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The Black DeathIn 1346, rumors reached Europe of a plague
sweeping the East. The epidemic spread along trade routes to
China and Russia. Within 2 years, the Black Death, killed 1/3 of
Europe’s population. The plague still ranks as the most devastating
catastrophe in human history.
Life ExpectancyThe average age at death of the members of
a population. Life expectancy in the United States was 47
years in 1900. In 2009, it was 78 years.The maximum average human life span is
the average age of death for a population under ideal conditions. It is currently about 85 years.
Social Causes of Illness and DeathHuman-environmental factors - Cancer
causing pollutants in the air and water.Lifestyle factors - cigarettes, alcohol, drugs,
diet, social isolationPublic health and health-care systems -
access to clean water, basic sewage, immunizations
Public Health SystemThe public health system is composed of
government run programs that ensure access to clean drinking water, basic sewage and sanitation services, and inoculation against infectious diseases.
The health-care system is composed of a nation’s clinics, hospitals, and other facilities for ensuring health and treating illness.
Global InequitiesAIDS is the leading cause of death in the
poverty-stricken sub-Saharan AfricaGlobal inequality influences people’s
exposure to different health risks
Infant MortalityThe number of deaths before the age of 1
year for every 1000 lives births in a population in 1 year.
Reasons for Health InequityThe poor are more likely to be exposed to
violence, high-risk behavior and environmental hazards.
The poor cannot afford adequate health care.
Racial and Ethnic Inequalities in Health CareRacism also affects health
Health status of some African Americans is somewhat lower than European Americans even within the same income category
African Americans at all income levels tend to live in racially segregated neighborhoods with fewer health facilities
Experience of racism induces psychological distress
Gender Inequalities in Health CareGender bias exists in:
Medical research: More research has focused on “men’s diseases” (cardiac arrest) than “women’s diseases” (breast cancer).
Medial treatment: Women undergo fewer kidney transplants, cardiac procedures, and other treatments.
Gender Inequalities in Health Care
Women live longer and thus have greater lifetime risk of disability and chronic illness; yet more is spent on men’s health than women’s health
40% more poor women than poor men and poverty is related to health
Health and Politics: Conflict and Functionalist PerspectivesWe spend more on health care than any other
country but all other postindustrial societies have healthier populationsA high level of social inequalityNature of American health care system where
some are privileged (wealthy) and others are disadvantaged (poor)
4 Problems with HMOs: Strategies to Pursue Profit1. Avoid covering sick people and people who
are likely to get sick. 2. Minimize the cost of treating sick people
they can’t avoid covering.3. Inflate diagnoses to maximize
reimbursements.4. Keep overhead charges high.
Advantages of Private and For-Profit Health CareThey are so profitable, they can invest large
sums of money into research and development, latest diagnostic equipment, higher salaries to attract best medical researchers on planet
Main supporters of current system are the stockholders
MedicineA social institution devoted to prolonging life
by fighting disease and promoting health. Society shapes medical practice every bit as
much as it influences health processes.
The Professionalization of MedicineProfessionalization, is the process by which
people gain control and authority over their occupation and their clients.
It results in professionals enjoying high occupational prestige and income and considerable social and political power
The Sick RolePlaying the sick role, according to Talcott
Parsons, involves the nondeliberate suspension of routine responsibilities, wanting to be well, seeking competent help, and cooperating with health-care practitioners at all times.
Alternative MedicineThe most frequently used types of alternative
medicine are chiropractic, acupuncture, massage therapy, and various relaxation techniques.
Alternative medicine is used mostly to treat back problems, chronic headache, arthritis, chronic pain, insomnia, depression, and anxiety.
Placebo EffectThe positive influence on healing of strong
belief in the effectiveness of a cure.Research shows that strong belief in the
effectiveness of a cure can by itself improve the condition of about a third of people suffering from chronic pain or fatigue.
Holistic MedicineHolistic medicine emphasizes disease
prevention. Holistic practitioners treat disease by taking
into account the relationship between mind and body and between the individual and his or her social and physical environment.
Social Construction of DisabilityImpaired people are considered deficient in
physical or mental capacity.Disabled people are incapable of performing
within the range of “normal” human activity.
RehabilitationRehabilitation involves:
Curing disabilities to the extent possible through medical and technological intervention.
Trying to improve the lives of the disabled by means of care, training, and education.
Integrating the disabled into “normal” society.
AblismPrejudice and discrimination against disabled
people.Historical example: Belief among 19th-
century Western educators that blind people were incapable of high-level or abstract thought.
Ablism involves the largely unintended neglect of the conditions of disabled people.
Challenging Prejudice and DiscriminationIdea of the normality of disability has partly
supplanted the rehabilitation idealRather than regarding themselves as deviant,
they think of themselves as inhabiting a different but quite normal world
Age StratificationAge stratification refers to social inequality
between age cohorts.The very young are often at the bottom of the
stratification system.Facing poverty and famine, parents sometimes
abandoned children.Many developing countries are overflowing
with orphans and street children.
GerontocracyA gerontocracy is a society ruled by elderly
people. In South Korean corporations when a new
manager starts work, everyone in the department who is older than the new manager may resign or be reassigned.
In the United States, median income gradually rises with age, reaching its peak in the 45–54 age cohort.
Age Stratification: Functionalist TheoryAge stratification reflects the importance of
each age cohort’s contribution to society.In preindustrial societies, the elderly were
important for knowledge and wisdom.With industrialization, function of the elderly
became less important and their status declined.
Age Stratification:Conflict TheoryAge stratification stems from competition and
conflict.Young people may participate in a
revolutionary overthrow and seize power.The elderly may organize politically to
decrease disadvantages and increase advantages in life.
Age Stratification: Symbolic InteractionistFocus on the meanings people attach to age-
based groups and age stratification.One study examined movies from 1940-1980.
Young people were portrayed as leading active, vital lives.
Elderly women were portrayed as unattractive, unfriendly, and unintelligent.
Aging and PovertyThe “old old” are most likely to suffer
physiological decline, life-threatening diseases, social isolation, and poverty.
Economic inequality between elderly women and men is the result of women’s lower wages when they are young.
The elderly most likely to be poor include the “old old” , women, African Americans and people in rural areas.
A Shortage of CaregiversIn 2001, home-care agencies and nursing
homes employed 2.1 million caregivers in the United States.
The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics expects a 58% rise in demand for such workers between 1998 and 2008.
AgeismAgeism is prejudice and discrimination
based on age. Examples:
Elderly men are stereotyped as “grumpy” and elderly women as “haggard”.
Polling Question I don't value older people in our society as
much as younger people.a. Strongly agreeb. Agree somewhatc. Unsured. Disagree somewhate. Strongly disagree
Death and DyingIn traditional societies most people accepted
death.Most people believed in life after death.The dying were not isolated. Because the dying had experience giving
emotional support to other dying people, they accepted death as part of life.
EuthanasiaInvolves a doctor prescribing or
administering medication or treatment that intended to end a terminally ill patient’s life.
Public opinion polls show about 2/3 of Americans favor physician-assisted euthanasia.
EuthanasiaBetween 33% and 60% of American doctors
say they would be willing to perform euthanasia if it were legal.
Nearly 30% of American doctors have received a euthanasia request, but only 6% say they complied.
The Business of DyingFunerals were a $20-billion-a-year industry in
1999.The average undertaker’s bill in the late
1990s was $4,700. Adding expenses such as flowers and
cemetery charges, the average funeral and burial bill grew to $7,800.
Why Are Funerals Expensive?1. Big corporations have supplanted small
family operations in the funeral industry.• Concentration of ownership lowers
competition and results in higher prices.
2. People are vulnerable when their loved ones die, and much of the funeral industry takes advantage of their vulnerability.
1. Life expectancy is:a. the average age at death of the members of
a populationb. the maximum human life spanc. the maximum average human life spand. the mortality rate
2. When sociologists measure the health of a population, they typically examine:
a. rates of illnessb. rates of deathc. rates of physical fitnessd. a. and b. only
Answer: d When sociologists measure the health of a
population, they typically examine rates of illness and rates of death.
3. The effect of social forces on life expectancy is given by:
a. the maximum human life spanb. the average age at death of the members of
a populationc. the difference between the maximum
average human life span and life expectancyd. all of the above
Answer: c The effect of social forces on life
expectancy is given by the difference between the maximum average human life span and life expectancy.
4. Which of the following is not a source of gender inequality in health status in the U.S.?
a. gender bias in medical researchb. gender bias in medical treatmentc. women’s greater lifetime risk of functional
disability and chronic illness due to the fact that women live longer than men
d. all of these are a source of gender inequality in health status in the U.S.
Answer: d All of the following are a source of gender
inequality in health status in the U.S.: gender bias in medical research gender bias in medical treatment women’s greater lifetime risk of functional
disability and chronic illness due to the fact that women live longer than men
5. Poor people in the U.S. are less healthy than rich people because they are more likely:
a. to do physical labor in which accidents are common
b. to be exposed to violencec. to be exposed to environmental hazardsd. all of these choices
Answer: d Poor people in the U.S. are less healthy
than rich people because they are more likely to do physical labor in which accidents are common, to be exposed to violence and to be exposed to environmental hazards.
7. The main supporters of the current United States health-care system are:
a. the stockholders of private health-insurance companies
b. physicians and other health professionalsc. a majority of Americans, according to recent
surveysd. a. and b. only
Answer: dThe main supporters of the current United States
health-care system are the stockholders of private health-insurance companies and physicians and other health professionals.
8. Ablism involves:a. curing disabilities to the extent possible
through medical and technological intervention
b. prejudice and discrimination against disabled people
c. the largely unintended neglect of the conditions of disabled people
d. b. and c. only
Answer: d Ablism involves prejudice and
discrimination against disabled people and the largely unintended neglect of the conditions of disabled people.
9. Disabled people are incapable of performing within the range of "normal" human activity.
a. Trueb. False
9. Which of the following theories explains age stratification in terms of competition for power and wealth between age cohorts?
a. functionalist theoryb. conflict theoryc. symbolic interactionismd. essentialist theorye. postmodern theory
Answer: bConflict theory explains age stratification in
terms of competition for power and wealth between age cohorts.
10.Economic inequality between elderly women and men is largely the result of:
a. women’s lower earning power when they are young
b. social isolationc. general physiological declined. all of these choices
Answer: a Economic inequality between elderly
women and men is largely the result of women’s lower earning power when they are young.
11. Which of the following theories explains age stratification in terms of the distinct functions that industrialization created for different age cohorts?
a. functionalist theoryb. conflict theoryc. symbolic interactionismd. essentialist theory
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