interviewing
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Observation, Int
erviews and
Checklist
Syarifah Nazurah Abd Khalib
(2011909417)
Wani Nurfahani Mohd Sapuan
(2011918621)
Rashidah Robani
(2011725353)
Observation
Meriam – Webster dictionary (2012) defines
observe as „to watch carefully especially with
attention to details or behaviour for the
purpose of arriving at a judgment.
Observation as the best way to answer some
research questions – observing how people act
and how things look.
Roles of a Researcher
Participant Observation
Overt Participant Observer
Covert Participant Observer
Nonparticipant observation
Participant-as-observer
Observer-as-participant
Figure 1 : Variations in Approaches to Observation
(Frankael, Wallen & Hyun (2012)
Naturalistic Observation
• It involves observing individuals in their natural
setting.
• No effort is required to manipulate variables or to
control activities, but simply observes and records
what happens.
• Example of naturalistic observer – Jean Piaget.
Simulations
• You are a primary teacher and a student of yours has been away from school for more than two weeks. What do you say to him when he suddenly appears at school?
Individual Role
Playing
•The district is having an action song competition and your school never participate in the competition. As new English teachers, all of you are required to discuss on the reasons why the school did not participate in that competition before. What will be the outcome?
Team Role Playing
Observer Effect
• “ The presence of an observer can have a
considerable impact on the behaviour of those being
observed and hence, on the outcomes of the study”.
• Bernard (n.d), as cited in Frankel, Wallen and Hyun
(2012) suggests that “eventually, people just get plain
tired of trying to manage your impression and they
act naturally. In research, the trick is to catch a
glimpse of people in their natural activities before
they see you coming on the scene – before they have
the chance to modify the behaviour.
Curiosity aroused, resulted in a lack of attention to the
task at hand, thus producing other-than-
normal-behaviour.
The behaviour of those who are being observed
might be influenced by the researcher‟s purpose
If an observer is unexpected
Observer bias and
expectations• Observer bias refers to the possibility that certain
characteristics or ideas of observers may bias what
they „see‟.
•This is influenced to some degree by past
experiences; how we see the world and the people
within it.
•Observer expectations refers to if the researchers
may expect a certain type of behaviour which may
not be how the subjects normally behave.
Coding Observational Data
• The coding scheme is a set of categories that an observer uses to
record the frequency of a person‟s or group‟s behaviour.
Figure 2 : The Amidon/ Flanders Scheme for Coding Categories of Interactions in the
Classrooms
(Amidon & Hough ,1967)
The Use of Technology
• Recording the behaviour of people using video or digital recording
devices permits the researcher to repeatedly view the behaviour of an
individual or a group and then decide how to code it at a later, usually
more relaxed and convenient time.
• To record observation perfectly
• Observation can be reviewed several times
• Experts or interested others can view and share insights
• Permanent record of certain kinds of behaviours is obtained for comparison with later or different samples
• Good video requires some training and prior experiences
• Several microphones can distort the participant behaviour
• Prolonged recording can be expensive
• Audio – record only verbal behaviour
• Noise is difficult to distinguish specific speakers and sometimes interferes with the understanding of the content
The second method for qualitative research.
The most important data collection technique a qualitative researcher possesses (Fetterman)
The purposes:
* to discover the views, opinions and thought of the samples
(Patton)
* to discover the overlooked things during the observation
* to check the accuracy of data collection.
INTERVIEWING
INTERVIEWING
There are FOUR (4) types
of interviews that can be used in a qualitative
research;
Structured
Semi structured
Informal
TYPES OF INTERVIEWS
* verbal questionnaires
* are conducted in a formal manner.
* are best conducted toward the end of the study
* effective in testing the hypothesis of the research.
* the most common type of interview
* no certain guidelines of asking the questions.
* less formal/casual manner.
* the objective is to gain the views, thoughts and opinions of the samples.
* issues of ethics – too personal?
* applicable in various forms;
* structured, semi-structured or informal.
* the least favourable type of the interview
* requires the samples to recall and reconstruct of something that happened in the past.
* there is a possibility that the data is not accurate thus unreliable for the research.
Structured
Semi structured
Informal
Informal Conversational Interview
1
Interview Guide
Approach2
Standardized Open-Ended
Interview3
Closed, Fixed-Response Interview.
4
INTERVIEW STRATEGIES
There are FOUR (4) major
interview strategies
INTERVIEW STRATEGIES
Informal Conversational Interview
Characteristics:
* the questions are not planned
* they are asked in accordance to the
situation.
Strengths:
* Individuality
- the questions & the interview
Weaknesses:
* vast different responses from one sample to
another
* the data could not be easy to analyse
Interview Guide Approach
Characteristics:
* The topics and issues are outlined in
advance.
* The questions and sequence will be
determined during the interview.
Strengths:
* systematic data collection
* The outline acts as a guidance
Weaknesses:
* different responses from one sample to
another due to the flexibility in
developing the questions.
* the data could not be easy to analyse
1 2
INTERVIEW STRATEGIES
Standardize Open-ended InterviewCharacteristics:
* The questions and sequence are planned
before the interview.
* The samples are asked the same questions
by the researcher.
* The questions are in open-ended format.Strengths:
*the data could be easy to analyse
Weaknesses:
*limits the naturalness and relevance of the
questions to the samples.
Closed, Fixed-response Interview
Characteristics:
* The categories for the questions and
responses are already prepared in advance.
* Responses are fixed.
Strengths:
*The data becomes simpler and clearer to
be analysed and compared.
*Less time consuming
Weaknesses:
*Respondents might face difficulties in
responding to the questions
*Limited choice of responses
3 4
KEY-ACTOR INTERVIEWS
The term „key actor‟ derives from the term „key informant‟.
Definitions:
Key informant
the individuals who know their culture and history and are able to articulate better than others.
Key actor
The individuals who are knowledgeable and informative.
Excellent source of knowledge
In a research context, researchers should take some time to identify and build rapport with the key actors of a population.
Background questions
Experience questions
Knowledge questions
Opinion questions
Feeling questions
Sensory questions
TYPES OF INTERVIEW
QUESTIONSThere are SIX (6) types of
basic questions
which
are;
TYPES OF INTERVIEW
QUESTIONS-Demographic questions
-feature questions related to respondents
-For example; education level, age, income etc.
-feature questions related to the facts that the respondents know
-The information of the school , the graduation requirements, etc.
-For example;
What is the graduation requirement in this school?
-Behaviour questions
-To discover the respondents‟ experience, behaviour or activities that could not be observed due to
several reasons such as;
*The researcher was not there
*It was happening in the past
-For example;
If I were to follow you through a typical day here at your school,
what experiences would I likely to see you having?
Background questions
Knowledge questions
Experience questions
TYPES OF INTERVIEW
QUESTIONS
-Values questions
-Concern on the respondents‟ views, opinions and thoughts
-For example;
What do you think about ________________?
-Related to how respondents feel on certain things
-For example;
How do you feel about _____________?
-Rely on the five senses;
-What is seen, heard, tasted, smelled and
touched by the respondents.
-For example;
When you enter your classroom, what do you see?
Opinion questions
Feeling questions
Sensory questions
INTERVIEWING
BEHAVIOURThere are a set of expectations of how the
researchers should behave during the interview.
The researcher
should;
be natural
build rapport with the respondents
etc
respect the respondents and
their culture
FOCUS GROUP
INTERVIEW• a group of small people
• they are seated together and asked a series of questions to think
of.
• the objective is to identify what this group of people think
about the questions asked.
• not a discussion, problem-solving or
decision-making session.
Facilitator
Roles
Characteristics
FOCUS GROUP
INTERVIEW
Facilitating interaction
Drawing out differing perspectives
Keeping sessions focused
Challenge participants in bringing out
differing
opinions about a topic
Probe for more details
knowledgeable
FOCUS GROUP
INTERVIEW• There are 3 parts;
Closing
Middle
Opening
facilitator/moderator
•thanking and debriefing
participants
•giving them opportunity for
further input.
facilitator/moderator
•welcomes members
•explains purpose,
context and rules
participants answer main research
questions
RECORDING DATA
•Advantages:
To keep track the conscious and unconscious response of the respondents.
Facilitate later analysis, including locating important quotations from the
recording device
Indicate to respondents that what have been said was of importance.
involves
ETHICS IN INTERVIEWING:
the necessity for informed consent.
• It is preferable to
request participants to
sign an informed
consent form.
• to preserve the rights
of both interviewers
and participants
• to avoid misunderstanding of any issues regarding the
interview.
CHECKLISTS I
Comprehensive list of important or relevant actions, or steps to be taken in
a specific order.
(http:/www. businessdictionary.com)
A type of informational job aid used toreduce failure by compensating forpotential limits of human memory andattention. It helps to ensure consistencyand completeness in carrying out a task.
(Wikipedia)
A list of items to be noted, checked and remembered.
(The American Heritage@Dictionary of the English Language)
A list of things you need to do or consider.
(MacMillan)
General Definitions
CHECKLISTS II
Generally, it is as a tool or instrument for data collection
It consists of a prepared list of
items pertinent to an object or
a particular task
The simplest of all the devices
for data collection
May be used as an independent
tool or as a part of a
schedule/questionnaire
Ensures a more complete
consideration of all aspects of
the object, act or task.
Presence or absence of each
item may be indicated by
checking „yes‟ or „no‟ or
multipoint scale
Contain terms, which the
respondent understands
Performance Checklists
most frequently used of all measuring instruments
Consists of a list of behaviours that make up a certain type of performance.
Self – checklists
List of several characteristics or activities presented to the subjects of a study
Individuals place a mark opposite the characteristics they possess or the activities they have engaged for a particular length of time.
CATEGORIES
Checklist is divided in TWO (2) categories ;
Often used when
researchers want
students to diagnose or
to appraise their own
performance
To determine whether an
individual behaves in a certain
way when asked to complete a
particular task
If particular behavior is present,
a check mark is placed
No
subjective
judgments
THE PURPOSES
Outline necessary content for research proposals involving human
participants, and learning activities are intended to build application
skills
As a guide to build skills in
writing research proposals that
involve human participants
Communicate important
course content
Enhance quality of research
proposals
Provide formative evaluation for
the success in the summative
evaluation process
To guide evaluative feedback As a guide to evaluate previous
proposals, thus produces clear
understanding of the criteria and
standards
FUNDAMENTAL
P1
• Explain Intentions Clearly is a guiding principle when distributing checklists. Checklist clearly communicates performance expectations in terms of criteria and standards.
P2
• Improve Clarity in Instructions – checklist specifically identifies what needs to be included in a proposal or what parts of a proposal may need revision.
P3
• Sort Out Causes of Resistance – use of checklist at intervals help researchers build confidence in their ability to develop a high-quality proposal that meets criteria and standards.
P4
• Conduct Regular Formative Evaluation – in the form of troubleshooting, private feedback, buddy system, small group feedback sessions
P5
• Overcome Fear in Public – checklists build confidence and eliminates errors before presenting a proposal, creating “success” experience.
Brookfield‟s 5 Principles
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