historical context of the border pol 168: latin@ politics brad jones dept. of political science...
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Historical Context of the Border
POL 168: Latin@ Politics
Brad JonesDept. of Political ScienceUC-Davishttp://psfaculty.ucdavis.edu/bsjjones
Useful to Look Back at the Border Historically The border is a fluid concept Connotes both geographical and
psychological distinctions. America has a long history with its
southern border. …and by extension, California.
The Evolution of “The Border”: Treaty of Paris, 1783
Treaty of Paris, 1783 Southern Border 31st Parallel Western Boundary roughly follows Mississippi river.
Louisiana Purchase
Napoleon “urged” Charles IV of Spain to cede Louisiana Territory to France in 1800.
In 1803, he sold it the US for $15 million Became known as the Louisiana Purchase
Substantially increases US territory
Manifest Destiny
Note how much of modern-day US was Spanish Territory
Concept of Manifest Destiny emerged:Belief that the US would extend from the
Atlantic to the PacificArticulated more than just geography however
Sense of superiority of Anglos
Manifest Destiny(Image from Wikipedia Commons)
Mexican Independence
War with Spain: 1810-1821 Sept. 16, 1821: Independence Day (not Cinco de Mayo!) Immediate tension with US, especially over Texas (many
claimed Texas was part of the Louisiana Purchase) Shortly after independence, Mexico splits apart. “Regroups” in 1823 (states of Mexico united) Shortly after, Monroe Doctrine stated Makes the Americas a “sphere of influence” for the US
Texas
Mexico has few resources to control Texas Mexico forbade slavery Southerners occupy Texas lands for purposes of
slaveholding As such, the first “illegal immigration” problem occurred
in Mexico, not the US. Separatists movements emerged in Northern realm of
Mexico US did not attempt annexation during 1820s-1830s,
however.
Republic of Texas
Anglo-Texans and Tejanos rebel against Mexican authorities in 1835-1836 in what is called the Texas War
Republic of Texas formed and asks US to annex it. President Jackson declines but recognizes
independence. Sectionalism issues prevailed and so no annexation… Until John Tyler (pro-slavery President) decides to annex
Texas (1845)
Republic of Texas
Path to War
Mexicans Enraged US claims Texas border extends to Rio Grande Mexico claims northern border 150 miles further
north. Further inflamed when Polk sends US troops to
Rio Grande in 1846 Skirmishes turn to all-out war between the US
and Mexico
US Mexico War: 1846-1848
“Halls of Montezuma” Mexico City occupied Treaty of Guadlupe
Hidalgo signed Feb. 2, 1848
A New Border
Implications of Mexican War? Mexico cedes half territory to US 1 million sq. miles annexed Equivalent to size of Western Europe 100,000 Mexican Citizens absorbed into US 200,000 Native Americans Texas, Arizona, NM, Oklahoma, Wyoming, Colorado,
Kansas, Utah, Nevada, California all or part thereof created.
Mexican Cessian
A New Border
American filibusters Not legislative! Attempts to unseat Mexican control in Northern Mexico Article 11 of Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo required US to patrol
southern border and protect Mexico from “savages.” Border largely unenforced, leading the way for American
filibusters. Boundary dispute emerged due to inaccurate maps Involved Sonora and Chihuahua US wanted border as far south as possible (WHY?)
Gadsden Purchase
US Minister to Mexico: James Gadsden Gadsden sent to Mexico City in 1853
Abrogate Art. 11 Normalize Trade Obtain transit rights Adjust the border
US got everything it was after $10 million in compensation to Mexico This is the Gadsden Purchase
Gadsden Purchase
Stepping Back
Historical backdrop to what we observe now. Culturally, much of the US has been Mexican or
Spanish Gives some context to those who fear
“reconquista” (even if we generally think these fears our unfounded!)
Moving forward…
Enforcement and Immigration in the US After Mexican War, US now has a huge land
border w/Mexico How does one enforce entry? Apparently, not much was done; it was not the same
kind of issue Throughout 19c and early 20c, very little border
control existed. Customs Agents were posted sporadically on the
border… But most of the efforts on immigration control focused
on European entry, not entry through Mexico
Chinese Exclusion Act, 1882 Not well marked Very little enforcement and Mexican
migration was of little concern. Much more concerned about… Chinese migration. Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882
Passed in response to large numbers of Chinese Immigrants (mostly in California)
Arrived during the Gold Rush and for work on the Trans-Continental Railroad
At first, were welcomed First major piece of legislation aimed at
denial-of-entry for would-be migrants. “Illegal Immigration” was largely a
Chinese issue in wake of passage.
Enforcement of Migration
Few resources devoted to border1907: 8 immigrant inspectors for Calif. Border
Immigration Act of 1907Requires entry through official ports-of-entry Increases enforcement burdenOvertime, we start to see more layers of
legislative efforts to control entry
Significant Legislation
Immigration Act of 1917 “Desirables/Undesirables”
Literacy Act of 1917 Quota Act of 1921
First attempt to quantify entry
Immigration Act of 1924 Quotas made permanent Oriental Exclusion Act
Significant Legislation
Immigration Act of 1925 Expands Border Patrol Functionality
Arrest without warrant “any alien who, in his presence of view, is entering or attempting to enter the US in violation of any law or regulation made in pursuance of law regulating the admission of aliens.” (Significance?)
McCarren-Walter Act of 1952 Restatement of race-based quotas “Subversives” an issue
Immigration Act of 1965 A rollback…note the context of the time.
Immigration and Control Act of 1986 But let’s go back in time again…
Us vs. Them
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo significantly increased US territory
Border policy creates division and cross-purposes Labor was desired …but preferences for labor ebbs and flows with the
economy Mexicans become commodified Anti-Mexican nativism emerges in southwest
and then evolves in California
California
Mexican migration was largely centered on Texas
Chinese Exclusion Act and similar legislation increased incentive and demand for Mexican labor
By 1900, Mexicans constituted about 1-2% Numbers triple in next 20 years
California and Mexican-Americans
Racial Hierarchy Mid-19c. California was fairly homogenous
Did not have population characteristics of the East Mexicans were “tolerable”
Status hierarchy roughly was: Whites Mexicans (who were “half-civilized” because of ancestral connection to
Europe) Blacks (largely were Christian) Asians Native Americans (by far, on the lowest rung here)
California Constitutional Convention in 1849 Mexicans are considered “white” (Indians were “nonwhite”)
California
Changes with massive influx of Easterners w/gold rush
Population changes had substantial impact on minority populationsNative Americans: 100K in 1850; 30K in 1870;
16K in 1880WRT Mexicans, first attempts were at
assimilation…but
Us vs. Them
Belief in inferiority of Mexicans began to foment in the early 20c. Fear of “hyper-fertility” Lack of assimilability New York Times (1930): “It is folly to pretend that the
more recently arrived Mexicans, who are largely of Indian blood, can be absorbed and incorporated into the American race.” quoted in P. Nevins, Operation Gatekeeper, p. 105.
These arguments were put forward for strict quotas on Mexicans
Us vs. Them
Counter Arguments, equally racist, against quotas were made: White race could not be overrun Mexicans didn’t “intermarry” Unlike “negroes”, Mexicans could be deported if they became
“unruly.” Great Depression heightened anti-Mexican sentiment
Mexicans are treated as the scapegoat for economic problems. 1930s saw mass deportations (even among US citizens)
Forcible deportation of about 415,000 Mexicans Reinforces stereotypes that Mexicans are the “other” (aliens)
Immigration, legal and otherwise
Forced deportation creates labor shortfall. …let’s bring ‘em back! Bracero Program
Policies toward Mexican Immigration: Bracero Program Bracero Program (1942-1964)
Program is a response to labor shortage during war. Encouraged migration of farm laborers, initially in Central Valley (sugar
beets) Spread across the US “Successful” in terms of supply of cheap labor
Perceived as a failed program because of the rise of the “illegal alien.” Contradictory Enforcement
INS helps to regulate Bracero Program But institutes OPERATION WETBACK (1954)
Operation Wetback Forcible round-ups Show of force
Evolution of the Border: 1960s
Transboundary Cooperation in Mid 20c Emergence of Border Cities
Tijuana Mexicali Nogales
Fosters transboundary connections Particularly in San Diego
Programa Nacional Fronterizo (PRONAF) 1960s Intent: increase levels of tourism to Mexico
Border Industrialization Program (1965) Export Processing Industries or maquiladoras
More Recent History
Anti-immigrant sentiment becomes more widespread Chicano civil rights movement propels issue to a national scale. Fears of an “American Quebec” 1976: “The main problem is how to get rid of those 6 to 8 million
aliens who are interfering with our economic prosperity.” President Gerald Ford (quoted in Operation Gatekeeper, Nevins, p. 63)
Expansion of Border Patrol/INS during Carter Administration Reagan Administration: Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986
Illegal to hire undocumented migrants The I-9 Form Introduced Granted Amnesty to about 3 million migrants
Reagan Policies in Latin America “War on Drugs”
Language from I-9
Anti-Discrimination Notice. It is illegal to discriminate against any individual (other than an alien not authorized to work in the U.S.) in hiring, discharging, or recruiting or referring for a fee because of that individual's national origin or citizenship status. It is illegal to discriminate against work eligible individuals. Employers CANNOT specify which document(s) they will accept from an employee. The refusal to hire an individual because the documents presented have a future expiration date may also constitute illegal discrimination.
What Is the Purpose of This Form?The purpose of this form is to document that each new employee (both citizen and non-citizen) hired after November 6, 1986 is authorized to work in the United States.
Toward the current context
There is a long history of “getting here from there”…
Know your history!
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