY• ABIDE = TOLERATE

• Answer "to him for what you've done," "for what you've done.”

• ANSWER TO = LIABLE TO, REPORT TO, GIVE SATISFACTION, EXPLAIN

• ANSWER FOR (A CRIME) = PAY FOR (A CRIME)

• Caution "about unsafe conditions," "against the rash proposal.”

• CAUTION ABOUT = PREVENT/TAKE PREVENTIVE MEASURES

• CAUTION AGAINST = SHOW DISAPPROVAL OF STH

• Compare "with other products that make the same claims," "apples to oranges.”

• COMPARE WITH STH = • COMPARE X TO Y =

• Confide "in her about my problems," "to him what I really think.“

• CONFIDE IN• CONFIDE TO

• Conversant "about climate change," "in several languages," "with aspects of technology.”

• Differ "from other species in their diet," "with them about the cause of the company's failure," or "about public policy," "on public policy," or "over public policy.”

• Different "from what he was used to," "than he was used to." From is the preferred usage, but than substitutes for "from what." ("Different to" is a Briticism.)

• Dissent "against the status quo," "from the majority opinion." (To or with are not considered standard usage.)

• Dissimilar "to her previous sculpture." (From is considered incorrect.)

• Enamored "of every woman he meets." (With is considered incorrect.)

• Equivalent "in amounts," "to the earlier result." (With is not considered standard usage.)

• Excerpt "from their book was reprinted without their permission." (Of is considered incorrect.)

• Forbid "him from attending," "him to attend." (To is considered the more correct of the two choices.)

• Identical "to the one she saw yesterday," "with the one she saw yesterday." (Language purists consider with more correct, but use of to is significantly more common.)

• Impatient "with him," but "about the delay," "at the delay," or "with the delay.”

• Independent "of the group, he protested the plan." (From, as in "Independent from her family," is considered incorrect.)

• Inquired "of him where he was going" and "after her whereabouts," but "into their progress" or "about the vacant apartment.”

• Instilled "instilled a few drops of the solution into the wound," "in him a drive to succeed." (With, as in "Instilled with a drive to succeed," is considered incorrect.)

• Oblivious "of the warning signs," "to the noise"; the choices are often interchangeable. (About is often used in association with oblivious, but it's not considered standard usage.)

• Vexed "about her behavior," "at her behavior.”

• Mastery "over all other competitors," but "of the skill.”

• Reconcile "with her boyfriend," but "to the loss of her boyfriend.”

• Succeed "as a businessperson," but "to the position."

Prepositions in compound adjectives

• We had lunch at a DOWN-market restaurant the other day. Not surprisingly, the food was horrendous.

• Renowned linguist, Noam Chomsky is now a very OUTspoken critic of the government's foreign policies.

• The army has been accused of using OVERwhelming force to quell the protests.

• After the corruption scandal that rocked the market, the company now faces a (n) UPhill struggle to avoid further losses.

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Prepositions in compound adjectives

• I just received a BACKdated pay award, so this month's salary is a little larger than usual.

• Could you provide some BACKground information on the company?

• Stop behaving like a (n) OVERgrown boy, act your age!

• She had the nerve to accuse me of stealing her purse. The very thought is DOWNright outrageous!

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Prepositions in idioms

• As mentioned before, several idiomatic expressions are catalogued based on the head preposition e.g. at, in , on

• It would be best to learn them as chunks, although the semantic content may/may not be evident to or felt by the user

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Exercise 6 – Use the words in brackets to make idioms for the underlined words

• He claimed he hadn't done it intentionally. (ON purpose) OUT OF SPITE

• We admire her because of her intelligence. (ON ACCOUNT OF)

• I don't want you to sympathize with me. (sorry)• If you're not sure about what to write, it's best to

make notes beforehand. (doubt)

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Exercise 6 – Use the words in brackets to make idioms for the underlined words

• Love letters will never be outdated because people will always feel enamored. (OUT OF fashion, fall IN LOVE)

• I know the person from appearance but not from what he/she's called. (BY sight, BY name)

• She's working much too hard causing harm to her health. (AT THE expense OF)

• I wonder if you know what's on at the cinema, perhaps? (BY/ANY chance)

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Exercise 7 – Form idioms with the parts underlined and the preposition "at"

• The winners are selected without any plan by a computer. AT RANDOM.

• It was a wonderful show – anyway I enjoyed it. AT LEAST• It was a difficult problem and I was uncertain what to do.

AT A LOSS• I'm sure that our friends will arrive very soon – anyway I

hope so. AT ANY MOMENT/MINUTE, AT LEAST• If you need to stay overnight, please book a hotel room

and we will pay. AT OUR EXPENSE

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Exercise 8 – Form idioms with the parts underlined and the preposition "at"

• The hero was rescued a moment before it was too late. AT THE LAST MINUTE

• The show closed because it was running without making a profit. A T A LOSS

• We were talking about different things but didn't realize it. AT CROSSROADS

• It's impossible to get tickets for such a popular show without previous warning- you need to book no less than six months in advance. AT THE SPUR OF THE MOMENT, AT LEAST

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Exercise 8 – Form idioms with the parts underlined and the preposition "on"

• (At a restaurant) There are so many desserts ON THE MENU but I won't have anything because I'm ON A DIET.

• I would like to thank you ON BEHALF OF the entire sector and the board.

• He promised to help me ON THE CONDITION THAT I returned the favor some other time.

• It was a long drive so we stopped ON THE WAY to have a meal.

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Exercise 8 – Form idioms with the parts underlined and the preposition "on"

• How much does a bus driver earn ON AVERAGE in your country?

• Did you see the news ON TV last night?• Trains leave every hour ON THE HOUR.• It takes much longer to get there ON FOOT than by

bus.• No, I don't dislike Chaplin at all; ON THE CONTRARY; I

admire him greatly.

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Conjunctions

Syntactic (grammatical) elements used to link ideas in a particular so as to portray contrast, coordination, explanation, concession etc.

Elements that link ideas beyond the scope of the noun or prepositional phrase, i.e. sentence, paragraph and whole text

Coordinators

• Linking of elements of same syntactic status (nouns, adverbials, adjectives)

Paul and David cold and wet

tired but happy slowly but surely

tea or coffee hot or cold

Coordinators

• This also applies to longer units

We can eat now or wait till later

I love tennis but (I) don't play well

Coordinators

• Must appear between the elements coordinated: Paul plays football and David plays chess

• Can have the order of the coordinated elements reversed, without changing meaning: David plays chess and Paul plays football

And x But x Or?

• To join a final thing to the rest of a list.– When I visited India, I went to Mumbai, Delhi AND

Bangalore.

And x But x Or?

• To join two ideas, opinions or facts which are different in a sentence.– I’ve been to Thailand, BUT I haven’t been to the

Philippines.

And x But x Or?

• To join two adjectives which seem to be opposite in meaning.– My hotel room was clean BUT uncomfortable.

And x But x Or?

• To connect different possibilities, or the last thing in a list of possibilities– I don’t know why Sayed hasn´t come to class; he may be

ill, OR he may be too busy.

And x But x Or?

• To mean one thing and also not the other in a negative sentence– I haven’t been to Korea OR Thailand.

Correlative conjunctions

• Both . . . and . . .• Either . . . or . . .• Neither . . . nor . . .• Hardly . . . when . . . • If . . . then . . . • No sooner . . . than . . .

• Not only . . . but also• Rather . . . than• Scarcely . . . when• What with . . . and• Whether . . . or

Subordinators

• Linking of unequal syntactic status

I left early because I had an interview early the next day.

We visited Madame Tussaud while we were in London

Most common subordinators

• Because• While• If • Although • Before• Since• Till• Unless• Whereas• Whether

Subordinators

• Do not need to occur between the connected items: Because I had an interview the next day, I left early.

• When there is a change of order in the connected items, there is either a change in meaning or a dubious sentence: I had an interview the next day, because I left early.

Common mistakes with subordinating conjunctions

• Although there are many reasons why young people start to smoke.– However, there are many reasons why young people start

to smoke.

• Whereas some argue that children should be forced to do more exercise.– However/On the other hand/By contrast, some argue

that children should be forced to do more exercise.

• People who enjoy communication by letter are romantic because they tend to write in a very classy way.– People who enjoy communication by letter are romantic;

that’s why they tend to write in a very classy way.– People who enjoy communication by letter are romantic.

As a result, they tend to write in a very classy way

Same sentence

• She used to call me "Tiny" although I was as tall as she was.

• Three more nuclear stations were built despite/in spite of widespread opposition

• Even though I have a degree in Business Administration, I can't fill out a tax form.

• Much as she loved her son, she could not accept his choice of career.

• Doctors' salaries have risen considerably whereas/while nurses' pay have dropped.

Two sentences or clauses

• Car crashes have become rare; even so, there should be stricter safety regulations

• Prices have been rising. It is unlikely, however, that this increase is going to continue for long.

• It is a grueling competition. Nevertheless, thousands of runners take part every year.

• Urban expansion would be a good thing. On the other hand, it would be sad to lose the countryside atmosphere.

Using auxiliaries to avoid repetition

• Short answers: Should I revise for the test? I think you should

• Comments: "I thought the film was wonderful." "I didn't."

• Subsequent responses: "I wish you'd lock the door when you come in." "But I did!"

• With more than one auxiliary: "He could have been lying." "Yes, he could/he could have been."

Reduced infinitives

• To give continuity to thoughts expressed, e.g. "Haven't you done the washing-up?" "No, I'm just about to."

• To respond politely, e.g. "Are you coming for a walk?" "No, I dont want to."

• To comment: She's less moody than she used to be.

Reduced infinitives

• My mother can't read. She just never learnt to. (She just never learnt how)

• I know I should not have offended you. I didn't

mean to.

• At first he refused to help, but eventually they got him to.

Participles/Relative pronouns/Reduced clauses

• I don't believe a word they say, given they never tell the truth.

• The women hurt in the accident are said to still be in critical condition at the emergency ward.

Paticiples as Discourse markers

• Particles refer to the whole sentence as logical arguments, e.g Not knowing what to do, I decided to wait

Discourse markers show the relationships between …

• What is being said and what was said • What is being said and what is going to be said• Speaker's attitude and what he/she is saying• Speaker's attitude and what was said

Adverbs

• Despite not being well-off, he gives quite handsomely to charities.

• I admire him as a lecturer, though I find him a

difficult person to get along with as a colleague.

• He left school without any qualifications. Nevertheless, he is now one of the wealthiest men in the country.

Adverbs as Discourse markers

• Adverbs can modify the entire sentence, e.g. Sadly, the starting time had to be pushed back.

• Discourse markers can be created from adverbs and adverbials, e.g. Quite honestly, you need a better job.

Adverbs as Discourse markers

• Adverbs can modify the entire sentence, e.g. Sadly, the starting time had to pushed back.

• Discourse markers can be created from adverbs and adverbials, e.g. Quite honestly, you need a better job.

Meanings portrayed

• Introduction: To begin with• Reference: With reference to• Change of subject: By the way• Reinforcement: As a matter of fact• Emphasis: Mainly• Cause: Since• Result, consequence: That's why• Inference, conclusion: Therefore• Purpose: In order to• Future projection: From now on

Meanings portrayed

• Agreement: According to• Searching the recent past: So far• Momentary situations: For now• Simultaneity: In the meantime• Defining circumstances: In the midst of• Generalizing: As a rule• Coincidental events: Whenever• Time relationship: As time goes by

Meanings portrayed

• Addressing: To whom it may concern• Weak forms: So far• Exclusion: As for me • Position definers : From the standpoint of• Assurance: Of course • Equivalence: By the same token• Condition: As long as • Contrast: Whereas• Reiterating: In other words

Meanings portrayed

• Giving examples: For instance• Figurative: if you will• Alternation: In his turn • Last solution: As a last resort• Addition: Not only... but also• Dismissal: By the same token• Reminder: Whereas• Reiterating: (Otherwise) In other words• Consequence: As a result

Discourse Markers - what does each mean?

• Basically, the country is spending too much money.

• You might think I'm crazy when I say something like that but actually, I'm not.

• Apparently, there are a lot of new openings in the hotel business.

• Surely you understand what I mean when I say this?

Discourse Markers• Basically, the country is spending too much

money. (That's the most important point)• You might think I'm crazy when I say something

like that but actually, I'm not. (I'm contradicting you gently)

• Apparently, there are a lot of new openings in the hotel business. (I've heard this, but don't know if it's true)

• Surely you understand what I mean when I say this? (I don't know why you don't see things my way)

Some other discourse Markers

• Admittedly = I know this weakens my point• After all = You have to admit• As a matter of fact = This might come as a

surprise• Mind you/Still = This is something you

should consider/I know this may contradict what I said earlier

• I mean = What I'm trying to say is• Obviously = The fact cannot be denied

Some other discourse Markers

• At least = I'm rectifying what I said• Naturally = This is what I would expect (to

happen)• Anyway = Concluding the topic/Moving on to

another topic• All in all = I'm considering all the angles in the

situation• So to speak = I'm speaking in a figurative

manner• By the way = This isn't connected to what I was

just talking/The topic reminds me of another one

Similar in meaning*

• Admittedly = Mind you/Still• Naturally = Obviously• All in all = After all• By the way = As a matter of fact

(* with some restrictions, depending on the context)

Some useful resources

• Cassell's Students' English Grammar• Ways to Grammar• Murphy's English Grammar• Practical English Usage• A Student's Grammar of the English Language• The Good Grammar Book

Bibliography

1.BORDET, Lucile & JAMET, Denis. Are English Prepositions grammatical or lexical morphemes? Cercles, Occasional Papers, p.1-26. 20102.FEIST, Michele I. The changing shape of prepositional meanings. In: CHAN, JACOB & KAPIA. Proceedings of the 32nd Annual Boston University Conference on Language Development. Boston, 2008 3.GRUBIC, Bob. Those Problematic English Prepositions. Presented at the CFI- Baci Conference, Long Beach, California. November 13, 2004.4.LITTLEFIELD, Heather. Lexical and Functional Prepositions in Acquisition: Evidence for a hybrid category. Boston University. 20065.MARIN, A.M. A Semantic Description of the Preposition. 2010

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