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Multigenerational Effects of Early Life Health Shocks
1
Abstract A large literature has documented links between harmful early life exposures and later life health and
socioeconomic deficits These studies however are typically unable to examine the possibility that these
shocks are transmitted to the next generation Our study traces the impacts of in utero exposure to the
1918 influenza pandemic on the outcomes of the children and grandchildren of those affected using
representative survey data from the US We find evidence of multigenerational effects on educational
economic and health outcomes
Key Terms 1918 influenza Multigenerational effects Wisconsin Longitudinal Study (WLS)
2
Introduction
Understanding persistent poverty and poor life outcomes has posed significant challenges for
social science theories as well as crafting policy responses Of particular interest is the so called
ldquolong armrdquo of childhood circumstances where events and conditions early in an individualrsquos life
(even in utero) may set in motion an accumulation of disadvantage The Developmental Origins
of Health and Disease theory (often referred to as the Barker hypothesis) suggests that in utero
insults program the fetus in ways that lead to maladaptive responses to the environment that
persist throughout the life course and explain poor long term outcomes (for a history of the
Barker hypothesis see Barker 2007) However since the likelihood of experiencing an early
insult is related to parental circumstances there is an empirical challenge to causally examining
the impacts of early insults This issue ties into a key question of whether intergenerational
persistence in poor outcomes may stem in part from genetic mechanisms that may be more
resistant to policy efforts In order to separate potential channels some research has focused on
exogenous (ie unrelated to genetics) health shocks during early life to explore long term
outcomes
Indeed a strong causal link between harmful early life in utero shocks and lowered later
life health and economic outcomes has been found in a number of clearly identified empirical
studies In addition to separating genetic and non-genetic mechanisms many of these
investigations are also able to uncover biological (ie fetal programming) explanations by
studying specific insults including the effects of prenatal nutritional status and exposure to
infectious disease Without the use of experimental (ie animal model) research designs these
studies use so-called quasi-experimental designs by leveraging striking demographic events such
as the Dutch famine and the 1918 flu pandemic (Almond 2006 Lindeboom Portrait et al 2010)
3
The results generally suggest large lifelong impacts of in utero insults on economic and health
outcomes
With these results established a next question is whether they might persist into the
outcomes of future generations We explore the question of intergenerational persistence of fetal
insults by extending previous work that uses the 1918 influenza pandemic as a natural
experiment (Almond 2006) by adding multigenerational data We document that in utero
exposure to the pandemic can be seen in the educational attainments of multiple generations
More specifically we find a reduction of approximately 110th a year of schooling (statistically
insignificant) for the first generation 15th a year of schooling for the second generation and
16th of a year of schooling for the third generation1 We also show large effects on economic as
well as health outcomes for the second generation Our findings suggest the importance of in
utero health insults that persist across multiple generations and allow a shift in our analytical
frame from the ldquolong arm of childhood circumstancesrdquo to the ldquolong arm of previous generationrsquos
circumstancesrdquo or alternatively ldquothe long reach of historyrdquo (Kuzawa and Eisenberg 2014) Our
results can also be interpreted in the context of assessing benefits of policy and environmental
conditions that reduce the likelihood of in utero health insults where the full benefits may unfold
over multiple generations
Background Literature
Our research intersects several related literatures There is a large literature that
documents associations between early life insults and later life outcomes following the original
1 As mentioned in greater detail in 31 the first generation is comprised of the parents from the Wisconsin
Longitudinal Study (WLS) This is the generation that is treated or exposed in utero to the 1918 flu
epidemic The second generation is the WLS graduates and siblings who are the focus of the WLS and
the third generation is comprised of the offspring of the WLS graduates and siblings
4
Barker Hypothesis In addition we draw on literature that explores multigenerational linkages of
environmental exposures on life course outcomes These literatures are rarely unified in a single
analysis largely due to data constraints We overcome these limitations by leveraging a three-
generational dataset that coincides with a key demographic event from the early 20th centurymdash
the 19181919 influenza epidemic
The seminal work of the economist Douglas Almond (2006) was one of the first papers to
exploit the 1918 flu pandemic as a natural experiment and to test whether in utero exposure to
infectious disease influences later life outcomes Using US census microdata to situate
respondent births in both time (birth quarter) and place (exploiting geographic variation in the
severity of the flu) Almond (2006) finds evidence of lower educational attainment higher rates
of physical disability as well as lower income and socioeconomic status for cohorts exposed to
the 19181919 flu while in utero (estimated using birth quarter age and timing of the flu) as
compared to unexposed adjacent cohorts In a related paper Almond and Mazumder (2005) use a
similar approach with the Survey of Income and Program Participation and find negative health
effects for adults who were in utero (based on birth quarter) during the outbreak Subsequent
work has built on these outcomes finding excess cardiovascular disease (Mazumder Almond et
al 2010) increased likelihood of kidney disease diabetes circulatory and respiratory problems
in old age (Lin and Liu 2014) and increased old-age mortality in non-cancer related causes
(Myrskylauml Mehta et al 2013 Fletcher 2014)2 More broadly the negative effect from the flu
dovetails with other negative in utero shocks see for example Catalano et al (2011) Roseboom
et al (2001) Schulz (2010) and Torche (2011)
2 Though Cohen Tillinghast and Canudas-Romo (2010) and Fletcher (2014) found no effects on overall
mortality
5
The mechanisms underlying these broad effects from in utero influenza exposure are not
fully understood in humans3 However in studies of monkeys (Kobasa Jones et al 2007) and
mice (Kash Tumpey et al 2006) it has been shown that the reconstructed 1918 flu virus triggers
an exceptionally intense and prolonged innate immune response More specifically gene-
expression analysis shows that proteins involved in the innate immune system have a higher and
sustained expression when triggered by the 1918 reconstructed virus than when triggered by the
contemporary flu of the same H1N1-type (Kobasa Jones et al 2007) While the specific 1918 flu
strain cannot be studied in humans through purposeful exposure for ethical reasons both animal
and human studies have linked the maternal immune response during severe flu infection in
pregnancy to offspring brain development as well as impaired adult behavior and cognitive
outcomes (Fatemi Earle et al 2002 Brown and Derkits 2010 Canetta and Brown 2012 Miller
Zhu et al 2013 Li Chang et al 2014) These results align with research in psychology that links
inflammatory processes in mothersmdashincluding stress and infection as well as stress-induced
immunosuppressionmdashto poor birth outcomes (for a review see Stretter 2011) Recent evidence
suggests that in utero exposure to the 1918 flu may not only affect adult outcomes but also the
outcomes of subsequent generations Richter and Robling (2013) were the first to identify an
effect of first generation prenatal exposure (using birth trimester) to the 1918 flu pandemic on
the outcomes of the second generation (the children of those exposed to the 1918 flu in utero)
The authors use historical influenza morbidity data matched to birth information to identify
potential exposure to the 1918 flu and find that first generation maternal in utero exposure in the
second trimester lowers educational attainment for female children by 2-25 months or by 15-
18 percent but find no such effect for male children An analogous result is identified for first
6
generation paternal exposure and male outcomes that is first generation exposure in the second
trimester lowers educational attainment for male children by 24 to 3 months or by 18-22
percent but paternal exposure showed no such effect for females Taken together first
generation exposure to the 1918 flu while in utero results in 2 to 3 months less schooling for the
second generation
Several pathways exist for the intergenerational transmission of early life health shocks
Through socioeconomic channels intergenerational persistence in poor outcomes could occur
when a fetally insulted parent marred by poorer health and socioeconomic outcomes raises a
child in a low-resource environment Biologically phenotype-to-phenotype transmission and
epigenetic inheritance are hypothesized to be key mechanisms for intergenerational transmission
(Kuzawa and Eisenberg 2014) In cases of in utero or very early life shocks phenotype-to-
phenotype transmission impacts the outcomes of the next generation through changes in parental
biological systems that lead to altered gestational andor lactation environments for offspring
(eg pre-pregnancy hypertension is linked to low birthweight) Importantly socioeconomic and
biological channels are not mutually exclusive and can also interact with one another that is the
effects of adult phenotype on offspring extend beyond physiology and metabolism to include
parental behaviorenvironmental response as a potential source of phenotypic transmission and
potentially even cumulative intergenerational phenotypic change (Benyshek 2013) For example
stress experienced by a mother prenatally may alter stress regulation in offspring which may in
turn increase risk for the same adult phenotype in the offspring as well as in subsequent
generations Epigenetic inheritance in comparison occurs when parental experiences alter gene
expression that is subsequently transmitted to offspring and future generations through the germ
line Here again there is an opportunity for socioeconomic circumstances to interact with
7
biologymdasheg where poverty through the experience of stress alters gene expression for
generations Our analysis of second generation outcomes will explore some of these channels
but not attempt to prioritize one over another
Work extending effects of in utero exposure to the 1918 flu to the third generation (the
grandchildren of those originally exposed in utero) in humans to the best of the authorsrsquo
knowledge does not exist The strongest evidence for a potential biological channel across
multiple generations comes from studies of historical data from Oumlverkalix region in Northern
Sweden that exploit variance in first generation grandparental food supply during childhood
Bygren Kaati et al (2001) for example find that an excess of food during the period just before
adolescence a time labeled the ldquoslow growth periodrdquo (SGP) shortens the grandsonrsquos longevity
A later study using the Oumlverkalix data replicates the results of Bygren Kaati et al (2001) in a
second cohort and further extends the results to include an association between first generation
paternal grandmotherrsquos food supply and granddaughterrsquos mortality risk (Pembrey Bygren et al
2006)4
Our work builds off of this evidence to conduct novel examinations of multigenerational
effects of in utero exposures in human populations The current research leverages a unique
survey to measure the multigenerational impacts of in utero exposure to the 1918 flu pandemic
Our hypothesis is that the previously documented direct effects of such shocks extend into the
outcomes of the second generation Going further we also estimate whether these effects
4 Van den Berg and Pinger (2014) externally validated the potential for transmission across three
generations by analyzing the impact of the German famine of 1916-1918 on the mental health outcomes
(an index from survey questions accounting for rsquogeneral mental healthrsquo rsquoemotional functioningrsquo rsquosocial
functioningrsquo and rsquovitalityrsquo) of the children and grandchildren of those exposed to the famine during their
SGP The authors find that paternal (maternal) grandfather (grandmothers) exposure during their SGP is
associated with better mental health in grandsons (granddaughters)
8
continue into the third generation In other words we ask whether the singular in utero shock has
a multigenerational effect--on the adult outcomes of those exposed in utero on their children
and on their grandchildren
Data and Empirical Methodology
Data
In order to examine multigenerational effects of an in utero exposure we require
multigenerational data Very few datasets in the US have a multigenerational component and fit
the relevant time period for our exposure (ie birth cohorts around 1918) Our data come from
the Wisconsin Longitudinal Survey (WLS) which is a random one-third survey of graduating
high school seniors in Wisconsin in 1957 The majority of these respondents were born in 1939
and form our second generation Thus the parents of the WLS graduates form our first
generation with birth years overlapping the 19181919 in utero exposure period This allows for
the creation of our primary measure for in utero exposure to the 1918 flu epidemic an indicator
9
for either first generation parent being born during the 1918-1919 range56 Additional data are
collected on the later life outcomes of the WLS graduates and a selected sibling as well as a
limited number of outcomes for the children (third generation) of the graduatessiblings
providing the structure for our multigenerational analysis
Summary statistics are presented in table 1 As shown approximately 10 percent of WLS
parents are born in either 1918 or 1919 On average fathers are born in 1907 and mothers are
born in 1911 consequently a birth year of 1918 or 1919 is closer to the right-tail of the
distribution of births and the rate of 10 percent is driven primarily by relatively young mother
exposures7 Since WLS graduatersquos fathers tend to be on average 4 years older than mothers this
right-tail problem is larger for generation 1 males This is seen in Figure 1 While not the
primary focus of the WLS data collection several parental (first generation) outcomes are
5 Parent year of birth is recorded from the WLS graduates This self-reported measure is used to create
the indicator of flu exposure those parents born in 1918 or 1919 To maximize sample size we use
differing waves of the WLS and reported birth years from biological siblings to supplement the reported
year of birth from WLS graduates Parent birth years are first collected for the 199293 graduate wave
Missing observations are then sequentially added from graduate reports in later wavesmdash2003 and 2011
After using all graduate reported year of parent birth variables observations are then filled in from
identically reported measures from a selected biological sibling
Specifically for mothers (gen 1 females) 7976 observations come from graduates in the 199293
wave 366 additional observations come from the 200305 wave 84 observations come from 2011 wave
and 68 observations come from the selected sibling This leaves a base sample size of 8494 ~94 of
which is from the graduate reported 199293 wave For fathers (gen 1 males) 7929 observations come
from graduates in the 199293 wave 361 additional observations come from the 200305 wave 77 come
from the 2011 wave and 91 observations come from siblings leaving a base sample size of 8458 (again
~94 is from the grad reported 199293 wave)
From this base 7 observations are dropped for gen-1-femalersquos (WLS motherrsquos) year of birth due
to reported gen 2rsquos year of birth being 10 or less years after gen 1rsquos year of birth 45 additional
observations are lost if this threshold is increased to 15 years For gen-1-malersquos year of birth 2
observations are removed for identical reasons this increases to 25 additional observations for the 15 year
threshold We attribute this reduction in the sample mostly to measurement error 6 The 1918 flu epidemic in Wisconsin was from September 1918 through December 1918 but did not
reach the severity experienced in many other states According to historical records Wisconsin had the
fourth lowest numbers of deaths out of 25 reporting states (Burg 2000 Shors and McFadden 2009) 7 Appendix tables 7 and 8 provide evidence that our results are not driven solely by confounding between
exposure to the influenza pandemic and being young mothers
10
available including years of schooling occupational prestige and family socioeconomic status
in 19578
[insert table 1 here]
The primary focus of the WLS data collection is high school seniors in 1957 Wisconsin
the second generation of our study Given this focus on graduates (and their siblings) a large
number of economic and health variables are available in each wave of the WLS (irregular
intervals roughly 10-15 years apart 197577 19929394 2003-20052004-2007 and in 2011)
In addition to examining years of schooling several additional dependent variables in the second
generation intend to capture broad differences in economic and health well-being9 These include
income during the peak earning years (ie family income collected when graduates are 53 years
of age on average) net worth at initial retirement age (ie net worth collected when graduates
are 65 years of age on average) and general indicators of health measured by body mass index
and a count of doctor diagnosed illnesses (both collected in the wave when graduates are age 53
on average) Finally the WLS data contains information that is collected from the second
generation about the third generation we focus on years of schooling as the main outcome of
interest
8 The index of socioeconomic status is a factor weighted score combining data on father and motherrsquos
years of schooling fatherrsquos occupational prestige and average parental income Replacing this measure
with average parental income (see appendix table 1) does not change the effect of the flu indicator Job
prestige measures for both mother and father are based on Duncanrsquos Socioeconomic Index which is a
measure of job prestige based on income education and surveyed perceptions of general social standing
for certain occupations (Duncan 1961) 9 We note that our three generations of individuals are drawn from three non-overlapping set of birth
years the mean birth year for generation 1 is ~1910 generation 2 is ~1940 generation 3 is ~1965 Thus
since we are performing the analysis separately by generation we are controlling for much of the time-
variation in the meaning of education We also perform analysis stratified by sex in Appendix Tables 10-
12 so that we can also control for the differential meaning of education in each generation
11
Empirical Methodology
Our empirical strategy follows that of Almond (2006) by examining harmful effects of being
exposed in utero on later life outcomes We then extend this analysis by estimating
multigenerational impacts on both the second and third generations In so doing the primary
estimating equation is given by the following form
119910119894119891119892 = 1205730 + 1205731(119884119874119861 = 191819)1198911 + 120632119931119943120783 + 120633119935119946119943119944 + 120576119894119891119892
Our primary focus is on the coefficient 1205731 which measures the effect of having a
parentgrandparent born in 1918-1919 on a number of outcomes for 119894 individuals in 119891 families
for generation 119892 Parent year of birth time trends and their square are denoted by 120632119931119943120783 120633119935119946119943119944
represents generation specific controls and 120576119894119891119892 is representative of a family clustered error
term
For the first generation we control for birth year and its square capturing age-specific
trends that are tied to our first-generation outcomes of interest (eg years of schooling) For the
analysis of second and third generations birth years and squares for both first generation parents
are included as controls along with generation-specific controls for sex age and birth order
Our estimation strategy follows an intent to treat design It is likely that the actual
incidence of flu differed by socioeconomic status and social standing (Mamelund 2018
Sydenstricker 1931) Our use of year-of-birth however avoids potential confounding by SES
because allmdashboth rich and poormdashare defined as treated if they are born in one of the two years
Although avoiding confounders associated with actual disease incidence this estimation strategy
will underestimate the true effect of flu exposure lowering the magnitude of our coefficient of
interest
12
Results
First Generation
Our initial analysis explores the direct effects of being born during the 1918 Influenza Epidemic
While health data are sparse for the WLS graduatersquos parents (first generation) a number of
economic outcomes are available especially during the initial sample year of 1957 Table 2
explores the relationship between these economic variables and an indicator for birth during
19181919 Columns (1)-(3) of table 2 show the relationship between a WLS graduatersquos father
being born during 19181919 and the fatherrsquos years of schooling the fatherrsquos occupational
prestige and the familyrsquos index of socioeconomic status in 1957 (ie when the first generation
members are approximately 40 years old) While statistically insignificant a negative association
is observed between years of schooling and being born in 1918 or 191910 This is carried over
into fatherrsquos job prestige in column (2) from which the indicator of in utero exposure to the 1918
flu is associated with an approximate 01 standard deviation decline in the index of occupational
prestige These effects culminate in column (3) which shows a statistically significant negative
effect of in utero exposure to the flu and later life economic well-being a 13 decline in the SES
index which corresponds to a decline of roughly 10 percent of a standard deviation The findings
of table 2 corroborate past studies that show in utero exposure to the 1918 flu led to poorer
economic outcomes later in life (Almond 2006)11
[insert table 2 here]
10 First generation years of schooling are reported by the second generation WLS graduates Measurement
error is likely which may result in the insignificant coefficients of table 2 11 Richter and Robling (2013 Table 12) find a similar effect for in utero female exposure to flu in the first
trimester
13
Mirroring the results for males in the first generation a negative but statistically
insignificant association is observed between an indicator of birth in 19181919 and schooling
for first generation females This association however becomes statistically significant at the 1
percent level for the index of family SES the coefficient being nearly identical to that of a
malersquos in utero exposure to the flu though it is unclear whether these effects flow from labor
market andor marriage market sources The findings of table 2 are extended in table 3 which
explores potential marriage market effects of early life exposure to the flu epidemic12
Column (1) of table 3 regresses the indicator for male in utero exposure on an identical
measure for spousersquos exposure Females who were born in 19181919 were 5 percentage points
more likely to marry men who were also born during the same period Furthermore as shown in
columns (2) and (3) these women were more likely to marry men with fewer years of school and
lower job prestige These effects are significant at the 1 percent level Similar effects are seen in
columns (4)-(6) for 19181919 born males who are 14 percentage points more likely to marry flu
exposed females (p=000) and marry females with 026 fewer years of schooling (p=0101)
Given the findings of table 3 however we cannot rule out that this is a marriage market effect13
[insert table 3 here]
Second Generation
Our hypothesis is that the direct effects observed in tables 2 and 3 extend into future generations
To address this hypothesis we regress a number of economic and health outcomes of the WLS
graduates and siblings the offspring of the first generation examined in tables 2 and 3 These
12 Mothers and fathers of WLS graduates are assumed to be married 13 Appendix table 2 repeats the estimation of table 3 while also controlling for an indicator of own-flu
exposure and own year of birth measures
14
estimations are performed in tables 4 and 5 Column (1) in both tables focus on an indicator for
either parent being born in 19181919 the primary regressor of column (2) is an indicator for
fatherrsquos (gen 1 males) in utero exposure to the 1918 flu column (3) considers motherrsquos (gen 1
females) exposure and column (4) includes separate indicators for both mother and fatherrsquos
exposure Controls included in all columns include fatherrsquos year of birth and its square motherrsquos
year of birth and its square an indicator for sex in the second generation a measure of birth
order in the second generation and second-generation year of birth and its square
Table 4 focuses on economic outcomes of the WLS graduates To reiterate our
hypothesis is that in utero exposure to the 1918 influenza pandemic has effects that persist for
multiple generations Table 2 shows the direct first generation effects while table 4 begins to
show the indirect effects that are transmitted to offspring Panel A regresses years of schooling in
the second generation on indicators of first generation exposure to the 1918 flu14 From column
(1) either parent being born in 19181919 is associated with a statistically significant decline of
021 years of schooling in the second generation This estimate is likely understated because the
sampling design of the WLS is a focus on high school seniors thus individuals with fewer than
twelve years of schooling are underrepresented in the data15 Columns (2)-(4) disambiguate this
effect into the maternal and paternal lines From which the effect of column (1) seems to be
driven by motherrsquos in utero exposure to the flu16
14 Appendix Table 6 includes a number of alternative measures for years of schooling in place of the
simple count used in Table 4 15 Table 3 includes selected siblings of the WLS graduates These siblings do not have to be high school
graduates 16 This finding differs from that of Richter and Robling (2013) who find maternal exposure tied to
daughter outcomes and paternal exposure tied to son outcomes
15
The findings of Panel A are extended into Panel B which replaces years of schooling as
the dependent variable with the natural log of family income for the 1992 wave a time when the
second generation respondents are 53 years of age on average and represents a time of peak
earning in the life course As with years of schooling a negative association is seen throughout
the specifications of Panel B Having either parent born in 19181919 is associated with a 22
percent decline in family income Once again this effect seems to be driven by motherrsquos not
fatherrsquos exposure Panel C replaces income with a measure of net worth for the 2004 wave This
measure of net worth is when the second generation respondents are on average 65 years of age
and is representative of earnings throughout the life course The dual indicator of column (1) is
negative but statistically insignificant at conventional levels (p=023) When looking at the effect
of mother exposure in column (3) however the effect becomes statistically significant at the
10 level (p=0069) implying those with mothers born during 19181919 have approximately
$36000 less in net worth by 2004
Following the broader health focus of the Barker hypothesis the economic effects of
table 4 are replaced with health measures in table 5 We consider three broad measures of
general health and well-being later in life self-reported health in later life (~53 years old)
height and BMI (again at ~53) The use of self-reported health is intended to capture general
well-being later in life (Fortin et al 2017) this is tested in Panel A of table 5 Mazumder et al
(2010) provide evidence that in utero exposure to the 1918 flu is associated with a reduction in
height and an increase cardiovascular disease so it is possible that these negative health
outcomes could be transmitted to offspring this is tested in Panel B of table 517 And given
17 Appendix Table 14 tests indicators for a number self-reported health conditions As shown a weak
positive association is shown between gen 1 female flu exposure and an indicator of cardiovascular
16
prior work linking early life exposure to the Dutch famine to BMI (Roseboom et al 2000) and
metabolic function (Lumey et al 2009) in adulthood as well as the fact that both the Dutch
famine and the 1918 flu impacted maternal stress and nutritional status18 we examine BMI as
another broad indicator of health for the second generation this is tested in Panel C of table 5 A
consistent pattern emerges across all panels Like SES outcomes in table 4 gen 1 female
exposure to the flu is shown to have negative statistically significant association with all health
outcomes in the second generation
From Panel A parentalmdashor gen 1mdashflu exposure reduces self-reported health by roughly
half a point (plt005) on a Likert scale from 1-5 1 being very poor health and 5 being excellent
health As shown and like prior estimates this effect is driven by gen 1 female exposure For
adult height gen 1 female exposure is associated with a reduction of about 02 inches (plt010)
which is larger than the direct effect documented by Mazumder et al of 005 inches however
Mazumder et alrsquos estimated effect falls within the 95 confidence interval of our estimated
coefficient Panel C considers the effect on second generation BMI From column (1) having
either parent being born in 19181919 is associated with a statistically significant increase in the
offspringrsquos BMI of 041 points As with the economic effects of table 4 this increase in BMI
appears to be driven by motherrsquos exposure This is seen in columns (2)-(4) which estimate a
statistically significant positive coefficient for motherrsquos exposure but a coefficient that is
statistically indistinguishable from zero for fatherrsquos exposure
disease during the 199293 wave of the WLS (Appendix Table 15A) This association however reduced
in magnitude and statistical significance for later-life waves of the WLS (Appendix Table 15B and 15C) 18 The Dutch famine influenced maternal nutritional status directly through caloric restriction and the
1918 flu through symptoms such as appetite loss vomiting andor diarrhea
17
A persistent effect of in utero exposure to the 1918 Flu is seen in tables 4 and 5 First
generation exposure consistently has a statistically significant and economically meaningful
effect on second generation health and economic outcomes And this effect appears to be driven
solely by motherrsquos exposure although due to marriage market associations we cannot
determine definitively that motherrsquos exposure produces this multigenerational effect through
biological mechanisms
Appendix Tables 10A-11G re-estimate Tables 4 and 5 splitting the sample by generation
2rsquos sex In short the negative effects of first generation exposure appear to be more prominent
in second generation males such that the harmful multi-generational effects are most prominent
in second generation men whose mothers were exposed to the 1918 flu19 Potential reasons for
this sex disparity could be tied to general trends in the differences between sons and daughters in
intergenerational mobility (Chadwick and Solon 2002) In other words sons are more likely to
inherit their families SES standing than daughters This implies that the negative gen 1 shock
from in utero exposure is more likely to affect sons through the proposed SES channel than
daughters resulting in a larger estimated effect for gen 2 males Furthermore there appears to
be a growing gap between in the intergenerational elastiticy between sons and daughters during
the time period in question (Olivetti and Paserman 2015) Another potential reason for the sex
difference could be the larger standard deviation in gen 2 male outcomes this is shown in
Appendix Table 9 Finally the findings of Appendix Tables 10A-11G differ from Richter and
Robling (2013) who show homogeneous sex effects from in utero flu exposure for education
19 When omitting those with no family income during the 1992 wave of the WLS negative effects from
gen 1 female flu exposure are primarily seen in second generation males This indicates however that
there is a greater frequency of no income amongst second generation females from gen 1 flu exposure
Additionally when looking at net worth in the 2011 wave of the WLS we see no difference by gen 2rsquos
sex
18
gen 1 female exposure led to reduction in gen 2 female education and gen 1 male exposure is
associated with gen 2 male education Given this disparity between the two studies our under-
representation for gen 1 male exposure and the mixed findings in Tables 10A-11G we view our
general finding of gen 1 female exposure working through gen 2 male outcomes as preliminary
and suggestive Indeed as we test in Appendix Tables 12A-12G the sex differences in gen 2 are
often not statistically significant
Third Generation
As mentioned previously the focus of the WLS data collection is high school graduates in 1957
but additional samples have been collected for a number of variables on the children of these
graduates Table 6 explores the effects of the WLS parents on the years of schooling for WLS
children estimating the effect of flu exposure across three generations20
Consistent with the second-generation estimations a persistent effect of the in utero flu
exposure is observed and this effect seems to be driven by grandmother exposure (gen 1
female) The joint indicator for either parent is negative and close to statistical significance at
the 10 percent level (p=0106) suggesting that exposure in the first generation is associated with
012 years of schooling less in the third generation The effect of grandfather exposure is
insignificantly different from zero while the coefficient of grandmother exposure is similar in
magnitude to the joint estimate of column (1) while being statistically significant at the 10
level (p=0066) Furthermore the decline in schooling seen in the third generation is similar but
slightly smaller in magnitude compared to the second generation effects seen in Panel A of table
20Analysis of the WLS gradsibling children (ie the third generation) restricts the sample to those
children that are biological children and that are 35 years of age and older by the 20032004 wave of the
WLS
19
421 This again indicates a persistent effect that may be attenuating over time Importantly while
the estimate for grandfather exposure is insignificant it is consistent with intergenerational
inheritance (Kuzawa and Eisenberg 2014) To say the same for grandmother exposure would
require effects to persist into the fourth generation (due to the differences in gametic
development) and this data is not available in the WLS
Conclusion
This paper presents novel evidence of multigenerational effects of in utero health insults We
use the sudden and unexpected influenza pandemic in 19181919 to trace out the effects of in
utero exposure to infectious disease on own outcomes for the first generation childrenrsquos
outcomes and grandchildrenrsquos outcomes We find that this exposure reduces educational
attainment and related economic outcomes across three generations For example individuals in
our second generation the WLS graduates and their siblings who have mothers who were
exposed to the 1918 flu in utero complete 15 fewer years of schooling (or 24 months less
schooling) The size of our estimated effect aligns well with those of Richter and Robling (2013)
who find that first generation in utero exposure to the 1918 flu results in 16 fewer years of
schooling (or 2 months to 25 months less schooling) for the maternal line We then extend
results to the third generation for the first time in the literature and find that individuals in the
third generation who have grandmothers who were exposed to the pandemic in utero complete
17 fewer years of schooling (or 17 months less schooling) than individuals without affected
grandmothers
21 For gen 1 female exposure in column (4) the p-value for a difference in coefficients between Panel A
of Table 4 and Table 6 is 0411 implying the effect in the third generation is statistically indistinguishable
from that in the second generation
20
There are at several potential mechanisms for the persistence of poor outcomes across
three generations we find in our data As previously outlined the intergenerational persistence in
poor outcomes due to early life health shocks could occur through socioeconomic channels
where a fetally insulted person with resulting low educational attainment raises a child in a low-
resource environment that reduces opportunities for high educational attainment of the child In
order to see multigenerational effects the reduced opportunities for high educational attainment
of the child must then reduce opportunities for their own children Alternatively
intergenerational transmission may occur through epigenetic inheritance through the germ line a
distinct possibility based on findings of the Oumlverkalix studies or phenotype-to-phenotype
transmission and cumulative intergenerational phenotypic change
Our analysis is unable to fully distinguish between these proposed intergenerational
channels the socioeconomic and biological but it is important to note that the channels are by no
means mutually exclusive Further analysis (appendix tables 3-5) that is intended to partially
account for the socioeconomic mechanism leads to mixed results in which the coefficient of first
generation flu exposure is attenuated to insignificance for some outcomes but not others This
provides evidence for a socioeconomic channel but does not eliminate the possibility of
epigenetic mechanisms or other biological channel through which socioeconomic status ldquogets
under the skinrdquo to influence outcomes of subsequent generations (eg the socioeconomic
circumstances of one generation may ldquoget under the skinrdquo of the next and subsequently be passed
via biology andor socioeconomics to other generations) Likewise the estimates of grandfather
effects on grandchildren are imprecise but consistent with transgenerational inheritance (Kuzawa
and Eisenberg 2014) Additionally while the WLS provides a unique framework to analyze
multiple generations the measurement of flu exposure is somewhat crude (from self-reported
21
parentsrsquo year of birth) and is in the right-tail of the distribution of parent birth years suggesting
the possibility of confounding from resource-poor younger mothers22 That is exposure to
influenza in the first generation is mechanically tied to motherrsquos ages of 20 and 21 because the
WLS sample is drawn based on having a child who was born in 1939 (and thus graduating high
school in 1957) While we cannot definitively separate these two effects our ability to compare
outcomes of slightly older mothers (ages 22 and 23 born in 1917 or 1916) provide evidence
more consistent with in utero exposure to influenza than impacts of having a mother who is
2021 years old
From a policy perspective our evidence may suggest a novel source of multigenerational
persistence in poverty through biosocial factors and suggest a need to consider evidence of
transgenerational social andor biological mechanisms We document the extent to which
harmful early life environments cascade through generations promoting a disadvantaged start for
those whose grandparents exposed to a hazardous early life environment
22 We specifically explore the confounding effects of younger mothers in appendix tables 7 and 8 These
tables show that younger mothers are indeed initially disadvantaged (ie less years of schooling)
however this young-mother disadvantage does not persist in subsequent generations Rather only those
mothers born in the 1918-1919 range have significant negative effects on later generations
22
References
Almond Doug 2006 Is the 1918 Influenza pandemic over Long‐term effects of in utero Influenza exposure in the post‐1940 US population Journal of Political Economy 114(4) 672-712
Almond Doug and Bhashkar Mazumder 2005 The 1918 Influenza Pandemic and Subsequent Health Outcomes An Analysis of SIPP Data American Economic Review 95(2) 258-262
Barker David James P 2007 The origins of the developmental origins theory Journal of Internal Medicine 261(5) 412-417
Benyshek Daniel C (2013) The ldquoearly liferdquo origins of obesity‐related health disorders New discoveries regarding the intergenerational transmission of developmentally programmed traits in the global cardiometabolic health crisis American Journal of Physical Anthropology 152(S57) 79-93
Brown Alan S and Elena J Derkits 2010 Prenatal infection and schizophrenia a review of epidemiologic and translational studies American Journal of Psychiatry 167(3) 261-280
Burg Steven 2000 Wisconsin and the Great Spanish Flu Epidemic of 1918rdquo Wisconsin Magazine of History 84(1) 36-56
Bygren LarsOlov Gunnar Kaati and Soumlren Edvinsson 2001 Longevity determined by paternal ancestors nutrition during their slow growth period Acta biotheoretica 49(1) 53-59
Canetta Sarah E and Alan S Brown 2012 Prenatal infection maternal immune activation and risk for schizophrenia Translational Neuroscience 3(4) 320-327
Chadwick L and Solon G (2002) Intergenerational income mobility among daughters American Economic Review 92(1) 335-344
Cohen Alan A John Tillinghast and Vladimir Canudas-Romo 2010 No consistent effects of prenatal or neonatal exposure to Spanish flu on late-life mortality in 24 developed countries Demographic Research 22(20) 579
Fatemi S Hossein Julie Earle Reena Kanodia David Kist Effat S Emamian Paul H Patterson Limin Shi and Robert Sidwell 2002 Prenatal viral infection leads to pyramidal cell atrophy and macrocephaly in adulthood implications for genesis of autism and schizophrenia Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology 22(1) 25-33
Fletcher Jason 2014 Examining the Long Term Mortality Effects of Early Health Shocks US Census Bureau Center for Economic Studies Paper No CES-WP-14-19
Kaati Gunnar Lars O Bygren and Soren Edvinsson 2002 Cardiovascular and diabetes mortality determined by nutrition during parents and grandparents slow growth period European Journal of Human Genetics EJHG 10(11) 682
Kash John C Terrence M Tumpey Sean C Proll Victoria Carter Olivia Perwitasari Matthew J Thomas Christopher F Basler et al 2006 Genomic analysis of increased host immune and cell death responses induced by 1918 influenza virus Nature 443(7111) 578-581
Kobasa Darwyn Steven M Jones Kyoko Shinya John C Kash John Copps Hideki Ebihara Yasuko Hatta et al 2007 Aberrant innate immune response in lethal infection of macaques with the 1918 influenza virus Nature 445 (7125) 319-323
Kuzawa Christopher W and Dan T Eisenberg 2014 The Long Reach of History Intergenerational and Transgenerational Pathwaysto Plasticity in Human Longevity Sociality Hierarchy Health Comparative Biodemography Papers from a Workshop National Academies Press
Li Wai-Yu Yi-Chun Chang L Jyuhn-Hsiarn Lee and Li-Jen Lee 2014 Prenatal infection affects the neuronal architecture and cognitive function in adult mice Developmental Neuroscience 36(5) 359-370
23
Lin Ming-Jen and Elaine M Liu 2014 Does in utero exposure to illness matter The 1918 influenza epidemic in Taiwan as a natural experiment Journal of Health Economics 37 152-163
Lindeboom Maarten France Portrait and Gerard J Van den Berg 2010 Long-run effects on longevity of a nutritional shock early in life the Dutch Potato famine of 1846ndash1847 Journal of Health Economics 29(5) 617-629
Mamelund SE (2018) 1918 pandemic mobidity The first wave hits the poor the second wave hits the rich Influenza and Other Respitory Viruses 12(3) 307-313
Mazumder Bhashkar Douglas Almond Kyung Park Eileen M Crimmins and Caleb E Finch 2010 Lingering prenatal effects of the 1918 influenza pandemic on cardiovascular disease Journal of developmental origins of health and disease 1(1) 26-34
Miller Veronica Y Zhu C Bucher W McGinnis L Ryan A Siegel and S Zalcman 2013 Gestational flu exposure induces changes in neurochemicals affiliative hormones and brainstem inflammation in addition to autism-like behaviors in mice Brain Behavior and Immunity 33 153-163
Myrskylauml Mikko Neil K Mehta and Virginia W Chang 2013 Early life exposure to the 1918 influenza pandemic and old-age mortality by cause of death American Journal of Public Health 103(7) e83-e90
Olivetti C and Paserman MD (2015) In the name of the son (and the daughter) Intergenerational mobility in the United States 1850-1940 American Economic Review 105(8) 2695-2724
Pembrey Marcus E Lars Olov Bygren Gunnar Kaati Soumlren Edvinsson Kate Northstone Michael Sjoumlstroumlm and Jean Golding 2006 Sex-specific male-line transgenerational responses in humans European Journal of Human Genetics 14(2) 159-166
Richter Andreacute and Per Olof Robling 2013 Multigenerational effects of the 1918-19 influenza pandemic in Sweden Swedish Institute for Social Research 5
Shors Teri and Susan H McFadden 2009 1918 Influenza A Winnebago County Wisconsin Perspective Clinical Medicine amp Research 7(4) 147-156
Sydenstricker E (1931) The incidence of influenza among persons of different economic status during the epidemic of 1918 Public Health Reports 46(4) 154-170
van den Berg Gerard J and Pia R Pinger 2013 A validation study of transgenerational effects of childhood conditions on the third generation offsprings economic and health outcomes potentially driven by epigenetic imprinting IZA Discussion Paper
Tables and Figures
Table 1 Summary Statistics
Variable N Mean Std Deviation
First GenerartionFlu Indicators
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 8368 0112 0315Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 8456 0030 0170Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 8487 0093 0290
ControlsFirst Generation Malersquos Year of Birth 8456 1907435 7021First Generation Femalersquos Year of Birth 8427 1911189 6164
Dependent VariablesFirst Generation Malersquos Years of Schooling 8456 9778 3392First Generation Femalersquos Years of Schooing 8487 10499 2804First Generation Malersquos Job Prestige 8385 330662 214361First Generation Femalersquos Job Prestige 6683 12814 19934Family SES 8487 16231 11143
Second GenerationControls
Female Indicator 12459 0530 0499Birth Year 12459 1939406 4289Birth Order 12459 2529 1828
Dependent VariablesYears of Schooling 12459 13678 2361Family Income 1992 (in $1000s) 12112 68027 177105Net Worth 2004 (in $1000s) 10498 913046 2558927Self-reported health 1992 9888 4149 0668Height (inches) 9783 67406 3851BMI 1992 9671 26742 4657
Third GenerationControls
Birth Year 19913 1963901 3636Female Indicator 19913 0497 0500Birth Order 19913 2196 1263
Dependent VariableYears of Schooling 19913 14294 2309
Summary amp Notes This table provides summary statistics for all variables used The samples above may not berepresentative for all estimations For example the inclusion of siblings in the second generation increase the sample of parentalyear of birth and the corresponding flu indicator This increase in sample does not significantly change the sample statisticsabove Similar sample changes occur for the second generation controls above For the third generation the sample is restrictedto biological children over 35 years of age
24
Tab
le2
Fir
stG
ener
atio
n
Eco
nom
icE
ffec
ts
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
am
ily
SE
SY
ears
of
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
am
ily
SE
S(1
)(2
)(3
)(4
)(5
)(6
)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale)
-01
39
-01
16lowast
-12
90lowast
lowast
(02
00)
(00
60)
(05
99)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emal
e)-0
133
-00
66
-13
61lowastlowast
lowast
(00
95)
(00
43)
(03
76)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
YY
YY
YY
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8456
8385
8456
8487
6683
8487
RS
qr
00
32
00
08
00
23
00
13
00
04
00
13
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
pro
vid
esd
irec
teff
ects
of
inu
tero
an
dea
rly
life
exp
osu
reto
the
1918
Flu
Ep
idem
ic
Bir
thye
ar
tim
etr
end
sin
lcu
de
yea
rof
bir
than
dit
ssq
uar
ean
din
clu
sion
inth
ees
tim
atio
nis
par
ent
spec
ific
All
esti
mati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
an
dard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
alsi
gnifi
can
ceis
den
oted
by
an
d
re
pre
senti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vel
y
25
Tab
le3
Fir
stG
ener
atio
n
Mar
riag
eM
arke
tE
ffec
ts
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Flu
Bir
thY
ear
Yea
rsof
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
luB
irth
Yea
rY
ears
of
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
e(1
)(2
)(3
)(4
)(5
)(6
)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale)
01
40lowast
lowastlowast-0
259
-00
39
(00
34)
(01
58)
(00
72)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emal
e)0
056lowast
lowastlowast-0
340lowast
lowastlowast-0
118lowastlowast
lowast
(00
14)
(01
17)
(00
36)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
YY
YY
YY
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8348
8487
8412
8348
8456
6660
RS
qr
00
90
00
11
00
08
01
20
00
21
00
01
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
pro
vid
esev
iden
ceof
marr
iage
mark
etse
lect
ion
inth
efi
rst
gen
erati
on
B
irth
year
tim
etr
end
sin
clu
de
year
of
bir
than
dit
ssq
uare
and
incl
usi
onin
the
esti
mat
ion
isp
aren
tsp
ecifi
cA
lles
tim
ati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
an
dard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
sign
ifica
nce
isd
enot
edby
an
d
re
pre
senti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vely
26
Table 4 Second Generation Economic Effects
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Years of Schooling
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0209lowastlowastlowast
(0073)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0084 -0059(0129) (0129)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0211lowastlowastlowast -0209lowastlowastlowast
(0075) (0075)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0085 0084 0085 0085
Panel B ln Family Income 1992
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0221lowastlowast
(0111)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0098 -0066(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0262lowastlowast -0259lowastlowast
(0116) (0116)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112R Sqr 0021 0021 0021 0021
Panel C Std Net Worth 2004
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0026(0022)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0033 0038(0047) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0038lowast -0040lowast
(0021) (0021)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498R Sqr 0007 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table provides evidence of signficant harmful effects of flu exposure in the first generation on secondgeneration economic outcomes First generation time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents(ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and itssquare and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
27
Table 5 Second Generation Health Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Self-reported health (Likert 1=very poor 5=excellent)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0054lowastlowast
(0027)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0005(0047) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0061lowastlowast -0061lowastlowast
(0028) (0028)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Panel B Height (inches)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0101)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0102 0127(0168) (0168)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0169lowast -0175lowast
(0103) (0103)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783r2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Panel C BMI
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0412lowastlowast
(0191)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0082 0023(0344) (0346)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0422lowastlowast 0421lowastlowast
(0193) (0194)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table provides evidence of harmful effects of flu exposure in the first generation on secondgeneration health outcomes First generation time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents (iegen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and itssquare and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
28
Table 6 Generation Three Effects of Generation One Flu Exposure Years of Schooling
Dependent Variable Years of Schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0125(0077)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Male) -0007 0010(0136) (0136)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Female) -0144lowast -0144lowast
(0078) (0078)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913R Sqr 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table shows that the generational effects of flu exposure extend into the third generation of theWLS First generation flu exposure is shown to have a negative association with third generation years of schooling Firstgeneration time trends are year of birth measures for each parent and their square Second generation controls inlcude anindicator for sex second generation year of birth and its square and birth order Third generation controls include a sexindicator year of birth and its square and birth order Given the focus on years of schooling the sample is restricted to thosethird generation individuals 35 years of age and older or born during or before 1970 (data were collected in 2005) Allestimation is performed with OLS with family (second generation) clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
29
(a)
Fat
her
(b)
Moth
er
Fig
ure
1F
irst
Gen
erat
ion
Dis
trib
uti
onof
Yea
rof
Bir
th
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
figu
rep
lots
the
dis
trib
uti
on
for
firs
tgen
erati
on
year
of
bir
th
Flu
exp
osu
reis
class
ified
as
bei
ng
born
inei
ther
1918
or
1919
30
Appendix Tables
Appendix Table 1 First Generation Flu Exposure Effect on Family Income
Dependent Variable Family Income ($100s) 1957
(1) (2)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -3366(2592)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -5363lowastlowast
(2390)
Birth Year Time Trends Y YObservations 7440 7456R Sqr 0013 0004
Summary amp Notes This table replaces the index of socioeconomic status with family income (in $100s) in 1957 Allestimation is performed with OLS with robust standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
31
App
endix
Tab
le2
Mar
riag
eM
arke
tE
ffec
ts
Con
trol
ling
for
Ow
nY
ear
ofB
irth
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
Job
Pre
stig
eY
ears
of
Sch
Job
Pre
stig
e
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale
)-0
052
-211
82
-01
98
-03
74
(02
03)
(131
30)
(01
61)
(14
38)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emale
)-0
346lowast
lowastlowast-2
44
97lowastlowast
lowast-0
103
-13
88
(01
16)
(76
88)
(00
94)
(08
54)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
(Male
an
dF
emale
)Y
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8348
8279
8348
6587
RS
qr
00
40
00
22
00
25
00
04
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
re-e
stim
ates
Tab
le3
wh
ile
contr
oll
ing
for
year
of
bir
than
dfl
uin
dic
ato
rsass
oci
ate
dw
ith
the
spou
sein
the
dep
end
ent
vari
ab
le
All
esti
mat
ion
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
and
ard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
sign
ifica
nce
isd
enote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
atth
e10
5
and
1le
vel
sre
spec
tive
ly
32
Appendix Table 3 2nd Gen Economic Effects Controlling for 1st Gen Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Years of Schooling
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0088(0070)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0005 0008(0119) (0119)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0116 -0117(0072) (0072)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0206 0206 0206 0206
Panel B ln Family Income 1992
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0193lowast
(0111)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0080 -0050(0184) (0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0240lowastlowast -0238lowastlowast
(0116) (0116)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112R Sqr 0024 0024 0024 0024
Panel C Std Normal Net Worth 2004
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0003(0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0047 0049(0046) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0019 -0021(0020) (0020)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498R Sqr 0033 0033 0033 0033
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 4 while controlling for generation one economic outcomes fatherrsquos years ofschooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 First generation time trends are given by year of birth and itssquare for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex secondgeneration year of birth and its square and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standarderrors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and1 levels respectively 33
Appendix Table 4 2nd Gen Health Effects Controlling for 1st Gen Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A BMI
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0352lowast
(0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0051 -0001(0342) (0344)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0372lowast 0372lowast
(0192) (0193)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671R Sqr 0035 0035 0035 0035
Panel B Count of Illnesses
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0122lowast
(0065)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0076 -0096(0102) (0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0139lowastlowast 0144lowastlowast
(0067) (0068)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9921 9921 9921 9921R Sqr 0046 0046 0046 0046
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 5 while controlling for generation one economic outcomes fatherrsquos years ofschooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 First generation time trends are given by year of birth and itssquare for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex secondgeneration year of birth and its square and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standarderrors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and1 levels respectively
34
Appendix Table 5 Generation threersquos years of schooling Controlling for previous generation economicwell-being
Dependent Variable Years of Schooling for Gen 3(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A First Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0069(0076)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0022 0034(0133) (0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0102 -0104(0077) (0078)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913R Sqr 0117 0117 0117 0117
Panel B Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0025(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0008 0013(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0038 -0039(0073) (0073)
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0190 0190 0190 0190
Panel C First and Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0008(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0016 0019(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0028 -0029(0073) (0073)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0196 0196 0196 0196
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 6 while controlling for generation one and tworsquos economic outcomes Forgeneration one these include fatherrsquos years of schooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 generation twocontrols include the WLS graduatesiblingrsquos years of schooling family income in 1992 and net worth in 2004 First generationtime trends are year of birth measures for each parent and their square Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sexsecond generation year of birth and its square and birth order Third generation controls include a sex indicator year of birthand its square and birth order Given the focus on years of schooling the sample is restricted to those third generationindividuals 35 years of age and older or born during or before 1970 (data were collected in 2005) All estimation is performedwith OLS with family (second generation) clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denotedby and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
35
Appendix Table 6 Alternative measures of schooling in the second generation
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Indicator for any college (years of schooling gt12)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0044lowastlowastlowast
(0017)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0011 -0006(0029) (0029)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0044lowastlowast -0043lowastlowast
(0017) (0017)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0071 0070 0071 0071
Panel B Indicator for incomplete college (years of schooling gt12 amp lt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0008(0013)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 -0001(0022) (0022)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0008 -0008(0013) (0013)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0005 0005 0005 0005
Panel C Indicator for college graduate (years of schooling = 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0022lowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0003 0006(0020) (0020)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0021lowast -0021lowastlowast
(0011) (0011)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0019 0019 0019 0019
Panel D Indicator for post-college education (years of schooling gt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0014(0010)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0011(0018) (0018)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0014 -0014(0010) (0010)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0039 0039 0039 0039
Summary amp Notes This table replaces our continuous measure of years of schooling with specified dummy variables Firstgeneration time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Secondgeneration controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and its square and birth order All estimationis performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
36
Appendix Table 7 Young mothers Direct effect on Gen 1 Females
Dependent Variable Years of Sch Job Prestige Family SES
(1) (2) (3)
Ind for First Gen Female Flu Exposure (1918-1919) -0325lowastlowast -0841 -1749lowastlowastlowast
(0137) (1015) (0584)
Ind for mother born during 1920-1921 -0567lowastlowastlowast 0745 -1157(0206) (1515) (0914)
Ind for mother born during 1922-1923 -0666lowastlowast 0098 -2113(0330) (2210) (1298)
Ind for mother born after 1924 -0392 5682 0384(0486) (3705) (2126)
Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y
Observations 8487 6683 8487R Sqr 0014 0005 0014
Summary amp Notes This table includes indicators for alternative years of birth Younger mothers are shown to have lessyears of schooling All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
37
App
endix
Tab
le8
You
ng
mot
her
sG
ener
atio
n2
and
3eff
ects
Gen
2
Gen
3
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
ln
Fam
In
c
1992
Std
N
W
2004
Sel
f-re
p
hea
lth
Hei
ght
BM
IY
ears
of
Sch
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
emal
eF
luE
xp
osu
re(1
918-
1919
)-0
201lowastlowast
-02
95lowastlowast
-00
45
-00
73lowastlowast
-00
90
02
07
-00
86(0
092)
(01
32)
(00
32)
(00
32)
(01
22)
(02
25)
(00
94)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
20-1
921
-00
22
-00
40
-00
10
-00
61
01
33
-04
10
01
13
(01
37)
(01
74)
(00
51)
(00
43)
(01
80)
(03
11)
(01
41)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
22-1
923
-00
96
-01
88
-00
57
00
20
04
61
-11
29lowastlowast
01
55(0
184)
(03
20)
(00
61)
(00
75)
(02
83)
(04
51)
(02
23)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
afte
r19
2404
58
-01
87
00
01
-00
27
03
12
-08
85
03
99
(03
06)
(03
94)
(00
87)
(01
27)
(04
94)
(10
70)
(03
21)
Bas
eC
ontr
ols
YY
YY
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
12459
12112
10498
9888
9783
9671
19913
RS
qr
00
85
00
21
00
08
00
09
05
86
00
29
00
79
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
incl
ud
esin
dic
ator
sfo
ralt
ernati
ve
years
of
bir
th
Bei
ng
born
toa
you
nger
moth
ergen
erall
yis
not
ass
oci
ate
dw
ith
gen
erati
on
2or
3rsquos
outc
omes
ofin
tere
st
inst
ead
n
egat
ive
effec
tsar
eon
lyob
serv
edfo
rth
ose
born
du
rin
gth
efl
u
All
esti
mati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hfa
mil
y(2
nd
gen
erat
ion
)cl
ust
ered
stan
dar
der
rors
rep
orte
din
par
enth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
signifi
can
ceis
den
ote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vel
y
38
Appendix Table 9 Summary Statistics by Gen 2 Sex
Variable N Mean Std Deviation
FemaleYears of Schooling 6607 13352 2088ln Family Income (1992 wave) 6411 9424 3577
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5654 10686 1010Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 5612 -0047 0539Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 5313 4164 0670Height (inches) 5231 646635 247936BMI 5124 26073 5114
Gen 3Years of Schooling 11947 14240 2291
MaleYears of Schooling 5852 14047 2587ln Family Income (1992 wave) 5701 10139 3030
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5264 10981 0836Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 4886 0059 1159Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 4575 4133 0665Height (inches) 4554 7055484 25596BMI 4547 27496 3948
Gen 3Years of Schooling 8046 14371 2332
Appendix Table 10A Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0090(0086)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0198 0214(0169) (0169)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104 -0114(0087) (0087)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6607 6607 6607 6607R Sqr 0075 0075 0075 0075
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
39
Appendix Table 10B Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0523lowastlowastlowast
(0170)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0483 -0410(0321) (0323)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0512lowastlowastlowast -0491lowastlowastlowast
(0179) (0180)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6411 6411 6411 6411R Sqr 0015 0013 0014 0015
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10C Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0007(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0078lowast 0078(0048) (0048)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0008 0005(0025) (0025)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5612 5612 5612 5612R Sqr 0007 0007 0007 0007
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
40
Appendix Table 10D Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0027(0036)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 -0001(0071) (0071)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0022 -0022(0037) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5313 5313 5313 5313r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10E Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -2382(13366)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 44280lowastlowast 46351lowastlowast
(22343) (22480)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -12253 -14428(13485) (13561)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5231 5231 5231 5231r2 0015 0016 0015 0016
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
41
Appendix Table 10F Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0353(0286)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0105 0060(0514) (0516)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0326 0323(0289) (0290)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5124 5124 5124 5124R Sqr 0010 0010 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0087(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0104 -0101(0190) (0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0042 -0039(0098) (0098)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 11906 11906 11906 11906R Sqr 0086 0086 0086 0086
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
42
Appendix Table 11A Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0322lowastlowastlowast
(0116)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0369lowastlowast -0338lowast
(0181) (0180)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0309lowastlowastlowast -0297lowastlowast
(0119) (0119)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5852 5852 5852 5852R Sqr 0060 0059 0060 0060
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11B RResults by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0116(0138)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0262 0261(0200) (0199)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0024 0014(0141) (0140)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5701 5701 5701 5701R Sqr 0009 0009 0008 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
43
Appendix Table 11C Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0038)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0001(0081) (0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0094lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0035)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4886 4886 4886 4886R Sqr 0004 0004 0004 0004
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
44
Appendix Table 11D Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0083lowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 0012(0062) (0062)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104lowastlowastlowast -0105lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0041)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4575 4575 4575 4575r2 0010 0009 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11E Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -15122(14275)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -22991 -20537(23287) (23176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -18595 -17540(14734) (14751)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4554 4554 4554 4554r2 0011 0011 0011 0011
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
45
Appendix Table 11F Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0465lowast
(0238)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0079 0006(0403) (0405)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0520lowastlowast 0520lowastlowast
(0245) (0246)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4547 4547 4547 4547R Sqr 0006 0005 0006 0006
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0177(0123)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0098 0144(0194) (0192)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0293lowastlowast -0302lowastlowast
(0125) (0126)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8007 8007 8007 8007R Sqr 0067 0067 0068 0068
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
46
Appendix Table 12A Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0253lowastlowast
(0107)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0252 -0226(0170) (0172)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0263lowastlowast -0242lowastlowast
(0113) (0115)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0084(0120)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0341 0339(0216) (0219)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0096 0056(0130) (0132)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459r2 0085 0085 0085 0085
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
47
Appendix Table 12B Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0128)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0196 0169(0190) (0189)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0081 -0104(0135) (0135)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0383lowastlowast
(0189)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0594lowast -0474(0349) (0355)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0339lowast -0283(0204) (0207)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112r2 0021 0021 0021 0021
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
48
Appendix Table 12C Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0034)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0019(0077) (0079)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0095lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0030) (0031)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0071lowast
(0038)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0072 0039(0087) (0089)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0104lowastlowastlowast 0100lowastlowastlowast
(0035) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498r2 0008 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
49
Appendix Table 12D Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0071lowast
(0036)[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0012 0031
(0058) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0093lowastlowast -0097lowastlowast
(0039) (0039)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0030(0045)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0031 -0051(0087) (0088)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0059 0065(0048) (0049)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
50
Appendix Table 12E Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0129 -0125(0223) (0224)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0152 -0129(0141) (0142)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0000(0158)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0454 0495lowast
(0279) (0287)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0031 -0090(0170) (0175)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783nr2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
51
Appendix Table 12F Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0376(0231)
[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0059 -0122(0402) (0407)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0441lowast 0457lowast
(0240) (0243)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0068(0316)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0282 0288(0573) (0589)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0035 -0069(0340) (0350)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
52
Appendix Table 12G Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0131(0114)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male 0114 0175(0185) (0188)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0237lowastlowast -0261lowastlowast
(0118) (0121)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0009(0133)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0225 -0292(0249) (0254)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0152 0189(0141) (0145)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913r2 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
53
Appendix Table 13 Family Income 1992 excluding non-earners (ie fam inc = 0)
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992 wave (excluding those reporting 0)(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0095lowastlowastlowast
(0033)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0031 -0019(0053) (0053)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0101lowastlowastlowast -0100lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0034)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10918 10918 10918 10918r2 0050 0049 0050 0050
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0084lowast
(0050)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0019 -0007(0089) (0090)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0083 -0083(0053) (0054)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5654 5654 5654 5654r2 0026 0026 0026 0026
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102lowastlowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0051 -0040(0060) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0113lowastlowastlowast -0112lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0040)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5264 5264 5264 5264r2 0029 0028 0029 0029
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel B in Table 4 excluding those who report $0 for familyincome All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
54
Appendix Table 14 Net Worth 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable Std Net Worth 2011 Wave of WLS(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0032lowastlowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0023lowast -0021lowast
(0012) (0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0032lowastlowastlowast -0031lowastlowastlowast
(0010) (0010)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9435 9435 9435 9435r2 0002 0002 0002 0002
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0012lowast
(0006)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0009 -0008(0009) (0009)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0012lowastlowast -0011lowastlowast
(0006) (0006)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5026 5026 5026 5026r2 0007 0006 0007 0007
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0057lowastlowast
(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0040lowast -0036lowast
(0023) (0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0057lowastlowast -0056lowastlowast
(0023) (0022)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4409 4409 4409 4409r2 0001 0001 0001 0001
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel C in Table 4 replacing the net worth measure from the 2004wave with an identical measure from the 2011 wave of the WLS All estimation is performed with OLS with family clusteredstandard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 105 and 1 levels respectively
55
Appendix Table 15A Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 1992 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0243(0152)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0107 0039(0252) (0255)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0285lowast 0282lowast
(0158) (0160)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9849 9849 9849 9849
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0007(0091)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0210 -0216(0170) (0173)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0007 0024(0095) (0097)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9858 9858 9858 9858
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0255(0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0107 -0169(0328) (0338)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0237 0252(0193) (0198)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9845 9845 9845 9845
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
56
Appendix Table 15B Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2004 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0018(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0190 0207(0160) (0162)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0066 -0083(0102) (0104)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10672 10672 10672 10672
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0096 0108(0124) (0125)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0051 -0059(0076) (0077)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10619 10619 10619 10619
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0108(0110)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0064 0027(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0181 0179(0113) (0113)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10617 10617 10617 10617
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
57
Appendix Table 15C Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0099(0092)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0244 0242(0154) (0155)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0033 0016(0099) (0100)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0021(0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0095 0097(0138) (0139)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0004 -0011(0085) (0086)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0134(0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0203 0181(0175) (0176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0140 0127(0107) (0107)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8709 8709 8709 8709
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
58
- text 10818
- tables 10-8-18
-
1
Abstract A large literature has documented links between harmful early life exposures and later life health and
socioeconomic deficits These studies however are typically unable to examine the possibility that these
shocks are transmitted to the next generation Our study traces the impacts of in utero exposure to the
1918 influenza pandemic on the outcomes of the children and grandchildren of those affected using
representative survey data from the US We find evidence of multigenerational effects on educational
economic and health outcomes
Key Terms 1918 influenza Multigenerational effects Wisconsin Longitudinal Study (WLS)
2
Introduction
Understanding persistent poverty and poor life outcomes has posed significant challenges for
social science theories as well as crafting policy responses Of particular interest is the so called
ldquolong armrdquo of childhood circumstances where events and conditions early in an individualrsquos life
(even in utero) may set in motion an accumulation of disadvantage The Developmental Origins
of Health and Disease theory (often referred to as the Barker hypothesis) suggests that in utero
insults program the fetus in ways that lead to maladaptive responses to the environment that
persist throughout the life course and explain poor long term outcomes (for a history of the
Barker hypothesis see Barker 2007) However since the likelihood of experiencing an early
insult is related to parental circumstances there is an empirical challenge to causally examining
the impacts of early insults This issue ties into a key question of whether intergenerational
persistence in poor outcomes may stem in part from genetic mechanisms that may be more
resistant to policy efforts In order to separate potential channels some research has focused on
exogenous (ie unrelated to genetics) health shocks during early life to explore long term
outcomes
Indeed a strong causal link between harmful early life in utero shocks and lowered later
life health and economic outcomes has been found in a number of clearly identified empirical
studies In addition to separating genetic and non-genetic mechanisms many of these
investigations are also able to uncover biological (ie fetal programming) explanations by
studying specific insults including the effects of prenatal nutritional status and exposure to
infectious disease Without the use of experimental (ie animal model) research designs these
studies use so-called quasi-experimental designs by leveraging striking demographic events such
as the Dutch famine and the 1918 flu pandemic (Almond 2006 Lindeboom Portrait et al 2010)
3
The results generally suggest large lifelong impacts of in utero insults on economic and health
outcomes
With these results established a next question is whether they might persist into the
outcomes of future generations We explore the question of intergenerational persistence of fetal
insults by extending previous work that uses the 1918 influenza pandemic as a natural
experiment (Almond 2006) by adding multigenerational data We document that in utero
exposure to the pandemic can be seen in the educational attainments of multiple generations
More specifically we find a reduction of approximately 110th a year of schooling (statistically
insignificant) for the first generation 15th a year of schooling for the second generation and
16th of a year of schooling for the third generation1 We also show large effects on economic as
well as health outcomes for the second generation Our findings suggest the importance of in
utero health insults that persist across multiple generations and allow a shift in our analytical
frame from the ldquolong arm of childhood circumstancesrdquo to the ldquolong arm of previous generationrsquos
circumstancesrdquo or alternatively ldquothe long reach of historyrdquo (Kuzawa and Eisenberg 2014) Our
results can also be interpreted in the context of assessing benefits of policy and environmental
conditions that reduce the likelihood of in utero health insults where the full benefits may unfold
over multiple generations
Background Literature
Our research intersects several related literatures There is a large literature that
documents associations between early life insults and later life outcomes following the original
1 As mentioned in greater detail in 31 the first generation is comprised of the parents from the Wisconsin
Longitudinal Study (WLS) This is the generation that is treated or exposed in utero to the 1918 flu
epidemic The second generation is the WLS graduates and siblings who are the focus of the WLS and
the third generation is comprised of the offspring of the WLS graduates and siblings
4
Barker Hypothesis In addition we draw on literature that explores multigenerational linkages of
environmental exposures on life course outcomes These literatures are rarely unified in a single
analysis largely due to data constraints We overcome these limitations by leveraging a three-
generational dataset that coincides with a key demographic event from the early 20th centurymdash
the 19181919 influenza epidemic
The seminal work of the economist Douglas Almond (2006) was one of the first papers to
exploit the 1918 flu pandemic as a natural experiment and to test whether in utero exposure to
infectious disease influences later life outcomes Using US census microdata to situate
respondent births in both time (birth quarter) and place (exploiting geographic variation in the
severity of the flu) Almond (2006) finds evidence of lower educational attainment higher rates
of physical disability as well as lower income and socioeconomic status for cohorts exposed to
the 19181919 flu while in utero (estimated using birth quarter age and timing of the flu) as
compared to unexposed adjacent cohorts In a related paper Almond and Mazumder (2005) use a
similar approach with the Survey of Income and Program Participation and find negative health
effects for adults who were in utero (based on birth quarter) during the outbreak Subsequent
work has built on these outcomes finding excess cardiovascular disease (Mazumder Almond et
al 2010) increased likelihood of kidney disease diabetes circulatory and respiratory problems
in old age (Lin and Liu 2014) and increased old-age mortality in non-cancer related causes
(Myrskylauml Mehta et al 2013 Fletcher 2014)2 More broadly the negative effect from the flu
dovetails with other negative in utero shocks see for example Catalano et al (2011) Roseboom
et al (2001) Schulz (2010) and Torche (2011)
2 Though Cohen Tillinghast and Canudas-Romo (2010) and Fletcher (2014) found no effects on overall
mortality
5
The mechanisms underlying these broad effects from in utero influenza exposure are not
fully understood in humans3 However in studies of monkeys (Kobasa Jones et al 2007) and
mice (Kash Tumpey et al 2006) it has been shown that the reconstructed 1918 flu virus triggers
an exceptionally intense and prolonged innate immune response More specifically gene-
expression analysis shows that proteins involved in the innate immune system have a higher and
sustained expression when triggered by the 1918 reconstructed virus than when triggered by the
contemporary flu of the same H1N1-type (Kobasa Jones et al 2007) While the specific 1918 flu
strain cannot be studied in humans through purposeful exposure for ethical reasons both animal
and human studies have linked the maternal immune response during severe flu infection in
pregnancy to offspring brain development as well as impaired adult behavior and cognitive
outcomes (Fatemi Earle et al 2002 Brown and Derkits 2010 Canetta and Brown 2012 Miller
Zhu et al 2013 Li Chang et al 2014) These results align with research in psychology that links
inflammatory processes in mothersmdashincluding stress and infection as well as stress-induced
immunosuppressionmdashto poor birth outcomes (for a review see Stretter 2011) Recent evidence
suggests that in utero exposure to the 1918 flu may not only affect adult outcomes but also the
outcomes of subsequent generations Richter and Robling (2013) were the first to identify an
effect of first generation prenatal exposure (using birth trimester) to the 1918 flu pandemic on
the outcomes of the second generation (the children of those exposed to the 1918 flu in utero)
The authors use historical influenza morbidity data matched to birth information to identify
potential exposure to the 1918 flu and find that first generation maternal in utero exposure in the
second trimester lowers educational attainment for female children by 2-25 months or by 15-
18 percent but find no such effect for male children An analogous result is identified for first
6
generation paternal exposure and male outcomes that is first generation exposure in the second
trimester lowers educational attainment for male children by 24 to 3 months or by 18-22
percent but paternal exposure showed no such effect for females Taken together first
generation exposure to the 1918 flu while in utero results in 2 to 3 months less schooling for the
second generation
Several pathways exist for the intergenerational transmission of early life health shocks
Through socioeconomic channels intergenerational persistence in poor outcomes could occur
when a fetally insulted parent marred by poorer health and socioeconomic outcomes raises a
child in a low-resource environment Biologically phenotype-to-phenotype transmission and
epigenetic inheritance are hypothesized to be key mechanisms for intergenerational transmission
(Kuzawa and Eisenberg 2014) In cases of in utero or very early life shocks phenotype-to-
phenotype transmission impacts the outcomes of the next generation through changes in parental
biological systems that lead to altered gestational andor lactation environments for offspring
(eg pre-pregnancy hypertension is linked to low birthweight) Importantly socioeconomic and
biological channels are not mutually exclusive and can also interact with one another that is the
effects of adult phenotype on offspring extend beyond physiology and metabolism to include
parental behaviorenvironmental response as a potential source of phenotypic transmission and
potentially even cumulative intergenerational phenotypic change (Benyshek 2013) For example
stress experienced by a mother prenatally may alter stress regulation in offspring which may in
turn increase risk for the same adult phenotype in the offspring as well as in subsequent
generations Epigenetic inheritance in comparison occurs when parental experiences alter gene
expression that is subsequently transmitted to offspring and future generations through the germ
line Here again there is an opportunity for socioeconomic circumstances to interact with
7
biologymdasheg where poverty through the experience of stress alters gene expression for
generations Our analysis of second generation outcomes will explore some of these channels
but not attempt to prioritize one over another
Work extending effects of in utero exposure to the 1918 flu to the third generation (the
grandchildren of those originally exposed in utero) in humans to the best of the authorsrsquo
knowledge does not exist The strongest evidence for a potential biological channel across
multiple generations comes from studies of historical data from Oumlverkalix region in Northern
Sweden that exploit variance in first generation grandparental food supply during childhood
Bygren Kaati et al (2001) for example find that an excess of food during the period just before
adolescence a time labeled the ldquoslow growth periodrdquo (SGP) shortens the grandsonrsquos longevity
A later study using the Oumlverkalix data replicates the results of Bygren Kaati et al (2001) in a
second cohort and further extends the results to include an association between first generation
paternal grandmotherrsquos food supply and granddaughterrsquos mortality risk (Pembrey Bygren et al
2006)4
Our work builds off of this evidence to conduct novel examinations of multigenerational
effects of in utero exposures in human populations The current research leverages a unique
survey to measure the multigenerational impacts of in utero exposure to the 1918 flu pandemic
Our hypothesis is that the previously documented direct effects of such shocks extend into the
outcomes of the second generation Going further we also estimate whether these effects
4 Van den Berg and Pinger (2014) externally validated the potential for transmission across three
generations by analyzing the impact of the German famine of 1916-1918 on the mental health outcomes
(an index from survey questions accounting for rsquogeneral mental healthrsquo rsquoemotional functioningrsquo rsquosocial
functioningrsquo and rsquovitalityrsquo) of the children and grandchildren of those exposed to the famine during their
SGP The authors find that paternal (maternal) grandfather (grandmothers) exposure during their SGP is
associated with better mental health in grandsons (granddaughters)
8
continue into the third generation In other words we ask whether the singular in utero shock has
a multigenerational effect--on the adult outcomes of those exposed in utero on their children
and on their grandchildren
Data and Empirical Methodology
Data
In order to examine multigenerational effects of an in utero exposure we require
multigenerational data Very few datasets in the US have a multigenerational component and fit
the relevant time period for our exposure (ie birth cohorts around 1918) Our data come from
the Wisconsin Longitudinal Survey (WLS) which is a random one-third survey of graduating
high school seniors in Wisconsin in 1957 The majority of these respondents were born in 1939
and form our second generation Thus the parents of the WLS graduates form our first
generation with birth years overlapping the 19181919 in utero exposure period This allows for
the creation of our primary measure for in utero exposure to the 1918 flu epidemic an indicator
9
for either first generation parent being born during the 1918-1919 range56 Additional data are
collected on the later life outcomes of the WLS graduates and a selected sibling as well as a
limited number of outcomes for the children (third generation) of the graduatessiblings
providing the structure for our multigenerational analysis
Summary statistics are presented in table 1 As shown approximately 10 percent of WLS
parents are born in either 1918 or 1919 On average fathers are born in 1907 and mothers are
born in 1911 consequently a birth year of 1918 or 1919 is closer to the right-tail of the
distribution of births and the rate of 10 percent is driven primarily by relatively young mother
exposures7 Since WLS graduatersquos fathers tend to be on average 4 years older than mothers this
right-tail problem is larger for generation 1 males This is seen in Figure 1 While not the
primary focus of the WLS data collection several parental (first generation) outcomes are
5 Parent year of birth is recorded from the WLS graduates This self-reported measure is used to create
the indicator of flu exposure those parents born in 1918 or 1919 To maximize sample size we use
differing waves of the WLS and reported birth years from biological siblings to supplement the reported
year of birth from WLS graduates Parent birth years are first collected for the 199293 graduate wave
Missing observations are then sequentially added from graduate reports in later wavesmdash2003 and 2011
After using all graduate reported year of parent birth variables observations are then filled in from
identically reported measures from a selected biological sibling
Specifically for mothers (gen 1 females) 7976 observations come from graduates in the 199293
wave 366 additional observations come from the 200305 wave 84 observations come from 2011 wave
and 68 observations come from the selected sibling This leaves a base sample size of 8494 ~94 of
which is from the graduate reported 199293 wave For fathers (gen 1 males) 7929 observations come
from graduates in the 199293 wave 361 additional observations come from the 200305 wave 77 come
from the 2011 wave and 91 observations come from siblings leaving a base sample size of 8458 (again
~94 is from the grad reported 199293 wave)
From this base 7 observations are dropped for gen-1-femalersquos (WLS motherrsquos) year of birth due
to reported gen 2rsquos year of birth being 10 or less years after gen 1rsquos year of birth 45 additional
observations are lost if this threshold is increased to 15 years For gen-1-malersquos year of birth 2
observations are removed for identical reasons this increases to 25 additional observations for the 15 year
threshold We attribute this reduction in the sample mostly to measurement error 6 The 1918 flu epidemic in Wisconsin was from September 1918 through December 1918 but did not
reach the severity experienced in many other states According to historical records Wisconsin had the
fourth lowest numbers of deaths out of 25 reporting states (Burg 2000 Shors and McFadden 2009) 7 Appendix tables 7 and 8 provide evidence that our results are not driven solely by confounding between
exposure to the influenza pandemic and being young mothers
10
available including years of schooling occupational prestige and family socioeconomic status
in 19578
[insert table 1 here]
The primary focus of the WLS data collection is high school seniors in 1957 Wisconsin
the second generation of our study Given this focus on graduates (and their siblings) a large
number of economic and health variables are available in each wave of the WLS (irregular
intervals roughly 10-15 years apart 197577 19929394 2003-20052004-2007 and in 2011)
In addition to examining years of schooling several additional dependent variables in the second
generation intend to capture broad differences in economic and health well-being9 These include
income during the peak earning years (ie family income collected when graduates are 53 years
of age on average) net worth at initial retirement age (ie net worth collected when graduates
are 65 years of age on average) and general indicators of health measured by body mass index
and a count of doctor diagnosed illnesses (both collected in the wave when graduates are age 53
on average) Finally the WLS data contains information that is collected from the second
generation about the third generation we focus on years of schooling as the main outcome of
interest
8 The index of socioeconomic status is a factor weighted score combining data on father and motherrsquos
years of schooling fatherrsquos occupational prestige and average parental income Replacing this measure
with average parental income (see appendix table 1) does not change the effect of the flu indicator Job
prestige measures for both mother and father are based on Duncanrsquos Socioeconomic Index which is a
measure of job prestige based on income education and surveyed perceptions of general social standing
for certain occupations (Duncan 1961) 9 We note that our three generations of individuals are drawn from three non-overlapping set of birth
years the mean birth year for generation 1 is ~1910 generation 2 is ~1940 generation 3 is ~1965 Thus
since we are performing the analysis separately by generation we are controlling for much of the time-
variation in the meaning of education We also perform analysis stratified by sex in Appendix Tables 10-
12 so that we can also control for the differential meaning of education in each generation
11
Empirical Methodology
Our empirical strategy follows that of Almond (2006) by examining harmful effects of being
exposed in utero on later life outcomes We then extend this analysis by estimating
multigenerational impacts on both the second and third generations In so doing the primary
estimating equation is given by the following form
119910119894119891119892 = 1205730 + 1205731(119884119874119861 = 191819)1198911 + 120632119931119943120783 + 120633119935119946119943119944 + 120576119894119891119892
Our primary focus is on the coefficient 1205731 which measures the effect of having a
parentgrandparent born in 1918-1919 on a number of outcomes for 119894 individuals in 119891 families
for generation 119892 Parent year of birth time trends and their square are denoted by 120632119931119943120783 120633119935119946119943119944
represents generation specific controls and 120576119894119891119892 is representative of a family clustered error
term
For the first generation we control for birth year and its square capturing age-specific
trends that are tied to our first-generation outcomes of interest (eg years of schooling) For the
analysis of second and third generations birth years and squares for both first generation parents
are included as controls along with generation-specific controls for sex age and birth order
Our estimation strategy follows an intent to treat design It is likely that the actual
incidence of flu differed by socioeconomic status and social standing (Mamelund 2018
Sydenstricker 1931) Our use of year-of-birth however avoids potential confounding by SES
because allmdashboth rich and poormdashare defined as treated if they are born in one of the two years
Although avoiding confounders associated with actual disease incidence this estimation strategy
will underestimate the true effect of flu exposure lowering the magnitude of our coefficient of
interest
12
Results
First Generation
Our initial analysis explores the direct effects of being born during the 1918 Influenza Epidemic
While health data are sparse for the WLS graduatersquos parents (first generation) a number of
economic outcomes are available especially during the initial sample year of 1957 Table 2
explores the relationship between these economic variables and an indicator for birth during
19181919 Columns (1)-(3) of table 2 show the relationship between a WLS graduatersquos father
being born during 19181919 and the fatherrsquos years of schooling the fatherrsquos occupational
prestige and the familyrsquos index of socioeconomic status in 1957 (ie when the first generation
members are approximately 40 years old) While statistically insignificant a negative association
is observed between years of schooling and being born in 1918 or 191910 This is carried over
into fatherrsquos job prestige in column (2) from which the indicator of in utero exposure to the 1918
flu is associated with an approximate 01 standard deviation decline in the index of occupational
prestige These effects culminate in column (3) which shows a statistically significant negative
effect of in utero exposure to the flu and later life economic well-being a 13 decline in the SES
index which corresponds to a decline of roughly 10 percent of a standard deviation The findings
of table 2 corroborate past studies that show in utero exposure to the 1918 flu led to poorer
economic outcomes later in life (Almond 2006)11
[insert table 2 here]
10 First generation years of schooling are reported by the second generation WLS graduates Measurement
error is likely which may result in the insignificant coefficients of table 2 11 Richter and Robling (2013 Table 12) find a similar effect for in utero female exposure to flu in the first
trimester
13
Mirroring the results for males in the first generation a negative but statistically
insignificant association is observed between an indicator of birth in 19181919 and schooling
for first generation females This association however becomes statistically significant at the 1
percent level for the index of family SES the coefficient being nearly identical to that of a
malersquos in utero exposure to the flu though it is unclear whether these effects flow from labor
market andor marriage market sources The findings of table 2 are extended in table 3 which
explores potential marriage market effects of early life exposure to the flu epidemic12
Column (1) of table 3 regresses the indicator for male in utero exposure on an identical
measure for spousersquos exposure Females who were born in 19181919 were 5 percentage points
more likely to marry men who were also born during the same period Furthermore as shown in
columns (2) and (3) these women were more likely to marry men with fewer years of school and
lower job prestige These effects are significant at the 1 percent level Similar effects are seen in
columns (4)-(6) for 19181919 born males who are 14 percentage points more likely to marry flu
exposed females (p=000) and marry females with 026 fewer years of schooling (p=0101)
Given the findings of table 3 however we cannot rule out that this is a marriage market effect13
[insert table 3 here]
Second Generation
Our hypothesis is that the direct effects observed in tables 2 and 3 extend into future generations
To address this hypothesis we regress a number of economic and health outcomes of the WLS
graduates and siblings the offspring of the first generation examined in tables 2 and 3 These
12 Mothers and fathers of WLS graduates are assumed to be married 13 Appendix table 2 repeats the estimation of table 3 while also controlling for an indicator of own-flu
exposure and own year of birth measures
14
estimations are performed in tables 4 and 5 Column (1) in both tables focus on an indicator for
either parent being born in 19181919 the primary regressor of column (2) is an indicator for
fatherrsquos (gen 1 males) in utero exposure to the 1918 flu column (3) considers motherrsquos (gen 1
females) exposure and column (4) includes separate indicators for both mother and fatherrsquos
exposure Controls included in all columns include fatherrsquos year of birth and its square motherrsquos
year of birth and its square an indicator for sex in the second generation a measure of birth
order in the second generation and second-generation year of birth and its square
Table 4 focuses on economic outcomes of the WLS graduates To reiterate our
hypothesis is that in utero exposure to the 1918 influenza pandemic has effects that persist for
multiple generations Table 2 shows the direct first generation effects while table 4 begins to
show the indirect effects that are transmitted to offspring Panel A regresses years of schooling in
the second generation on indicators of first generation exposure to the 1918 flu14 From column
(1) either parent being born in 19181919 is associated with a statistically significant decline of
021 years of schooling in the second generation This estimate is likely understated because the
sampling design of the WLS is a focus on high school seniors thus individuals with fewer than
twelve years of schooling are underrepresented in the data15 Columns (2)-(4) disambiguate this
effect into the maternal and paternal lines From which the effect of column (1) seems to be
driven by motherrsquos in utero exposure to the flu16
14 Appendix Table 6 includes a number of alternative measures for years of schooling in place of the
simple count used in Table 4 15 Table 3 includes selected siblings of the WLS graduates These siblings do not have to be high school
graduates 16 This finding differs from that of Richter and Robling (2013) who find maternal exposure tied to
daughter outcomes and paternal exposure tied to son outcomes
15
The findings of Panel A are extended into Panel B which replaces years of schooling as
the dependent variable with the natural log of family income for the 1992 wave a time when the
second generation respondents are 53 years of age on average and represents a time of peak
earning in the life course As with years of schooling a negative association is seen throughout
the specifications of Panel B Having either parent born in 19181919 is associated with a 22
percent decline in family income Once again this effect seems to be driven by motherrsquos not
fatherrsquos exposure Panel C replaces income with a measure of net worth for the 2004 wave This
measure of net worth is when the second generation respondents are on average 65 years of age
and is representative of earnings throughout the life course The dual indicator of column (1) is
negative but statistically insignificant at conventional levels (p=023) When looking at the effect
of mother exposure in column (3) however the effect becomes statistically significant at the
10 level (p=0069) implying those with mothers born during 19181919 have approximately
$36000 less in net worth by 2004
Following the broader health focus of the Barker hypothesis the economic effects of
table 4 are replaced with health measures in table 5 We consider three broad measures of
general health and well-being later in life self-reported health in later life (~53 years old)
height and BMI (again at ~53) The use of self-reported health is intended to capture general
well-being later in life (Fortin et al 2017) this is tested in Panel A of table 5 Mazumder et al
(2010) provide evidence that in utero exposure to the 1918 flu is associated with a reduction in
height and an increase cardiovascular disease so it is possible that these negative health
outcomes could be transmitted to offspring this is tested in Panel B of table 517 And given
17 Appendix Table 14 tests indicators for a number self-reported health conditions As shown a weak
positive association is shown between gen 1 female flu exposure and an indicator of cardiovascular
16
prior work linking early life exposure to the Dutch famine to BMI (Roseboom et al 2000) and
metabolic function (Lumey et al 2009) in adulthood as well as the fact that both the Dutch
famine and the 1918 flu impacted maternal stress and nutritional status18 we examine BMI as
another broad indicator of health for the second generation this is tested in Panel C of table 5 A
consistent pattern emerges across all panels Like SES outcomes in table 4 gen 1 female
exposure to the flu is shown to have negative statistically significant association with all health
outcomes in the second generation
From Panel A parentalmdashor gen 1mdashflu exposure reduces self-reported health by roughly
half a point (plt005) on a Likert scale from 1-5 1 being very poor health and 5 being excellent
health As shown and like prior estimates this effect is driven by gen 1 female exposure For
adult height gen 1 female exposure is associated with a reduction of about 02 inches (plt010)
which is larger than the direct effect documented by Mazumder et al of 005 inches however
Mazumder et alrsquos estimated effect falls within the 95 confidence interval of our estimated
coefficient Panel C considers the effect on second generation BMI From column (1) having
either parent being born in 19181919 is associated with a statistically significant increase in the
offspringrsquos BMI of 041 points As with the economic effects of table 4 this increase in BMI
appears to be driven by motherrsquos exposure This is seen in columns (2)-(4) which estimate a
statistically significant positive coefficient for motherrsquos exposure but a coefficient that is
statistically indistinguishable from zero for fatherrsquos exposure
disease during the 199293 wave of the WLS (Appendix Table 15A) This association however reduced
in magnitude and statistical significance for later-life waves of the WLS (Appendix Table 15B and 15C) 18 The Dutch famine influenced maternal nutritional status directly through caloric restriction and the
1918 flu through symptoms such as appetite loss vomiting andor diarrhea
17
A persistent effect of in utero exposure to the 1918 Flu is seen in tables 4 and 5 First
generation exposure consistently has a statistically significant and economically meaningful
effect on second generation health and economic outcomes And this effect appears to be driven
solely by motherrsquos exposure although due to marriage market associations we cannot
determine definitively that motherrsquos exposure produces this multigenerational effect through
biological mechanisms
Appendix Tables 10A-11G re-estimate Tables 4 and 5 splitting the sample by generation
2rsquos sex In short the negative effects of first generation exposure appear to be more prominent
in second generation males such that the harmful multi-generational effects are most prominent
in second generation men whose mothers were exposed to the 1918 flu19 Potential reasons for
this sex disparity could be tied to general trends in the differences between sons and daughters in
intergenerational mobility (Chadwick and Solon 2002) In other words sons are more likely to
inherit their families SES standing than daughters This implies that the negative gen 1 shock
from in utero exposure is more likely to affect sons through the proposed SES channel than
daughters resulting in a larger estimated effect for gen 2 males Furthermore there appears to
be a growing gap between in the intergenerational elastiticy between sons and daughters during
the time period in question (Olivetti and Paserman 2015) Another potential reason for the sex
difference could be the larger standard deviation in gen 2 male outcomes this is shown in
Appendix Table 9 Finally the findings of Appendix Tables 10A-11G differ from Richter and
Robling (2013) who show homogeneous sex effects from in utero flu exposure for education
19 When omitting those with no family income during the 1992 wave of the WLS negative effects from
gen 1 female flu exposure are primarily seen in second generation males This indicates however that
there is a greater frequency of no income amongst second generation females from gen 1 flu exposure
Additionally when looking at net worth in the 2011 wave of the WLS we see no difference by gen 2rsquos
sex
18
gen 1 female exposure led to reduction in gen 2 female education and gen 1 male exposure is
associated with gen 2 male education Given this disparity between the two studies our under-
representation for gen 1 male exposure and the mixed findings in Tables 10A-11G we view our
general finding of gen 1 female exposure working through gen 2 male outcomes as preliminary
and suggestive Indeed as we test in Appendix Tables 12A-12G the sex differences in gen 2 are
often not statistically significant
Third Generation
As mentioned previously the focus of the WLS data collection is high school graduates in 1957
but additional samples have been collected for a number of variables on the children of these
graduates Table 6 explores the effects of the WLS parents on the years of schooling for WLS
children estimating the effect of flu exposure across three generations20
Consistent with the second-generation estimations a persistent effect of the in utero flu
exposure is observed and this effect seems to be driven by grandmother exposure (gen 1
female) The joint indicator for either parent is negative and close to statistical significance at
the 10 percent level (p=0106) suggesting that exposure in the first generation is associated with
012 years of schooling less in the third generation The effect of grandfather exposure is
insignificantly different from zero while the coefficient of grandmother exposure is similar in
magnitude to the joint estimate of column (1) while being statistically significant at the 10
level (p=0066) Furthermore the decline in schooling seen in the third generation is similar but
slightly smaller in magnitude compared to the second generation effects seen in Panel A of table
20Analysis of the WLS gradsibling children (ie the third generation) restricts the sample to those
children that are biological children and that are 35 years of age and older by the 20032004 wave of the
WLS
19
421 This again indicates a persistent effect that may be attenuating over time Importantly while
the estimate for grandfather exposure is insignificant it is consistent with intergenerational
inheritance (Kuzawa and Eisenberg 2014) To say the same for grandmother exposure would
require effects to persist into the fourth generation (due to the differences in gametic
development) and this data is not available in the WLS
Conclusion
This paper presents novel evidence of multigenerational effects of in utero health insults We
use the sudden and unexpected influenza pandemic in 19181919 to trace out the effects of in
utero exposure to infectious disease on own outcomes for the first generation childrenrsquos
outcomes and grandchildrenrsquos outcomes We find that this exposure reduces educational
attainment and related economic outcomes across three generations For example individuals in
our second generation the WLS graduates and their siblings who have mothers who were
exposed to the 1918 flu in utero complete 15 fewer years of schooling (or 24 months less
schooling) The size of our estimated effect aligns well with those of Richter and Robling (2013)
who find that first generation in utero exposure to the 1918 flu results in 16 fewer years of
schooling (or 2 months to 25 months less schooling) for the maternal line We then extend
results to the third generation for the first time in the literature and find that individuals in the
third generation who have grandmothers who were exposed to the pandemic in utero complete
17 fewer years of schooling (or 17 months less schooling) than individuals without affected
grandmothers
21 For gen 1 female exposure in column (4) the p-value for a difference in coefficients between Panel A
of Table 4 and Table 6 is 0411 implying the effect in the third generation is statistically indistinguishable
from that in the second generation
20
There are at several potential mechanisms for the persistence of poor outcomes across
three generations we find in our data As previously outlined the intergenerational persistence in
poor outcomes due to early life health shocks could occur through socioeconomic channels
where a fetally insulted person with resulting low educational attainment raises a child in a low-
resource environment that reduces opportunities for high educational attainment of the child In
order to see multigenerational effects the reduced opportunities for high educational attainment
of the child must then reduce opportunities for their own children Alternatively
intergenerational transmission may occur through epigenetic inheritance through the germ line a
distinct possibility based on findings of the Oumlverkalix studies or phenotype-to-phenotype
transmission and cumulative intergenerational phenotypic change
Our analysis is unable to fully distinguish between these proposed intergenerational
channels the socioeconomic and biological but it is important to note that the channels are by no
means mutually exclusive Further analysis (appendix tables 3-5) that is intended to partially
account for the socioeconomic mechanism leads to mixed results in which the coefficient of first
generation flu exposure is attenuated to insignificance for some outcomes but not others This
provides evidence for a socioeconomic channel but does not eliminate the possibility of
epigenetic mechanisms or other biological channel through which socioeconomic status ldquogets
under the skinrdquo to influence outcomes of subsequent generations (eg the socioeconomic
circumstances of one generation may ldquoget under the skinrdquo of the next and subsequently be passed
via biology andor socioeconomics to other generations) Likewise the estimates of grandfather
effects on grandchildren are imprecise but consistent with transgenerational inheritance (Kuzawa
and Eisenberg 2014) Additionally while the WLS provides a unique framework to analyze
multiple generations the measurement of flu exposure is somewhat crude (from self-reported
21
parentsrsquo year of birth) and is in the right-tail of the distribution of parent birth years suggesting
the possibility of confounding from resource-poor younger mothers22 That is exposure to
influenza in the first generation is mechanically tied to motherrsquos ages of 20 and 21 because the
WLS sample is drawn based on having a child who was born in 1939 (and thus graduating high
school in 1957) While we cannot definitively separate these two effects our ability to compare
outcomes of slightly older mothers (ages 22 and 23 born in 1917 or 1916) provide evidence
more consistent with in utero exposure to influenza than impacts of having a mother who is
2021 years old
From a policy perspective our evidence may suggest a novel source of multigenerational
persistence in poverty through biosocial factors and suggest a need to consider evidence of
transgenerational social andor biological mechanisms We document the extent to which
harmful early life environments cascade through generations promoting a disadvantaged start for
those whose grandparents exposed to a hazardous early life environment
22 We specifically explore the confounding effects of younger mothers in appendix tables 7 and 8 These
tables show that younger mothers are indeed initially disadvantaged (ie less years of schooling)
however this young-mother disadvantage does not persist in subsequent generations Rather only those
mothers born in the 1918-1919 range have significant negative effects on later generations
22
References
Almond Doug 2006 Is the 1918 Influenza pandemic over Long‐term effects of in utero Influenza exposure in the post‐1940 US population Journal of Political Economy 114(4) 672-712
Almond Doug and Bhashkar Mazumder 2005 The 1918 Influenza Pandemic and Subsequent Health Outcomes An Analysis of SIPP Data American Economic Review 95(2) 258-262
Barker David James P 2007 The origins of the developmental origins theory Journal of Internal Medicine 261(5) 412-417
Benyshek Daniel C (2013) The ldquoearly liferdquo origins of obesity‐related health disorders New discoveries regarding the intergenerational transmission of developmentally programmed traits in the global cardiometabolic health crisis American Journal of Physical Anthropology 152(S57) 79-93
Brown Alan S and Elena J Derkits 2010 Prenatal infection and schizophrenia a review of epidemiologic and translational studies American Journal of Psychiatry 167(3) 261-280
Burg Steven 2000 Wisconsin and the Great Spanish Flu Epidemic of 1918rdquo Wisconsin Magazine of History 84(1) 36-56
Bygren LarsOlov Gunnar Kaati and Soumlren Edvinsson 2001 Longevity determined by paternal ancestors nutrition during their slow growth period Acta biotheoretica 49(1) 53-59
Canetta Sarah E and Alan S Brown 2012 Prenatal infection maternal immune activation and risk for schizophrenia Translational Neuroscience 3(4) 320-327
Chadwick L and Solon G (2002) Intergenerational income mobility among daughters American Economic Review 92(1) 335-344
Cohen Alan A John Tillinghast and Vladimir Canudas-Romo 2010 No consistent effects of prenatal or neonatal exposure to Spanish flu on late-life mortality in 24 developed countries Demographic Research 22(20) 579
Fatemi S Hossein Julie Earle Reena Kanodia David Kist Effat S Emamian Paul H Patterson Limin Shi and Robert Sidwell 2002 Prenatal viral infection leads to pyramidal cell atrophy and macrocephaly in adulthood implications for genesis of autism and schizophrenia Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology 22(1) 25-33
Fletcher Jason 2014 Examining the Long Term Mortality Effects of Early Health Shocks US Census Bureau Center for Economic Studies Paper No CES-WP-14-19
Kaati Gunnar Lars O Bygren and Soren Edvinsson 2002 Cardiovascular and diabetes mortality determined by nutrition during parents and grandparents slow growth period European Journal of Human Genetics EJHG 10(11) 682
Kash John C Terrence M Tumpey Sean C Proll Victoria Carter Olivia Perwitasari Matthew J Thomas Christopher F Basler et al 2006 Genomic analysis of increased host immune and cell death responses induced by 1918 influenza virus Nature 443(7111) 578-581
Kobasa Darwyn Steven M Jones Kyoko Shinya John C Kash John Copps Hideki Ebihara Yasuko Hatta et al 2007 Aberrant innate immune response in lethal infection of macaques with the 1918 influenza virus Nature 445 (7125) 319-323
Kuzawa Christopher W and Dan T Eisenberg 2014 The Long Reach of History Intergenerational and Transgenerational Pathwaysto Plasticity in Human Longevity Sociality Hierarchy Health Comparative Biodemography Papers from a Workshop National Academies Press
Li Wai-Yu Yi-Chun Chang L Jyuhn-Hsiarn Lee and Li-Jen Lee 2014 Prenatal infection affects the neuronal architecture and cognitive function in adult mice Developmental Neuroscience 36(5) 359-370
23
Lin Ming-Jen and Elaine M Liu 2014 Does in utero exposure to illness matter The 1918 influenza epidemic in Taiwan as a natural experiment Journal of Health Economics 37 152-163
Lindeboom Maarten France Portrait and Gerard J Van den Berg 2010 Long-run effects on longevity of a nutritional shock early in life the Dutch Potato famine of 1846ndash1847 Journal of Health Economics 29(5) 617-629
Mamelund SE (2018) 1918 pandemic mobidity The first wave hits the poor the second wave hits the rich Influenza and Other Respitory Viruses 12(3) 307-313
Mazumder Bhashkar Douglas Almond Kyung Park Eileen M Crimmins and Caleb E Finch 2010 Lingering prenatal effects of the 1918 influenza pandemic on cardiovascular disease Journal of developmental origins of health and disease 1(1) 26-34
Miller Veronica Y Zhu C Bucher W McGinnis L Ryan A Siegel and S Zalcman 2013 Gestational flu exposure induces changes in neurochemicals affiliative hormones and brainstem inflammation in addition to autism-like behaviors in mice Brain Behavior and Immunity 33 153-163
Myrskylauml Mikko Neil K Mehta and Virginia W Chang 2013 Early life exposure to the 1918 influenza pandemic and old-age mortality by cause of death American Journal of Public Health 103(7) e83-e90
Olivetti C and Paserman MD (2015) In the name of the son (and the daughter) Intergenerational mobility in the United States 1850-1940 American Economic Review 105(8) 2695-2724
Pembrey Marcus E Lars Olov Bygren Gunnar Kaati Soumlren Edvinsson Kate Northstone Michael Sjoumlstroumlm and Jean Golding 2006 Sex-specific male-line transgenerational responses in humans European Journal of Human Genetics 14(2) 159-166
Richter Andreacute and Per Olof Robling 2013 Multigenerational effects of the 1918-19 influenza pandemic in Sweden Swedish Institute for Social Research 5
Shors Teri and Susan H McFadden 2009 1918 Influenza A Winnebago County Wisconsin Perspective Clinical Medicine amp Research 7(4) 147-156
Sydenstricker E (1931) The incidence of influenza among persons of different economic status during the epidemic of 1918 Public Health Reports 46(4) 154-170
van den Berg Gerard J and Pia R Pinger 2013 A validation study of transgenerational effects of childhood conditions on the third generation offsprings economic and health outcomes potentially driven by epigenetic imprinting IZA Discussion Paper
Tables and Figures
Table 1 Summary Statistics
Variable N Mean Std Deviation
First GenerartionFlu Indicators
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 8368 0112 0315Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 8456 0030 0170Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 8487 0093 0290
ControlsFirst Generation Malersquos Year of Birth 8456 1907435 7021First Generation Femalersquos Year of Birth 8427 1911189 6164
Dependent VariablesFirst Generation Malersquos Years of Schooling 8456 9778 3392First Generation Femalersquos Years of Schooing 8487 10499 2804First Generation Malersquos Job Prestige 8385 330662 214361First Generation Femalersquos Job Prestige 6683 12814 19934Family SES 8487 16231 11143
Second GenerationControls
Female Indicator 12459 0530 0499Birth Year 12459 1939406 4289Birth Order 12459 2529 1828
Dependent VariablesYears of Schooling 12459 13678 2361Family Income 1992 (in $1000s) 12112 68027 177105Net Worth 2004 (in $1000s) 10498 913046 2558927Self-reported health 1992 9888 4149 0668Height (inches) 9783 67406 3851BMI 1992 9671 26742 4657
Third GenerationControls
Birth Year 19913 1963901 3636Female Indicator 19913 0497 0500Birth Order 19913 2196 1263
Dependent VariableYears of Schooling 19913 14294 2309
Summary amp Notes This table provides summary statistics for all variables used The samples above may not berepresentative for all estimations For example the inclusion of siblings in the second generation increase the sample of parentalyear of birth and the corresponding flu indicator This increase in sample does not significantly change the sample statisticsabove Similar sample changes occur for the second generation controls above For the third generation the sample is restrictedto biological children over 35 years of age
24
Tab
le2
Fir
stG
ener
atio
n
Eco
nom
icE
ffec
ts
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
am
ily
SE
SY
ears
of
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
am
ily
SE
S(1
)(2
)(3
)(4
)(5
)(6
)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale)
-01
39
-01
16lowast
-12
90lowast
lowast
(02
00)
(00
60)
(05
99)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emal
e)-0
133
-00
66
-13
61lowastlowast
lowast
(00
95)
(00
43)
(03
76)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
YY
YY
YY
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8456
8385
8456
8487
6683
8487
RS
qr
00
32
00
08
00
23
00
13
00
04
00
13
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
pro
vid
esd
irec
teff
ects
of
inu
tero
an
dea
rly
life
exp
osu
reto
the
1918
Flu
Ep
idem
ic
Bir
thye
ar
tim
etr
end
sin
lcu
de
yea
rof
bir
than
dit
ssq
uar
ean
din
clu
sion
inth
ees
tim
atio
nis
par
ent
spec
ific
All
esti
mati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
an
dard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
alsi
gnifi
can
ceis
den
oted
by
an
d
re
pre
senti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vel
y
25
Tab
le3
Fir
stG
ener
atio
n
Mar
riag
eM
arke
tE
ffec
ts
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Flu
Bir
thY
ear
Yea
rsof
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
luB
irth
Yea
rY
ears
of
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
e(1
)(2
)(3
)(4
)(5
)(6
)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale)
01
40lowast
lowastlowast-0
259
-00
39
(00
34)
(01
58)
(00
72)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emal
e)0
056lowast
lowastlowast-0
340lowast
lowastlowast-0
118lowastlowast
lowast
(00
14)
(01
17)
(00
36)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
YY
YY
YY
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8348
8487
8412
8348
8456
6660
RS
qr
00
90
00
11
00
08
01
20
00
21
00
01
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
pro
vid
esev
iden
ceof
marr
iage
mark
etse
lect
ion
inth
efi
rst
gen
erati
on
B
irth
year
tim
etr
end
sin
clu
de
year
of
bir
than
dit
ssq
uare
and
incl
usi
onin
the
esti
mat
ion
isp
aren
tsp
ecifi
cA
lles
tim
ati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
an
dard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
sign
ifica
nce
isd
enot
edby
an
d
re
pre
senti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vely
26
Table 4 Second Generation Economic Effects
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Years of Schooling
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0209lowastlowastlowast
(0073)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0084 -0059(0129) (0129)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0211lowastlowastlowast -0209lowastlowastlowast
(0075) (0075)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0085 0084 0085 0085
Panel B ln Family Income 1992
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0221lowastlowast
(0111)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0098 -0066(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0262lowastlowast -0259lowastlowast
(0116) (0116)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112R Sqr 0021 0021 0021 0021
Panel C Std Net Worth 2004
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0026(0022)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0033 0038(0047) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0038lowast -0040lowast
(0021) (0021)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498R Sqr 0007 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table provides evidence of signficant harmful effects of flu exposure in the first generation on secondgeneration economic outcomes First generation time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents(ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and itssquare and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
27
Table 5 Second Generation Health Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Self-reported health (Likert 1=very poor 5=excellent)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0054lowastlowast
(0027)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0005(0047) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0061lowastlowast -0061lowastlowast
(0028) (0028)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Panel B Height (inches)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0101)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0102 0127(0168) (0168)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0169lowast -0175lowast
(0103) (0103)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783r2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Panel C BMI
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0412lowastlowast
(0191)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0082 0023(0344) (0346)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0422lowastlowast 0421lowastlowast
(0193) (0194)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table provides evidence of harmful effects of flu exposure in the first generation on secondgeneration health outcomes First generation time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents (iegen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and itssquare and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
28
Table 6 Generation Three Effects of Generation One Flu Exposure Years of Schooling
Dependent Variable Years of Schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0125(0077)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Male) -0007 0010(0136) (0136)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Female) -0144lowast -0144lowast
(0078) (0078)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913R Sqr 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table shows that the generational effects of flu exposure extend into the third generation of theWLS First generation flu exposure is shown to have a negative association with third generation years of schooling Firstgeneration time trends are year of birth measures for each parent and their square Second generation controls inlcude anindicator for sex second generation year of birth and its square and birth order Third generation controls include a sexindicator year of birth and its square and birth order Given the focus on years of schooling the sample is restricted to thosethird generation individuals 35 years of age and older or born during or before 1970 (data were collected in 2005) Allestimation is performed with OLS with family (second generation) clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
29
(a)
Fat
her
(b)
Moth
er
Fig
ure
1F
irst
Gen
erat
ion
Dis
trib
uti
onof
Yea
rof
Bir
th
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
figu
rep
lots
the
dis
trib
uti
on
for
firs
tgen
erati
on
year
of
bir
th
Flu
exp
osu
reis
class
ified
as
bei
ng
born
inei
ther
1918
or
1919
30
Appendix Tables
Appendix Table 1 First Generation Flu Exposure Effect on Family Income
Dependent Variable Family Income ($100s) 1957
(1) (2)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -3366(2592)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -5363lowastlowast
(2390)
Birth Year Time Trends Y YObservations 7440 7456R Sqr 0013 0004
Summary amp Notes This table replaces the index of socioeconomic status with family income (in $100s) in 1957 Allestimation is performed with OLS with robust standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
31
App
endix
Tab
le2
Mar
riag
eM
arke
tE
ffec
ts
Con
trol
ling
for
Ow
nY
ear
ofB
irth
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
Job
Pre
stig
eY
ears
of
Sch
Job
Pre
stig
e
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale
)-0
052
-211
82
-01
98
-03
74
(02
03)
(131
30)
(01
61)
(14
38)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emale
)-0
346lowast
lowastlowast-2
44
97lowastlowast
lowast-0
103
-13
88
(01
16)
(76
88)
(00
94)
(08
54)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
(Male
an
dF
emale
)Y
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8348
8279
8348
6587
RS
qr
00
40
00
22
00
25
00
04
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
re-e
stim
ates
Tab
le3
wh
ile
contr
oll
ing
for
year
of
bir
than
dfl
uin
dic
ato
rsass
oci
ate
dw
ith
the
spou
sein
the
dep
end
ent
vari
ab
le
All
esti
mat
ion
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
and
ard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
sign
ifica
nce
isd
enote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
atth
e10
5
and
1le
vel
sre
spec
tive
ly
32
Appendix Table 3 2nd Gen Economic Effects Controlling for 1st Gen Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Years of Schooling
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0088(0070)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0005 0008(0119) (0119)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0116 -0117(0072) (0072)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0206 0206 0206 0206
Panel B ln Family Income 1992
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0193lowast
(0111)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0080 -0050(0184) (0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0240lowastlowast -0238lowastlowast
(0116) (0116)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112R Sqr 0024 0024 0024 0024
Panel C Std Normal Net Worth 2004
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0003(0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0047 0049(0046) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0019 -0021(0020) (0020)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498R Sqr 0033 0033 0033 0033
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 4 while controlling for generation one economic outcomes fatherrsquos years ofschooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 First generation time trends are given by year of birth and itssquare for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex secondgeneration year of birth and its square and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standarderrors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and1 levels respectively 33
Appendix Table 4 2nd Gen Health Effects Controlling for 1st Gen Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A BMI
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0352lowast
(0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0051 -0001(0342) (0344)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0372lowast 0372lowast
(0192) (0193)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671R Sqr 0035 0035 0035 0035
Panel B Count of Illnesses
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0122lowast
(0065)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0076 -0096(0102) (0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0139lowastlowast 0144lowastlowast
(0067) (0068)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9921 9921 9921 9921R Sqr 0046 0046 0046 0046
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 5 while controlling for generation one economic outcomes fatherrsquos years ofschooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 First generation time trends are given by year of birth and itssquare for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex secondgeneration year of birth and its square and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standarderrors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and1 levels respectively
34
Appendix Table 5 Generation threersquos years of schooling Controlling for previous generation economicwell-being
Dependent Variable Years of Schooling for Gen 3(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A First Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0069(0076)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0022 0034(0133) (0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0102 -0104(0077) (0078)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913R Sqr 0117 0117 0117 0117
Panel B Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0025(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0008 0013(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0038 -0039(0073) (0073)
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0190 0190 0190 0190
Panel C First and Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0008(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0016 0019(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0028 -0029(0073) (0073)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0196 0196 0196 0196
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 6 while controlling for generation one and tworsquos economic outcomes Forgeneration one these include fatherrsquos years of schooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 generation twocontrols include the WLS graduatesiblingrsquos years of schooling family income in 1992 and net worth in 2004 First generationtime trends are year of birth measures for each parent and their square Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sexsecond generation year of birth and its square and birth order Third generation controls include a sex indicator year of birthand its square and birth order Given the focus on years of schooling the sample is restricted to those third generationindividuals 35 years of age and older or born during or before 1970 (data were collected in 2005) All estimation is performedwith OLS with family (second generation) clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denotedby and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
35
Appendix Table 6 Alternative measures of schooling in the second generation
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Indicator for any college (years of schooling gt12)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0044lowastlowastlowast
(0017)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0011 -0006(0029) (0029)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0044lowastlowast -0043lowastlowast
(0017) (0017)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0071 0070 0071 0071
Panel B Indicator for incomplete college (years of schooling gt12 amp lt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0008(0013)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 -0001(0022) (0022)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0008 -0008(0013) (0013)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0005 0005 0005 0005
Panel C Indicator for college graduate (years of schooling = 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0022lowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0003 0006(0020) (0020)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0021lowast -0021lowastlowast
(0011) (0011)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0019 0019 0019 0019
Panel D Indicator for post-college education (years of schooling gt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0014(0010)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0011(0018) (0018)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0014 -0014(0010) (0010)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0039 0039 0039 0039
Summary amp Notes This table replaces our continuous measure of years of schooling with specified dummy variables Firstgeneration time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Secondgeneration controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and its square and birth order All estimationis performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
36
Appendix Table 7 Young mothers Direct effect on Gen 1 Females
Dependent Variable Years of Sch Job Prestige Family SES
(1) (2) (3)
Ind for First Gen Female Flu Exposure (1918-1919) -0325lowastlowast -0841 -1749lowastlowastlowast
(0137) (1015) (0584)
Ind for mother born during 1920-1921 -0567lowastlowastlowast 0745 -1157(0206) (1515) (0914)
Ind for mother born during 1922-1923 -0666lowastlowast 0098 -2113(0330) (2210) (1298)
Ind for mother born after 1924 -0392 5682 0384(0486) (3705) (2126)
Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y
Observations 8487 6683 8487R Sqr 0014 0005 0014
Summary amp Notes This table includes indicators for alternative years of birth Younger mothers are shown to have lessyears of schooling All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
37
App
endix
Tab
le8
You
ng
mot
her
sG
ener
atio
n2
and
3eff
ects
Gen
2
Gen
3
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
ln
Fam
In
c
1992
Std
N
W
2004
Sel
f-re
p
hea
lth
Hei
ght
BM
IY
ears
of
Sch
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
emal
eF
luE
xp
osu
re(1
918-
1919
)-0
201lowastlowast
-02
95lowastlowast
-00
45
-00
73lowastlowast
-00
90
02
07
-00
86(0
092)
(01
32)
(00
32)
(00
32)
(01
22)
(02
25)
(00
94)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
20-1
921
-00
22
-00
40
-00
10
-00
61
01
33
-04
10
01
13
(01
37)
(01
74)
(00
51)
(00
43)
(01
80)
(03
11)
(01
41)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
22-1
923
-00
96
-01
88
-00
57
00
20
04
61
-11
29lowastlowast
01
55(0
184)
(03
20)
(00
61)
(00
75)
(02
83)
(04
51)
(02
23)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
afte
r19
2404
58
-01
87
00
01
-00
27
03
12
-08
85
03
99
(03
06)
(03
94)
(00
87)
(01
27)
(04
94)
(10
70)
(03
21)
Bas
eC
ontr
ols
YY
YY
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
12459
12112
10498
9888
9783
9671
19913
RS
qr
00
85
00
21
00
08
00
09
05
86
00
29
00
79
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
incl
ud
esin
dic
ator
sfo
ralt
ernati
ve
years
of
bir
th
Bei
ng
born
toa
you
nger
moth
ergen
erall
yis
not
ass
oci
ate
dw
ith
gen
erati
on
2or
3rsquos
outc
omes
ofin
tere
st
inst
ead
n
egat
ive
effec
tsar
eon
lyob
serv
edfo
rth
ose
born
du
rin
gth
efl
u
All
esti
mati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hfa
mil
y(2
nd
gen
erat
ion
)cl
ust
ered
stan
dar
der
rors
rep
orte
din
par
enth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
signifi
can
ceis
den
ote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vel
y
38
Appendix Table 9 Summary Statistics by Gen 2 Sex
Variable N Mean Std Deviation
FemaleYears of Schooling 6607 13352 2088ln Family Income (1992 wave) 6411 9424 3577
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5654 10686 1010Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 5612 -0047 0539Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 5313 4164 0670Height (inches) 5231 646635 247936BMI 5124 26073 5114
Gen 3Years of Schooling 11947 14240 2291
MaleYears of Schooling 5852 14047 2587ln Family Income (1992 wave) 5701 10139 3030
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5264 10981 0836Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 4886 0059 1159Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 4575 4133 0665Height (inches) 4554 7055484 25596BMI 4547 27496 3948
Gen 3Years of Schooling 8046 14371 2332
Appendix Table 10A Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0090(0086)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0198 0214(0169) (0169)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104 -0114(0087) (0087)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6607 6607 6607 6607R Sqr 0075 0075 0075 0075
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
39
Appendix Table 10B Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0523lowastlowastlowast
(0170)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0483 -0410(0321) (0323)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0512lowastlowastlowast -0491lowastlowastlowast
(0179) (0180)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6411 6411 6411 6411R Sqr 0015 0013 0014 0015
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10C Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0007(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0078lowast 0078(0048) (0048)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0008 0005(0025) (0025)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5612 5612 5612 5612R Sqr 0007 0007 0007 0007
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
40
Appendix Table 10D Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0027(0036)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 -0001(0071) (0071)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0022 -0022(0037) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5313 5313 5313 5313r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10E Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -2382(13366)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 44280lowastlowast 46351lowastlowast
(22343) (22480)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -12253 -14428(13485) (13561)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5231 5231 5231 5231r2 0015 0016 0015 0016
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
41
Appendix Table 10F Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0353(0286)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0105 0060(0514) (0516)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0326 0323(0289) (0290)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5124 5124 5124 5124R Sqr 0010 0010 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0087(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0104 -0101(0190) (0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0042 -0039(0098) (0098)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 11906 11906 11906 11906R Sqr 0086 0086 0086 0086
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
42
Appendix Table 11A Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0322lowastlowastlowast
(0116)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0369lowastlowast -0338lowast
(0181) (0180)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0309lowastlowastlowast -0297lowastlowast
(0119) (0119)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5852 5852 5852 5852R Sqr 0060 0059 0060 0060
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11B RResults by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0116(0138)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0262 0261(0200) (0199)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0024 0014(0141) (0140)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5701 5701 5701 5701R Sqr 0009 0009 0008 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
43
Appendix Table 11C Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0038)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0001(0081) (0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0094lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0035)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4886 4886 4886 4886R Sqr 0004 0004 0004 0004
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
44
Appendix Table 11D Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0083lowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 0012(0062) (0062)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104lowastlowastlowast -0105lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0041)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4575 4575 4575 4575r2 0010 0009 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11E Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -15122(14275)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -22991 -20537(23287) (23176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -18595 -17540(14734) (14751)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4554 4554 4554 4554r2 0011 0011 0011 0011
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
45
Appendix Table 11F Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0465lowast
(0238)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0079 0006(0403) (0405)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0520lowastlowast 0520lowastlowast
(0245) (0246)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4547 4547 4547 4547R Sqr 0006 0005 0006 0006
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0177(0123)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0098 0144(0194) (0192)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0293lowastlowast -0302lowastlowast
(0125) (0126)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8007 8007 8007 8007R Sqr 0067 0067 0068 0068
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
46
Appendix Table 12A Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0253lowastlowast
(0107)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0252 -0226(0170) (0172)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0263lowastlowast -0242lowastlowast
(0113) (0115)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0084(0120)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0341 0339(0216) (0219)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0096 0056(0130) (0132)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459r2 0085 0085 0085 0085
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
47
Appendix Table 12B Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0128)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0196 0169(0190) (0189)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0081 -0104(0135) (0135)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0383lowastlowast
(0189)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0594lowast -0474(0349) (0355)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0339lowast -0283(0204) (0207)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112r2 0021 0021 0021 0021
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
48
Appendix Table 12C Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0034)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0019(0077) (0079)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0095lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0030) (0031)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0071lowast
(0038)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0072 0039(0087) (0089)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0104lowastlowastlowast 0100lowastlowastlowast
(0035) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498r2 0008 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
49
Appendix Table 12D Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0071lowast
(0036)[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0012 0031
(0058) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0093lowastlowast -0097lowastlowast
(0039) (0039)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0030(0045)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0031 -0051(0087) (0088)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0059 0065(0048) (0049)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
50
Appendix Table 12E Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0129 -0125(0223) (0224)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0152 -0129(0141) (0142)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0000(0158)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0454 0495lowast
(0279) (0287)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0031 -0090(0170) (0175)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783nr2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
51
Appendix Table 12F Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0376(0231)
[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0059 -0122(0402) (0407)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0441lowast 0457lowast
(0240) (0243)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0068(0316)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0282 0288(0573) (0589)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0035 -0069(0340) (0350)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
52
Appendix Table 12G Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0131(0114)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male 0114 0175(0185) (0188)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0237lowastlowast -0261lowastlowast
(0118) (0121)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0009(0133)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0225 -0292(0249) (0254)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0152 0189(0141) (0145)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913r2 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
53
Appendix Table 13 Family Income 1992 excluding non-earners (ie fam inc = 0)
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992 wave (excluding those reporting 0)(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0095lowastlowastlowast
(0033)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0031 -0019(0053) (0053)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0101lowastlowastlowast -0100lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0034)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10918 10918 10918 10918r2 0050 0049 0050 0050
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0084lowast
(0050)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0019 -0007(0089) (0090)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0083 -0083(0053) (0054)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5654 5654 5654 5654r2 0026 0026 0026 0026
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102lowastlowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0051 -0040(0060) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0113lowastlowastlowast -0112lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0040)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5264 5264 5264 5264r2 0029 0028 0029 0029
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel B in Table 4 excluding those who report $0 for familyincome All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
54
Appendix Table 14 Net Worth 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable Std Net Worth 2011 Wave of WLS(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0032lowastlowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0023lowast -0021lowast
(0012) (0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0032lowastlowastlowast -0031lowastlowastlowast
(0010) (0010)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9435 9435 9435 9435r2 0002 0002 0002 0002
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0012lowast
(0006)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0009 -0008(0009) (0009)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0012lowastlowast -0011lowastlowast
(0006) (0006)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5026 5026 5026 5026r2 0007 0006 0007 0007
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0057lowastlowast
(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0040lowast -0036lowast
(0023) (0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0057lowastlowast -0056lowastlowast
(0023) (0022)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4409 4409 4409 4409r2 0001 0001 0001 0001
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel C in Table 4 replacing the net worth measure from the 2004wave with an identical measure from the 2011 wave of the WLS All estimation is performed with OLS with family clusteredstandard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 105 and 1 levels respectively
55
Appendix Table 15A Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 1992 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0243(0152)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0107 0039(0252) (0255)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0285lowast 0282lowast
(0158) (0160)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9849 9849 9849 9849
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0007(0091)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0210 -0216(0170) (0173)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0007 0024(0095) (0097)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9858 9858 9858 9858
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0255(0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0107 -0169(0328) (0338)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0237 0252(0193) (0198)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9845 9845 9845 9845
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
56
Appendix Table 15B Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2004 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0018(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0190 0207(0160) (0162)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0066 -0083(0102) (0104)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10672 10672 10672 10672
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0096 0108(0124) (0125)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0051 -0059(0076) (0077)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10619 10619 10619 10619
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0108(0110)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0064 0027(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0181 0179(0113) (0113)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10617 10617 10617 10617
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
57
Appendix Table 15C Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0099(0092)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0244 0242(0154) (0155)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0033 0016(0099) (0100)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0021(0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0095 0097(0138) (0139)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0004 -0011(0085) (0086)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0134(0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0203 0181(0175) (0176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0140 0127(0107) (0107)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8709 8709 8709 8709
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
58
- text 10818
- tables 10-8-18
-
2
Introduction
Understanding persistent poverty and poor life outcomes has posed significant challenges for
social science theories as well as crafting policy responses Of particular interest is the so called
ldquolong armrdquo of childhood circumstances where events and conditions early in an individualrsquos life
(even in utero) may set in motion an accumulation of disadvantage The Developmental Origins
of Health and Disease theory (often referred to as the Barker hypothesis) suggests that in utero
insults program the fetus in ways that lead to maladaptive responses to the environment that
persist throughout the life course and explain poor long term outcomes (for a history of the
Barker hypothesis see Barker 2007) However since the likelihood of experiencing an early
insult is related to parental circumstances there is an empirical challenge to causally examining
the impacts of early insults This issue ties into a key question of whether intergenerational
persistence in poor outcomes may stem in part from genetic mechanisms that may be more
resistant to policy efforts In order to separate potential channels some research has focused on
exogenous (ie unrelated to genetics) health shocks during early life to explore long term
outcomes
Indeed a strong causal link between harmful early life in utero shocks and lowered later
life health and economic outcomes has been found in a number of clearly identified empirical
studies In addition to separating genetic and non-genetic mechanisms many of these
investigations are also able to uncover biological (ie fetal programming) explanations by
studying specific insults including the effects of prenatal nutritional status and exposure to
infectious disease Without the use of experimental (ie animal model) research designs these
studies use so-called quasi-experimental designs by leveraging striking demographic events such
as the Dutch famine and the 1918 flu pandemic (Almond 2006 Lindeboom Portrait et al 2010)
3
The results generally suggest large lifelong impacts of in utero insults on economic and health
outcomes
With these results established a next question is whether they might persist into the
outcomes of future generations We explore the question of intergenerational persistence of fetal
insults by extending previous work that uses the 1918 influenza pandemic as a natural
experiment (Almond 2006) by adding multigenerational data We document that in utero
exposure to the pandemic can be seen in the educational attainments of multiple generations
More specifically we find a reduction of approximately 110th a year of schooling (statistically
insignificant) for the first generation 15th a year of schooling for the second generation and
16th of a year of schooling for the third generation1 We also show large effects on economic as
well as health outcomes for the second generation Our findings suggest the importance of in
utero health insults that persist across multiple generations and allow a shift in our analytical
frame from the ldquolong arm of childhood circumstancesrdquo to the ldquolong arm of previous generationrsquos
circumstancesrdquo or alternatively ldquothe long reach of historyrdquo (Kuzawa and Eisenberg 2014) Our
results can also be interpreted in the context of assessing benefits of policy and environmental
conditions that reduce the likelihood of in utero health insults where the full benefits may unfold
over multiple generations
Background Literature
Our research intersects several related literatures There is a large literature that
documents associations between early life insults and later life outcomes following the original
1 As mentioned in greater detail in 31 the first generation is comprised of the parents from the Wisconsin
Longitudinal Study (WLS) This is the generation that is treated or exposed in utero to the 1918 flu
epidemic The second generation is the WLS graduates and siblings who are the focus of the WLS and
the third generation is comprised of the offspring of the WLS graduates and siblings
4
Barker Hypothesis In addition we draw on literature that explores multigenerational linkages of
environmental exposures on life course outcomes These literatures are rarely unified in a single
analysis largely due to data constraints We overcome these limitations by leveraging a three-
generational dataset that coincides with a key demographic event from the early 20th centurymdash
the 19181919 influenza epidemic
The seminal work of the economist Douglas Almond (2006) was one of the first papers to
exploit the 1918 flu pandemic as a natural experiment and to test whether in utero exposure to
infectious disease influences later life outcomes Using US census microdata to situate
respondent births in both time (birth quarter) and place (exploiting geographic variation in the
severity of the flu) Almond (2006) finds evidence of lower educational attainment higher rates
of physical disability as well as lower income and socioeconomic status for cohorts exposed to
the 19181919 flu while in utero (estimated using birth quarter age and timing of the flu) as
compared to unexposed adjacent cohorts In a related paper Almond and Mazumder (2005) use a
similar approach with the Survey of Income and Program Participation and find negative health
effects for adults who were in utero (based on birth quarter) during the outbreak Subsequent
work has built on these outcomes finding excess cardiovascular disease (Mazumder Almond et
al 2010) increased likelihood of kidney disease diabetes circulatory and respiratory problems
in old age (Lin and Liu 2014) and increased old-age mortality in non-cancer related causes
(Myrskylauml Mehta et al 2013 Fletcher 2014)2 More broadly the negative effect from the flu
dovetails with other negative in utero shocks see for example Catalano et al (2011) Roseboom
et al (2001) Schulz (2010) and Torche (2011)
2 Though Cohen Tillinghast and Canudas-Romo (2010) and Fletcher (2014) found no effects on overall
mortality
5
The mechanisms underlying these broad effects from in utero influenza exposure are not
fully understood in humans3 However in studies of monkeys (Kobasa Jones et al 2007) and
mice (Kash Tumpey et al 2006) it has been shown that the reconstructed 1918 flu virus triggers
an exceptionally intense and prolonged innate immune response More specifically gene-
expression analysis shows that proteins involved in the innate immune system have a higher and
sustained expression when triggered by the 1918 reconstructed virus than when triggered by the
contemporary flu of the same H1N1-type (Kobasa Jones et al 2007) While the specific 1918 flu
strain cannot be studied in humans through purposeful exposure for ethical reasons both animal
and human studies have linked the maternal immune response during severe flu infection in
pregnancy to offspring brain development as well as impaired adult behavior and cognitive
outcomes (Fatemi Earle et al 2002 Brown and Derkits 2010 Canetta and Brown 2012 Miller
Zhu et al 2013 Li Chang et al 2014) These results align with research in psychology that links
inflammatory processes in mothersmdashincluding stress and infection as well as stress-induced
immunosuppressionmdashto poor birth outcomes (for a review see Stretter 2011) Recent evidence
suggests that in utero exposure to the 1918 flu may not only affect adult outcomes but also the
outcomes of subsequent generations Richter and Robling (2013) were the first to identify an
effect of first generation prenatal exposure (using birth trimester) to the 1918 flu pandemic on
the outcomes of the second generation (the children of those exposed to the 1918 flu in utero)
The authors use historical influenza morbidity data matched to birth information to identify
potential exposure to the 1918 flu and find that first generation maternal in utero exposure in the
second trimester lowers educational attainment for female children by 2-25 months or by 15-
18 percent but find no such effect for male children An analogous result is identified for first
6
generation paternal exposure and male outcomes that is first generation exposure in the second
trimester lowers educational attainment for male children by 24 to 3 months or by 18-22
percent but paternal exposure showed no such effect for females Taken together first
generation exposure to the 1918 flu while in utero results in 2 to 3 months less schooling for the
second generation
Several pathways exist for the intergenerational transmission of early life health shocks
Through socioeconomic channels intergenerational persistence in poor outcomes could occur
when a fetally insulted parent marred by poorer health and socioeconomic outcomes raises a
child in a low-resource environment Biologically phenotype-to-phenotype transmission and
epigenetic inheritance are hypothesized to be key mechanisms for intergenerational transmission
(Kuzawa and Eisenberg 2014) In cases of in utero or very early life shocks phenotype-to-
phenotype transmission impacts the outcomes of the next generation through changes in parental
biological systems that lead to altered gestational andor lactation environments for offspring
(eg pre-pregnancy hypertension is linked to low birthweight) Importantly socioeconomic and
biological channels are not mutually exclusive and can also interact with one another that is the
effects of adult phenotype on offspring extend beyond physiology and metabolism to include
parental behaviorenvironmental response as a potential source of phenotypic transmission and
potentially even cumulative intergenerational phenotypic change (Benyshek 2013) For example
stress experienced by a mother prenatally may alter stress regulation in offspring which may in
turn increase risk for the same adult phenotype in the offspring as well as in subsequent
generations Epigenetic inheritance in comparison occurs when parental experiences alter gene
expression that is subsequently transmitted to offspring and future generations through the germ
line Here again there is an opportunity for socioeconomic circumstances to interact with
7
biologymdasheg where poverty through the experience of stress alters gene expression for
generations Our analysis of second generation outcomes will explore some of these channels
but not attempt to prioritize one over another
Work extending effects of in utero exposure to the 1918 flu to the third generation (the
grandchildren of those originally exposed in utero) in humans to the best of the authorsrsquo
knowledge does not exist The strongest evidence for a potential biological channel across
multiple generations comes from studies of historical data from Oumlverkalix region in Northern
Sweden that exploit variance in first generation grandparental food supply during childhood
Bygren Kaati et al (2001) for example find that an excess of food during the period just before
adolescence a time labeled the ldquoslow growth periodrdquo (SGP) shortens the grandsonrsquos longevity
A later study using the Oumlverkalix data replicates the results of Bygren Kaati et al (2001) in a
second cohort and further extends the results to include an association between first generation
paternal grandmotherrsquos food supply and granddaughterrsquos mortality risk (Pembrey Bygren et al
2006)4
Our work builds off of this evidence to conduct novel examinations of multigenerational
effects of in utero exposures in human populations The current research leverages a unique
survey to measure the multigenerational impacts of in utero exposure to the 1918 flu pandemic
Our hypothesis is that the previously documented direct effects of such shocks extend into the
outcomes of the second generation Going further we also estimate whether these effects
4 Van den Berg and Pinger (2014) externally validated the potential for transmission across three
generations by analyzing the impact of the German famine of 1916-1918 on the mental health outcomes
(an index from survey questions accounting for rsquogeneral mental healthrsquo rsquoemotional functioningrsquo rsquosocial
functioningrsquo and rsquovitalityrsquo) of the children and grandchildren of those exposed to the famine during their
SGP The authors find that paternal (maternal) grandfather (grandmothers) exposure during their SGP is
associated with better mental health in grandsons (granddaughters)
8
continue into the third generation In other words we ask whether the singular in utero shock has
a multigenerational effect--on the adult outcomes of those exposed in utero on their children
and on their grandchildren
Data and Empirical Methodology
Data
In order to examine multigenerational effects of an in utero exposure we require
multigenerational data Very few datasets in the US have a multigenerational component and fit
the relevant time period for our exposure (ie birth cohorts around 1918) Our data come from
the Wisconsin Longitudinal Survey (WLS) which is a random one-third survey of graduating
high school seniors in Wisconsin in 1957 The majority of these respondents were born in 1939
and form our second generation Thus the parents of the WLS graduates form our first
generation with birth years overlapping the 19181919 in utero exposure period This allows for
the creation of our primary measure for in utero exposure to the 1918 flu epidemic an indicator
9
for either first generation parent being born during the 1918-1919 range56 Additional data are
collected on the later life outcomes of the WLS graduates and a selected sibling as well as a
limited number of outcomes for the children (third generation) of the graduatessiblings
providing the structure for our multigenerational analysis
Summary statistics are presented in table 1 As shown approximately 10 percent of WLS
parents are born in either 1918 or 1919 On average fathers are born in 1907 and mothers are
born in 1911 consequently a birth year of 1918 or 1919 is closer to the right-tail of the
distribution of births and the rate of 10 percent is driven primarily by relatively young mother
exposures7 Since WLS graduatersquos fathers tend to be on average 4 years older than mothers this
right-tail problem is larger for generation 1 males This is seen in Figure 1 While not the
primary focus of the WLS data collection several parental (first generation) outcomes are
5 Parent year of birth is recorded from the WLS graduates This self-reported measure is used to create
the indicator of flu exposure those parents born in 1918 or 1919 To maximize sample size we use
differing waves of the WLS and reported birth years from biological siblings to supplement the reported
year of birth from WLS graduates Parent birth years are first collected for the 199293 graduate wave
Missing observations are then sequentially added from graduate reports in later wavesmdash2003 and 2011
After using all graduate reported year of parent birth variables observations are then filled in from
identically reported measures from a selected biological sibling
Specifically for mothers (gen 1 females) 7976 observations come from graduates in the 199293
wave 366 additional observations come from the 200305 wave 84 observations come from 2011 wave
and 68 observations come from the selected sibling This leaves a base sample size of 8494 ~94 of
which is from the graduate reported 199293 wave For fathers (gen 1 males) 7929 observations come
from graduates in the 199293 wave 361 additional observations come from the 200305 wave 77 come
from the 2011 wave and 91 observations come from siblings leaving a base sample size of 8458 (again
~94 is from the grad reported 199293 wave)
From this base 7 observations are dropped for gen-1-femalersquos (WLS motherrsquos) year of birth due
to reported gen 2rsquos year of birth being 10 or less years after gen 1rsquos year of birth 45 additional
observations are lost if this threshold is increased to 15 years For gen-1-malersquos year of birth 2
observations are removed for identical reasons this increases to 25 additional observations for the 15 year
threshold We attribute this reduction in the sample mostly to measurement error 6 The 1918 flu epidemic in Wisconsin was from September 1918 through December 1918 but did not
reach the severity experienced in many other states According to historical records Wisconsin had the
fourth lowest numbers of deaths out of 25 reporting states (Burg 2000 Shors and McFadden 2009) 7 Appendix tables 7 and 8 provide evidence that our results are not driven solely by confounding between
exposure to the influenza pandemic and being young mothers
10
available including years of schooling occupational prestige and family socioeconomic status
in 19578
[insert table 1 here]
The primary focus of the WLS data collection is high school seniors in 1957 Wisconsin
the second generation of our study Given this focus on graduates (and their siblings) a large
number of economic and health variables are available in each wave of the WLS (irregular
intervals roughly 10-15 years apart 197577 19929394 2003-20052004-2007 and in 2011)
In addition to examining years of schooling several additional dependent variables in the second
generation intend to capture broad differences in economic and health well-being9 These include
income during the peak earning years (ie family income collected when graduates are 53 years
of age on average) net worth at initial retirement age (ie net worth collected when graduates
are 65 years of age on average) and general indicators of health measured by body mass index
and a count of doctor diagnosed illnesses (both collected in the wave when graduates are age 53
on average) Finally the WLS data contains information that is collected from the second
generation about the third generation we focus on years of schooling as the main outcome of
interest
8 The index of socioeconomic status is a factor weighted score combining data on father and motherrsquos
years of schooling fatherrsquos occupational prestige and average parental income Replacing this measure
with average parental income (see appendix table 1) does not change the effect of the flu indicator Job
prestige measures for both mother and father are based on Duncanrsquos Socioeconomic Index which is a
measure of job prestige based on income education and surveyed perceptions of general social standing
for certain occupations (Duncan 1961) 9 We note that our three generations of individuals are drawn from three non-overlapping set of birth
years the mean birth year for generation 1 is ~1910 generation 2 is ~1940 generation 3 is ~1965 Thus
since we are performing the analysis separately by generation we are controlling for much of the time-
variation in the meaning of education We also perform analysis stratified by sex in Appendix Tables 10-
12 so that we can also control for the differential meaning of education in each generation
11
Empirical Methodology
Our empirical strategy follows that of Almond (2006) by examining harmful effects of being
exposed in utero on later life outcomes We then extend this analysis by estimating
multigenerational impacts on both the second and third generations In so doing the primary
estimating equation is given by the following form
119910119894119891119892 = 1205730 + 1205731(119884119874119861 = 191819)1198911 + 120632119931119943120783 + 120633119935119946119943119944 + 120576119894119891119892
Our primary focus is on the coefficient 1205731 which measures the effect of having a
parentgrandparent born in 1918-1919 on a number of outcomes for 119894 individuals in 119891 families
for generation 119892 Parent year of birth time trends and their square are denoted by 120632119931119943120783 120633119935119946119943119944
represents generation specific controls and 120576119894119891119892 is representative of a family clustered error
term
For the first generation we control for birth year and its square capturing age-specific
trends that are tied to our first-generation outcomes of interest (eg years of schooling) For the
analysis of second and third generations birth years and squares for both first generation parents
are included as controls along with generation-specific controls for sex age and birth order
Our estimation strategy follows an intent to treat design It is likely that the actual
incidence of flu differed by socioeconomic status and social standing (Mamelund 2018
Sydenstricker 1931) Our use of year-of-birth however avoids potential confounding by SES
because allmdashboth rich and poormdashare defined as treated if they are born in one of the two years
Although avoiding confounders associated with actual disease incidence this estimation strategy
will underestimate the true effect of flu exposure lowering the magnitude of our coefficient of
interest
12
Results
First Generation
Our initial analysis explores the direct effects of being born during the 1918 Influenza Epidemic
While health data are sparse for the WLS graduatersquos parents (first generation) a number of
economic outcomes are available especially during the initial sample year of 1957 Table 2
explores the relationship between these economic variables and an indicator for birth during
19181919 Columns (1)-(3) of table 2 show the relationship between a WLS graduatersquos father
being born during 19181919 and the fatherrsquos years of schooling the fatherrsquos occupational
prestige and the familyrsquos index of socioeconomic status in 1957 (ie when the first generation
members are approximately 40 years old) While statistically insignificant a negative association
is observed between years of schooling and being born in 1918 or 191910 This is carried over
into fatherrsquos job prestige in column (2) from which the indicator of in utero exposure to the 1918
flu is associated with an approximate 01 standard deviation decline in the index of occupational
prestige These effects culminate in column (3) which shows a statistically significant negative
effect of in utero exposure to the flu and later life economic well-being a 13 decline in the SES
index which corresponds to a decline of roughly 10 percent of a standard deviation The findings
of table 2 corroborate past studies that show in utero exposure to the 1918 flu led to poorer
economic outcomes later in life (Almond 2006)11
[insert table 2 here]
10 First generation years of schooling are reported by the second generation WLS graduates Measurement
error is likely which may result in the insignificant coefficients of table 2 11 Richter and Robling (2013 Table 12) find a similar effect for in utero female exposure to flu in the first
trimester
13
Mirroring the results for males in the first generation a negative but statistically
insignificant association is observed between an indicator of birth in 19181919 and schooling
for first generation females This association however becomes statistically significant at the 1
percent level for the index of family SES the coefficient being nearly identical to that of a
malersquos in utero exposure to the flu though it is unclear whether these effects flow from labor
market andor marriage market sources The findings of table 2 are extended in table 3 which
explores potential marriage market effects of early life exposure to the flu epidemic12
Column (1) of table 3 regresses the indicator for male in utero exposure on an identical
measure for spousersquos exposure Females who were born in 19181919 were 5 percentage points
more likely to marry men who were also born during the same period Furthermore as shown in
columns (2) and (3) these women were more likely to marry men with fewer years of school and
lower job prestige These effects are significant at the 1 percent level Similar effects are seen in
columns (4)-(6) for 19181919 born males who are 14 percentage points more likely to marry flu
exposed females (p=000) and marry females with 026 fewer years of schooling (p=0101)
Given the findings of table 3 however we cannot rule out that this is a marriage market effect13
[insert table 3 here]
Second Generation
Our hypothesis is that the direct effects observed in tables 2 and 3 extend into future generations
To address this hypothesis we regress a number of economic and health outcomes of the WLS
graduates and siblings the offspring of the first generation examined in tables 2 and 3 These
12 Mothers and fathers of WLS graduates are assumed to be married 13 Appendix table 2 repeats the estimation of table 3 while also controlling for an indicator of own-flu
exposure and own year of birth measures
14
estimations are performed in tables 4 and 5 Column (1) in both tables focus on an indicator for
either parent being born in 19181919 the primary regressor of column (2) is an indicator for
fatherrsquos (gen 1 males) in utero exposure to the 1918 flu column (3) considers motherrsquos (gen 1
females) exposure and column (4) includes separate indicators for both mother and fatherrsquos
exposure Controls included in all columns include fatherrsquos year of birth and its square motherrsquos
year of birth and its square an indicator for sex in the second generation a measure of birth
order in the second generation and second-generation year of birth and its square
Table 4 focuses on economic outcomes of the WLS graduates To reiterate our
hypothesis is that in utero exposure to the 1918 influenza pandemic has effects that persist for
multiple generations Table 2 shows the direct first generation effects while table 4 begins to
show the indirect effects that are transmitted to offspring Panel A regresses years of schooling in
the second generation on indicators of first generation exposure to the 1918 flu14 From column
(1) either parent being born in 19181919 is associated with a statistically significant decline of
021 years of schooling in the second generation This estimate is likely understated because the
sampling design of the WLS is a focus on high school seniors thus individuals with fewer than
twelve years of schooling are underrepresented in the data15 Columns (2)-(4) disambiguate this
effect into the maternal and paternal lines From which the effect of column (1) seems to be
driven by motherrsquos in utero exposure to the flu16
14 Appendix Table 6 includes a number of alternative measures for years of schooling in place of the
simple count used in Table 4 15 Table 3 includes selected siblings of the WLS graduates These siblings do not have to be high school
graduates 16 This finding differs from that of Richter and Robling (2013) who find maternal exposure tied to
daughter outcomes and paternal exposure tied to son outcomes
15
The findings of Panel A are extended into Panel B which replaces years of schooling as
the dependent variable with the natural log of family income for the 1992 wave a time when the
second generation respondents are 53 years of age on average and represents a time of peak
earning in the life course As with years of schooling a negative association is seen throughout
the specifications of Panel B Having either parent born in 19181919 is associated with a 22
percent decline in family income Once again this effect seems to be driven by motherrsquos not
fatherrsquos exposure Panel C replaces income with a measure of net worth for the 2004 wave This
measure of net worth is when the second generation respondents are on average 65 years of age
and is representative of earnings throughout the life course The dual indicator of column (1) is
negative but statistically insignificant at conventional levels (p=023) When looking at the effect
of mother exposure in column (3) however the effect becomes statistically significant at the
10 level (p=0069) implying those with mothers born during 19181919 have approximately
$36000 less in net worth by 2004
Following the broader health focus of the Barker hypothesis the economic effects of
table 4 are replaced with health measures in table 5 We consider three broad measures of
general health and well-being later in life self-reported health in later life (~53 years old)
height and BMI (again at ~53) The use of self-reported health is intended to capture general
well-being later in life (Fortin et al 2017) this is tested in Panel A of table 5 Mazumder et al
(2010) provide evidence that in utero exposure to the 1918 flu is associated with a reduction in
height and an increase cardiovascular disease so it is possible that these negative health
outcomes could be transmitted to offspring this is tested in Panel B of table 517 And given
17 Appendix Table 14 tests indicators for a number self-reported health conditions As shown a weak
positive association is shown between gen 1 female flu exposure and an indicator of cardiovascular
16
prior work linking early life exposure to the Dutch famine to BMI (Roseboom et al 2000) and
metabolic function (Lumey et al 2009) in adulthood as well as the fact that both the Dutch
famine and the 1918 flu impacted maternal stress and nutritional status18 we examine BMI as
another broad indicator of health for the second generation this is tested in Panel C of table 5 A
consistent pattern emerges across all panels Like SES outcomes in table 4 gen 1 female
exposure to the flu is shown to have negative statistically significant association with all health
outcomes in the second generation
From Panel A parentalmdashor gen 1mdashflu exposure reduces self-reported health by roughly
half a point (plt005) on a Likert scale from 1-5 1 being very poor health and 5 being excellent
health As shown and like prior estimates this effect is driven by gen 1 female exposure For
adult height gen 1 female exposure is associated with a reduction of about 02 inches (plt010)
which is larger than the direct effect documented by Mazumder et al of 005 inches however
Mazumder et alrsquos estimated effect falls within the 95 confidence interval of our estimated
coefficient Panel C considers the effect on second generation BMI From column (1) having
either parent being born in 19181919 is associated with a statistically significant increase in the
offspringrsquos BMI of 041 points As with the economic effects of table 4 this increase in BMI
appears to be driven by motherrsquos exposure This is seen in columns (2)-(4) which estimate a
statistically significant positive coefficient for motherrsquos exposure but a coefficient that is
statistically indistinguishable from zero for fatherrsquos exposure
disease during the 199293 wave of the WLS (Appendix Table 15A) This association however reduced
in magnitude and statistical significance for later-life waves of the WLS (Appendix Table 15B and 15C) 18 The Dutch famine influenced maternal nutritional status directly through caloric restriction and the
1918 flu through symptoms such as appetite loss vomiting andor diarrhea
17
A persistent effect of in utero exposure to the 1918 Flu is seen in tables 4 and 5 First
generation exposure consistently has a statistically significant and economically meaningful
effect on second generation health and economic outcomes And this effect appears to be driven
solely by motherrsquos exposure although due to marriage market associations we cannot
determine definitively that motherrsquos exposure produces this multigenerational effect through
biological mechanisms
Appendix Tables 10A-11G re-estimate Tables 4 and 5 splitting the sample by generation
2rsquos sex In short the negative effects of first generation exposure appear to be more prominent
in second generation males such that the harmful multi-generational effects are most prominent
in second generation men whose mothers were exposed to the 1918 flu19 Potential reasons for
this sex disparity could be tied to general trends in the differences between sons and daughters in
intergenerational mobility (Chadwick and Solon 2002) In other words sons are more likely to
inherit their families SES standing than daughters This implies that the negative gen 1 shock
from in utero exposure is more likely to affect sons through the proposed SES channel than
daughters resulting in a larger estimated effect for gen 2 males Furthermore there appears to
be a growing gap between in the intergenerational elastiticy between sons and daughters during
the time period in question (Olivetti and Paserman 2015) Another potential reason for the sex
difference could be the larger standard deviation in gen 2 male outcomes this is shown in
Appendix Table 9 Finally the findings of Appendix Tables 10A-11G differ from Richter and
Robling (2013) who show homogeneous sex effects from in utero flu exposure for education
19 When omitting those with no family income during the 1992 wave of the WLS negative effects from
gen 1 female flu exposure are primarily seen in second generation males This indicates however that
there is a greater frequency of no income amongst second generation females from gen 1 flu exposure
Additionally when looking at net worth in the 2011 wave of the WLS we see no difference by gen 2rsquos
sex
18
gen 1 female exposure led to reduction in gen 2 female education and gen 1 male exposure is
associated with gen 2 male education Given this disparity between the two studies our under-
representation for gen 1 male exposure and the mixed findings in Tables 10A-11G we view our
general finding of gen 1 female exposure working through gen 2 male outcomes as preliminary
and suggestive Indeed as we test in Appendix Tables 12A-12G the sex differences in gen 2 are
often not statistically significant
Third Generation
As mentioned previously the focus of the WLS data collection is high school graduates in 1957
but additional samples have been collected for a number of variables on the children of these
graduates Table 6 explores the effects of the WLS parents on the years of schooling for WLS
children estimating the effect of flu exposure across three generations20
Consistent with the second-generation estimations a persistent effect of the in utero flu
exposure is observed and this effect seems to be driven by grandmother exposure (gen 1
female) The joint indicator for either parent is negative and close to statistical significance at
the 10 percent level (p=0106) suggesting that exposure in the first generation is associated with
012 years of schooling less in the third generation The effect of grandfather exposure is
insignificantly different from zero while the coefficient of grandmother exposure is similar in
magnitude to the joint estimate of column (1) while being statistically significant at the 10
level (p=0066) Furthermore the decline in schooling seen in the third generation is similar but
slightly smaller in magnitude compared to the second generation effects seen in Panel A of table
20Analysis of the WLS gradsibling children (ie the third generation) restricts the sample to those
children that are biological children and that are 35 years of age and older by the 20032004 wave of the
WLS
19
421 This again indicates a persistent effect that may be attenuating over time Importantly while
the estimate for grandfather exposure is insignificant it is consistent with intergenerational
inheritance (Kuzawa and Eisenberg 2014) To say the same for grandmother exposure would
require effects to persist into the fourth generation (due to the differences in gametic
development) and this data is not available in the WLS
Conclusion
This paper presents novel evidence of multigenerational effects of in utero health insults We
use the sudden and unexpected influenza pandemic in 19181919 to trace out the effects of in
utero exposure to infectious disease on own outcomes for the first generation childrenrsquos
outcomes and grandchildrenrsquos outcomes We find that this exposure reduces educational
attainment and related economic outcomes across three generations For example individuals in
our second generation the WLS graduates and their siblings who have mothers who were
exposed to the 1918 flu in utero complete 15 fewer years of schooling (or 24 months less
schooling) The size of our estimated effect aligns well with those of Richter and Robling (2013)
who find that first generation in utero exposure to the 1918 flu results in 16 fewer years of
schooling (or 2 months to 25 months less schooling) for the maternal line We then extend
results to the third generation for the first time in the literature and find that individuals in the
third generation who have grandmothers who were exposed to the pandemic in utero complete
17 fewer years of schooling (or 17 months less schooling) than individuals without affected
grandmothers
21 For gen 1 female exposure in column (4) the p-value for a difference in coefficients between Panel A
of Table 4 and Table 6 is 0411 implying the effect in the third generation is statistically indistinguishable
from that in the second generation
20
There are at several potential mechanisms for the persistence of poor outcomes across
three generations we find in our data As previously outlined the intergenerational persistence in
poor outcomes due to early life health shocks could occur through socioeconomic channels
where a fetally insulted person with resulting low educational attainment raises a child in a low-
resource environment that reduces opportunities for high educational attainment of the child In
order to see multigenerational effects the reduced opportunities for high educational attainment
of the child must then reduce opportunities for their own children Alternatively
intergenerational transmission may occur through epigenetic inheritance through the germ line a
distinct possibility based on findings of the Oumlverkalix studies or phenotype-to-phenotype
transmission and cumulative intergenerational phenotypic change
Our analysis is unable to fully distinguish between these proposed intergenerational
channels the socioeconomic and biological but it is important to note that the channels are by no
means mutually exclusive Further analysis (appendix tables 3-5) that is intended to partially
account for the socioeconomic mechanism leads to mixed results in which the coefficient of first
generation flu exposure is attenuated to insignificance for some outcomes but not others This
provides evidence for a socioeconomic channel but does not eliminate the possibility of
epigenetic mechanisms or other biological channel through which socioeconomic status ldquogets
under the skinrdquo to influence outcomes of subsequent generations (eg the socioeconomic
circumstances of one generation may ldquoget under the skinrdquo of the next and subsequently be passed
via biology andor socioeconomics to other generations) Likewise the estimates of grandfather
effects on grandchildren are imprecise but consistent with transgenerational inheritance (Kuzawa
and Eisenberg 2014) Additionally while the WLS provides a unique framework to analyze
multiple generations the measurement of flu exposure is somewhat crude (from self-reported
21
parentsrsquo year of birth) and is in the right-tail of the distribution of parent birth years suggesting
the possibility of confounding from resource-poor younger mothers22 That is exposure to
influenza in the first generation is mechanically tied to motherrsquos ages of 20 and 21 because the
WLS sample is drawn based on having a child who was born in 1939 (and thus graduating high
school in 1957) While we cannot definitively separate these two effects our ability to compare
outcomes of slightly older mothers (ages 22 and 23 born in 1917 or 1916) provide evidence
more consistent with in utero exposure to influenza than impacts of having a mother who is
2021 years old
From a policy perspective our evidence may suggest a novel source of multigenerational
persistence in poverty through biosocial factors and suggest a need to consider evidence of
transgenerational social andor biological mechanisms We document the extent to which
harmful early life environments cascade through generations promoting a disadvantaged start for
those whose grandparents exposed to a hazardous early life environment
22 We specifically explore the confounding effects of younger mothers in appendix tables 7 and 8 These
tables show that younger mothers are indeed initially disadvantaged (ie less years of schooling)
however this young-mother disadvantage does not persist in subsequent generations Rather only those
mothers born in the 1918-1919 range have significant negative effects on later generations
22
References
Almond Doug 2006 Is the 1918 Influenza pandemic over Long‐term effects of in utero Influenza exposure in the post‐1940 US population Journal of Political Economy 114(4) 672-712
Almond Doug and Bhashkar Mazumder 2005 The 1918 Influenza Pandemic and Subsequent Health Outcomes An Analysis of SIPP Data American Economic Review 95(2) 258-262
Barker David James P 2007 The origins of the developmental origins theory Journal of Internal Medicine 261(5) 412-417
Benyshek Daniel C (2013) The ldquoearly liferdquo origins of obesity‐related health disorders New discoveries regarding the intergenerational transmission of developmentally programmed traits in the global cardiometabolic health crisis American Journal of Physical Anthropology 152(S57) 79-93
Brown Alan S and Elena J Derkits 2010 Prenatal infection and schizophrenia a review of epidemiologic and translational studies American Journal of Psychiatry 167(3) 261-280
Burg Steven 2000 Wisconsin and the Great Spanish Flu Epidemic of 1918rdquo Wisconsin Magazine of History 84(1) 36-56
Bygren LarsOlov Gunnar Kaati and Soumlren Edvinsson 2001 Longevity determined by paternal ancestors nutrition during their slow growth period Acta biotheoretica 49(1) 53-59
Canetta Sarah E and Alan S Brown 2012 Prenatal infection maternal immune activation and risk for schizophrenia Translational Neuroscience 3(4) 320-327
Chadwick L and Solon G (2002) Intergenerational income mobility among daughters American Economic Review 92(1) 335-344
Cohen Alan A John Tillinghast and Vladimir Canudas-Romo 2010 No consistent effects of prenatal or neonatal exposure to Spanish flu on late-life mortality in 24 developed countries Demographic Research 22(20) 579
Fatemi S Hossein Julie Earle Reena Kanodia David Kist Effat S Emamian Paul H Patterson Limin Shi and Robert Sidwell 2002 Prenatal viral infection leads to pyramidal cell atrophy and macrocephaly in adulthood implications for genesis of autism and schizophrenia Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology 22(1) 25-33
Fletcher Jason 2014 Examining the Long Term Mortality Effects of Early Health Shocks US Census Bureau Center for Economic Studies Paper No CES-WP-14-19
Kaati Gunnar Lars O Bygren and Soren Edvinsson 2002 Cardiovascular and diabetes mortality determined by nutrition during parents and grandparents slow growth period European Journal of Human Genetics EJHG 10(11) 682
Kash John C Terrence M Tumpey Sean C Proll Victoria Carter Olivia Perwitasari Matthew J Thomas Christopher F Basler et al 2006 Genomic analysis of increased host immune and cell death responses induced by 1918 influenza virus Nature 443(7111) 578-581
Kobasa Darwyn Steven M Jones Kyoko Shinya John C Kash John Copps Hideki Ebihara Yasuko Hatta et al 2007 Aberrant innate immune response in lethal infection of macaques with the 1918 influenza virus Nature 445 (7125) 319-323
Kuzawa Christopher W and Dan T Eisenberg 2014 The Long Reach of History Intergenerational and Transgenerational Pathwaysto Plasticity in Human Longevity Sociality Hierarchy Health Comparative Biodemography Papers from a Workshop National Academies Press
Li Wai-Yu Yi-Chun Chang L Jyuhn-Hsiarn Lee and Li-Jen Lee 2014 Prenatal infection affects the neuronal architecture and cognitive function in adult mice Developmental Neuroscience 36(5) 359-370
23
Lin Ming-Jen and Elaine M Liu 2014 Does in utero exposure to illness matter The 1918 influenza epidemic in Taiwan as a natural experiment Journal of Health Economics 37 152-163
Lindeboom Maarten France Portrait and Gerard J Van den Berg 2010 Long-run effects on longevity of a nutritional shock early in life the Dutch Potato famine of 1846ndash1847 Journal of Health Economics 29(5) 617-629
Mamelund SE (2018) 1918 pandemic mobidity The first wave hits the poor the second wave hits the rich Influenza and Other Respitory Viruses 12(3) 307-313
Mazumder Bhashkar Douglas Almond Kyung Park Eileen M Crimmins and Caleb E Finch 2010 Lingering prenatal effects of the 1918 influenza pandemic on cardiovascular disease Journal of developmental origins of health and disease 1(1) 26-34
Miller Veronica Y Zhu C Bucher W McGinnis L Ryan A Siegel and S Zalcman 2013 Gestational flu exposure induces changes in neurochemicals affiliative hormones and brainstem inflammation in addition to autism-like behaviors in mice Brain Behavior and Immunity 33 153-163
Myrskylauml Mikko Neil K Mehta and Virginia W Chang 2013 Early life exposure to the 1918 influenza pandemic and old-age mortality by cause of death American Journal of Public Health 103(7) e83-e90
Olivetti C and Paserman MD (2015) In the name of the son (and the daughter) Intergenerational mobility in the United States 1850-1940 American Economic Review 105(8) 2695-2724
Pembrey Marcus E Lars Olov Bygren Gunnar Kaati Soumlren Edvinsson Kate Northstone Michael Sjoumlstroumlm and Jean Golding 2006 Sex-specific male-line transgenerational responses in humans European Journal of Human Genetics 14(2) 159-166
Richter Andreacute and Per Olof Robling 2013 Multigenerational effects of the 1918-19 influenza pandemic in Sweden Swedish Institute for Social Research 5
Shors Teri and Susan H McFadden 2009 1918 Influenza A Winnebago County Wisconsin Perspective Clinical Medicine amp Research 7(4) 147-156
Sydenstricker E (1931) The incidence of influenza among persons of different economic status during the epidemic of 1918 Public Health Reports 46(4) 154-170
van den Berg Gerard J and Pia R Pinger 2013 A validation study of transgenerational effects of childhood conditions on the third generation offsprings economic and health outcomes potentially driven by epigenetic imprinting IZA Discussion Paper
Tables and Figures
Table 1 Summary Statistics
Variable N Mean Std Deviation
First GenerartionFlu Indicators
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 8368 0112 0315Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 8456 0030 0170Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 8487 0093 0290
ControlsFirst Generation Malersquos Year of Birth 8456 1907435 7021First Generation Femalersquos Year of Birth 8427 1911189 6164
Dependent VariablesFirst Generation Malersquos Years of Schooling 8456 9778 3392First Generation Femalersquos Years of Schooing 8487 10499 2804First Generation Malersquos Job Prestige 8385 330662 214361First Generation Femalersquos Job Prestige 6683 12814 19934Family SES 8487 16231 11143
Second GenerationControls
Female Indicator 12459 0530 0499Birth Year 12459 1939406 4289Birth Order 12459 2529 1828
Dependent VariablesYears of Schooling 12459 13678 2361Family Income 1992 (in $1000s) 12112 68027 177105Net Worth 2004 (in $1000s) 10498 913046 2558927Self-reported health 1992 9888 4149 0668Height (inches) 9783 67406 3851BMI 1992 9671 26742 4657
Third GenerationControls
Birth Year 19913 1963901 3636Female Indicator 19913 0497 0500Birth Order 19913 2196 1263
Dependent VariableYears of Schooling 19913 14294 2309
Summary amp Notes This table provides summary statistics for all variables used The samples above may not berepresentative for all estimations For example the inclusion of siblings in the second generation increase the sample of parentalyear of birth and the corresponding flu indicator This increase in sample does not significantly change the sample statisticsabove Similar sample changes occur for the second generation controls above For the third generation the sample is restrictedto biological children over 35 years of age
24
Tab
le2
Fir
stG
ener
atio
n
Eco
nom
icE
ffec
ts
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
am
ily
SE
SY
ears
of
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
am
ily
SE
S(1
)(2
)(3
)(4
)(5
)(6
)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale)
-01
39
-01
16lowast
-12
90lowast
lowast
(02
00)
(00
60)
(05
99)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emal
e)-0
133
-00
66
-13
61lowastlowast
lowast
(00
95)
(00
43)
(03
76)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
YY
YY
YY
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8456
8385
8456
8487
6683
8487
RS
qr
00
32
00
08
00
23
00
13
00
04
00
13
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
pro
vid
esd
irec
teff
ects
of
inu
tero
an
dea
rly
life
exp
osu
reto
the
1918
Flu
Ep
idem
ic
Bir
thye
ar
tim
etr
end
sin
lcu
de
yea
rof
bir
than
dit
ssq
uar
ean
din
clu
sion
inth
ees
tim
atio
nis
par
ent
spec
ific
All
esti
mati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
an
dard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
alsi
gnifi
can
ceis
den
oted
by
an
d
re
pre
senti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vel
y
25
Tab
le3
Fir
stG
ener
atio
n
Mar
riag
eM
arke
tE
ffec
ts
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Flu
Bir
thY
ear
Yea
rsof
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
luB
irth
Yea
rY
ears
of
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
e(1
)(2
)(3
)(4
)(5
)(6
)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale)
01
40lowast
lowastlowast-0
259
-00
39
(00
34)
(01
58)
(00
72)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emal
e)0
056lowast
lowastlowast-0
340lowast
lowastlowast-0
118lowastlowast
lowast
(00
14)
(01
17)
(00
36)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
YY
YY
YY
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8348
8487
8412
8348
8456
6660
RS
qr
00
90
00
11
00
08
01
20
00
21
00
01
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
pro
vid
esev
iden
ceof
marr
iage
mark
etse
lect
ion
inth
efi
rst
gen
erati
on
B
irth
year
tim
etr
end
sin
clu
de
year
of
bir
than
dit
ssq
uare
and
incl
usi
onin
the
esti
mat
ion
isp
aren
tsp
ecifi
cA
lles
tim
ati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
an
dard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
sign
ifica
nce
isd
enot
edby
an
d
re
pre
senti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vely
26
Table 4 Second Generation Economic Effects
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Years of Schooling
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0209lowastlowastlowast
(0073)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0084 -0059(0129) (0129)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0211lowastlowastlowast -0209lowastlowastlowast
(0075) (0075)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0085 0084 0085 0085
Panel B ln Family Income 1992
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0221lowastlowast
(0111)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0098 -0066(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0262lowastlowast -0259lowastlowast
(0116) (0116)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112R Sqr 0021 0021 0021 0021
Panel C Std Net Worth 2004
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0026(0022)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0033 0038(0047) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0038lowast -0040lowast
(0021) (0021)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498R Sqr 0007 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table provides evidence of signficant harmful effects of flu exposure in the first generation on secondgeneration economic outcomes First generation time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents(ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and itssquare and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
27
Table 5 Second Generation Health Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Self-reported health (Likert 1=very poor 5=excellent)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0054lowastlowast
(0027)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0005(0047) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0061lowastlowast -0061lowastlowast
(0028) (0028)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Panel B Height (inches)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0101)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0102 0127(0168) (0168)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0169lowast -0175lowast
(0103) (0103)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783r2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Panel C BMI
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0412lowastlowast
(0191)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0082 0023(0344) (0346)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0422lowastlowast 0421lowastlowast
(0193) (0194)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table provides evidence of harmful effects of flu exposure in the first generation on secondgeneration health outcomes First generation time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents (iegen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and itssquare and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
28
Table 6 Generation Three Effects of Generation One Flu Exposure Years of Schooling
Dependent Variable Years of Schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0125(0077)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Male) -0007 0010(0136) (0136)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Female) -0144lowast -0144lowast
(0078) (0078)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913R Sqr 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table shows that the generational effects of flu exposure extend into the third generation of theWLS First generation flu exposure is shown to have a negative association with third generation years of schooling Firstgeneration time trends are year of birth measures for each parent and their square Second generation controls inlcude anindicator for sex second generation year of birth and its square and birth order Third generation controls include a sexindicator year of birth and its square and birth order Given the focus on years of schooling the sample is restricted to thosethird generation individuals 35 years of age and older or born during or before 1970 (data were collected in 2005) Allestimation is performed with OLS with family (second generation) clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
29
(a)
Fat
her
(b)
Moth
er
Fig
ure
1F
irst
Gen
erat
ion
Dis
trib
uti
onof
Yea
rof
Bir
th
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
figu
rep
lots
the
dis
trib
uti
on
for
firs
tgen
erati
on
year
of
bir
th
Flu
exp
osu
reis
class
ified
as
bei
ng
born
inei
ther
1918
or
1919
30
Appendix Tables
Appendix Table 1 First Generation Flu Exposure Effect on Family Income
Dependent Variable Family Income ($100s) 1957
(1) (2)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -3366(2592)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -5363lowastlowast
(2390)
Birth Year Time Trends Y YObservations 7440 7456R Sqr 0013 0004
Summary amp Notes This table replaces the index of socioeconomic status with family income (in $100s) in 1957 Allestimation is performed with OLS with robust standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
31
App
endix
Tab
le2
Mar
riag
eM
arke
tE
ffec
ts
Con
trol
ling
for
Ow
nY
ear
ofB
irth
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
Job
Pre
stig
eY
ears
of
Sch
Job
Pre
stig
e
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale
)-0
052
-211
82
-01
98
-03
74
(02
03)
(131
30)
(01
61)
(14
38)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emale
)-0
346lowast
lowastlowast-2
44
97lowastlowast
lowast-0
103
-13
88
(01
16)
(76
88)
(00
94)
(08
54)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
(Male
an
dF
emale
)Y
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8348
8279
8348
6587
RS
qr
00
40
00
22
00
25
00
04
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
re-e
stim
ates
Tab
le3
wh
ile
contr
oll
ing
for
year
of
bir
than
dfl
uin
dic
ato
rsass
oci
ate
dw
ith
the
spou
sein
the
dep
end
ent
vari
ab
le
All
esti
mat
ion
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
and
ard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
sign
ifica
nce
isd
enote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
atth
e10
5
and
1le
vel
sre
spec
tive
ly
32
Appendix Table 3 2nd Gen Economic Effects Controlling for 1st Gen Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Years of Schooling
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0088(0070)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0005 0008(0119) (0119)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0116 -0117(0072) (0072)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0206 0206 0206 0206
Panel B ln Family Income 1992
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0193lowast
(0111)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0080 -0050(0184) (0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0240lowastlowast -0238lowastlowast
(0116) (0116)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112R Sqr 0024 0024 0024 0024
Panel C Std Normal Net Worth 2004
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0003(0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0047 0049(0046) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0019 -0021(0020) (0020)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498R Sqr 0033 0033 0033 0033
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 4 while controlling for generation one economic outcomes fatherrsquos years ofschooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 First generation time trends are given by year of birth and itssquare for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex secondgeneration year of birth and its square and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standarderrors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and1 levels respectively 33
Appendix Table 4 2nd Gen Health Effects Controlling for 1st Gen Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A BMI
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0352lowast
(0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0051 -0001(0342) (0344)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0372lowast 0372lowast
(0192) (0193)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671R Sqr 0035 0035 0035 0035
Panel B Count of Illnesses
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0122lowast
(0065)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0076 -0096(0102) (0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0139lowastlowast 0144lowastlowast
(0067) (0068)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9921 9921 9921 9921R Sqr 0046 0046 0046 0046
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 5 while controlling for generation one economic outcomes fatherrsquos years ofschooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 First generation time trends are given by year of birth and itssquare for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex secondgeneration year of birth and its square and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standarderrors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and1 levels respectively
34
Appendix Table 5 Generation threersquos years of schooling Controlling for previous generation economicwell-being
Dependent Variable Years of Schooling for Gen 3(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A First Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0069(0076)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0022 0034(0133) (0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0102 -0104(0077) (0078)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913R Sqr 0117 0117 0117 0117
Panel B Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0025(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0008 0013(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0038 -0039(0073) (0073)
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0190 0190 0190 0190
Panel C First and Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0008(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0016 0019(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0028 -0029(0073) (0073)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0196 0196 0196 0196
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 6 while controlling for generation one and tworsquos economic outcomes Forgeneration one these include fatherrsquos years of schooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 generation twocontrols include the WLS graduatesiblingrsquos years of schooling family income in 1992 and net worth in 2004 First generationtime trends are year of birth measures for each parent and their square Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sexsecond generation year of birth and its square and birth order Third generation controls include a sex indicator year of birthand its square and birth order Given the focus on years of schooling the sample is restricted to those third generationindividuals 35 years of age and older or born during or before 1970 (data were collected in 2005) All estimation is performedwith OLS with family (second generation) clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denotedby and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
35
Appendix Table 6 Alternative measures of schooling in the second generation
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Indicator for any college (years of schooling gt12)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0044lowastlowastlowast
(0017)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0011 -0006(0029) (0029)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0044lowastlowast -0043lowastlowast
(0017) (0017)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0071 0070 0071 0071
Panel B Indicator for incomplete college (years of schooling gt12 amp lt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0008(0013)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 -0001(0022) (0022)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0008 -0008(0013) (0013)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0005 0005 0005 0005
Panel C Indicator for college graduate (years of schooling = 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0022lowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0003 0006(0020) (0020)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0021lowast -0021lowastlowast
(0011) (0011)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0019 0019 0019 0019
Panel D Indicator for post-college education (years of schooling gt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0014(0010)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0011(0018) (0018)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0014 -0014(0010) (0010)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0039 0039 0039 0039
Summary amp Notes This table replaces our continuous measure of years of schooling with specified dummy variables Firstgeneration time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Secondgeneration controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and its square and birth order All estimationis performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
36
Appendix Table 7 Young mothers Direct effect on Gen 1 Females
Dependent Variable Years of Sch Job Prestige Family SES
(1) (2) (3)
Ind for First Gen Female Flu Exposure (1918-1919) -0325lowastlowast -0841 -1749lowastlowastlowast
(0137) (1015) (0584)
Ind for mother born during 1920-1921 -0567lowastlowastlowast 0745 -1157(0206) (1515) (0914)
Ind for mother born during 1922-1923 -0666lowastlowast 0098 -2113(0330) (2210) (1298)
Ind for mother born after 1924 -0392 5682 0384(0486) (3705) (2126)
Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y
Observations 8487 6683 8487R Sqr 0014 0005 0014
Summary amp Notes This table includes indicators for alternative years of birth Younger mothers are shown to have lessyears of schooling All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
37
App
endix
Tab
le8
You
ng
mot
her
sG
ener
atio
n2
and
3eff
ects
Gen
2
Gen
3
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
ln
Fam
In
c
1992
Std
N
W
2004
Sel
f-re
p
hea
lth
Hei
ght
BM
IY
ears
of
Sch
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
emal
eF
luE
xp
osu
re(1
918-
1919
)-0
201lowastlowast
-02
95lowastlowast
-00
45
-00
73lowastlowast
-00
90
02
07
-00
86(0
092)
(01
32)
(00
32)
(00
32)
(01
22)
(02
25)
(00
94)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
20-1
921
-00
22
-00
40
-00
10
-00
61
01
33
-04
10
01
13
(01
37)
(01
74)
(00
51)
(00
43)
(01
80)
(03
11)
(01
41)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
22-1
923
-00
96
-01
88
-00
57
00
20
04
61
-11
29lowastlowast
01
55(0
184)
(03
20)
(00
61)
(00
75)
(02
83)
(04
51)
(02
23)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
afte
r19
2404
58
-01
87
00
01
-00
27
03
12
-08
85
03
99
(03
06)
(03
94)
(00
87)
(01
27)
(04
94)
(10
70)
(03
21)
Bas
eC
ontr
ols
YY
YY
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
12459
12112
10498
9888
9783
9671
19913
RS
qr
00
85
00
21
00
08
00
09
05
86
00
29
00
79
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
incl
ud
esin
dic
ator
sfo
ralt
ernati
ve
years
of
bir
th
Bei
ng
born
toa
you
nger
moth
ergen
erall
yis
not
ass
oci
ate
dw
ith
gen
erati
on
2or
3rsquos
outc
omes
ofin
tere
st
inst
ead
n
egat
ive
effec
tsar
eon
lyob
serv
edfo
rth
ose
born
du
rin
gth
efl
u
All
esti
mati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hfa
mil
y(2
nd
gen
erat
ion
)cl
ust
ered
stan
dar
der
rors
rep
orte
din
par
enth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
signifi
can
ceis
den
ote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vel
y
38
Appendix Table 9 Summary Statistics by Gen 2 Sex
Variable N Mean Std Deviation
FemaleYears of Schooling 6607 13352 2088ln Family Income (1992 wave) 6411 9424 3577
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5654 10686 1010Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 5612 -0047 0539Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 5313 4164 0670Height (inches) 5231 646635 247936BMI 5124 26073 5114
Gen 3Years of Schooling 11947 14240 2291
MaleYears of Schooling 5852 14047 2587ln Family Income (1992 wave) 5701 10139 3030
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5264 10981 0836Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 4886 0059 1159Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 4575 4133 0665Height (inches) 4554 7055484 25596BMI 4547 27496 3948
Gen 3Years of Schooling 8046 14371 2332
Appendix Table 10A Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0090(0086)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0198 0214(0169) (0169)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104 -0114(0087) (0087)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6607 6607 6607 6607R Sqr 0075 0075 0075 0075
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
39
Appendix Table 10B Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0523lowastlowastlowast
(0170)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0483 -0410(0321) (0323)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0512lowastlowastlowast -0491lowastlowastlowast
(0179) (0180)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6411 6411 6411 6411R Sqr 0015 0013 0014 0015
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10C Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0007(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0078lowast 0078(0048) (0048)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0008 0005(0025) (0025)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5612 5612 5612 5612R Sqr 0007 0007 0007 0007
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
40
Appendix Table 10D Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0027(0036)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 -0001(0071) (0071)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0022 -0022(0037) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5313 5313 5313 5313r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10E Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -2382(13366)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 44280lowastlowast 46351lowastlowast
(22343) (22480)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -12253 -14428(13485) (13561)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5231 5231 5231 5231r2 0015 0016 0015 0016
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
41
Appendix Table 10F Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0353(0286)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0105 0060(0514) (0516)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0326 0323(0289) (0290)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5124 5124 5124 5124R Sqr 0010 0010 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0087(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0104 -0101(0190) (0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0042 -0039(0098) (0098)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 11906 11906 11906 11906R Sqr 0086 0086 0086 0086
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
42
Appendix Table 11A Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0322lowastlowastlowast
(0116)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0369lowastlowast -0338lowast
(0181) (0180)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0309lowastlowastlowast -0297lowastlowast
(0119) (0119)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5852 5852 5852 5852R Sqr 0060 0059 0060 0060
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11B RResults by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0116(0138)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0262 0261(0200) (0199)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0024 0014(0141) (0140)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5701 5701 5701 5701R Sqr 0009 0009 0008 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
43
Appendix Table 11C Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0038)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0001(0081) (0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0094lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0035)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4886 4886 4886 4886R Sqr 0004 0004 0004 0004
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
44
Appendix Table 11D Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0083lowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 0012(0062) (0062)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104lowastlowastlowast -0105lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0041)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4575 4575 4575 4575r2 0010 0009 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11E Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -15122(14275)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -22991 -20537(23287) (23176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -18595 -17540(14734) (14751)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4554 4554 4554 4554r2 0011 0011 0011 0011
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
45
Appendix Table 11F Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0465lowast
(0238)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0079 0006(0403) (0405)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0520lowastlowast 0520lowastlowast
(0245) (0246)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4547 4547 4547 4547R Sqr 0006 0005 0006 0006
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0177(0123)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0098 0144(0194) (0192)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0293lowastlowast -0302lowastlowast
(0125) (0126)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8007 8007 8007 8007R Sqr 0067 0067 0068 0068
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
46
Appendix Table 12A Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0253lowastlowast
(0107)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0252 -0226(0170) (0172)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0263lowastlowast -0242lowastlowast
(0113) (0115)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0084(0120)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0341 0339(0216) (0219)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0096 0056(0130) (0132)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459r2 0085 0085 0085 0085
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
47
Appendix Table 12B Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0128)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0196 0169(0190) (0189)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0081 -0104(0135) (0135)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0383lowastlowast
(0189)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0594lowast -0474(0349) (0355)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0339lowast -0283(0204) (0207)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112r2 0021 0021 0021 0021
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
48
Appendix Table 12C Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0034)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0019(0077) (0079)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0095lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0030) (0031)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0071lowast
(0038)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0072 0039(0087) (0089)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0104lowastlowastlowast 0100lowastlowastlowast
(0035) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498r2 0008 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
49
Appendix Table 12D Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0071lowast
(0036)[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0012 0031
(0058) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0093lowastlowast -0097lowastlowast
(0039) (0039)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0030(0045)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0031 -0051(0087) (0088)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0059 0065(0048) (0049)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
50
Appendix Table 12E Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0129 -0125(0223) (0224)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0152 -0129(0141) (0142)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0000(0158)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0454 0495lowast
(0279) (0287)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0031 -0090(0170) (0175)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783nr2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
51
Appendix Table 12F Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0376(0231)
[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0059 -0122(0402) (0407)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0441lowast 0457lowast
(0240) (0243)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0068(0316)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0282 0288(0573) (0589)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0035 -0069(0340) (0350)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
52
Appendix Table 12G Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0131(0114)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male 0114 0175(0185) (0188)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0237lowastlowast -0261lowastlowast
(0118) (0121)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0009(0133)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0225 -0292(0249) (0254)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0152 0189(0141) (0145)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913r2 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
53
Appendix Table 13 Family Income 1992 excluding non-earners (ie fam inc = 0)
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992 wave (excluding those reporting 0)(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0095lowastlowastlowast
(0033)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0031 -0019(0053) (0053)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0101lowastlowastlowast -0100lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0034)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10918 10918 10918 10918r2 0050 0049 0050 0050
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0084lowast
(0050)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0019 -0007(0089) (0090)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0083 -0083(0053) (0054)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5654 5654 5654 5654r2 0026 0026 0026 0026
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102lowastlowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0051 -0040(0060) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0113lowastlowastlowast -0112lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0040)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5264 5264 5264 5264r2 0029 0028 0029 0029
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel B in Table 4 excluding those who report $0 for familyincome All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
54
Appendix Table 14 Net Worth 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable Std Net Worth 2011 Wave of WLS(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0032lowastlowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0023lowast -0021lowast
(0012) (0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0032lowastlowastlowast -0031lowastlowastlowast
(0010) (0010)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9435 9435 9435 9435r2 0002 0002 0002 0002
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0012lowast
(0006)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0009 -0008(0009) (0009)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0012lowastlowast -0011lowastlowast
(0006) (0006)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5026 5026 5026 5026r2 0007 0006 0007 0007
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0057lowastlowast
(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0040lowast -0036lowast
(0023) (0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0057lowastlowast -0056lowastlowast
(0023) (0022)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4409 4409 4409 4409r2 0001 0001 0001 0001
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel C in Table 4 replacing the net worth measure from the 2004wave with an identical measure from the 2011 wave of the WLS All estimation is performed with OLS with family clusteredstandard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 105 and 1 levels respectively
55
Appendix Table 15A Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 1992 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0243(0152)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0107 0039(0252) (0255)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0285lowast 0282lowast
(0158) (0160)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9849 9849 9849 9849
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0007(0091)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0210 -0216(0170) (0173)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0007 0024(0095) (0097)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9858 9858 9858 9858
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0255(0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0107 -0169(0328) (0338)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0237 0252(0193) (0198)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9845 9845 9845 9845
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
56
Appendix Table 15B Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2004 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0018(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0190 0207(0160) (0162)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0066 -0083(0102) (0104)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10672 10672 10672 10672
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0096 0108(0124) (0125)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0051 -0059(0076) (0077)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10619 10619 10619 10619
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0108(0110)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0064 0027(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0181 0179(0113) (0113)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10617 10617 10617 10617
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
57
Appendix Table 15C Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0099(0092)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0244 0242(0154) (0155)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0033 0016(0099) (0100)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0021(0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0095 0097(0138) (0139)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0004 -0011(0085) (0086)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0134(0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0203 0181(0175) (0176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0140 0127(0107) (0107)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8709 8709 8709 8709
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
58
- text 10818
- tables 10-8-18
-
3
The results generally suggest large lifelong impacts of in utero insults on economic and health
outcomes
With these results established a next question is whether they might persist into the
outcomes of future generations We explore the question of intergenerational persistence of fetal
insults by extending previous work that uses the 1918 influenza pandemic as a natural
experiment (Almond 2006) by adding multigenerational data We document that in utero
exposure to the pandemic can be seen in the educational attainments of multiple generations
More specifically we find a reduction of approximately 110th a year of schooling (statistically
insignificant) for the first generation 15th a year of schooling for the second generation and
16th of a year of schooling for the third generation1 We also show large effects on economic as
well as health outcomes for the second generation Our findings suggest the importance of in
utero health insults that persist across multiple generations and allow a shift in our analytical
frame from the ldquolong arm of childhood circumstancesrdquo to the ldquolong arm of previous generationrsquos
circumstancesrdquo or alternatively ldquothe long reach of historyrdquo (Kuzawa and Eisenberg 2014) Our
results can also be interpreted in the context of assessing benefits of policy and environmental
conditions that reduce the likelihood of in utero health insults where the full benefits may unfold
over multiple generations
Background Literature
Our research intersects several related literatures There is a large literature that
documents associations between early life insults and later life outcomes following the original
1 As mentioned in greater detail in 31 the first generation is comprised of the parents from the Wisconsin
Longitudinal Study (WLS) This is the generation that is treated or exposed in utero to the 1918 flu
epidemic The second generation is the WLS graduates and siblings who are the focus of the WLS and
the third generation is comprised of the offspring of the WLS graduates and siblings
4
Barker Hypothesis In addition we draw on literature that explores multigenerational linkages of
environmental exposures on life course outcomes These literatures are rarely unified in a single
analysis largely due to data constraints We overcome these limitations by leveraging a three-
generational dataset that coincides with a key demographic event from the early 20th centurymdash
the 19181919 influenza epidemic
The seminal work of the economist Douglas Almond (2006) was one of the first papers to
exploit the 1918 flu pandemic as a natural experiment and to test whether in utero exposure to
infectious disease influences later life outcomes Using US census microdata to situate
respondent births in both time (birth quarter) and place (exploiting geographic variation in the
severity of the flu) Almond (2006) finds evidence of lower educational attainment higher rates
of physical disability as well as lower income and socioeconomic status for cohorts exposed to
the 19181919 flu while in utero (estimated using birth quarter age and timing of the flu) as
compared to unexposed adjacent cohorts In a related paper Almond and Mazumder (2005) use a
similar approach with the Survey of Income and Program Participation and find negative health
effects for adults who were in utero (based on birth quarter) during the outbreak Subsequent
work has built on these outcomes finding excess cardiovascular disease (Mazumder Almond et
al 2010) increased likelihood of kidney disease diabetes circulatory and respiratory problems
in old age (Lin and Liu 2014) and increased old-age mortality in non-cancer related causes
(Myrskylauml Mehta et al 2013 Fletcher 2014)2 More broadly the negative effect from the flu
dovetails with other negative in utero shocks see for example Catalano et al (2011) Roseboom
et al (2001) Schulz (2010) and Torche (2011)
2 Though Cohen Tillinghast and Canudas-Romo (2010) and Fletcher (2014) found no effects on overall
mortality
5
The mechanisms underlying these broad effects from in utero influenza exposure are not
fully understood in humans3 However in studies of monkeys (Kobasa Jones et al 2007) and
mice (Kash Tumpey et al 2006) it has been shown that the reconstructed 1918 flu virus triggers
an exceptionally intense and prolonged innate immune response More specifically gene-
expression analysis shows that proteins involved in the innate immune system have a higher and
sustained expression when triggered by the 1918 reconstructed virus than when triggered by the
contemporary flu of the same H1N1-type (Kobasa Jones et al 2007) While the specific 1918 flu
strain cannot be studied in humans through purposeful exposure for ethical reasons both animal
and human studies have linked the maternal immune response during severe flu infection in
pregnancy to offspring brain development as well as impaired adult behavior and cognitive
outcomes (Fatemi Earle et al 2002 Brown and Derkits 2010 Canetta and Brown 2012 Miller
Zhu et al 2013 Li Chang et al 2014) These results align with research in psychology that links
inflammatory processes in mothersmdashincluding stress and infection as well as stress-induced
immunosuppressionmdashto poor birth outcomes (for a review see Stretter 2011) Recent evidence
suggests that in utero exposure to the 1918 flu may not only affect adult outcomes but also the
outcomes of subsequent generations Richter and Robling (2013) were the first to identify an
effect of first generation prenatal exposure (using birth trimester) to the 1918 flu pandemic on
the outcomes of the second generation (the children of those exposed to the 1918 flu in utero)
The authors use historical influenza morbidity data matched to birth information to identify
potential exposure to the 1918 flu and find that first generation maternal in utero exposure in the
second trimester lowers educational attainment for female children by 2-25 months or by 15-
18 percent but find no such effect for male children An analogous result is identified for first
6
generation paternal exposure and male outcomes that is first generation exposure in the second
trimester lowers educational attainment for male children by 24 to 3 months or by 18-22
percent but paternal exposure showed no such effect for females Taken together first
generation exposure to the 1918 flu while in utero results in 2 to 3 months less schooling for the
second generation
Several pathways exist for the intergenerational transmission of early life health shocks
Through socioeconomic channels intergenerational persistence in poor outcomes could occur
when a fetally insulted parent marred by poorer health and socioeconomic outcomes raises a
child in a low-resource environment Biologically phenotype-to-phenotype transmission and
epigenetic inheritance are hypothesized to be key mechanisms for intergenerational transmission
(Kuzawa and Eisenberg 2014) In cases of in utero or very early life shocks phenotype-to-
phenotype transmission impacts the outcomes of the next generation through changes in parental
biological systems that lead to altered gestational andor lactation environments for offspring
(eg pre-pregnancy hypertension is linked to low birthweight) Importantly socioeconomic and
biological channels are not mutually exclusive and can also interact with one another that is the
effects of adult phenotype on offspring extend beyond physiology and metabolism to include
parental behaviorenvironmental response as a potential source of phenotypic transmission and
potentially even cumulative intergenerational phenotypic change (Benyshek 2013) For example
stress experienced by a mother prenatally may alter stress regulation in offspring which may in
turn increase risk for the same adult phenotype in the offspring as well as in subsequent
generations Epigenetic inheritance in comparison occurs when parental experiences alter gene
expression that is subsequently transmitted to offspring and future generations through the germ
line Here again there is an opportunity for socioeconomic circumstances to interact with
7
biologymdasheg where poverty through the experience of stress alters gene expression for
generations Our analysis of second generation outcomes will explore some of these channels
but not attempt to prioritize one over another
Work extending effects of in utero exposure to the 1918 flu to the third generation (the
grandchildren of those originally exposed in utero) in humans to the best of the authorsrsquo
knowledge does not exist The strongest evidence for a potential biological channel across
multiple generations comes from studies of historical data from Oumlverkalix region in Northern
Sweden that exploit variance in first generation grandparental food supply during childhood
Bygren Kaati et al (2001) for example find that an excess of food during the period just before
adolescence a time labeled the ldquoslow growth periodrdquo (SGP) shortens the grandsonrsquos longevity
A later study using the Oumlverkalix data replicates the results of Bygren Kaati et al (2001) in a
second cohort and further extends the results to include an association between first generation
paternal grandmotherrsquos food supply and granddaughterrsquos mortality risk (Pembrey Bygren et al
2006)4
Our work builds off of this evidence to conduct novel examinations of multigenerational
effects of in utero exposures in human populations The current research leverages a unique
survey to measure the multigenerational impacts of in utero exposure to the 1918 flu pandemic
Our hypothesis is that the previously documented direct effects of such shocks extend into the
outcomes of the second generation Going further we also estimate whether these effects
4 Van den Berg and Pinger (2014) externally validated the potential for transmission across three
generations by analyzing the impact of the German famine of 1916-1918 on the mental health outcomes
(an index from survey questions accounting for rsquogeneral mental healthrsquo rsquoemotional functioningrsquo rsquosocial
functioningrsquo and rsquovitalityrsquo) of the children and grandchildren of those exposed to the famine during their
SGP The authors find that paternal (maternal) grandfather (grandmothers) exposure during their SGP is
associated with better mental health in grandsons (granddaughters)
8
continue into the third generation In other words we ask whether the singular in utero shock has
a multigenerational effect--on the adult outcomes of those exposed in utero on their children
and on their grandchildren
Data and Empirical Methodology
Data
In order to examine multigenerational effects of an in utero exposure we require
multigenerational data Very few datasets in the US have a multigenerational component and fit
the relevant time period for our exposure (ie birth cohorts around 1918) Our data come from
the Wisconsin Longitudinal Survey (WLS) which is a random one-third survey of graduating
high school seniors in Wisconsin in 1957 The majority of these respondents were born in 1939
and form our second generation Thus the parents of the WLS graduates form our first
generation with birth years overlapping the 19181919 in utero exposure period This allows for
the creation of our primary measure for in utero exposure to the 1918 flu epidemic an indicator
9
for either first generation parent being born during the 1918-1919 range56 Additional data are
collected on the later life outcomes of the WLS graduates and a selected sibling as well as a
limited number of outcomes for the children (third generation) of the graduatessiblings
providing the structure for our multigenerational analysis
Summary statistics are presented in table 1 As shown approximately 10 percent of WLS
parents are born in either 1918 or 1919 On average fathers are born in 1907 and mothers are
born in 1911 consequently a birth year of 1918 or 1919 is closer to the right-tail of the
distribution of births and the rate of 10 percent is driven primarily by relatively young mother
exposures7 Since WLS graduatersquos fathers tend to be on average 4 years older than mothers this
right-tail problem is larger for generation 1 males This is seen in Figure 1 While not the
primary focus of the WLS data collection several parental (first generation) outcomes are
5 Parent year of birth is recorded from the WLS graduates This self-reported measure is used to create
the indicator of flu exposure those parents born in 1918 or 1919 To maximize sample size we use
differing waves of the WLS and reported birth years from biological siblings to supplement the reported
year of birth from WLS graduates Parent birth years are first collected for the 199293 graduate wave
Missing observations are then sequentially added from graduate reports in later wavesmdash2003 and 2011
After using all graduate reported year of parent birth variables observations are then filled in from
identically reported measures from a selected biological sibling
Specifically for mothers (gen 1 females) 7976 observations come from graduates in the 199293
wave 366 additional observations come from the 200305 wave 84 observations come from 2011 wave
and 68 observations come from the selected sibling This leaves a base sample size of 8494 ~94 of
which is from the graduate reported 199293 wave For fathers (gen 1 males) 7929 observations come
from graduates in the 199293 wave 361 additional observations come from the 200305 wave 77 come
from the 2011 wave and 91 observations come from siblings leaving a base sample size of 8458 (again
~94 is from the grad reported 199293 wave)
From this base 7 observations are dropped for gen-1-femalersquos (WLS motherrsquos) year of birth due
to reported gen 2rsquos year of birth being 10 or less years after gen 1rsquos year of birth 45 additional
observations are lost if this threshold is increased to 15 years For gen-1-malersquos year of birth 2
observations are removed for identical reasons this increases to 25 additional observations for the 15 year
threshold We attribute this reduction in the sample mostly to measurement error 6 The 1918 flu epidemic in Wisconsin was from September 1918 through December 1918 but did not
reach the severity experienced in many other states According to historical records Wisconsin had the
fourth lowest numbers of deaths out of 25 reporting states (Burg 2000 Shors and McFadden 2009) 7 Appendix tables 7 and 8 provide evidence that our results are not driven solely by confounding between
exposure to the influenza pandemic and being young mothers
10
available including years of schooling occupational prestige and family socioeconomic status
in 19578
[insert table 1 here]
The primary focus of the WLS data collection is high school seniors in 1957 Wisconsin
the second generation of our study Given this focus on graduates (and their siblings) a large
number of economic and health variables are available in each wave of the WLS (irregular
intervals roughly 10-15 years apart 197577 19929394 2003-20052004-2007 and in 2011)
In addition to examining years of schooling several additional dependent variables in the second
generation intend to capture broad differences in economic and health well-being9 These include
income during the peak earning years (ie family income collected when graduates are 53 years
of age on average) net worth at initial retirement age (ie net worth collected when graduates
are 65 years of age on average) and general indicators of health measured by body mass index
and a count of doctor diagnosed illnesses (both collected in the wave when graduates are age 53
on average) Finally the WLS data contains information that is collected from the second
generation about the third generation we focus on years of schooling as the main outcome of
interest
8 The index of socioeconomic status is a factor weighted score combining data on father and motherrsquos
years of schooling fatherrsquos occupational prestige and average parental income Replacing this measure
with average parental income (see appendix table 1) does not change the effect of the flu indicator Job
prestige measures for both mother and father are based on Duncanrsquos Socioeconomic Index which is a
measure of job prestige based on income education and surveyed perceptions of general social standing
for certain occupations (Duncan 1961) 9 We note that our three generations of individuals are drawn from three non-overlapping set of birth
years the mean birth year for generation 1 is ~1910 generation 2 is ~1940 generation 3 is ~1965 Thus
since we are performing the analysis separately by generation we are controlling for much of the time-
variation in the meaning of education We also perform analysis stratified by sex in Appendix Tables 10-
12 so that we can also control for the differential meaning of education in each generation
11
Empirical Methodology
Our empirical strategy follows that of Almond (2006) by examining harmful effects of being
exposed in utero on later life outcomes We then extend this analysis by estimating
multigenerational impacts on both the second and third generations In so doing the primary
estimating equation is given by the following form
119910119894119891119892 = 1205730 + 1205731(119884119874119861 = 191819)1198911 + 120632119931119943120783 + 120633119935119946119943119944 + 120576119894119891119892
Our primary focus is on the coefficient 1205731 which measures the effect of having a
parentgrandparent born in 1918-1919 on a number of outcomes for 119894 individuals in 119891 families
for generation 119892 Parent year of birth time trends and their square are denoted by 120632119931119943120783 120633119935119946119943119944
represents generation specific controls and 120576119894119891119892 is representative of a family clustered error
term
For the first generation we control for birth year and its square capturing age-specific
trends that are tied to our first-generation outcomes of interest (eg years of schooling) For the
analysis of second and third generations birth years and squares for both first generation parents
are included as controls along with generation-specific controls for sex age and birth order
Our estimation strategy follows an intent to treat design It is likely that the actual
incidence of flu differed by socioeconomic status and social standing (Mamelund 2018
Sydenstricker 1931) Our use of year-of-birth however avoids potential confounding by SES
because allmdashboth rich and poormdashare defined as treated if they are born in one of the two years
Although avoiding confounders associated with actual disease incidence this estimation strategy
will underestimate the true effect of flu exposure lowering the magnitude of our coefficient of
interest
12
Results
First Generation
Our initial analysis explores the direct effects of being born during the 1918 Influenza Epidemic
While health data are sparse for the WLS graduatersquos parents (first generation) a number of
economic outcomes are available especially during the initial sample year of 1957 Table 2
explores the relationship between these economic variables and an indicator for birth during
19181919 Columns (1)-(3) of table 2 show the relationship between a WLS graduatersquos father
being born during 19181919 and the fatherrsquos years of schooling the fatherrsquos occupational
prestige and the familyrsquos index of socioeconomic status in 1957 (ie when the first generation
members are approximately 40 years old) While statistically insignificant a negative association
is observed between years of schooling and being born in 1918 or 191910 This is carried over
into fatherrsquos job prestige in column (2) from which the indicator of in utero exposure to the 1918
flu is associated with an approximate 01 standard deviation decline in the index of occupational
prestige These effects culminate in column (3) which shows a statistically significant negative
effect of in utero exposure to the flu and later life economic well-being a 13 decline in the SES
index which corresponds to a decline of roughly 10 percent of a standard deviation The findings
of table 2 corroborate past studies that show in utero exposure to the 1918 flu led to poorer
economic outcomes later in life (Almond 2006)11
[insert table 2 here]
10 First generation years of schooling are reported by the second generation WLS graduates Measurement
error is likely which may result in the insignificant coefficients of table 2 11 Richter and Robling (2013 Table 12) find a similar effect for in utero female exposure to flu in the first
trimester
13
Mirroring the results for males in the first generation a negative but statistically
insignificant association is observed between an indicator of birth in 19181919 and schooling
for first generation females This association however becomes statistically significant at the 1
percent level for the index of family SES the coefficient being nearly identical to that of a
malersquos in utero exposure to the flu though it is unclear whether these effects flow from labor
market andor marriage market sources The findings of table 2 are extended in table 3 which
explores potential marriage market effects of early life exposure to the flu epidemic12
Column (1) of table 3 regresses the indicator for male in utero exposure on an identical
measure for spousersquos exposure Females who were born in 19181919 were 5 percentage points
more likely to marry men who were also born during the same period Furthermore as shown in
columns (2) and (3) these women were more likely to marry men with fewer years of school and
lower job prestige These effects are significant at the 1 percent level Similar effects are seen in
columns (4)-(6) for 19181919 born males who are 14 percentage points more likely to marry flu
exposed females (p=000) and marry females with 026 fewer years of schooling (p=0101)
Given the findings of table 3 however we cannot rule out that this is a marriage market effect13
[insert table 3 here]
Second Generation
Our hypothesis is that the direct effects observed in tables 2 and 3 extend into future generations
To address this hypothesis we regress a number of economic and health outcomes of the WLS
graduates and siblings the offspring of the first generation examined in tables 2 and 3 These
12 Mothers and fathers of WLS graduates are assumed to be married 13 Appendix table 2 repeats the estimation of table 3 while also controlling for an indicator of own-flu
exposure and own year of birth measures
14
estimations are performed in tables 4 and 5 Column (1) in both tables focus on an indicator for
either parent being born in 19181919 the primary regressor of column (2) is an indicator for
fatherrsquos (gen 1 males) in utero exposure to the 1918 flu column (3) considers motherrsquos (gen 1
females) exposure and column (4) includes separate indicators for both mother and fatherrsquos
exposure Controls included in all columns include fatherrsquos year of birth and its square motherrsquos
year of birth and its square an indicator for sex in the second generation a measure of birth
order in the second generation and second-generation year of birth and its square
Table 4 focuses on economic outcomes of the WLS graduates To reiterate our
hypothesis is that in utero exposure to the 1918 influenza pandemic has effects that persist for
multiple generations Table 2 shows the direct first generation effects while table 4 begins to
show the indirect effects that are transmitted to offspring Panel A regresses years of schooling in
the second generation on indicators of first generation exposure to the 1918 flu14 From column
(1) either parent being born in 19181919 is associated with a statistically significant decline of
021 years of schooling in the second generation This estimate is likely understated because the
sampling design of the WLS is a focus on high school seniors thus individuals with fewer than
twelve years of schooling are underrepresented in the data15 Columns (2)-(4) disambiguate this
effect into the maternal and paternal lines From which the effect of column (1) seems to be
driven by motherrsquos in utero exposure to the flu16
14 Appendix Table 6 includes a number of alternative measures for years of schooling in place of the
simple count used in Table 4 15 Table 3 includes selected siblings of the WLS graduates These siblings do not have to be high school
graduates 16 This finding differs from that of Richter and Robling (2013) who find maternal exposure tied to
daughter outcomes and paternal exposure tied to son outcomes
15
The findings of Panel A are extended into Panel B which replaces years of schooling as
the dependent variable with the natural log of family income for the 1992 wave a time when the
second generation respondents are 53 years of age on average and represents a time of peak
earning in the life course As with years of schooling a negative association is seen throughout
the specifications of Panel B Having either parent born in 19181919 is associated with a 22
percent decline in family income Once again this effect seems to be driven by motherrsquos not
fatherrsquos exposure Panel C replaces income with a measure of net worth for the 2004 wave This
measure of net worth is when the second generation respondents are on average 65 years of age
and is representative of earnings throughout the life course The dual indicator of column (1) is
negative but statistically insignificant at conventional levels (p=023) When looking at the effect
of mother exposure in column (3) however the effect becomes statistically significant at the
10 level (p=0069) implying those with mothers born during 19181919 have approximately
$36000 less in net worth by 2004
Following the broader health focus of the Barker hypothesis the economic effects of
table 4 are replaced with health measures in table 5 We consider three broad measures of
general health and well-being later in life self-reported health in later life (~53 years old)
height and BMI (again at ~53) The use of self-reported health is intended to capture general
well-being later in life (Fortin et al 2017) this is tested in Panel A of table 5 Mazumder et al
(2010) provide evidence that in utero exposure to the 1918 flu is associated with a reduction in
height and an increase cardiovascular disease so it is possible that these negative health
outcomes could be transmitted to offspring this is tested in Panel B of table 517 And given
17 Appendix Table 14 tests indicators for a number self-reported health conditions As shown a weak
positive association is shown between gen 1 female flu exposure and an indicator of cardiovascular
16
prior work linking early life exposure to the Dutch famine to BMI (Roseboom et al 2000) and
metabolic function (Lumey et al 2009) in adulthood as well as the fact that both the Dutch
famine and the 1918 flu impacted maternal stress and nutritional status18 we examine BMI as
another broad indicator of health for the second generation this is tested in Panel C of table 5 A
consistent pattern emerges across all panels Like SES outcomes in table 4 gen 1 female
exposure to the flu is shown to have negative statistically significant association with all health
outcomes in the second generation
From Panel A parentalmdashor gen 1mdashflu exposure reduces self-reported health by roughly
half a point (plt005) on a Likert scale from 1-5 1 being very poor health and 5 being excellent
health As shown and like prior estimates this effect is driven by gen 1 female exposure For
adult height gen 1 female exposure is associated with a reduction of about 02 inches (plt010)
which is larger than the direct effect documented by Mazumder et al of 005 inches however
Mazumder et alrsquos estimated effect falls within the 95 confidence interval of our estimated
coefficient Panel C considers the effect on second generation BMI From column (1) having
either parent being born in 19181919 is associated with a statistically significant increase in the
offspringrsquos BMI of 041 points As with the economic effects of table 4 this increase in BMI
appears to be driven by motherrsquos exposure This is seen in columns (2)-(4) which estimate a
statistically significant positive coefficient for motherrsquos exposure but a coefficient that is
statistically indistinguishable from zero for fatherrsquos exposure
disease during the 199293 wave of the WLS (Appendix Table 15A) This association however reduced
in magnitude and statistical significance for later-life waves of the WLS (Appendix Table 15B and 15C) 18 The Dutch famine influenced maternal nutritional status directly through caloric restriction and the
1918 flu through symptoms such as appetite loss vomiting andor diarrhea
17
A persistent effect of in utero exposure to the 1918 Flu is seen in tables 4 and 5 First
generation exposure consistently has a statistically significant and economically meaningful
effect on second generation health and economic outcomes And this effect appears to be driven
solely by motherrsquos exposure although due to marriage market associations we cannot
determine definitively that motherrsquos exposure produces this multigenerational effect through
biological mechanisms
Appendix Tables 10A-11G re-estimate Tables 4 and 5 splitting the sample by generation
2rsquos sex In short the negative effects of first generation exposure appear to be more prominent
in second generation males such that the harmful multi-generational effects are most prominent
in second generation men whose mothers were exposed to the 1918 flu19 Potential reasons for
this sex disparity could be tied to general trends in the differences between sons and daughters in
intergenerational mobility (Chadwick and Solon 2002) In other words sons are more likely to
inherit their families SES standing than daughters This implies that the negative gen 1 shock
from in utero exposure is more likely to affect sons through the proposed SES channel than
daughters resulting in a larger estimated effect for gen 2 males Furthermore there appears to
be a growing gap between in the intergenerational elastiticy between sons and daughters during
the time period in question (Olivetti and Paserman 2015) Another potential reason for the sex
difference could be the larger standard deviation in gen 2 male outcomes this is shown in
Appendix Table 9 Finally the findings of Appendix Tables 10A-11G differ from Richter and
Robling (2013) who show homogeneous sex effects from in utero flu exposure for education
19 When omitting those with no family income during the 1992 wave of the WLS negative effects from
gen 1 female flu exposure are primarily seen in second generation males This indicates however that
there is a greater frequency of no income amongst second generation females from gen 1 flu exposure
Additionally when looking at net worth in the 2011 wave of the WLS we see no difference by gen 2rsquos
sex
18
gen 1 female exposure led to reduction in gen 2 female education and gen 1 male exposure is
associated with gen 2 male education Given this disparity between the two studies our under-
representation for gen 1 male exposure and the mixed findings in Tables 10A-11G we view our
general finding of gen 1 female exposure working through gen 2 male outcomes as preliminary
and suggestive Indeed as we test in Appendix Tables 12A-12G the sex differences in gen 2 are
often not statistically significant
Third Generation
As mentioned previously the focus of the WLS data collection is high school graduates in 1957
but additional samples have been collected for a number of variables on the children of these
graduates Table 6 explores the effects of the WLS parents on the years of schooling for WLS
children estimating the effect of flu exposure across three generations20
Consistent with the second-generation estimations a persistent effect of the in utero flu
exposure is observed and this effect seems to be driven by grandmother exposure (gen 1
female) The joint indicator for either parent is negative and close to statistical significance at
the 10 percent level (p=0106) suggesting that exposure in the first generation is associated with
012 years of schooling less in the third generation The effect of grandfather exposure is
insignificantly different from zero while the coefficient of grandmother exposure is similar in
magnitude to the joint estimate of column (1) while being statistically significant at the 10
level (p=0066) Furthermore the decline in schooling seen in the third generation is similar but
slightly smaller in magnitude compared to the second generation effects seen in Panel A of table
20Analysis of the WLS gradsibling children (ie the third generation) restricts the sample to those
children that are biological children and that are 35 years of age and older by the 20032004 wave of the
WLS
19
421 This again indicates a persistent effect that may be attenuating over time Importantly while
the estimate for grandfather exposure is insignificant it is consistent with intergenerational
inheritance (Kuzawa and Eisenberg 2014) To say the same for grandmother exposure would
require effects to persist into the fourth generation (due to the differences in gametic
development) and this data is not available in the WLS
Conclusion
This paper presents novel evidence of multigenerational effects of in utero health insults We
use the sudden and unexpected influenza pandemic in 19181919 to trace out the effects of in
utero exposure to infectious disease on own outcomes for the first generation childrenrsquos
outcomes and grandchildrenrsquos outcomes We find that this exposure reduces educational
attainment and related economic outcomes across three generations For example individuals in
our second generation the WLS graduates and their siblings who have mothers who were
exposed to the 1918 flu in utero complete 15 fewer years of schooling (or 24 months less
schooling) The size of our estimated effect aligns well with those of Richter and Robling (2013)
who find that first generation in utero exposure to the 1918 flu results in 16 fewer years of
schooling (or 2 months to 25 months less schooling) for the maternal line We then extend
results to the third generation for the first time in the literature and find that individuals in the
third generation who have grandmothers who were exposed to the pandemic in utero complete
17 fewer years of schooling (or 17 months less schooling) than individuals without affected
grandmothers
21 For gen 1 female exposure in column (4) the p-value for a difference in coefficients between Panel A
of Table 4 and Table 6 is 0411 implying the effect in the third generation is statistically indistinguishable
from that in the second generation
20
There are at several potential mechanisms for the persistence of poor outcomes across
three generations we find in our data As previously outlined the intergenerational persistence in
poor outcomes due to early life health shocks could occur through socioeconomic channels
where a fetally insulted person with resulting low educational attainment raises a child in a low-
resource environment that reduces opportunities for high educational attainment of the child In
order to see multigenerational effects the reduced opportunities for high educational attainment
of the child must then reduce opportunities for their own children Alternatively
intergenerational transmission may occur through epigenetic inheritance through the germ line a
distinct possibility based on findings of the Oumlverkalix studies or phenotype-to-phenotype
transmission and cumulative intergenerational phenotypic change
Our analysis is unable to fully distinguish between these proposed intergenerational
channels the socioeconomic and biological but it is important to note that the channels are by no
means mutually exclusive Further analysis (appendix tables 3-5) that is intended to partially
account for the socioeconomic mechanism leads to mixed results in which the coefficient of first
generation flu exposure is attenuated to insignificance for some outcomes but not others This
provides evidence for a socioeconomic channel but does not eliminate the possibility of
epigenetic mechanisms or other biological channel through which socioeconomic status ldquogets
under the skinrdquo to influence outcomes of subsequent generations (eg the socioeconomic
circumstances of one generation may ldquoget under the skinrdquo of the next and subsequently be passed
via biology andor socioeconomics to other generations) Likewise the estimates of grandfather
effects on grandchildren are imprecise but consistent with transgenerational inheritance (Kuzawa
and Eisenberg 2014) Additionally while the WLS provides a unique framework to analyze
multiple generations the measurement of flu exposure is somewhat crude (from self-reported
21
parentsrsquo year of birth) and is in the right-tail of the distribution of parent birth years suggesting
the possibility of confounding from resource-poor younger mothers22 That is exposure to
influenza in the first generation is mechanically tied to motherrsquos ages of 20 and 21 because the
WLS sample is drawn based on having a child who was born in 1939 (and thus graduating high
school in 1957) While we cannot definitively separate these two effects our ability to compare
outcomes of slightly older mothers (ages 22 and 23 born in 1917 or 1916) provide evidence
more consistent with in utero exposure to influenza than impacts of having a mother who is
2021 years old
From a policy perspective our evidence may suggest a novel source of multigenerational
persistence in poverty through biosocial factors and suggest a need to consider evidence of
transgenerational social andor biological mechanisms We document the extent to which
harmful early life environments cascade through generations promoting a disadvantaged start for
those whose grandparents exposed to a hazardous early life environment
22 We specifically explore the confounding effects of younger mothers in appendix tables 7 and 8 These
tables show that younger mothers are indeed initially disadvantaged (ie less years of schooling)
however this young-mother disadvantage does not persist in subsequent generations Rather only those
mothers born in the 1918-1919 range have significant negative effects on later generations
22
References
Almond Doug 2006 Is the 1918 Influenza pandemic over Long‐term effects of in utero Influenza exposure in the post‐1940 US population Journal of Political Economy 114(4) 672-712
Almond Doug and Bhashkar Mazumder 2005 The 1918 Influenza Pandemic and Subsequent Health Outcomes An Analysis of SIPP Data American Economic Review 95(2) 258-262
Barker David James P 2007 The origins of the developmental origins theory Journal of Internal Medicine 261(5) 412-417
Benyshek Daniel C (2013) The ldquoearly liferdquo origins of obesity‐related health disorders New discoveries regarding the intergenerational transmission of developmentally programmed traits in the global cardiometabolic health crisis American Journal of Physical Anthropology 152(S57) 79-93
Brown Alan S and Elena J Derkits 2010 Prenatal infection and schizophrenia a review of epidemiologic and translational studies American Journal of Psychiatry 167(3) 261-280
Burg Steven 2000 Wisconsin and the Great Spanish Flu Epidemic of 1918rdquo Wisconsin Magazine of History 84(1) 36-56
Bygren LarsOlov Gunnar Kaati and Soumlren Edvinsson 2001 Longevity determined by paternal ancestors nutrition during their slow growth period Acta biotheoretica 49(1) 53-59
Canetta Sarah E and Alan S Brown 2012 Prenatal infection maternal immune activation and risk for schizophrenia Translational Neuroscience 3(4) 320-327
Chadwick L and Solon G (2002) Intergenerational income mobility among daughters American Economic Review 92(1) 335-344
Cohen Alan A John Tillinghast and Vladimir Canudas-Romo 2010 No consistent effects of prenatal or neonatal exposure to Spanish flu on late-life mortality in 24 developed countries Demographic Research 22(20) 579
Fatemi S Hossein Julie Earle Reena Kanodia David Kist Effat S Emamian Paul H Patterson Limin Shi and Robert Sidwell 2002 Prenatal viral infection leads to pyramidal cell atrophy and macrocephaly in adulthood implications for genesis of autism and schizophrenia Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology 22(1) 25-33
Fletcher Jason 2014 Examining the Long Term Mortality Effects of Early Health Shocks US Census Bureau Center for Economic Studies Paper No CES-WP-14-19
Kaati Gunnar Lars O Bygren and Soren Edvinsson 2002 Cardiovascular and diabetes mortality determined by nutrition during parents and grandparents slow growth period European Journal of Human Genetics EJHG 10(11) 682
Kash John C Terrence M Tumpey Sean C Proll Victoria Carter Olivia Perwitasari Matthew J Thomas Christopher F Basler et al 2006 Genomic analysis of increased host immune and cell death responses induced by 1918 influenza virus Nature 443(7111) 578-581
Kobasa Darwyn Steven M Jones Kyoko Shinya John C Kash John Copps Hideki Ebihara Yasuko Hatta et al 2007 Aberrant innate immune response in lethal infection of macaques with the 1918 influenza virus Nature 445 (7125) 319-323
Kuzawa Christopher W and Dan T Eisenberg 2014 The Long Reach of History Intergenerational and Transgenerational Pathwaysto Plasticity in Human Longevity Sociality Hierarchy Health Comparative Biodemography Papers from a Workshop National Academies Press
Li Wai-Yu Yi-Chun Chang L Jyuhn-Hsiarn Lee and Li-Jen Lee 2014 Prenatal infection affects the neuronal architecture and cognitive function in adult mice Developmental Neuroscience 36(5) 359-370
23
Lin Ming-Jen and Elaine M Liu 2014 Does in utero exposure to illness matter The 1918 influenza epidemic in Taiwan as a natural experiment Journal of Health Economics 37 152-163
Lindeboom Maarten France Portrait and Gerard J Van den Berg 2010 Long-run effects on longevity of a nutritional shock early in life the Dutch Potato famine of 1846ndash1847 Journal of Health Economics 29(5) 617-629
Mamelund SE (2018) 1918 pandemic mobidity The first wave hits the poor the second wave hits the rich Influenza and Other Respitory Viruses 12(3) 307-313
Mazumder Bhashkar Douglas Almond Kyung Park Eileen M Crimmins and Caleb E Finch 2010 Lingering prenatal effects of the 1918 influenza pandemic on cardiovascular disease Journal of developmental origins of health and disease 1(1) 26-34
Miller Veronica Y Zhu C Bucher W McGinnis L Ryan A Siegel and S Zalcman 2013 Gestational flu exposure induces changes in neurochemicals affiliative hormones and brainstem inflammation in addition to autism-like behaviors in mice Brain Behavior and Immunity 33 153-163
Myrskylauml Mikko Neil K Mehta and Virginia W Chang 2013 Early life exposure to the 1918 influenza pandemic and old-age mortality by cause of death American Journal of Public Health 103(7) e83-e90
Olivetti C and Paserman MD (2015) In the name of the son (and the daughter) Intergenerational mobility in the United States 1850-1940 American Economic Review 105(8) 2695-2724
Pembrey Marcus E Lars Olov Bygren Gunnar Kaati Soumlren Edvinsson Kate Northstone Michael Sjoumlstroumlm and Jean Golding 2006 Sex-specific male-line transgenerational responses in humans European Journal of Human Genetics 14(2) 159-166
Richter Andreacute and Per Olof Robling 2013 Multigenerational effects of the 1918-19 influenza pandemic in Sweden Swedish Institute for Social Research 5
Shors Teri and Susan H McFadden 2009 1918 Influenza A Winnebago County Wisconsin Perspective Clinical Medicine amp Research 7(4) 147-156
Sydenstricker E (1931) The incidence of influenza among persons of different economic status during the epidemic of 1918 Public Health Reports 46(4) 154-170
van den Berg Gerard J and Pia R Pinger 2013 A validation study of transgenerational effects of childhood conditions on the third generation offsprings economic and health outcomes potentially driven by epigenetic imprinting IZA Discussion Paper
Tables and Figures
Table 1 Summary Statistics
Variable N Mean Std Deviation
First GenerartionFlu Indicators
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 8368 0112 0315Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 8456 0030 0170Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 8487 0093 0290
ControlsFirst Generation Malersquos Year of Birth 8456 1907435 7021First Generation Femalersquos Year of Birth 8427 1911189 6164
Dependent VariablesFirst Generation Malersquos Years of Schooling 8456 9778 3392First Generation Femalersquos Years of Schooing 8487 10499 2804First Generation Malersquos Job Prestige 8385 330662 214361First Generation Femalersquos Job Prestige 6683 12814 19934Family SES 8487 16231 11143
Second GenerationControls
Female Indicator 12459 0530 0499Birth Year 12459 1939406 4289Birth Order 12459 2529 1828
Dependent VariablesYears of Schooling 12459 13678 2361Family Income 1992 (in $1000s) 12112 68027 177105Net Worth 2004 (in $1000s) 10498 913046 2558927Self-reported health 1992 9888 4149 0668Height (inches) 9783 67406 3851BMI 1992 9671 26742 4657
Third GenerationControls
Birth Year 19913 1963901 3636Female Indicator 19913 0497 0500Birth Order 19913 2196 1263
Dependent VariableYears of Schooling 19913 14294 2309
Summary amp Notes This table provides summary statistics for all variables used The samples above may not berepresentative for all estimations For example the inclusion of siblings in the second generation increase the sample of parentalyear of birth and the corresponding flu indicator This increase in sample does not significantly change the sample statisticsabove Similar sample changes occur for the second generation controls above For the third generation the sample is restrictedto biological children over 35 years of age
24
Tab
le2
Fir
stG
ener
atio
n
Eco
nom
icE
ffec
ts
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
am
ily
SE
SY
ears
of
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
am
ily
SE
S(1
)(2
)(3
)(4
)(5
)(6
)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale)
-01
39
-01
16lowast
-12
90lowast
lowast
(02
00)
(00
60)
(05
99)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emal
e)-0
133
-00
66
-13
61lowastlowast
lowast
(00
95)
(00
43)
(03
76)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
YY
YY
YY
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8456
8385
8456
8487
6683
8487
RS
qr
00
32
00
08
00
23
00
13
00
04
00
13
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
pro
vid
esd
irec
teff
ects
of
inu
tero
an
dea
rly
life
exp
osu
reto
the
1918
Flu
Ep
idem
ic
Bir
thye
ar
tim
etr
end
sin
lcu
de
yea
rof
bir
than
dit
ssq
uar
ean
din
clu
sion
inth
ees
tim
atio
nis
par
ent
spec
ific
All
esti
mati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
an
dard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
alsi
gnifi
can
ceis
den
oted
by
an
d
re
pre
senti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vel
y
25
Tab
le3
Fir
stG
ener
atio
n
Mar
riag
eM
arke
tE
ffec
ts
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Flu
Bir
thY
ear
Yea
rsof
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
luB
irth
Yea
rY
ears
of
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
e(1
)(2
)(3
)(4
)(5
)(6
)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale)
01
40lowast
lowastlowast-0
259
-00
39
(00
34)
(01
58)
(00
72)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emal
e)0
056lowast
lowastlowast-0
340lowast
lowastlowast-0
118lowastlowast
lowast
(00
14)
(01
17)
(00
36)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
YY
YY
YY
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8348
8487
8412
8348
8456
6660
RS
qr
00
90
00
11
00
08
01
20
00
21
00
01
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
pro
vid
esev
iden
ceof
marr
iage
mark
etse
lect
ion
inth
efi
rst
gen
erati
on
B
irth
year
tim
etr
end
sin
clu
de
year
of
bir
than
dit
ssq
uare
and
incl
usi
onin
the
esti
mat
ion
isp
aren
tsp
ecifi
cA
lles
tim
ati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
an
dard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
sign
ifica
nce
isd
enot
edby
an
d
re
pre
senti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vely
26
Table 4 Second Generation Economic Effects
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Years of Schooling
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0209lowastlowastlowast
(0073)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0084 -0059(0129) (0129)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0211lowastlowastlowast -0209lowastlowastlowast
(0075) (0075)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0085 0084 0085 0085
Panel B ln Family Income 1992
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0221lowastlowast
(0111)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0098 -0066(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0262lowastlowast -0259lowastlowast
(0116) (0116)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112R Sqr 0021 0021 0021 0021
Panel C Std Net Worth 2004
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0026(0022)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0033 0038(0047) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0038lowast -0040lowast
(0021) (0021)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498R Sqr 0007 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table provides evidence of signficant harmful effects of flu exposure in the first generation on secondgeneration economic outcomes First generation time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents(ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and itssquare and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
27
Table 5 Second Generation Health Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Self-reported health (Likert 1=very poor 5=excellent)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0054lowastlowast
(0027)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0005(0047) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0061lowastlowast -0061lowastlowast
(0028) (0028)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Panel B Height (inches)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0101)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0102 0127(0168) (0168)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0169lowast -0175lowast
(0103) (0103)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783r2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Panel C BMI
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0412lowastlowast
(0191)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0082 0023(0344) (0346)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0422lowastlowast 0421lowastlowast
(0193) (0194)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table provides evidence of harmful effects of flu exposure in the first generation on secondgeneration health outcomes First generation time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents (iegen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and itssquare and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
28
Table 6 Generation Three Effects of Generation One Flu Exposure Years of Schooling
Dependent Variable Years of Schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0125(0077)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Male) -0007 0010(0136) (0136)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Female) -0144lowast -0144lowast
(0078) (0078)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913R Sqr 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table shows that the generational effects of flu exposure extend into the third generation of theWLS First generation flu exposure is shown to have a negative association with third generation years of schooling Firstgeneration time trends are year of birth measures for each parent and their square Second generation controls inlcude anindicator for sex second generation year of birth and its square and birth order Third generation controls include a sexindicator year of birth and its square and birth order Given the focus on years of schooling the sample is restricted to thosethird generation individuals 35 years of age and older or born during or before 1970 (data were collected in 2005) Allestimation is performed with OLS with family (second generation) clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
29
(a)
Fat
her
(b)
Moth
er
Fig
ure
1F
irst
Gen
erat
ion
Dis
trib
uti
onof
Yea
rof
Bir
th
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
figu
rep
lots
the
dis
trib
uti
on
for
firs
tgen
erati
on
year
of
bir
th
Flu
exp
osu
reis
class
ified
as
bei
ng
born
inei
ther
1918
or
1919
30
Appendix Tables
Appendix Table 1 First Generation Flu Exposure Effect on Family Income
Dependent Variable Family Income ($100s) 1957
(1) (2)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -3366(2592)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -5363lowastlowast
(2390)
Birth Year Time Trends Y YObservations 7440 7456R Sqr 0013 0004
Summary amp Notes This table replaces the index of socioeconomic status with family income (in $100s) in 1957 Allestimation is performed with OLS with robust standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
31
App
endix
Tab
le2
Mar
riag
eM
arke
tE
ffec
ts
Con
trol
ling
for
Ow
nY
ear
ofB
irth
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
Job
Pre
stig
eY
ears
of
Sch
Job
Pre
stig
e
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale
)-0
052
-211
82
-01
98
-03
74
(02
03)
(131
30)
(01
61)
(14
38)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emale
)-0
346lowast
lowastlowast-2
44
97lowastlowast
lowast-0
103
-13
88
(01
16)
(76
88)
(00
94)
(08
54)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
(Male
an
dF
emale
)Y
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8348
8279
8348
6587
RS
qr
00
40
00
22
00
25
00
04
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
re-e
stim
ates
Tab
le3
wh
ile
contr
oll
ing
for
year
of
bir
than
dfl
uin
dic
ato
rsass
oci
ate
dw
ith
the
spou
sein
the
dep
end
ent
vari
ab
le
All
esti
mat
ion
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
and
ard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
sign
ifica
nce
isd
enote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
atth
e10
5
and
1le
vel
sre
spec
tive
ly
32
Appendix Table 3 2nd Gen Economic Effects Controlling for 1st Gen Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Years of Schooling
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0088(0070)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0005 0008(0119) (0119)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0116 -0117(0072) (0072)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0206 0206 0206 0206
Panel B ln Family Income 1992
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0193lowast
(0111)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0080 -0050(0184) (0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0240lowastlowast -0238lowastlowast
(0116) (0116)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112R Sqr 0024 0024 0024 0024
Panel C Std Normal Net Worth 2004
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0003(0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0047 0049(0046) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0019 -0021(0020) (0020)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498R Sqr 0033 0033 0033 0033
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 4 while controlling for generation one economic outcomes fatherrsquos years ofschooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 First generation time trends are given by year of birth and itssquare for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex secondgeneration year of birth and its square and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standarderrors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and1 levels respectively 33
Appendix Table 4 2nd Gen Health Effects Controlling for 1st Gen Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A BMI
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0352lowast
(0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0051 -0001(0342) (0344)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0372lowast 0372lowast
(0192) (0193)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671R Sqr 0035 0035 0035 0035
Panel B Count of Illnesses
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0122lowast
(0065)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0076 -0096(0102) (0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0139lowastlowast 0144lowastlowast
(0067) (0068)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9921 9921 9921 9921R Sqr 0046 0046 0046 0046
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 5 while controlling for generation one economic outcomes fatherrsquos years ofschooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 First generation time trends are given by year of birth and itssquare for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex secondgeneration year of birth and its square and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standarderrors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and1 levels respectively
34
Appendix Table 5 Generation threersquos years of schooling Controlling for previous generation economicwell-being
Dependent Variable Years of Schooling for Gen 3(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A First Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0069(0076)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0022 0034(0133) (0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0102 -0104(0077) (0078)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913R Sqr 0117 0117 0117 0117
Panel B Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0025(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0008 0013(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0038 -0039(0073) (0073)
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0190 0190 0190 0190
Panel C First and Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0008(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0016 0019(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0028 -0029(0073) (0073)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0196 0196 0196 0196
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 6 while controlling for generation one and tworsquos economic outcomes Forgeneration one these include fatherrsquos years of schooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 generation twocontrols include the WLS graduatesiblingrsquos years of schooling family income in 1992 and net worth in 2004 First generationtime trends are year of birth measures for each parent and their square Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sexsecond generation year of birth and its square and birth order Third generation controls include a sex indicator year of birthand its square and birth order Given the focus on years of schooling the sample is restricted to those third generationindividuals 35 years of age and older or born during or before 1970 (data were collected in 2005) All estimation is performedwith OLS with family (second generation) clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denotedby and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
35
Appendix Table 6 Alternative measures of schooling in the second generation
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Indicator for any college (years of schooling gt12)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0044lowastlowastlowast
(0017)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0011 -0006(0029) (0029)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0044lowastlowast -0043lowastlowast
(0017) (0017)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0071 0070 0071 0071
Panel B Indicator for incomplete college (years of schooling gt12 amp lt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0008(0013)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 -0001(0022) (0022)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0008 -0008(0013) (0013)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0005 0005 0005 0005
Panel C Indicator for college graduate (years of schooling = 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0022lowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0003 0006(0020) (0020)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0021lowast -0021lowastlowast
(0011) (0011)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0019 0019 0019 0019
Panel D Indicator for post-college education (years of schooling gt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0014(0010)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0011(0018) (0018)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0014 -0014(0010) (0010)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0039 0039 0039 0039
Summary amp Notes This table replaces our continuous measure of years of schooling with specified dummy variables Firstgeneration time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Secondgeneration controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and its square and birth order All estimationis performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
36
Appendix Table 7 Young mothers Direct effect on Gen 1 Females
Dependent Variable Years of Sch Job Prestige Family SES
(1) (2) (3)
Ind for First Gen Female Flu Exposure (1918-1919) -0325lowastlowast -0841 -1749lowastlowastlowast
(0137) (1015) (0584)
Ind for mother born during 1920-1921 -0567lowastlowastlowast 0745 -1157(0206) (1515) (0914)
Ind for mother born during 1922-1923 -0666lowastlowast 0098 -2113(0330) (2210) (1298)
Ind for mother born after 1924 -0392 5682 0384(0486) (3705) (2126)
Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y
Observations 8487 6683 8487R Sqr 0014 0005 0014
Summary amp Notes This table includes indicators for alternative years of birth Younger mothers are shown to have lessyears of schooling All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
37
App
endix
Tab
le8
You
ng
mot
her
sG
ener
atio
n2
and
3eff
ects
Gen
2
Gen
3
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
ln
Fam
In
c
1992
Std
N
W
2004
Sel
f-re
p
hea
lth
Hei
ght
BM
IY
ears
of
Sch
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
emal
eF
luE
xp
osu
re(1
918-
1919
)-0
201lowastlowast
-02
95lowastlowast
-00
45
-00
73lowastlowast
-00
90
02
07
-00
86(0
092)
(01
32)
(00
32)
(00
32)
(01
22)
(02
25)
(00
94)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
20-1
921
-00
22
-00
40
-00
10
-00
61
01
33
-04
10
01
13
(01
37)
(01
74)
(00
51)
(00
43)
(01
80)
(03
11)
(01
41)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
22-1
923
-00
96
-01
88
-00
57
00
20
04
61
-11
29lowastlowast
01
55(0
184)
(03
20)
(00
61)
(00
75)
(02
83)
(04
51)
(02
23)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
afte
r19
2404
58
-01
87
00
01
-00
27
03
12
-08
85
03
99
(03
06)
(03
94)
(00
87)
(01
27)
(04
94)
(10
70)
(03
21)
Bas
eC
ontr
ols
YY
YY
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
12459
12112
10498
9888
9783
9671
19913
RS
qr
00
85
00
21
00
08
00
09
05
86
00
29
00
79
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
incl
ud
esin
dic
ator
sfo
ralt
ernati
ve
years
of
bir
th
Bei
ng
born
toa
you
nger
moth
ergen
erall
yis
not
ass
oci
ate
dw
ith
gen
erati
on
2or
3rsquos
outc
omes
ofin
tere
st
inst
ead
n
egat
ive
effec
tsar
eon
lyob
serv
edfo
rth
ose
born
du
rin
gth
efl
u
All
esti
mati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hfa
mil
y(2
nd
gen
erat
ion
)cl
ust
ered
stan
dar
der
rors
rep
orte
din
par
enth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
signifi
can
ceis
den
ote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vel
y
38
Appendix Table 9 Summary Statistics by Gen 2 Sex
Variable N Mean Std Deviation
FemaleYears of Schooling 6607 13352 2088ln Family Income (1992 wave) 6411 9424 3577
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5654 10686 1010Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 5612 -0047 0539Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 5313 4164 0670Height (inches) 5231 646635 247936BMI 5124 26073 5114
Gen 3Years of Schooling 11947 14240 2291
MaleYears of Schooling 5852 14047 2587ln Family Income (1992 wave) 5701 10139 3030
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5264 10981 0836Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 4886 0059 1159Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 4575 4133 0665Height (inches) 4554 7055484 25596BMI 4547 27496 3948
Gen 3Years of Schooling 8046 14371 2332
Appendix Table 10A Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0090(0086)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0198 0214(0169) (0169)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104 -0114(0087) (0087)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6607 6607 6607 6607R Sqr 0075 0075 0075 0075
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
39
Appendix Table 10B Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0523lowastlowastlowast
(0170)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0483 -0410(0321) (0323)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0512lowastlowastlowast -0491lowastlowastlowast
(0179) (0180)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6411 6411 6411 6411R Sqr 0015 0013 0014 0015
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10C Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0007(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0078lowast 0078(0048) (0048)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0008 0005(0025) (0025)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5612 5612 5612 5612R Sqr 0007 0007 0007 0007
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
40
Appendix Table 10D Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0027(0036)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 -0001(0071) (0071)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0022 -0022(0037) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5313 5313 5313 5313r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10E Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -2382(13366)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 44280lowastlowast 46351lowastlowast
(22343) (22480)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -12253 -14428(13485) (13561)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5231 5231 5231 5231r2 0015 0016 0015 0016
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
41
Appendix Table 10F Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0353(0286)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0105 0060(0514) (0516)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0326 0323(0289) (0290)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5124 5124 5124 5124R Sqr 0010 0010 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0087(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0104 -0101(0190) (0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0042 -0039(0098) (0098)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 11906 11906 11906 11906R Sqr 0086 0086 0086 0086
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
42
Appendix Table 11A Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0322lowastlowastlowast
(0116)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0369lowastlowast -0338lowast
(0181) (0180)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0309lowastlowastlowast -0297lowastlowast
(0119) (0119)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5852 5852 5852 5852R Sqr 0060 0059 0060 0060
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11B RResults by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0116(0138)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0262 0261(0200) (0199)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0024 0014(0141) (0140)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5701 5701 5701 5701R Sqr 0009 0009 0008 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
43
Appendix Table 11C Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0038)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0001(0081) (0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0094lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0035)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4886 4886 4886 4886R Sqr 0004 0004 0004 0004
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
44
Appendix Table 11D Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0083lowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 0012(0062) (0062)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104lowastlowastlowast -0105lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0041)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4575 4575 4575 4575r2 0010 0009 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11E Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -15122(14275)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -22991 -20537(23287) (23176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -18595 -17540(14734) (14751)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4554 4554 4554 4554r2 0011 0011 0011 0011
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
45
Appendix Table 11F Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0465lowast
(0238)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0079 0006(0403) (0405)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0520lowastlowast 0520lowastlowast
(0245) (0246)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4547 4547 4547 4547R Sqr 0006 0005 0006 0006
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0177(0123)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0098 0144(0194) (0192)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0293lowastlowast -0302lowastlowast
(0125) (0126)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8007 8007 8007 8007R Sqr 0067 0067 0068 0068
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
46
Appendix Table 12A Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0253lowastlowast
(0107)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0252 -0226(0170) (0172)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0263lowastlowast -0242lowastlowast
(0113) (0115)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0084(0120)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0341 0339(0216) (0219)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0096 0056(0130) (0132)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459r2 0085 0085 0085 0085
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
47
Appendix Table 12B Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0128)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0196 0169(0190) (0189)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0081 -0104(0135) (0135)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0383lowastlowast
(0189)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0594lowast -0474(0349) (0355)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0339lowast -0283(0204) (0207)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112r2 0021 0021 0021 0021
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
48
Appendix Table 12C Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0034)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0019(0077) (0079)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0095lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0030) (0031)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0071lowast
(0038)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0072 0039(0087) (0089)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0104lowastlowastlowast 0100lowastlowastlowast
(0035) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498r2 0008 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
49
Appendix Table 12D Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0071lowast
(0036)[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0012 0031
(0058) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0093lowastlowast -0097lowastlowast
(0039) (0039)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0030(0045)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0031 -0051(0087) (0088)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0059 0065(0048) (0049)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
50
Appendix Table 12E Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0129 -0125(0223) (0224)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0152 -0129(0141) (0142)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0000(0158)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0454 0495lowast
(0279) (0287)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0031 -0090(0170) (0175)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783nr2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
51
Appendix Table 12F Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0376(0231)
[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0059 -0122(0402) (0407)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0441lowast 0457lowast
(0240) (0243)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0068(0316)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0282 0288(0573) (0589)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0035 -0069(0340) (0350)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
52
Appendix Table 12G Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0131(0114)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male 0114 0175(0185) (0188)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0237lowastlowast -0261lowastlowast
(0118) (0121)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0009(0133)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0225 -0292(0249) (0254)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0152 0189(0141) (0145)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913r2 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
53
Appendix Table 13 Family Income 1992 excluding non-earners (ie fam inc = 0)
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992 wave (excluding those reporting 0)(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0095lowastlowastlowast
(0033)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0031 -0019(0053) (0053)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0101lowastlowastlowast -0100lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0034)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10918 10918 10918 10918r2 0050 0049 0050 0050
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0084lowast
(0050)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0019 -0007(0089) (0090)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0083 -0083(0053) (0054)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5654 5654 5654 5654r2 0026 0026 0026 0026
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102lowastlowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0051 -0040(0060) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0113lowastlowastlowast -0112lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0040)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5264 5264 5264 5264r2 0029 0028 0029 0029
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel B in Table 4 excluding those who report $0 for familyincome All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
54
Appendix Table 14 Net Worth 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable Std Net Worth 2011 Wave of WLS(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0032lowastlowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0023lowast -0021lowast
(0012) (0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0032lowastlowastlowast -0031lowastlowastlowast
(0010) (0010)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9435 9435 9435 9435r2 0002 0002 0002 0002
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0012lowast
(0006)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0009 -0008(0009) (0009)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0012lowastlowast -0011lowastlowast
(0006) (0006)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5026 5026 5026 5026r2 0007 0006 0007 0007
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0057lowastlowast
(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0040lowast -0036lowast
(0023) (0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0057lowastlowast -0056lowastlowast
(0023) (0022)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4409 4409 4409 4409r2 0001 0001 0001 0001
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel C in Table 4 replacing the net worth measure from the 2004wave with an identical measure from the 2011 wave of the WLS All estimation is performed with OLS with family clusteredstandard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 105 and 1 levels respectively
55
Appendix Table 15A Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 1992 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0243(0152)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0107 0039(0252) (0255)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0285lowast 0282lowast
(0158) (0160)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9849 9849 9849 9849
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0007(0091)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0210 -0216(0170) (0173)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0007 0024(0095) (0097)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9858 9858 9858 9858
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0255(0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0107 -0169(0328) (0338)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0237 0252(0193) (0198)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9845 9845 9845 9845
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
56
Appendix Table 15B Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2004 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0018(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0190 0207(0160) (0162)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0066 -0083(0102) (0104)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10672 10672 10672 10672
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0096 0108(0124) (0125)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0051 -0059(0076) (0077)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10619 10619 10619 10619
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0108(0110)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0064 0027(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0181 0179(0113) (0113)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10617 10617 10617 10617
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
57
Appendix Table 15C Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0099(0092)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0244 0242(0154) (0155)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0033 0016(0099) (0100)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0021(0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0095 0097(0138) (0139)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0004 -0011(0085) (0086)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0134(0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0203 0181(0175) (0176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0140 0127(0107) (0107)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8709 8709 8709 8709
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
58
- text 10818
- tables 10-8-18
-
4
Barker Hypothesis In addition we draw on literature that explores multigenerational linkages of
environmental exposures on life course outcomes These literatures are rarely unified in a single
analysis largely due to data constraints We overcome these limitations by leveraging a three-
generational dataset that coincides with a key demographic event from the early 20th centurymdash
the 19181919 influenza epidemic
The seminal work of the economist Douglas Almond (2006) was one of the first papers to
exploit the 1918 flu pandemic as a natural experiment and to test whether in utero exposure to
infectious disease influences later life outcomes Using US census microdata to situate
respondent births in both time (birth quarter) and place (exploiting geographic variation in the
severity of the flu) Almond (2006) finds evidence of lower educational attainment higher rates
of physical disability as well as lower income and socioeconomic status for cohorts exposed to
the 19181919 flu while in utero (estimated using birth quarter age and timing of the flu) as
compared to unexposed adjacent cohorts In a related paper Almond and Mazumder (2005) use a
similar approach with the Survey of Income and Program Participation and find negative health
effects for adults who were in utero (based on birth quarter) during the outbreak Subsequent
work has built on these outcomes finding excess cardiovascular disease (Mazumder Almond et
al 2010) increased likelihood of kidney disease diabetes circulatory and respiratory problems
in old age (Lin and Liu 2014) and increased old-age mortality in non-cancer related causes
(Myrskylauml Mehta et al 2013 Fletcher 2014)2 More broadly the negative effect from the flu
dovetails with other negative in utero shocks see for example Catalano et al (2011) Roseboom
et al (2001) Schulz (2010) and Torche (2011)
2 Though Cohen Tillinghast and Canudas-Romo (2010) and Fletcher (2014) found no effects on overall
mortality
5
The mechanisms underlying these broad effects from in utero influenza exposure are not
fully understood in humans3 However in studies of monkeys (Kobasa Jones et al 2007) and
mice (Kash Tumpey et al 2006) it has been shown that the reconstructed 1918 flu virus triggers
an exceptionally intense and prolonged innate immune response More specifically gene-
expression analysis shows that proteins involved in the innate immune system have a higher and
sustained expression when triggered by the 1918 reconstructed virus than when triggered by the
contemporary flu of the same H1N1-type (Kobasa Jones et al 2007) While the specific 1918 flu
strain cannot be studied in humans through purposeful exposure for ethical reasons both animal
and human studies have linked the maternal immune response during severe flu infection in
pregnancy to offspring brain development as well as impaired adult behavior and cognitive
outcomes (Fatemi Earle et al 2002 Brown and Derkits 2010 Canetta and Brown 2012 Miller
Zhu et al 2013 Li Chang et al 2014) These results align with research in psychology that links
inflammatory processes in mothersmdashincluding stress and infection as well as stress-induced
immunosuppressionmdashto poor birth outcomes (for a review see Stretter 2011) Recent evidence
suggests that in utero exposure to the 1918 flu may not only affect adult outcomes but also the
outcomes of subsequent generations Richter and Robling (2013) were the first to identify an
effect of first generation prenatal exposure (using birth trimester) to the 1918 flu pandemic on
the outcomes of the second generation (the children of those exposed to the 1918 flu in utero)
The authors use historical influenza morbidity data matched to birth information to identify
potential exposure to the 1918 flu and find that first generation maternal in utero exposure in the
second trimester lowers educational attainment for female children by 2-25 months or by 15-
18 percent but find no such effect for male children An analogous result is identified for first
6
generation paternal exposure and male outcomes that is first generation exposure in the second
trimester lowers educational attainment for male children by 24 to 3 months or by 18-22
percent but paternal exposure showed no such effect for females Taken together first
generation exposure to the 1918 flu while in utero results in 2 to 3 months less schooling for the
second generation
Several pathways exist for the intergenerational transmission of early life health shocks
Through socioeconomic channels intergenerational persistence in poor outcomes could occur
when a fetally insulted parent marred by poorer health and socioeconomic outcomes raises a
child in a low-resource environment Biologically phenotype-to-phenotype transmission and
epigenetic inheritance are hypothesized to be key mechanisms for intergenerational transmission
(Kuzawa and Eisenberg 2014) In cases of in utero or very early life shocks phenotype-to-
phenotype transmission impacts the outcomes of the next generation through changes in parental
biological systems that lead to altered gestational andor lactation environments for offspring
(eg pre-pregnancy hypertension is linked to low birthweight) Importantly socioeconomic and
biological channels are not mutually exclusive and can also interact with one another that is the
effects of adult phenotype on offspring extend beyond physiology and metabolism to include
parental behaviorenvironmental response as a potential source of phenotypic transmission and
potentially even cumulative intergenerational phenotypic change (Benyshek 2013) For example
stress experienced by a mother prenatally may alter stress regulation in offspring which may in
turn increase risk for the same adult phenotype in the offspring as well as in subsequent
generations Epigenetic inheritance in comparison occurs when parental experiences alter gene
expression that is subsequently transmitted to offspring and future generations through the germ
line Here again there is an opportunity for socioeconomic circumstances to interact with
7
biologymdasheg where poverty through the experience of stress alters gene expression for
generations Our analysis of second generation outcomes will explore some of these channels
but not attempt to prioritize one over another
Work extending effects of in utero exposure to the 1918 flu to the third generation (the
grandchildren of those originally exposed in utero) in humans to the best of the authorsrsquo
knowledge does not exist The strongest evidence for a potential biological channel across
multiple generations comes from studies of historical data from Oumlverkalix region in Northern
Sweden that exploit variance in first generation grandparental food supply during childhood
Bygren Kaati et al (2001) for example find that an excess of food during the period just before
adolescence a time labeled the ldquoslow growth periodrdquo (SGP) shortens the grandsonrsquos longevity
A later study using the Oumlverkalix data replicates the results of Bygren Kaati et al (2001) in a
second cohort and further extends the results to include an association between first generation
paternal grandmotherrsquos food supply and granddaughterrsquos mortality risk (Pembrey Bygren et al
2006)4
Our work builds off of this evidence to conduct novel examinations of multigenerational
effects of in utero exposures in human populations The current research leverages a unique
survey to measure the multigenerational impacts of in utero exposure to the 1918 flu pandemic
Our hypothesis is that the previously documented direct effects of such shocks extend into the
outcomes of the second generation Going further we also estimate whether these effects
4 Van den Berg and Pinger (2014) externally validated the potential for transmission across three
generations by analyzing the impact of the German famine of 1916-1918 on the mental health outcomes
(an index from survey questions accounting for rsquogeneral mental healthrsquo rsquoemotional functioningrsquo rsquosocial
functioningrsquo and rsquovitalityrsquo) of the children and grandchildren of those exposed to the famine during their
SGP The authors find that paternal (maternal) grandfather (grandmothers) exposure during their SGP is
associated with better mental health in grandsons (granddaughters)
8
continue into the third generation In other words we ask whether the singular in utero shock has
a multigenerational effect--on the adult outcomes of those exposed in utero on their children
and on their grandchildren
Data and Empirical Methodology
Data
In order to examine multigenerational effects of an in utero exposure we require
multigenerational data Very few datasets in the US have a multigenerational component and fit
the relevant time period for our exposure (ie birth cohorts around 1918) Our data come from
the Wisconsin Longitudinal Survey (WLS) which is a random one-third survey of graduating
high school seniors in Wisconsin in 1957 The majority of these respondents were born in 1939
and form our second generation Thus the parents of the WLS graduates form our first
generation with birth years overlapping the 19181919 in utero exposure period This allows for
the creation of our primary measure for in utero exposure to the 1918 flu epidemic an indicator
9
for either first generation parent being born during the 1918-1919 range56 Additional data are
collected on the later life outcomes of the WLS graduates and a selected sibling as well as a
limited number of outcomes for the children (third generation) of the graduatessiblings
providing the structure for our multigenerational analysis
Summary statistics are presented in table 1 As shown approximately 10 percent of WLS
parents are born in either 1918 or 1919 On average fathers are born in 1907 and mothers are
born in 1911 consequently a birth year of 1918 or 1919 is closer to the right-tail of the
distribution of births and the rate of 10 percent is driven primarily by relatively young mother
exposures7 Since WLS graduatersquos fathers tend to be on average 4 years older than mothers this
right-tail problem is larger for generation 1 males This is seen in Figure 1 While not the
primary focus of the WLS data collection several parental (first generation) outcomes are
5 Parent year of birth is recorded from the WLS graduates This self-reported measure is used to create
the indicator of flu exposure those parents born in 1918 or 1919 To maximize sample size we use
differing waves of the WLS and reported birth years from biological siblings to supplement the reported
year of birth from WLS graduates Parent birth years are first collected for the 199293 graduate wave
Missing observations are then sequentially added from graduate reports in later wavesmdash2003 and 2011
After using all graduate reported year of parent birth variables observations are then filled in from
identically reported measures from a selected biological sibling
Specifically for mothers (gen 1 females) 7976 observations come from graduates in the 199293
wave 366 additional observations come from the 200305 wave 84 observations come from 2011 wave
and 68 observations come from the selected sibling This leaves a base sample size of 8494 ~94 of
which is from the graduate reported 199293 wave For fathers (gen 1 males) 7929 observations come
from graduates in the 199293 wave 361 additional observations come from the 200305 wave 77 come
from the 2011 wave and 91 observations come from siblings leaving a base sample size of 8458 (again
~94 is from the grad reported 199293 wave)
From this base 7 observations are dropped for gen-1-femalersquos (WLS motherrsquos) year of birth due
to reported gen 2rsquos year of birth being 10 or less years after gen 1rsquos year of birth 45 additional
observations are lost if this threshold is increased to 15 years For gen-1-malersquos year of birth 2
observations are removed for identical reasons this increases to 25 additional observations for the 15 year
threshold We attribute this reduction in the sample mostly to measurement error 6 The 1918 flu epidemic in Wisconsin was from September 1918 through December 1918 but did not
reach the severity experienced in many other states According to historical records Wisconsin had the
fourth lowest numbers of deaths out of 25 reporting states (Burg 2000 Shors and McFadden 2009) 7 Appendix tables 7 and 8 provide evidence that our results are not driven solely by confounding between
exposure to the influenza pandemic and being young mothers
10
available including years of schooling occupational prestige and family socioeconomic status
in 19578
[insert table 1 here]
The primary focus of the WLS data collection is high school seniors in 1957 Wisconsin
the second generation of our study Given this focus on graduates (and their siblings) a large
number of economic and health variables are available in each wave of the WLS (irregular
intervals roughly 10-15 years apart 197577 19929394 2003-20052004-2007 and in 2011)
In addition to examining years of schooling several additional dependent variables in the second
generation intend to capture broad differences in economic and health well-being9 These include
income during the peak earning years (ie family income collected when graduates are 53 years
of age on average) net worth at initial retirement age (ie net worth collected when graduates
are 65 years of age on average) and general indicators of health measured by body mass index
and a count of doctor diagnosed illnesses (both collected in the wave when graduates are age 53
on average) Finally the WLS data contains information that is collected from the second
generation about the third generation we focus on years of schooling as the main outcome of
interest
8 The index of socioeconomic status is a factor weighted score combining data on father and motherrsquos
years of schooling fatherrsquos occupational prestige and average parental income Replacing this measure
with average parental income (see appendix table 1) does not change the effect of the flu indicator Job
prestige measures for both mother and father are based on Duncanrsquos Socioeconomic Index which is a
measure of job prestige based on income education and surveyed perceptions of general social standing
for certain occupations (Duncan 1961) 9 We note that our three generations of individuals are drawn from three non-overlapping set of birth
years the mean birth year for generation 1 is ~1910 generation 2 is ~1940 generation 3 is ~1965 Thus
since we are performing the analysis separately by generation we are controlling for much of the time-
variation in the meaning of education We also perform analysis stratified by sex in Appendix Tables 10-
12 so that we can also control for the differential meaning of education in each generation
11
Empirical Methodology
Our empirical strategy follows that of Almond (2006) by examining harmful effects of being
exposed in utero on later life outcomes We then extend this analysis by estimating
multigenerational impacts on both the second and third generations In so doing the primary
estimating equation is given by the following form
119910119894119891119892 = 1205730 + 1205731(119884119874119861 = 191819)1198911 + 120632119931119943120783 + 120633119935119946119943119944 + 120576119894119891119892
Our primary focus is on the coefficient 1205731 which measures the effect of having a
parentgrandparent born in 1918-1919 on a number of outcomes for 119894 individuals in 119891 families
for generation 119892 Parent year of birth time trends and their square are denoted by 120632119931119943120783 120633119935119946119943119944
represents generation specific controls and 120576119894119891119892 is representative of a family clustered error
term
For the first generation we control for birth year and its square capturing age-specific
trends that are tied to our first-generation outcomes of interest (eg years of schooling) For the
analysis of second and third generations birth years and squares for both first generation parents
are included as controls along with generation-specific controls for sex age and birth order
Our estimation strategy follows an intent to treat design It is likely that the actual
incidence of flu differed by socioeconomic status and social standing (Mamelund 2018
Sydenstricker 1931) Our use of year-of-birth however avoids potential confounding by SES
because allmdashboth rich and poormdashare defined as treated if they are born in one of the two years
Although avoiding confounders associated with actual disease incidence this estimation strategy
will underestimate the true effect of flu exposure lowering the magnitude of our coefficient of
interest
12
Results
First Generation
Our initial analysis explores the direct effects of being born during the 1918 Influenza Epidemic
While health data are sparse for the WLS graduatersquos parents (first generation) a number of
economic outcomes are available especially during the initial sample year of 1957 Table 2
explores the relationship between these economic variables and an indicator for birth during
19181919 Columns (1)-(3) of table 2 show the relationship between a WLS graduatersquos father
being born during 19181919 and the fatherrsquos years of schooling the fatherrsquos occupational
prestige and the familyrsquos index of socioeconomic status in 1957 (ie when the first generation
members are approximately 40 years old) While statistically insignificant a negative association
is observed between years of schooling and being born in 1918 or 191910 This is carried over
into fatherrsquos job prestige in column (2) from which the indicator of in utero exposure to the 1918
flu is associated with an approximate 01 standard deviation decline in the index of occupational
prestige These effects culminate in column (3) which shows a statistically significant negative
effect of in utero exposure to the flu and later life economic well-being a 13 decline in the SES
index which corresponds to a decline of roughly 10 percent of a standard deviation The findings
of table 2 corroborate past studies that show in utero exposure to the 1918 flu led to poorer
economic outcomes later in life (Almond 2006)11
[insert table 2 here]
10 First generation years of schooling are reported by the second generation WLS graduates Measurement
error is likely which may result in the insignificant coefficients of table 2 11 Richter and Robling (2013 Table 12) find a similar effect for in utero female exposure to flu in the first
trimester
13
Mirroring the results for males in the first generation a negative but statistically
insignificant association is observed between an indicator of birth in 19181919 and schooling
for first generation females This association however becomes statistically significant at the 1
percent level for the index of family SES the coefficient being nearly identical to that of a
malersquos in utero exposure to the flu though it is unclear whether these effects flow from labor
market andor marriage market sources The findings of table 2 are extended in table 3 which
explores potential marriage market effects of early life exposure to the flu epidemic12
Column (1) of table 3 regresses the indicator for male in utero exposure on an identical
measure for spousersquos exposure Females who were born in 19181919 were 5 percentage points
more likely to marry men who were also born during the same period Furthermore as shown in
columns (2) and (3) these women were more likely to marry men with fewer years of school and
lower job prestige These effects are significant at the 1 percent level Similar effects are seen in
columns (4)-(6) for 19181919 born males who are 14 percentage points more likely to marry flu
exposed females (p=000) and marry females with 026 fewer years of schooling (p=0101)
Given the findings of table 3 however we cannot rule out that this is a marriage market effect13
[insert table 3 here]
Second Generation
Our hypothesis is that the direct effects observed in tables 2 and 3 extend into future generations
To address this hypothesis we regress a number of economic and health outcomes of the WLS
graduates and siblings the offspring of the first generation examined in tables 2 and 3 These
12 Mothers and fathers of WLS graduates are assumed to be married 13 Appendix table 2 repeats the estimation of table 3 while also controlling for an indicator of own-flu
exposure and own year of birth measures
14
estimations are performed in tables 4 and 5 Column (1) in both tables focus on an indicator for
either parent being born in 19181919 the primary regressor of column (2) is an indicator for
fatherrsquos (gen 1 males) in utero exposure to the 1918 flu column (3) considers motherrsquos (gen 1
females) exposure and column (4) includes separate indicators for both mother and fatherrsquos
exposure Controls included in all columns include fatherrsquos year of birth and its square motherrsquos
year of birth and its square an indicator for sex in the second generation a measure of birth
order in the second generation and second-generation year of birth and its square
Table 4 focuses on economic outcomes of the WLS graduates To reiterate our
hypothesis is that in utero exposure to the 1918 influenza pandemic has effects that persist for
multiple generations Table 2 shows the direct first generation effects while table 4 begins to
show the indirect effects that are transmitted to offspring Panel A regresses years of schooling in
the second generation on indicators of first generation exposure to the 1918 flu14 From column
(1) either parent being born in 19181919 is associated with a statistically significant decline of
021 years of schooling in the second generation This estimate is likely understated because the
sampling design of the WLS is a focus on high school seniors thus individuals with fewer than
twelve years of schooling are underrepresented in the data15 Columns (2)-(4) disambiguate this
effect into the maternal and paternal lines From which the effect of column (1) seems to be
driven by motherrsquos in utero exposure to the flu16
14 Appendix Table 6 includes a number of alternative measures for years of schooling in place of the
simple count used in Table 4 15 Table 3 includes selected siblings of the WLS graduates These siblings do not have to be high school
graduates 16 This finding differs from that of Richter and Robling (2013) who find maternal exposure tied to
daughter outcomes and paternal exposure tied to son outcomes
15
The findings of Panel A are extended into Panel B which replaces years of schooling as
the dependent variable with the natural log of family income for the 1992 wave a time when the
second generation respondents are 53 years of age on average and represents a time of peak
earning in the life course As with years of schooling a negative association is seen throughout
the specifications of Panel B Having either parent born in 19181919 is associated with a 22
percent decline in family income Once again this effect seems to be driven by motherrsquos not
fatherrsquos exposure Panel C replaces income with a measure of net worth for the 2004 wave This
measure of net worth is when the second generation respondents are on average 65 years of age
and is representative of earnings throughout the life course The dual indicator of column (1) is
negative but statistically insignificant at conventional levels (p=023) When looking at the effect
of mother exposure in column (3) however the effect becomes statistically significant at the
10 level (p=0069) implying those with mothers born during 19181919 have approximately
$36000 less in net worth by 2004
Following the broader health focus of the Barker hypothesis the economic effects of
table 4 are replaced with health measures in table 5 We consider three broad measures of
general health and well-being later in life self-reported health in later life (~53 years old)
height and BMI (again at ~53) The use of self-reported health is intended to capture general
well-being later in life (Fortin et al 2017) this is tested in Panel A of table 5 Mazumder et al
(2010) provide evidence that in utero exposure to the 1918 flu is associated with a reduction in
height and an increase cardiovascular disease so it is possible that these negative health
outcomes could be transmitted to offspring this is tested in Panel B of table 517 And given
17 Appendix Table 14 tests indicators for a number self-reported health conditions As shown a weak
positive association is shown between gen 1 female flu exposure and an indicator of cardiovascular
16
prior work linking early life exposure to the Dutch famine to BMI (Roseboom et al 2000) and
metabolic function (Lumey et al 2009) in adulthood as well as the fact that both the Dutch
famine and the 1918 flu impacted maternal stress and nutritional status18 we examine BMI as
another broad indicator of health for the second generation this is tested in Panel C of table 5 A
consistent pattern emerges across all panels Like SES outcomes in table 4 gen 1 female
exposure to the flu is shown to have negative statistically significant association with all health
outcomes in the second generation
From Panel A parentalmdashor gen 1mdashflu exposure reduces self-reported health by roughly
half a point (plt005) on a Likert scale from 1-5 1 being very poor health and 5 being excellent
health As shown and like prior estimates this effect is driven by gen 1 female exposure For
adult height gen 1 female exposure is associated with a reduction of about 02 inches (plt010)
which is larger than the direct effect documented by Mazumder et al of 005 inches however
Mazumder et alrsquos estimated effect falls within the 95 confidence interval of our estimated
coefficient Panel C considers the effect on second generation BMI From column (1) having
either parent being born in 19181919 is associated with a statistically significant increase in the
offspringrsquos BMI of 041 points As with the economic effects of table 4 this increase in BMI
appears to be driven by motherrsquos exposure This is seen in columns (2)-(4) which estimate a
statistically significant positive coefficient for motherrsquos exposure but a coefficient that is
statistically indistinguishable from zero for fatherrsquos exposure
disease during the 199293 wave of the WLS (Appendix Table 15A) This association however reduced
in magnitude and statistical significance for later-life waves of the WLS (Appendix Table 15B and 15C) 18 The Dutch famine influenced maternal nutritional status directly through caloric restriction and the
1918 flu through symptoms such as appetite loss vomiting andor diarrhea
17
A persistent effect of in utero exposure to the 1918 Flu is seen in tables 4 and 5 First
generation exposure consistently has a statistically significant and economically meaningful
effect on second generation health and economic outcomes And this effect appears to be driven
solely by motherrsquos exposure although due to marriage market associations we cannot
determine definitively that motherrsquos exposure produces this multigenerational effect through
biological mechanisms
Appendix Tables 10A-11G re-estimate Tables 4 and 5 splitting the sample by generation
2rsquos sex In short the negative effects of first generation exposure appear to be more prominent
in second generation males such that the harmful multi-generational effects are most prominent
in second generation men whose mothers were exposed to the 1918 flu19 Potential reasons for
this sex disparity could be tied to general trends in the differences between sons and daughters in
intergenerational mobility (Chadwick and Solon 2002) In other words sons are more likely to
inherit their families SES standing than daughters This implies that the negative gen 1 shock
from in utero exposure is more likely to affect sons through the proposed SES channel than
daughters resulting in a larger estimated effect for gen 2 males Furthermore there appears to
be a growing gap between in the intergenerational elastiticy between sons and daughters during
the time period in question (Olivetti and Paserman 2015) Another potential reason for the sex
difference could be the larger standard deviation in gen 2 male outcomes this is shown in
Appendix Table 9 Finally the findings of Appendix Tables 10A-11G differ from Richter and
Robling (2013) who show homogeneous sex effects from in utero flu exposure for education
19 When omitting those with no family income during the 1992 wave of the WLS negative effects from
gen 1 female flu exposure are primarily seen in second generation males This indicates however that
there is a greater frequency of no income amongst second generation females from gen 1 flu exposure
Additionally when looking at net worth in the 2011 wave of the WLS we see no difference by gen 2rsquos
sex
18
gen 1 female exposure led to reduction in gen 2 female education and gen 1 male exposure is
associated with gen 2 male education Given this disparity between the two studies our under-
representation for gen 1 male exposure and the mixed findings in Tables 10A-11G we view our
general finding of gen 1 female exposure working through gen 2 male outcomes as preliminary
and suggestive Indeed as we test in Appendix Tables 12A-12G the sex differences in gen 2 are
often not statistically significant
Third Generation
As mentioned previously the focus of the WLS data collection is high school graduates in 1957
but additional samples have been collected for a number of variables on the children of these
graduates Table 6 explores the effects of the WLS parents on the years of schooling for WLS
children estimating the effect of flu exposure across three generations20
Consistent with the second-generation estimations a persistent effect of the in utero flu
exposure is observed and this effect seems to be driven by grandmother exposure (gen 1
female) The joint indicator for either parent is negative and close to statistical significance at
the 10 percent level (p=0106) suggesting that exposure in the first generation is associated with
012 years of schooling less in the third generation The effect of grandfather exposure is
insignificantly different from zero while the coefficient of grandmother exposure is similar in
magnitude to the joint estimate of column (1) while being statistically significant at the 10
level (p=0066) Furthermore the decline in schooling seen in the third generation is similar but
slightly smaller in magnitude compared to the second generation effects seen in Panel A of table
20Analysis of the WLS gradsibling children (ie the third generation) restricts the sample to those
children that are biological children and that are 35 years of age and older by the 20032004 wave of the
WLS
19
421 This again indicates a persistent effect that may be attenuating over time Importantly while
the estimate for grandfather exposure is insignificant it is consistent with intergenerational
inheritance (Kuzawa and Eisenberg 2014) To say the same for grandmother exposure would
require effects to persist into the fourth generation (due to the differences in gametic
development) and this data is not available in the WLS
Conclusion
This paper presents novel evidence of multigenerational effects of in utero health insults We
use the sudden and unexpected influenza pandemic in 19181919 to trace out the effects of in
utero exposure to infectious disease on own outcomes for the first generation childrenrsquos
outcomes and grandchildrenrsquos outcomes We find that this exposure reduces educational
attainment and related economic outcomes across three generations For example individuals in
our second generation the WLS graduates and their siblings who have mothers who were
exposed to the 1918 flu in utero complete 15 fewer years of schooling (or 24 months less
schooling) The size of our estimated effect aligns well with those of Richter and Robling (2013)
who find that first generation in utero exposure to the 1918 flu results in 16 fewer years of
schooling (or 2 months to 25 months less schooling) for the maternal line We then extend
results to the third generation for the first time in the literature and find that individuals in the
third generation who have grandmothers who were exposed to the pandemic in utero complete
17 fewer years of schooling (or 17 months less schooling) than individuals without affected
grandmothers
21 For gen 1 female exposure in column (4) the p-value for a difference in coefficients between Panel A
of Table 4 and Table 6 is 0411 implying the effect in the third generation is statistically indistinguishable
from that in the second generation
20
There are at several potential mechanisms for the persistence of poor outcomes across
three generations we find in our data As previously outlined the intergenerational persistence in
poor outcomes due to early life health shocks could occur through socioeconomic channels
where a fetally insulted person with resulting low educational attainment raises a child in a low-
resource environment that reduces opportunities for high educational attainment of the child In
order to see multigenerational effects the reduced opportunities for high educational attainment
of the child must then reduce opportunities for their own children Alternatively
intergenerational transmission may occur through epigenetic inheritance through the germ line a
distinct possibility based on findings of the Oumlverkalix studies or phenotype-to-phenotype
transmission and cumulative intergenerational phenotypic change
Our analysis is unable to fully distinguish between these proposed intergenerational
channels the socioeconomic and biological but it is important to note that the channels are by no
means mutually exclusive Further analysis (appendix tables 3-5) that is intended to partially
account for the socioeconomic mechanism leads to mixed results in which the coefficient of first
generation flu exposure is attenuated to insignificance for some outcomes but not others This
provides evidence for a socioeconomic channel but does not eliminate the possibility of
epigenetic mechanisms or other biological channel through which socioeconomic status ldquogets
under the skinrdquo to influence outcomes of subsequent generations (eg the socioeconomic
circumstances of one generation may ldquoget under the skinrdquo of the next and subsequently be passed
via biology andor socioeconomics to other generations) Likewise the estimates of grandfather
effects on grandchildren are imprecise but consistent with transgenerational inheritance (Kuzawa
and Eisenberg 2014) Additionally while the WLS provides a unique framework to analyze
multiple generations the measurement of flu exposure is somewhat crude (from self-reported
21
parentsrsquo year of birth) and is in the right-tail of the distribution of parent birth years suggesting
the possibility of confounding from resource-poor younger mothers22 That is exposure to
influenza in the first generation is mechanically tied to motherrsquos ages of 20 and 21 because the
WLS sample is drawn based on having a child who was born in 1939 (and thus graduating high
school in 1957) While we cannot definitively separate these two effects our ability to compare
outcomes of slightly older mothers (ages 22 and 23 born in 1917 or 1916) provide evidence
more consistent with in utero exposure to influenza than impacts of having a mother who is
2021 years old
From a policy perspective our evidence may suggest a novel source of multigenerational
persistence in poverty through biosocial factors and suggest a need to consider evidence of
transgenerational social andor biological mechanisms We document the extent to which
harmful early life environments cascade through generations promoting a disadvantaged start for
those whose grandparents exposed to a hazardous early life environment
22 We specifically explore the confounding effects of younger mothers in appendix tables 7 and 8 These
tables show that younger mothers are indeed initially disadvantaged (ie less years of schooling)
however this young-mother disadvantage does not persist in subsequent generations Rather only those
mothers born in the 1918-1919 range have significant negative effects on later generations
22
References
Almond Doug 2006 Is the 1918 Influenza pandemic over Long‐term effects of in utero Influenza exposure in the post‐1940 US population Journal of Political Economy 114(4) 672-712
Almond Doug and Bhashkar Mazumder 2005 The 1918 Influenza Pandemic and Subsequent Health Outcomes An Analysis of SIPP Data American Economic Review 95(2) 258-262
Barker David James P 2007 The origins of the developmental origins theory Journal of Internal Medicine 261(5) 412-417
Benyshek Daniel C (2013) The ldquoearly liferdquo origins of obesity‐related health disorders New discoveries regarding the intergenerational transmission of developmentally programmed traits in the global cardiometabolic health crisis American Journal of Physical Anthropology 152(S57) 79-93
Brown Alan S and Elena J Derkits 2010 Prenatal infection and schizophrenia a review of epidemiologic and translational studies American Journal of Psychiatry 167(3) 261-280
Burg Steven 2000 Wisconsin and the Great Spanish Flu Epidemic of 1918rdquo Wisconsin Magazine of History 84(1) 36-56
Bygren LarsOlov Gunnar Kaati and Soumlren Edvinsson 2001 Longevity determined by paternal ancestors nutrition during their slow growth period Acta biotheoretica 49(1) 53-59
Canetta Sarah E and Alan S Brown 2012 Prenatal infection maternal immune activation and risk for schizophrenia Translational Neuroscience 3(4) 320-327
Chadwick L and Solon G (2002) Intergenerational income mobility among daughters American Economic Review 92(1) 335-344
Cohen Alan A John Tillinghast and Vladimir Canudas-Romo 2010 No consistent effects of prenatal or neonatal exposure to Spanish flu on late-life mortality in 24 developed countries Demographic Research 22(20) 579
Fatemi S Hossein Julie Earle Reena Kanodia David Kist Effat S Emamian Paul H Patterson Limin Shi and Robert Sidwell 2002 Prenatal viral infection leads to pyramidal cell atrophy and macrocephaly in adulthood implications for genesis of autism and schizophrenia Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology 22(1) 25-33
Fletcher Jason 2014 Examining the Long Term Mortality Effects of Early Health Shocks US Census Bureau Center for Economic Studies Paper No CES-WP-14-19
Kaati Gunnar Lars O Bygren and Soren Edvinsson 2002 Cardiovascular and diabetes mortality determined by nutrition during parents and grandparents slow growth period European Journal of Human Genetics EJHG 10(11) 682
Kash John C Terrence M Tumpey Sean C Proll Victoria Carter Olivia Perwitasari Matthew J Thomas Christopher F Basler et al 2006 Genomic analysis of increased host immune and cell death responses induced by 1918 influenza virus Nature 443(7111) 578-581
Kobasa Darwyn Steven M Jones Kyoko Shinya John C Kash John Copps Hideki Ebihara Yasuko Hatta et al 2007 Aberrant innate immune response in lethal infection of macaques with the 1918 influenza virus Nature 445 (7125) 319-323
Kuzawa Christopher W and Dan T Eisenberg 2014 The Long Reach of History Intergenerational and Transgenerational Pathwaysto Plasticity in Human Longevity Sociality Hierarchy Health Comparative Biodemography Papers from a Workshop National Academies Press
Li Wai-Yu Yi-Chun Chang L Jyuhn-Hsiarn Lee and Li-Jen Lee 2014 Prenatal infection affects the neuronal architecture and cognitive function in adult mice Developmental Neuroscience 36(5) 359-370
23
Lin Ming-Jen and Elaine M Liu 2014 Does in utero exposure to illness matter The 1918 influenza epidemic in Taiwan as a natural experiment Journal of Health Economics 37 152-163
Lindeboom Maarten France Portrait and Gerard J Van den Berg 2010 Long-run effects on longevity of a nutritional shock early in life the Dutch Potato famine of 1846ndash1847 Journal of Health Economics 29(5) 617-629
Mamelund SE (2018) 1918 pandemic mobidity The first wave hits the poor the second wave hits the rich Influenza and Other Respitory Viruses 12(3) 307-313
Mazumder Bhashkar Douglas Almond Kyung Park Eileen M Crimmins and Caleb E Finch 2010 Lingering prenatal effects of the 1918 influenza pandemic on cardiovascular disease Journal of developmental origins of health and disease 1(1) 26-34
Miller Veronica Y Zhu C Bucher W McGinnis L Ryan A Siegel and S Zalcman 2013 Gestational flu exposure induces changes in neurochemicals affiliative hormones and brainstem inflammation in addition to autism-like behaviors in mice Brain Behavior and Immunity 33 153-163
Myrskylauml Mikko Neil K Mehta and Virginia W Chang 2013 Early life exposure to the 1918 influenza pandemic and old-age mortality by cause of death American Journal of Public Health 103(7) e83-e90
Olivetti C and Paserman MD (2015) In the name of the son (and the daughter) Intergenerational mobility in the United States 1850-1940 American Economic Review 105(8) 2695-2724
Pembrey Marcus E Lars Olov Bygren Gunnar Kaati Soumlren Edvinsson Kate Northstone Michael Sjoumlstroumlm and Jean Golding 2006 Sex-specific male-line transgenerational responses in humans European Journal of Human Genetics 14(2) 159-166
Richter Andreacute and Per Olof Robling 2013 Multigenerational effects of the 1918-19 influenza pandemic in Sweden Swedish Institute for Social Research 5
Shors Teri and Susan H McFadden 2009 1918 Influenza A Winnebago County Wisconsin Perspective Clinical Medicine amp Research 7(4) 147-156
Sydenstricker E (1931) The incidence of influenza among persons of different economic status during the epidemic of 1918 Public Health Reports 46(4) 154-170
van den Berg Gerard J and Pia R Pinger 2013 A validation study of transgenerational effects of childhood conditions on the third generation offsprings economic and health outcomes potentially driven by epigenetic imprinting IZA Discussion Paper
Tables and Figures
Table 1 Summary Statistics
Variable N Mean Std Deviation
First GenerartionFlu Indicators
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 8368 0112 0315Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 8456 0030 0170Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 8487 0093 0290
ControlsFirst Generation Malersquos Year of Birth 8456 1907435 7021First Generation Femalersquos Year of Birth 8427 1911189 6164
Dependent VariablesFirst Generation Malersquos Years of Schooling 8456 9778 3392First Generation Femalersquos Years of Schooing 8487 10499 2804First Generation Malersquos Job Prestige 8385 330662 214361First Generation Femalersquos Job Prestige 6683 12814 19934Family SES 8487 16231 11143
Second GenerationControls
Female Indicator 12459 0530 0499Birth Year 12459 1939406 4289Birth Order 12459 2529 1828
Dependent VariablesYears of Schooling 12459 13678 2361Family Income 1992 (in $1000s) 12112 68027 177105Net Worth 2004 (in $1000s) 10498 913046 2558927Self-reported health 1992 9888 4149 0668Height (inches) 9783 67406 3851BMI 1992 9671 26742 4657
Third GenerationControls
Birth Year 19913 1963901 3636Female Indicator 19913 0497 0500Birth Order 19913 2196 1263
Dependent VariableYears of Schooling 19913 14294 2309
Summary amp Notes This table provides summary statistics for all variables used The samples above may not berepresentative for all estimations For example the inclusion of siblings in the second generation increase the sample of parentalyear of birth and the corresponding flu indicator This increase in sample does not significantly change the sample statisticsabove Similar sample changes occur for the second generation controls above For the third generation the sample is restrictedto biological children over 35 years of age
24
Tab
le2
Fir
stG
ener
atio
n
Eco
nom
icE
ffec
ts
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
am
ily
SE
SY
ears
of
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
am
ily
SE
S(1
)(2
)(3
)(4
)(5
)(6
)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale)
-01
39
-01
16lowast
-12
90lowast
lowast
(02
00)
(00
60)
(05
99)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emal
e)-0
133
-00
66
-13
61lowastlowast
lowast
(00
95)
(00
43)
(03
76)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
YY
YY
YY
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8456
8385
8456
8487
6683
8487
RS
qr
00
32
00
08
00
23
00
13
00
04
00
13
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
pro
vid
esd
irec
teff
ects
of
inu
tero
an
dea
rly
life
exp
osu
reto
the
1918
Flu
Ep
idem
ic
Bir
thye
ar
tim
etr
end
sin
lcu
de
yea
rof
bir
than
dit
ssq
uar
ean
din
clu
sion
inth
ees
tim
atio
nis
par
ent
spec
ific
All
esti
mati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
an
dard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
alsi
gnifi
can
ceis
den
oted
by
an
d
re
pre
senti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vel
y
25
Tab
le3
Fir
stG
ener
atio
n
Mar
riag
eM
arke
tE
ffec
ts
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Flu
Bir
thY
ear
Yea
rsof
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
luB
irth
Yea
rY
ears
of
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
e(1
)(2
)(3
)(4
)(5
)(6
)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale)
01
40lowast
lowastlowast-0
259
-00
39
(00
34)
(01
58)
(00
72)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emal
e)0
056lowast
lowastlowast-0
340lowast
lowastlowast-0
118lowastlowast
lowast
(00
14)
(01
17)
(00
36)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
YY
YY
YY
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8348
8487
8412
8348
8456
6660
RS
qr
00
90
00
11
00
08
01
20
00
21
00
01
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
pro
vid
esev
iden
ceof
marr
iage
mark
etse
lect
ion
inth
efi
rst
gen
erati
on
B
irth
year
tim
etr
end
sin
clu
de
year
of
bir
than
dit
ssq
uare
and
incl
usi
onin
the
esti
mat
ion
isp
aren
tsp
ecifi
cA
lles
tim
ati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
an
dard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
sign
ifica
nce
isd
enot
edby
an
d
re
pre
senti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vely
26
Table 4 Second Generation Economic Effects
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Years of Schooling
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0209lowastlowastlowast
(0073)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0084 -0059(0129) (0129)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0211lowastlowastlowast -0209lowastlowastlowast
(0075) (0075)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0085 0084 0085 0085
Panel B ln Family Income 1992
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0221lowastlowast
(0111)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0098 -0066(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0262lowastlowast -0259lowastlowast
(0116) (0116)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112R Sqr 0021 0021 0021 0021
Panel C Std Net Worth 2004
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0026(0022)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0033 0038(0047) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0038lowast -0040lowast
(0021) (0021)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498R Sqr 0007 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table provides evidence of signficant harmful effects of flu exposure in the first generation on secondgeneration economic outcomes First generation time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents(ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and itssquare and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
27
Table 5 Second Generation Health Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Self-reported health (Likert 1=very poor 5=excellent)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0054lowastlowast
(0027)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0005(0047) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0061lowastlowast -0061lowastlowast
(0028) (0028)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Panel B Height (inches)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0101)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0102 0127(0168) (0168)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0169lowast -0175lowast
(0103) (0103)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783r2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Panel C BMI
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0412lowastlowast
(0191)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0082 0023(0344) (0346)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0422lowastlowast 0421lowastlowast
(0193) (0194)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table provides evidence of harmful effects of flu exposure in the first generation on secondgeneration health outcomes First generation time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents (iegen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and itssquare and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
28
Table 6 Generation Three Effects of Generation One Flu Exposure Years of Schooling
Dependent Variable Years of Schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0125(0077)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Male) -0007 0010(0136) (0136)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Female) -0144lowast -0144lowast
(0078) (0078)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913R Sqr 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table shows that the generational effects of flu exposure extend into the third generation of theWLS First generation flu exposure is shown to have a negative association with third generation years of schooling Firstgeneration time trends are year of birth measures for each parent and their square Second generation controls inlcude anindicator for sex second generation year of birth and its square and birth order Third generation controls include a sexindicator year of birth and its square and birth order Given the focus on years of schooling the sample is restricted to thosethird generation individuals 35 years of age and older or born during or before 1970 (data were collected in 2005) Allestimation is performed with OLS with family (second generation) clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
29
(a)
Fat
her
(b)
Moth
er
Fig
ure
1F
irst
Gen
erat
ion
Dis
trib
uti
onof
Yea
rof
Bir
th
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
figu
rep
lots
the
dis
trib
uti
on
for
firs
tgen
erati
on
year
of
bir
th
Flu
exp
osu
reis
class
ified
as
bei
ng
born
inei
ther
1918
or
1919
30
Appendix Tables
Appendix Table 1 First Generation Flu Exposure Effect on Family Income
Dependent Variable Family Income ($100s) 1957
(1) (2)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -3366(2592)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -5363lowastlowast
(2390)
Birth Year Time Trends Y YObservations 7440 7456R Sqr 0013 0004
Summary amp Notes This table replaces the index of socioeconomic status with family income (in $100s) in 1957 Allestimation is performed with OLS with robust standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
31
App
endix
Tab
le2
Mar
riag
eM
arke
tE
ffec
ts
Con
trol
ling
for
Ow
nY
ear
ofB
irth
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
Job
Pre
stig
eY
ears
of
Sch
Job
Pre
stig
e
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale
)-0
052
-211
82
-01
98
-03
74
(02
03)
(131
30)
(01
61)
(14
38)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emale
)-0
346lowast
lowastlowast-2
44
97lowastlowast
lowast-0
103
-13
88
(01
16)
(76
88)
(00
94)
(08
54)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
(Male
an
dF
emale
)Y
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8348
8279
8348
6587
RS
qr
00
40
00
22
00
25
00
04
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
re-e
stim
ates
Tab
le3
wh
ile
contr
oll
ing
for
year
of
bir
than
dfl
uin
dic
ato
rsass
oci
ate
dw
ith
the
spou
sein
the
dep
end
ent
vari
ab
le
All
esti
mat
ion
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
and
ard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
sign
ifica
nce
isd
enote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
atth
e10
5
and
1le
vel
sre
spec
tive
ly
32
Appendix Table 3 2nd Gen Economic Effects Controlling for 1st Gen Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Years of Schooling
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0088(0070)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0005 0008(0119) (0119)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0116 -0117(0072) (0072)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0206 0206 0206 0206
Panel B ln Family Income 1992
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0193lowast
(0111)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0080 -0050(0184) (0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0240lowastlowast -0238lowastlowast
(0116) (0116)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112R Sqr 0024 0024 0024 0024
Panel C Std Normal Net Worth 2004
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0003(0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0047 0049(0046) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0019 -0021(0020) (0020)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498R Sqr 0033 0033 0033 0033
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 4 while controlling for generation one economic outcomes fatherrsquos years ofschooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 First generation time trends are given by year of birth and itssquare for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex secondgeneration year of birth and its square and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standarderrors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and1 levels respectively 33
Appendix Table 4 2nd Gen Health Effects Controlling for 1st Gen Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A BMI
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0352lowast
(0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0051 -0001(0342) (0344)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0372lowast 0372lowast
(0192) (0193)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671R Sqr 0035 0035 0035 0035
Panel B Count of Illnesses
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0122lowast
(0065)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0076 -0096(0102) (0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0139lowastlowast 0144lowastlowast
(0067) (0068)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9921 9921 9921 9921R Sqr 0046 0046 0046 0046
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 5 while controlling for generation one economic outcomes fatherrsquos years ofschooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 First generation time trends are given by year of birth and itssquare for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex secondgeneration year of birth and its square and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standarderrors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and1 levels respectively
34
Appendix Table 5 Generation threersquos years of schooling Controlling for previous generation economicwell-being
Dependent Variable Years of Schooling for Gen 3(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A First Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0069(0076)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0022 0034(0133) (0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0102 -0104(0077) (0078)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913R Sqr 0117 0117 0117 0117
Panel B Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0025(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0008 0013(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0038 -0039(0073) (0073)
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0190 0190 0190 0190
Panel C First and Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0008(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0016 0019(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0028 -0029(0073) (0073)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0196 0196 0196 0196
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 6 while controlling for generation one and tworsquos economic outcomes Forgeneration one these include fatherrsquos years of schooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 generation twocontrols include the WLS graduatesiblingrsquos years of schooling family income in 1992 and net worth in 2004 First generationtime trends are year of birth measures for each parent and their square Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sexsecond generation year of birth and its square and birth order Third generation controls include a sex indicator year of birthand its square and birth order Given the focus on years of schooling the sample is restricted to those third generationindividuals 35 years of age and older or born during or before 1970 (data were collected in 2005) All estimation is performedwith OLS with family (second generation) clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denotedby and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
35
Appendix Table 6 Alternative measures of schooling in the second generation
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Indicator for any college (years of schooling gt12)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0044lowastlowastlowast
(0017)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0011 -0006(0029) (0029)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0044lowastlowast -0043lowastlowast
(0017) (0017)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0071 0070 0071 0071
Panel B Indicator for incomplete college (years of schooling gt12 amp lt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0008(0013)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 -0001(0022) (0022)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0008 -0008(0013) (0013)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0005 0005 0005 0005
Panel C Indicator for college graduate (years of schooling = 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0022lowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0003 0006(0020) (0020)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0021lowast -0021lowastlowast
(0011) (0011)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0019 0019 0019 0019
Panel D Indicator for post-college education (years of schooling gt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0014(0010)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0011(0018) (0018)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0014 -0014(0010) (0010)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0039 0039 0039 0039
Summary amp Notes This table replaces our continuous measure of years of schooling with specified dummy variables Firstgeneration time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Secondgeneration controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and its square and birth order All estimationis performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
36
Appendix Table 7 Young mothers Direct effect on Gen 1 Females
Dependent Variable Years of Sch Job Prestige Family SES
(1) (2) (3)
Ind for First Gen Female Flu Exposure (1918-1919) -0325lowastlowast -0841 -1749lowastlowastlowast
(0137) (1015) (0584)
Ind for mother born during 1920-1921 -0567lowastlowastlowast 0745 -1157(0206) (1515) (0914)
Ind for mother born during 1922-1923 -0666lowastlowast 0098 -2113(0330) (2210) (1298)
Ind for mother born after 1924 -0392 5682 0384(0486) (3705) (2126)
Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y
Observations 8487 6683 8487R Sqr 0014 0005 0014
Summary amp Notes This table includes indicators for alternative years of birth Younger mothers are shown to have lessyears of schooling All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
37
App
endix
Tab
le8
You
ng
mot
her
sG
ener
atio
n2
and
3eff
ects
Gen
2
Gen
3
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
ln
Fam
In
c
1992
Std
N
W
2004
Sel
f-re
p
hea
lth
Hei
ght
BM
IY
ears
of
Sch
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
emal
eF
luE
xp
osu
re(1
918-
1919
)-0
201lowastlowast
-02
95lowastlowast
-00
45
-00
73lowastlowast
-00
90
02
07
-00
86(0
092)
(01
32)
(00
32)
(00
32)
(01
22)
(02
25)
(00
94)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
20-1
921
-00
22
-00
40
-00
10
-00
61
01
33
-04
10
01
13
(01
37)
(01
74)
(00
51)
(00
43)
(01
80)
(03
11)
(01
41)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
22-1
923
-00
96
-01
88
-00
57
00
20
04
61
-11
29lowastlowast
01
55(0
184)
(03
20)
(00
61)
(00
75)
(02
83)
(04
51)
(02
23)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
afte
r19
2404
58
-01
87
00
01
-00
27
03
12
-08
85
03
99
(03
06)
(03
94)
(00
87)
(01
27)
(04
94)
(10
70)
(03
21)
Bas
eC
ontr
ols
YY
YY
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
12459
12112
10498
9888
9783
9671
19913
RS
qr
00
85
00
21
00
08
00
09
05
86
00
29
00
79
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
incl
ud
esin
dic
ator
sfo
ralt
ernati
ve
years
of
bir
th
Bei
ng
born
toa
you
nger
moth
ergen
erall
yis
not
ass
oci
ate
dw
ith
gen
erati
on
2or
3rsquos
outc
omes
ofin
tere
st
inst
ead
n
egat
ive
effec
tsar
eon
lyob
serv
edfo
rth
ose
born
du
rin
gth
efl
u
All
esti
mati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hfa
mil
y(2
nd
gen
erat
ion
)cl
ust
ered
stan
dar
der
rors
rep
orte
din
par
enth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
signifi
can
ceis
den
ote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vel
y
38
Appendix Table 9 Summary Statistics by Gen 2 Sex
Variable N Mean Std Deviation
FemaleYears of Schooling 6607 13352 2088ln Family Income (1992 wave) 6411 9424 3577
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5654 10686 1010Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 5612 -0047 0539Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 5313 4164 0670Height (inches) 5231 646635 247936BMI 5124 26073 5114
Gen 3Years of Schooling 11947 14240 2291
MaleYears of Schooling 5852 14047 2587ln Family Income (1992 wave) 5701 10139 3030
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5264 10981 0836Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 4886 0059 1159Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 4575 4133 0665Height (inches) 4554 7055484 25596BMI 4547 27496 3948
Gen 3Years of Schooling 8046 14371 2332
Appendix Table 10A Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0090(0086)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0198 0214(0169) (0169)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104 -0114(0087) (0087)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6607 6607 6607 6607R Sqr 0075 0075 0075 0075
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
39
Appendix Table 10B Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0523lowastlowastlowast
(0170)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0483 -0410(0321) (0323)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0512lowastlowastlowast -0491lowastlowastlowast
(0179) (0180)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6411 6411 6411 6411R Sqr 0015 0013 0014 0015
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10C Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0007(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0078lowast 0078(0048) (0048)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0008 0005(0025) (0025)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5612 5612 5612 5612R Sqr 0007 0007 0007 0007
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
40
Appendix Table 10D Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0027(0036)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 -0001(0071) (0071)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0022 -0022(0037) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5313 5313 5313 5313r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10E Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -2382(13366)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 44280lowastlowast 46351lowastlowast
(22343) (22480)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -12253 -14428(13485) (13561)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5231 5231 5231 5231r2 0015 0016 0015 0016
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
41
Appendix Table 10F Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0353(0286)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0105 0060(0514) (0516)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0326 0323(0289) (0290)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5124 5124 5124 5124R Sqr 0010 0010 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0087(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0104 -0101(0190) (0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0042 -0039(0098) (0098)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 11906 11906 11906 11906R Sqr 0086 0086 0086 0086
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
42
Appendix Table 11A Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0322lowastlowastlowast
(0116)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0369lowastlowast -0338lowast
(0181) (0180)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0309lowastlowastlowast -0297lowastlowast
(0119) (0119)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5852 5852 5852 5852R Sqr 0060 0059 0060 0060
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11B RResults by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0116(0138)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0262 0261(0200) (0199)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0024 0014(0141) (0140)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5701 5701 5701 5701R Sqr 0009 0009 0008 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
43
Appendix Table 11C Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0038)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0001(0081) (0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0094lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0035)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4886 4886 4886 4886R Sqr 0004 0004 0004 0004
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
44
Appendix Table 11D Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0083lowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 0012(0062) (0062)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104lowastlowastlowast -0105lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0041)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4575 4575 4575 4575r2 0010 0009 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11E Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -15122(14275)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -22991 -20537(23287) (23176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -18595 -17540(14734) (14751)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4554 4554 4554 4554r2 0011 0011 0011 0011
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
45
Appendix Table 11F Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0465lowast
(0238)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0079 0006(0403) (0405)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0520lowastlowast 0520lowastlowast
(0245) (0246)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4547 4547 4547 4547R Sqr 0006 0005 0006 0006
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0177(0123)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0098 0144(0194) (0192)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0293lowastlowast -0302lowastlowast
(0125) (0126)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8007 8007 8007 8007R Sqr 0067 0067 0068 0068
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
46
Appendix Table 12A Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0253lowastlowast
(0107)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0252 -0226(0170) (0172)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0263lowastlowast -0242lowastlowast
(0113) (0115)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0084(0120)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0341 0339(0216) (0219)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0096 0056(0130) (0132)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459r2 0085 0085 0085 0085
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
47
Appendix Table 12B Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0128)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0196 0169(0190) (0189)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0081 -0104(0135) (0135)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0383lowastlowast
(0189)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0594lowast -0474(0349) (0355)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0339lowast -0283(0204) (0207)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112r2 0021 0021 0021 0021
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
48
Appendix Table 12C Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0034)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0019(0077) (0079)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0095lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0030) (0031)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0071lowast
(0038)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0072 0039(0087) (0089)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0104lowastlowastlowast 0100lowastlowastlowast
(0035) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498r2 0008 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
49
Appendix Table 12D Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0071lowast
(0036)[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0012 0031
(0058) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0093lowastlowast -0097lowastlowast
(0039) (0039)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0030(0045)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0031 -0051(0087) (0088)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0059 0065(0048) (0049)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
50
Appendix Table 12E Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0129 -0125(0223) (0224)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0152 -0129(0141) (0142)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0000(0158)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0454 0495lowast
(0279) (0287)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0031 -0090(0170) (0175)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783nr2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
51
Appendix Table 12F Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0376(0231)
[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0059 -0122(0402) (0407)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0441lowast 0457lowast
(0240) (0243)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0068(0316)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0282 0288(0573) (0589)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0035 -0069(0340) (0350)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
52
Appendix Table 12G Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0131(0114)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male 0114 0175(0185) (0188)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0237lowastlowast -0261lowastlowast
(0118) (0121)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0009(0133)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0225 -0292(0249) (0254)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0152 0189(0141) (0145)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913r2 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
53
Appendix Table 13 Family Income 1992 excluding non-earners (ie fam inc = 0)
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992 wave (excluding those reporting 0)(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0095lowastlowastlowast
(0033)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0031 -0019(0053) (0053)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0101lowastlowastlowast -0100lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0034)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10918 10918 10918 10918r2 0050 0049 0050 0050
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0084lowast
(0050)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0019 -0007(0089) (0090)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0083 -0083(0053) (0054)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5654 5654 5654 5654r2 0026 0026 0026 0026
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102lowastlowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0051 -0040(0060) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0113lowastlowastlowast -0112lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0040)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5264 5264 5264 5264r2 0029 0028 0029 0029
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel B in Table 4 excluding those who report $0 for familyincome All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
54
Appendix Table 14 Net Worth 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable Std Net Worth 2011 Wave of WLS(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0032lowastlowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0023lowast -0021lowast
(0012) (0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0032lowastlowastlowast -0031lowastlowastlowast
(0010) (0010)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9435 9435 9435 9435r2 0002 0002 0002 0002
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0012lowast
(0006)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0009 -0008(0009) (0009)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0012lowastlowast -0011lowastlowast
(0006) (0006)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5026 5026 5026 5026r2 0007 0006 0007 0007
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0057lowastlowast
(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0040lowast -0036lowast
(0023) (0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0057lowastlowast -0056lowastlowast
(0023) (0022)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4409 4409 4409 4409r2 0001 0001 0001 0001
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel C in Table 4 replacing the net worth measure from the 2004wave with an identical measure from the 2011 wave of the WLS All estimation is performed with OLS with family clusteredstandard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 105 and 1 levels respectively
55
Appendix Table 15A Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 1992 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0243(0152)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0107 0039(0252) (0255)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0285lowast 0282lowast
(0158) (0160)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9849 9849 9849 9849
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0007(0091)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0210 -0216(0170) (0173)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0007 0024(0095) (0097)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9858 9858 9858 9858
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0255(0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0107 -0169(0328) (0338)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0237 0252(0193) (0198)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9845 9845 9845 9845
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
56
Appendix Table 15B Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2004 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0018(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0190 0207(0160) (0162)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0066 -0083(0102) (0104)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10672 10672 10672 10672
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0096 0108(0124) (0125)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0051 -0059(0076) (0077)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10619 10619 10619 10619
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0108(0110)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0064 0027(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0181 0179(0113) (0113)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10617 10617 10617 10617
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
57
Appendix Table 15C Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0099(0092)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0244 0242(0154) (0155)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0033 0016(0099) (0100)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0021(0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0095 0097(0138) (0139)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0004 -0011(0085) (0086)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0134(0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0203 0181(0175) (0176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0140 0127(0107) (0107)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8709 8709 8709 8709
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
58
- text 10818
- tables 10-8-18
-
5
The mechanisms underlying these broad effects from in utero influenza exposure are not
fully understood in humans3 However in studies of monkeys (Kobasa Jones et al 2007) and
mice (Kash Tumpey et al 2006) it has been shown that the reconstructed 1918 flu virus triggers
an exceptionally intense and prolonged innate immune response More specifically gene-
expression analysis shows that proteins involved in the innate immune system have a higher and
sustained expression when triggered by the 1918 reconstructed virus than when triggered by the
contemporary flu of the same H1N1-type (Kobasa Jones et al 2007) While the specific 1918 flu
strain cannot be studied in humans through purposeful exposure for ethical reasons both animal
and human studies have linked the maternal immune response during severe flu infection in
pregnancy to offspring brain development as well as impaired adult behavior and cognitive
outcomes (Fatemi Earle et al 2002 Brown and Derkits 2010 Canetta and Brown 2012 Miller
Zhu et al 2013 Li Chang et al 2014) These results align with research in psychology that links
inflammatory processes in mothersmdashincluding stress and infection as well as stress-induced
immunosuppressionmdashto poor birth outcomes (for a review see Stretter 2011) Recent evidence
suggests that in utero exposure to the 1918 flu may not only affect adult outcomes but also the
outcomes of subsequent generations Richter and Robling (2013) were the first to identify an
effect of first generation prenatal exposure (using birth trimester) to the 1918 flu pandemic on
the outcomes of the second generation (the children of those exposed to the 1918 flu in utero)
The authors use historical influenza morbidity data matched to birth information to identify
potential exposure to the 1918 flu and find that first generation maternal in utero exposure in the
second trimester lowers educational attainment for female children by 2-25 months or by 15-
18 percent but find no such effect for male children An analogous result is identified for first
6
generation paternal exposure and male outcomes that is first generation exposure in the second
trimester lowers educational attainment for male children by 24 to 3 months or by 18-22
percent but paternal exposure showed no such effect for females Taken together first
generation exposure to the 1918 flu while in utero results in 2 to 3 months less schooling for the
second generation
Several pathways exist for the intergenerational transmission of early life health shocks
Through socioeconomic channels intergenerational persistence in poor outcomes could occur
when a fetally insulted parent marred by poorer health and socioeconomic outcomes raises a
child in a low-resource environment Biologically phenotype-to-phenotype transmission and
epigenetic inheritance are hypothesized to be key mechanisms for intergenerational transmission
(Kuzawa and Eisenberg 2014) In cases of in utero or very early life shocks phenotype-to-
phenotype transmission impacts the outcomes of the next generation through changes in parental
biological systems that lead to altered gestational andor lactation environments for offspring
(eg pre-pregnancy hypertension is linked to low birthweight) Importantly socioeconomic and
biological channels are not mutually exclusive and can also interact with one another that is the
effects of adult phenotype on offspring extend beyond physiology and metabolism to include
parental behaviorenvironmental response as a potential source of phenotypic transmission and
potentially even cumulative intergenerational phenotypic change (Benyshek 2013) For example
stress experienced by a mother prenatally may alter stress regulation in offspring which may in
turn increase risk for the same adult phenotype in the offspring as well as in subsequent
generations Epigenetic inheritance in comparison occurs when parental experiences alter gene
expression that is subsequently transmitted to offspring and future generations through the germ
line Here again there is an opportunity for socioeconomic circumstances to interact with
7
biologymdasheg where poverty through the experience of stress alters gene expression for
generations Our analysis of second generation outcomes will explore some of these channels
but not attempt to prioritize one over another
Work extending effects of in utero exposure to the 1918 flu to the third generation (the
grandchildren of those originally exposed in utero) in humans to the best of the authorsrsquo
knowledge does not exist The strongest evidence for a potential biological channel across
multiple generations comes from studies of historical data from Oumlverkalix region in Northern
Sweden that exploit variance in first generation grandparental food supply during childhood
Bygren Kaati et al (2001) for example find that an excess of food during the period just before
adolescence a time labeled the ldquoslow growth periodrdquo (SGP) shortens the grandsonrsquos longevity
A later study using the Oumlverkalix data replicates the results of Bygren Kaati et al (2001) in a
second cohort and further extends the results to include an association between first generation
paternal grandmotherrsquos food supply and granddaughterrsquos mortality risk (Pembrey Bygren et al
2006)4
Our work builds off of this evidence to conduct novel examinations of multigenerational
effects of in utero exposures in human populations The current research leverages a unique
survey to measure the multigenerational impacts of in utero exposure to the 1918 flu pandemic
Our hypothesis is that the previously documented direct effects of such shocks extend into the
outcomes of the second generation Going further we also estimate whether these effects
4 Van den Berg and Pinger (2014) externally validated the potential for transmission across three
generations by analyzing the impact of the German famine of 1916-1918 on the mental health outcomes
(an index from survey questions accounting for rsquogeneral mental healthrsquo rsquoemotional functioningrsquo rsquosocial
functioningrsquo and rsquovitalityrsquo) of the children and grandchildren of those exposed to the famine during their
SGP The authors find that paternal (maternal) grandfather (grandmothers) exposure during their SGP is
associated with better mental health in grandsons (granddaughters)
8
continue into the third generation In other words we ask whether the singular in utero shock has
a multigenerational effect--on the adult outcomes of those exposed in utero on their children
and on their grandchildren
Data and Empirical Methodology
Data
In order to examine multigenerational effects of an in utero exposure we require
multigenerational data Very few datasets in the US have a multigenerational component and fit
the relevant time period for our exposure (ie birth cohorts around 1918) Our data come from
the Wisconsin Longitudinal Survey (WLS) which is a random one-third survey of graduating
high school seniors in Wisconsin in 1957 The majority of these respondents were born in 1939
and form our second generation Thus the parents of the WLS graduates form our first
generation with birth years overlapping the 19181919 in utero exposure period This allows for
the creation of our primary measure for in utero exposure to the 1918 flu epidemic an indicator
9
for either first generation parent being born during the 1918-1919 range56 Additional data are
collected on the later life outcomes of the WLS graduates and a selected sibling as well as a
limited number of outcomes for the children (third generation) of the graduatessiblings
providing the structure for our multigenerational analysis
Summary statistics are presented in table 1 As shown approximately 10 percent of WLS
parents are born in either 1918 or 1919 On average fathers are born in 1907 and mothers are
born in 1911 consequently a birth year of 1918 or 1919 is closer to the right-tail of the
distribution of births and the rate of 10 percent is driven primarily by relatively young mother
exposures7 Since WLS graduatersquos fathers tend to be on average 4 years older than mothers this
right-tail problem is larger for generation 1 males This is seen in Figure 1 While not the
primary focus of the WLS data collection several parental (first generation) outcomes are
5 Parent year of birth is recorded from the WLS graduates This self-reported measure is used to create
the indicator of flu exposure those parents born in 1918 or 1919 To maximize sample size we use
differing waves of the WLS and reported birth years from biological siblings to supplement the reported
year of birth from WLS graduates Parent birth years are first collected for the 199293 graduate wave
Missing observations are then sequentially added from graduate reports in later wavesmdash2003 and 2011
After using all graduate reported year of parent birth variables observations are then filled in from
identically reported measures from a selected biological sibling
Specifically for mothers (gen 1 females) 7976 observations come from graduates in the 199293
wave 366 additional observations come from the 200305 wave 84 observations come from 2011 wave
and 68 observations come from the selected sibling This leaves a base sample size of 8494 ~94 of
which is from the graduate reported 199293 wave For fathers (gen 1 males) 7929 observations come
from graduates in the 199293 wave 361 additional observations come from the 200305 wave 77 come
from the 2011 wave and 91 observations come from siblings leaving a base sample size of 8458 (again
~94 is from the grad reported 199293 wave)
From this base 7 observations are dropped for gen-1-femalersquos (WLS motherrsquos) year of birth due
to reported gen 2rsquos year of birth being 10 or less years after gen 1rsquos year of birth 45 additional
observations are lost if this threshold is increased to 15 years For gen-1-malersquos year of birth 2
observations are removed for identical reasons this increases to 25 additional observations for the 15 year
threshold We attribute this reduction in the sample mostly to measurement error 6 The 1918 flu epidemic in Wisconsin was from September 1918 through December 1918 but did not
reach the severity experienced in many other states According to historical records Wisconsin had the
fourth lowest numbers of deaths out of 25 reporting states (Burg 2000 Shors and McFadden 2009) 7 Appendix tables 7 and 8 provide evidence that our results are not driven solely by confounding between
exposure to the influenza pandemic and being young mothers
10
available including years of schooling occupational prestige and family socioeconomic status
in 19578
[insert table 1 here]
The primary focus of the WLS data collection is high school seniors in 1957 Wisconsin
the second generation of our study Given this focus on graduates (and their siblings) a large
number of economic and health variables are available in each wave of the WLS (irregular
intervals roughly 10-15 years apart 197577 19929394 2003-20052004-2007 and in 2011)
In addition to examining years of schooling several additional dependent variables in the second
generation intend to capture broad differences in economic and health well-being9 These include
income during the peak earning years (ie family income collected when graduates are 53 years
of age on average) net worth at initial retirement age (ie net worth collected when graduates
are 65 years of age on average) and general indicators of health measured by body mass index
and a count of doctor diagnosed illnesses (both collected in the wave when graduates are age 53
on average) Finally the WLS data contains information that is collected from the second
generation about the third generation we focus on years of schooling as the main outcome of
interest
8 The index of socioeconomic status is a factor weighted score combining data on father and motherrsquos
years of schooling fatherrsquos occupational prestige and average parental income Replacing this measure
with average parental income (see appendix table 1) does not change the effect of the flu indicator Job
prestige measures for both mother and father are based on Duncanrsquos Socioeconomic Index which is a
measure of job prestige based on income education and surveyed perceptions of general social standing
for certain occupations (Duncan 1961) 9 We note that our three generations of individuals are drawn from three non-overlapping set of birth
years the mean birth year for generation 1 is ~1910 generation 2 is ~1940 generation 3 is ~1965 Thus
since we are performing the analysis separately by generation we are controlling for much of the time-
variation in the meaning of education We also perform analysis stratified by sex in Appendix Tables 10-
12 so that we can also control for the differential meaning of education in each generation
11
Empirical Methodology
Our empirical strategy follows that of Almond (2006) by examining harmful effects of being
exposed in utero on later life outcomes We then extend this analysis by estimating
multigenerational impacts on both the second and third generations In so doing the primary
estimating equation is given by the following form
119910119894119891119892 = 1205730 + 1205731(119884119874119861 = 191819)1198911 + 120632119931119943120783 + 120633119935119946119943119944 + 120576119894119891119892
Our primary focus is on the coefficient 1205731 which measures the effect of having a
parentgrandparent born in 1918-1919 on a number of outcomes for 119894 individuals in 119891 families
for generation 119892 Parent year of birth time trends and their square are denoted by 120632119931119943120783 120633119935119946119943119944
represents generation specific controls and 120576119894119891119892 is representative of a family clustered error
term
For the first generation we control for birth year and its square capturing age-specific
trends that are tied to our first-generation outcomes of interest (eg years of schooling) For the
analysis of second and third generations birth years and squares for both first generation parents
are included as controls along with generation-specific controls for sex age and birth order
Our estimation strategy follows an intent to treat design It is likely that the actual
incidence of flu differed by socioeconomic status and social standing (Mamelund 2018
Sydenstricker 1931) Our use of year-of-birth however avoids potential confounding by SES
because allmdashboth rich and poormdashare defined as treated if they are born in one of the two years
Although avoiding confounders associated with actual disease incidence this estimation strategy
will underestimate the true effect of flu exposure lowering the magnitude of our coefficient of
interest
12
Results
First Generation
Our initial analysis explores the direct effects of being born during the 1918 Influenza Epidemic
While health data are sparse for the WLS graduatersquos parents (first generation) a number of
economic outcomes are available especially during the initial sample year of 1957 Table 2
explores the relationship between these economic variables and an indicator for birth during
19181919 Columns (1)-(3) of table 2 show the relationship between a WLS graduatersquos father
being born during 19181919 and the fatherrsquos years of schooling the fatherrsquos occupational
prestige and the familyrsquos index of socioeconomic status in 1957 (ie when the first generation
members are approximately 40 years old) While statistically insignificant a negative association
is observed between years of schooling and being born in 1918 or 191910 This is carried over
into fatherrsquos job prestige in column (2) from which the indicator of in utero exposure to the 1918
flu is associated with an approximate 01 standard deviation decline in the index of occupational
prestige These effects culminate in column (3) which shows a statistically significant negative
effect of in utero exposure to the flu and later life economic well-being a 13 decline in the SES
index which corresponds to a decline of roughly 10 percent of a standard deviation The findings
of table 2 corroborate past studies that show in utero exposure to the 1918 flu led to poorer
economic outcomes later in life (Almond 2006)11
[insert table 2 here]
10 First generation years of schooling are reported by the second generation WLS graduates Measurement
error is likely which may result in the insignificant coefficients of table 2 11 Richter and Robling (2013 Table 12) find a similar effect for in utero female exposure to flu in the first
trimester
13
Mirroring the results for males in the first generation a negative but statistically
insignificant association is observed between an indicator of birth in 19181919 and schooling
for first generation females This association however becomes statistically significant at the 1
percent level for the index of family SES the coefficient being nearly identical to that of a
malersquos in utero exposure to the flu though it is unclear whether these effects flow from labor
market andor marriage market sources The findings of table 2 are extended in table 3 which
explores potential marriage market effects of early life exposure to the flu epidemic12
Column (1) of table 3 regresses the indicator for male in utero exposure on an identical
measure for spousersquos exposure Females who were born in 19181919 were 5 percentage points
more likely to marry men who were also born during the same period Furthermore as shown in
columns (2) and (3) these women were more likely to marry men with fewer years of school and
lower job prestige These effects are significant at the 1 percent level Similar effects are seen in
columns (4)-(6) for 19181919 born males who are 14 percentage points more likely to marry flu
exposed females (p=000) and marry females with 026 fewer years of schooling (p=0101)
Given the findings of table 3 however we cannot rule out that this is a marriage market effect13
[insert table 3 here]
Second Generation
Our hypothesis is that the direct effects observed in tables 2 and 3 extend into future generations
To address this hypothesis we regress a number of economic and health outcomes of the WLS
graduates and siblings the offspring of the first generation examined in tables 2 and 3 These
12 Mothers and fathers of WLS graduates are assumed to be married 13 Appendix table 2 repeats the estimation of table 3 while also controlling for an indicator of own-flu
exposure and own year of birth measures
14
estimations are performed in tables 4 and 5 Column (1) in both tables focus on an indicator for
either parent being born in 19181919 the primary regressor of column (2) is an indicator for
fatherrsquos (gen 1 males) in utero exposure to the 1918 flu column (3) considers motherrsquos (gen 1
females) exposure and column (4) includes separate indicators for both mother and fatherrsquos
exposure Controls included in all columns include fatherrsquos year of birth and its square motherrsquos
year of birth and its square an indicator for sex in the second generation a measure of birth
order in the second generation and second-generation year of birth and its square
Table 4 focuses on economic outcomes of the WLS graduates To reiterate our
hypothesis is that in utero exposure to the 1918 influenza pandemic has effects that persist for
multiple generations Table 2 shows the direct first generation effects while table 4 begins to
show the indirect effects that are transmitted to offspring Panel A regresses years of schooling in
the second generation on indicators of first generation exposure to the 1918 flu14 From column
(1) either parent being born in 19181919 is associated with a statistically significant decline of
021 years of schooling in the second generation This estimate is likely understated because the
sampling design of the WLS is a focus on high school seniors thus individuals with fewer than
twelve years of schooling are underrepresented in the data15 Columns (2)-(4) disambiguate this
effect into the maternal and paternal lines From which the effect of column (1) seems to be
driven by motherrsquos in utero exposure to the flu16
14 Appendix Table 6 includes a number of alternative measures for years of schooling in place of the
simple count used in Table 4 15 Table 3 includes selected siblings of the WLS graduates These siblings do not have to be high school
graduates 16 This finding differs from that of Richter and Robling (2013) who find maternal exposure tied to
daughter outcomes and paternal exposure tied to son outcomes
15
The findings of Panel A are extended into Panel B which replaces years of schooling as
the dependent variable with the natural log of family income for the 1992 wave a time when the
second generation respondents are 53 years of age on average and represents a time of peak
earning in the life course As with years of schooling a negative association is seen throughout
the specifications of Panel B Having either parent born in 19181919 is associated with a 22
percent decline in family income Once again this effect seems to be driven by motherrsquos not
fatherrsquos exposure Panel C replaces income with a measure of net worth for the 2004 wave This
measure of net worth is when the second generation respondents are on average 65 years of age
and is representative of earnings throughout the life course The dual indicator of column (1) is
negative but statistically insignificant at conventional levels (p=023) When looking at the effect
of mother exposure in column (3) however the effect becomes statistically significant at the
10 level (p=0069) implying those with mothers born during 19181919 have approximately
$36000 less in net worth by 2004
Following the broader health focus of the Barker hypothesis the economic effects of
table 4 are replaced with health measures in table 5 We consider three broad measures of
general health and well-being later in life self-reported health in later life (~53 years old)
height and BMI (again at ~53) The use of self-reported health is intended to capture general
well-being later in life (Fortin et al 2017) this is tested in Panel A of table 5 Mazumder et al
(2010) provide evidence that in utero exposure to the 1918 flu is associated with a reduction in
height and an increase cardiovascular disease so it is possible that these negative health
outcomes could be transmitted to offspring this is tested in Panel B of table 517 And given
17 Appendix Table 14 tests indicators for a number self-reported health conditions As shown a weak
positive association is shown between gen 1 female flu exposure and an indicator of cardiovascular
16
prior work linking early life exposure to the Dutch famine to BMI (Roseboom et al 2000) and
metabolic function (Lumey et al 2009) in adulthood as well as the fact that both the Dutch
famine and the 1918 flu impacted maternal stress and nutritional status18 we examine BMI as
another broad indicator of health for the second generation this is tested in Panel C of table 5 A
consistent pattern emerges across all panels Like SES outcomes in table 4 gen 1 female
exposure to the flu is shown to have negative statistically significant association with all health
outcomes in the second generation
From Panel A parentalmdashor gen 1mdashflu exposure reduces self-reported health by roughly
half a point (plt005) on a Likert scale from 1-5 1 being very poor health and 5 being excellent
health As shown and like prior estimates this effect is driven by gen 1 female exposure For
adult height gen 1 female exposure is associated with a reduction of about 02 inches (plt010)
which is larger than the direct effect documented by Mazumder et al of 005 inches however
Mazumder et alrsquos estimated effect falls within the 95 confidence interval of our estimated
coefficient Panel C considers the effect on second generation BMI From column (1) having
either parent being born in 19181919 is associated with a statistically significant increase in the
offspringrsquos BMI of 041 points As with the economic effects of table 4 this increase in BMI
appears to be driven by motherrsquos exposure This is seen in columns (2)-(4) which estimate a
statistically significant positive coefficient for motherrsquos exposure but a coefficient that is
statistically indistinguishable from zero for fatherrsquos exposure
disease during the 199293 wave of the WLS (Appendix Table 15A) This association however reduced
in magnitude and statistical significance for later-life waves of the WLS (Appendix Table 15B and 15C) 18 The Dutch famine influenced maternal nutritional status directly through caloric restriction and the
1918 flu through symptoms such as appetite loss vomiting andor diarrhea
17
A persistent effect of in utero exposure to the 1918 Flu is seen in tables 4 and 5 First
generation exposure consistently has a statistically significant and economically meaningful
effect on second generation health and economic outcomes And this effect appears to be driven
solely by motherrsquos exposure although due to marriage market associations we cannot
determine definitively that motherrsquos exposure produces this multigenerational effect through
biological mechanisms
Appendix Tables 10A-11G re-estimate Tables 4 and 5 splitting the sample by generation
2rsquos sex In short the negative effects of first generation exposure appear to be more prominent
in second generation males such that the harmful multi-generational effects are most prominent
in second generation men whose mothers were exposed to the 1918 flu19 Potential reasons for
this sex disparity could be tied to general trends in the differences between sons and daughters in
intergenerational mobility (Chadwick and Solon 2002) In other words sons are more likely to
inherit their families SES standing than daughters This implies that the negative gen 1 shock
from in utero exposure is more likely to affect sons through the proposed SES channel than
daughters resulting in a larger estimated effect for gen 2 males Furthermore there appears to
be a growing gap between in the intergenerational elastiticy between sons and daughters during
the time period in question (Olivetti and Paserman 2015) Another potential reason for the sex
difference could be the larger standard deviation in gen 2 male outcomes this is shown in
Appendix Table 9 Finally the findings of Appendix Tables 10A-11G differ from Richter and
Robling (2013) who show homogeneous sex effects from in utero flu exposure for education
19 When omitting those with no family income during the 1992 wave of the WLS negative effects from
gen 1 female flu exposure are primarily seen in second generation males This indicates however that
there is a greater frequency of no income amongst second generation females from gen 1 flu exposure
Additionally when looking at net worth in the 2011 wave of the WLS we see no difference by gen 2rsquos
sex
18
gen 1 female exposure led to reduction in gen 2 female education and gen 1 male exposure is
associated with gen 2 male education Given this disparity between the two studies our under-
representation for gen 1 male exposure and the mixed findings in Tables 10A-11G we view our
general finding of gen 1 female exposure working through gen 2 male outcomes as preliminary
and suggestive Indeed as we test in Appendix Tables 12A-12G the sex differences in gen 2 are
often not statistically significant
Third Generation
As mentioned previously the focus of the WLS data collection is high school graduates in 1957
but additional samples have been collected for a number of variables on the children of these
graduates Table 6 explores the effects of the WLS parents on the years of schooling for WLS
children estimating the effect of flu exposure across three generations20
Consistent with the second-generation estimations a persistent effect of the in utero flu
exposure is observed and this effect seems to be driven by grandmother exposure (gen 1
female) The joint indicator for either parent is negative and close to statistical significance at
the 10 percent level (p=0106) suggesting that exposure in the first generation is associated with
012 years of schooling less in the third generation The effect of grandfather exposure is
insignificantly different from zero while the coefficient of grandmother exposure is similar in
magnitude to the joint estimate of column (1) while being statistically significant at the 10
level (p=0066) Furthermore the decline in schooling seen in the third generation is similar but
slightly smaller in magnitude compared to the second generation effects seen in Panel A of table
20Analysis of the WLS gradsibling children (ie the third generation) restricts the sample to those
children that are biological children and that are 35 years of age and older by the 20032004 wave of the
WLS
19
421 This again indicates a persistent effect that may be attenuating over time Importantly while
the estimate for grandfather exposure is insignificant it is consistent with intergenerational
inheritance (Kuzawa and Eisenberg 2014) To say the same for grandmother exposure would
require effects to persist into the fourth generation (due to the differences in gametic
development) and this data is not available in the WLS
Conclusion
This paper presents novel evidence of multigenerational effects of in utero health insults We
use the sudden and unexpected influenza pandemic in 19181919 to trace out the effects of in
utero exposure to infectious disease on own outcomes for the first generation childrenrsquos
outcomes and grandchildrenrsquos outcomes We find that this exposure reduces educational
attainment and related economic outcomes across three generations For example individuals in
our second generation the WLS graduates and their siblings who have mothers who were
exposed to the 1918 flu in utero complete 15 fewer years of schooling (or 24 months less
schooling) The size of our estimated effect aligns well with those of Richter and Robling (2013)
who find that first generation in utero exposure to the 1918 flu results in 16 fewer years of
schooling (or 2 months to 25 months less schooling) for the maternal line We then extend
results to the third generation for the first time in the literature and find that individuals in the
third generation who have grandmothers who were exposed to the pandemic in utero complete
17 fewer years of schooling (or 17 months less schooling) than individuals without affected
grandmothers
21 For gen 1 female exposure in column (4) the p-value for a difference in coefficients between Panel A
of Table 4 and Table 6 is 0411 implying the effect in the third generation is statistically indistinguishable
from that in the second generation
20
There are at several potential mechanisms for the persistence of poor outcomes across
three generations we find in our data As previously outlined the intergenerational persistence in
poor outcomes due to early life health shocks could occur through socioeconomic channels
where a fetally insulted person with resulting low educational attainment raises a child in a low-
resource environment that reduces opportunities for high educational attainment of the child In
order to see multigenerational effects the reduced opportunities for high educational attainment
of the child must then reduce opportunities for their own children Alternatively
intergenerational transmission may occur through epigenetic inheritance through the germ line a
distinct possibility based on findings of the Oumlverkalix studies or phenotype-to-phenotype
transmission and cumulative intergenerational phenotypic change
Our analysis is unable to fully distinguish between these proposed intergenerational
channels the socioeconomic and biological but it is important to note that the channels are by no
means mutually exclusive Further analysis (appendix tables 3-5) that is intended to partially
account for the socioeconomic mechanism leads to mixed results in which the coefficient of first
generation flu exposure is attenuated to insignificance for some outcomes but not others This
provides evidence for a socioeconomic channel but does not eliminate the possibility of
epigenetic mechanisms or other biological channel through which socioeconomic status ldquogets
under the skinrdquo to influence outcomes of subsequent generations (eg the socioeconomic
circumstances of one generation may ldquoget under the skinrdquo of the next and subsequently be passed
via biology andor socioeconomics to other generations) Likewise the estimates of grandfather
effects on grandchildren are imprecise but consistent with transgenerational inheritance (Kuzawa
and Eisenberg 2014) Additionally while the WLS provides a unique framework to analyze
multiple generations the measurement of flu exposure is somewhat crude (from self-reported
21
parentsrsquo year of birth) and is in the right-tail of the distribution of parent birth years suggesting
the possibility of confounding from resource-poor younger mothers22 That is exposure to
influenza in the first generation is mechanically tied to motherrsquos ages of 20 and 21 because the
WLS sample is drawn based on having a child who was born in 1939 (and thus graduating high
school in 1957) While we cannot definitively separate these two effects our ability to compare
outcomes of slightly older mothers (ages 22 and 23 born in 1917 or 1916) provide evidence
more consistent with in utero exposure to influenza than impacts of having a mother who is
2021 years old
From a policy perspective our evidence may suggest a novel source of multigenerational
persistence in poverty through biosocial factors and suggest a need to consider evidence of
transgenerational social andor biological mechanisms We document the extent to which
harmful early life environments cascade through generations promoting a disadvantaged start for
those whose grandparents exposed to a hazardous early life environment
22 We specifically explore the confounding effects of younger mothers in appendix tables 7 and 8 These
tables show that younger mothers are indeed initially disadvantaged (ie less years of schooling)
however this young-mother disadvantage does not persist in subsequent generations Rather only those
mothers born in the 1918-1919 range have significant negative effects on later generations
22
References
Almond Doug 2006 Is the 1918 Influenza pandemic over Long‐term effects of in utero Influenza exposure in the post‐1940 US population Journal of Political Economy 114(4) 672-712
Almond Doug and Bhashkar Mazumder 2005 The 1918 Influenza Pandemic and Subsequent Health Outcomes An Analysis of SIPP Data American Economic Review 95(2) 258-262
Barker David James P 2007 The origins of the developmental origins theory Journal of Internal Medicine 261(5) 412-417
Benyshek Daniel C (2013) The ldquoearly liferdquo origins of obesity‐related health disorders New discoveries regarding the intergenerational transmission of developmentally programmed traits in the global cardiometabolic health crisis American Journal of Physical Anthropology 152(S57) 79-93
Brown Alan S and Elena J Derkits 2010 Prenatal infection and schizophrenia a review of epidemiologic and translational studies American Journal of Psychiatry 167(3) 261-280
Burg Steven 2000 Wisconsin and the Great Spanish Flu Epidemic of 1918rdquo Wisconsin Magazine of History 84(1) 36-56
Bygren LarsOlov Gunnar Kaati and Soumlren Edvinsson 2001 Longevity determined by paternal ancestors nutrition during their slow growth period Acta biotheoretica 49(1) 53-59
Canetta Sarah E and Alan S Brown 2012 Prenatal infection maternal immune activation and risk for schizophrenia Translational Neuroscience 3(4) 320-327
Chadwick L and Solon G (2002) Intergenerational income mobility among daughters American Economic Review 92(1) 335-344
Cohen Alan A John Tillinghast and Vladimir Canudas-Romo 2010 No consistent effects of prenatal or neonatal exposure to Spanish flu on late-life mortality in 24 developed countries Demographic Research 22(20) 579
Fatemi S Hossein Julie Earle Reena Kanodia David Kist Effat S Emamian Paul H Patterson Limin Shi and Robert Sidwell 2002 Prenatal viral infection leads to pyramidal cell atrophy and macrocephaly in adulthood implications for genesis of autism and schizophrenia Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology 22(1) 25-33
Fletcher Jason 2014 Examining the Long Term Mortality Effects of Early Health Shocks US Census Bureau Center for Economic Studies Paper No CES-WP-14-19
Kaati Gunnar Lars O Bygren and Soren Edvinsson 2002 Cardiovascular and diabetes mortality determined by nutrition during parents and grandparents slow growth period European Journal of Human Genetics EJHG 10(11) 682
Kash John C Terrence M Tumpey Sean C Proll Victoria Carter Olivia Perwitasari Matthew J Thomas Christopher F Basler et al 2006 Genomic analysis of increased host immune and cell death responses induced by 1918 influenza virus Nature 443(7111) 578-581
Kobasa Darwyn Steven M Jones Kyoko Shinya John C Kash John Copps Hideki Ebihara Yasuko Hatta et al 2007 Aberrant innate immune response in lethal infection of macaques with the 1918 influenza virus Nature 445 (7125) 319-323
Kuzawa Christopher W and Dan T Eisenberg 2014 The Long Reach of History Intergenerational and Transgenerational Pathwaysto Plasticity in Human Longevity Sociality Hierarchy Health Comparative Biodemography Papers from a Workshop National Academies Press
Li Wai-Yu Yi-Chun Chang L Jyuhn-Hsiarn Lee and Li-Jen Lee 2014 Prenatal infection affects the neuronal architecture and cognitive function in adult mice Developmental Neuroscience 36(5) 359-370
23
Lin Ming-Jen and Elaine M Liu 2014 Does in utero exposure to illness matter The 1918 influenza epidemic in Taiwan as a natural experiment Journal of Health Economics 37 152-163
Lindeboom Maarten France Portrait and Gerard J Van den Berg 2010 Long-run effects on longevity of a nutritional shock early in life the Dutch Potato famine of 1846ndash1847 Journal of Health Economics 29(5) 617-629
Mamelund SE (2018) 1918 pandemic mobidity The first wave hits the poor the second wave hits the rich Influenza and Other Respitory Viruses 12(3) 307-313
Mazumder Bhashkar Douglas Almond Kyung Park Eileen M Crimmins and Caleb E Finch 2010 Lingering prenatal effects of the 1918 influenza pandemic on cardiovascular disease Journal of developmental origins of health and disease 1(1) 26-34
Miller Veronica Y Zhu C Bucher W McGinnis L Ryan A Siegel and S Zalcman 2013 Gestational flu exposure induces changes in neurochemicals affiliative hormones and brainstem inflammation in addition to autism-like behaviors in mice Brain Behavior and Immunity 33 153-163
Myrskylauml Mikko Neil K Mehta and Virginia W Chang 2013 Early life exposure to the 1918 influenza pandemic and old-age mortality by cause of death American Journal of Public Health 103(7) e83-e90
Olivetti C and Paserman MD (2015) In the name of the son (and the daughter) Intergenerational mobility in the United States 1850-1940 American Economic Review 105(8) 2695-2724
Pembrey Marcus E Lars Olov Bygren Gunnar Kaati Soumlren Edvinsson Kate Northstone Michael Sjoumlstroumlm and Jean Golding 2006 Sex-specific male-line transgenerational responses in humans European Journal of Human Genetics 14(2) 159-166
Richter Andreacute and Per Olof Robling 2013 Multigenerational effects of the 1918-19 influenza pandemic in Sweden Swedish Institute for Social Research 5
Shors Teri and Susan H McFadden 2009 1918 Influenza A Winnebago County Wisconsin Perspective Clinical Medicine amp Research 7(4) 147-156
Sydenstricker E (1931) The incidence of influenza among persons of different economic status during the epidemic of 1918 Public Health Reports 46(4) 154-170
van den Berg Gerard J and Pia R Pinger 2013 A validation study of transgenerational effects of childhood conditions on the third generation offsprings economic and health outcomes potentially driven by epigenetic imprinting IZA Discussion Paper
Tables and Figures
Table 1 Summary Statistics
Variable N Mean Std Deviation
First GenerartionFlu Indicators
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 8368 0112 0315Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 8456 0030 0170Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 8487 0093 0290
ControlsFirst Generation Malersquos Year of Birth 8456 1907435 7021First Generation Femalersquos Year of Birth 8427 1911189 6164
Dependent VariablesFirst Generation Malersquos Years of Schooling 8456 9778 3392First Generation Femalersquos Years of Schooing 8487 10499 2804First Generation Malersquos Job Prestige 8385 330662 214361First Generation Femalersquos Job Prestige 6683 12814 19934Family SES 8487 16231 11143
Second GenerationControls
Female Indicator 12459 0530 0499Birth Year 12459 1939406 4289Birth Order 12459 2529 1828
Dependent VariablesYears of Schooling 12459 13678 2361Family Income 1992 (in $1000s) 12112 68027 177105Net Worth 2004 (in $1000s) 10498 913046 2558927Self-reported health 1992 9888 4149 0668Height (inches) 9783 67406 3851BMI 1992 9671 26742 4657
Third GenerationControls
Birth Year 19913 1963901 3636Female Indicator 19913 0497 0500Birth Order 19913 2196 1263
Dependent VariableYears of Schooling 19913 14294 2309
Summary amp Notes This table provides summary statistics for all variables used The samples above may not berepresentative for all estimations For example the inclusion of siblings in the second generation increase the sample of parentalyear of birth and the corresponding flu indicator This increase in sample does not significantly change the sample statisticsabove Similar sample changes occur for the second generation controls above For the third generation the sample is restrictedto biological children over 35 years of age
24
Tab
le2
Fir
stG
ener
atio
n
Eco
nom
icE
ffec
ts
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
am
ily
SE
SY
ears
of
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
am
ily
SE
S(1
)(2
)(3
)(4
)(5
)(6
)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale)
-01
39
-01
16lowast
-12
90lowast
lowast
(02
00)
(00
60)
(05
99)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emal
e)-0
133
-00
66
-13
61lowastlowast
lowast
(00
95)
(00
43)
(03
76)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
YY
YY
YY
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8456
8385
8456
8487
6683
8487
RS
qr
00
32
00
08
00
23
00
13
00
04
00
13
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
pro
vid
esd
irec
teff
ects
of
inu
tero
an
dea
rly
life
exp
osu
reto
the
1918
Flu
Ep
idem
ic
Bir
thye
ar
tim
etr
end
sin
lcu
de
yea
rof
bir
than
dit
ssq
uar
ean
din
clu
sion
inth
ees
tim
atio
nis
par
ent
spec
ific
All
esti
mati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
an
dard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
alsi
gnifi
can
ceis
den
oted
by
an
d
re
pre
senti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vel
y
25
Tab
le3
Fir
stG
ener
atio
n
Mar
riag
eM
arke
tE
ffec
ts
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Flu
Bir
thY
ear
Yea
rsof
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
luB
irth
Yea
rY
ears
of
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
e(1
)(2
)(3
)(4
)(5
)(6
)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale)
01
40lowast
lowastlowast-0
259
-00
39
(00
34)
(01
58)
(00
72)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emal
e)0
056lowast
lowastlowast-0
340lowast
lowastlowast-0
118lowastlowast
lowast
(00
14)
(01
17)
(00
36)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
YY
YY
YY
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8348
8487
8412
8348
8456
6660
RS
qr
00
90
00
11
00
08
01
20
00
21
00
01
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
pro
vid
esev
iden
ceof
marr
iage
mark
etse
lect
ion
inth
efi
rst
gen
erati
on
B
irth
year
tim
etr
end
sin
clu
de
year
of
bir
than
dit
ssq
uare
and
incl
usi
onin
the
esti
mat
ion
isp
aren
tsp
ecifi
cA
lles
tim
ati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
an
dard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
sign
ifica
nce
isd
enot
edby
an
d
re
pre
senti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vely
26
Table 4 Second Generation Economic Effects
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Years of Schooling
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0209lowastlowastlowast
(0073)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0084 -0059(0129) (0129)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0211lowastlowastlowast -0209lowastlowastlowast
(0075) (0075)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0085 0084 0085 0085
Panel B ln Family Income 1992
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0221lowastlowast
(0111)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0098 -0066(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0262lowastlowast -0259lowastlowast
(0116) (0116)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112R Sqr 0021 0021 0021 0021
Panel C Std Net Worth 2004
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0026(0022)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0033 0038(0047) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0038lowast -0040lowast
(0021) (0021)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498R Sqr 0007 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table provides evidence of signficant harmful effects of flu exposure in the first generation on secondgeneration economic outcomes First generation time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents(ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and itssquare and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
27
Table 5 Second Generation Health Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Self-reported health (Likert 1=very poor 5=excellent)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0054lowastlowast
(0027)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0005(0047) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0061lowastlowast -0061lowastlowast
(0028) (0028)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Panel B Height (inches)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0101)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0102 0127(0168) (0168)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0169lowast -0175lowast
(0103) (0103)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783r2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Panel C BMI
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0412lowastlowast
(0191)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0082 0023(0344) (0346)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0422lowastlowast 0421lowastlowast
(0193) (0194)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table provides evidence of harmful effects of flu exposure in the first generation on secondgeneration health outcomes First generation time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents (iegen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and itssquare and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
28
Table 6 Generation Three Effects of Generation One Flu Exposure Years of Schooling
Dependent Variable Years of Schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0125(0077)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Male) -0007 0010(0136) (0136)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Female) -0144lowast -0144lowast
(0078) (0078)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913R Sqr 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table shows that the generational effects of flu exposure extend into the third generation of theWLS First generation flu exposure is shown to have a negative association with third generation years of schooling Firstgeneration time trends are year of birth measures for each parent and their square Second generation controls inlcude anindicator for sex second generation year of birth and its square and birth order Third generation controls include a sexindicator year of birth and its square and birth order Given the focus on years of schooling the sample is restricted to thosethird generation individuals 35 years of age and older or born during or before 1970 (data were collected in 2005) Allestimation is performed with OLS with family (second generation) clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
29
(a)
Fat
her
(b)
Moth
er
Fig
ure
1F
irst
Gen
erat
ion
Dis
trib
uti
onof
Yea
rof
Bir
th
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
figu
rep
lots
the
dis
trib
uti
on
for
firs
tgen
erati
on
year
of
bir
th
Flu
exp
osu
reis
class
ified
as
bei
ng
born
inei
ther
1918
or
1919
30
Appendix Tables
Appendix Table 1 First Generation Flu Exposure Effect on Family Income
Dependent Variable Family Income ($100s) 1957
(1) (2)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -3366(2592)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -5363lowastlowast
(2390)
Birth Year Time Trends Y YObservations 7440 7456R Sqr 0013 0004
Summary amp Notes This table replaces the index of socioeconomic status with family income (in $100s) in 1957 Allestimation is performed with OLS with robust standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
31
App
endix
Tab
le2
Mar
riag
eM
arke
tE
ffec
ts
Con
trol
ling
for
Ow
nY
ear
ofB
irth
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
Job
Pre
stig
eY
ears
of
Sch
Job
Pre
stig
e
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale
)-0
052
-211
82
-01
98
-03
74
(02
03)
(131
30)
(01
61)
(14
38)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emale
)-0
346lowast
lowastlowast-2
44
97lowastlowast
lowast-0
103
-13
88
(01
16)
(76
88)
(00
94)
(08
54)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
(Male
an
dF
emale
)Y
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8348
8279
8348
6587
RS
qr
00
40
00
22
00
25
00
04
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
re-e
stim
ates
Tab
le3
wh
ile
contr
oll
ing
for
year
of
bir
than
dfl
uin
dic
ato
rsass
oci
ate
dw
ith
the
spou
sein
the
dep
end
ent
vari
ab
le
All
esti
mat
ion
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
and
ard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
sign
ifica
nce
isd
enote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
atth
e10
5
and
1le
vel
sre
spec
tive
ly
32
Appendix Table 3 2nd Gen Economic Effects Controlling for 1st Gen Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Years of Schooling
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0088(0070)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0005 0008(0119) (0119)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0116 -0117(0072) (0072)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0206 0206 0206 0206
Panel B ln Family Income 1992
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0193lowast
(0111)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0080 -0050(0184) (0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0240lowastlowast -0238lowastlowast
(0116) (0116)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112R Sqr 0024 0024 0024 0024
Panel C Std Normal Net Worth 2004
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0003(0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0047 0049(0046) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0019 -0021(0020) (0020)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498R Sqr 0033 0033 0033 0033
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 4 while controlling for generation one economic outcomes fatherrsquos years ofschooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 First generation time trends are given by year of birth and itssquare for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex secondgeneration year of birth and its square and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standarderrors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and1 levels respectively 33
Appendix Table 4 2nd Gen Health Effects Controlling for 1st Gen Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A BMI
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0352lowast
(0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0051 -0001(0342) (0344)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0372lowast 0372lowast
(0192) (0193)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671R Sqr 0035 0035 0035 0035
Panel B Count of Illnesses
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0122lowast
(0065)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0076 -0096(0102) (0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0139lowastlowast 0144lowastlowast
(0067) (0068)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9921 9921 9921 9921R Sqr 0046 0046 0046 0046
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 5 while controlling for generation one economic outcomes fatherrsquos years ofschooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 First generation time trends are given by year of birth and itssquare for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex secondgeneration year of birth and its square and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standarderrors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and1 levels respectively
34
Appendix Table 5 Generation threersquos years of schooling Controlling for previous generation economicwell-being
Dependent Variable Years of Schooling for Gen 3(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A First Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0069(0076)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0022 0034(0133) (0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0102 -0104(0077) (0078)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913R Sqr 0117 0117 0117 0117
Panel B Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0025(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0008 0013(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0038 -0039(0073) (0073)
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0190 0190 0190 0190
Panel C First and Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0008(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0016 0019(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0028 -0029(0073) (0073)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0196 0196 0196 0196
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 6 while controlling for generation one and tworsquos economic outcomes Forgeneration one these include fatherrsquos years of schooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 generation twocontrols include the WLS graduatesiblingrsquos years of schooling family income in 1992 and net worth in 2004 First generationtime trends are year of birth measures for each parent and their square Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sexsecond generation year of birth and its square and birth order Third generation controls include a sex indicator year of birthand its square and birth order Given the focus on years of schooling the sample is restricted to those third generationindividuals 35 years of age and older or born during or before 1970 (data were collected in 2005) All estimation is performedwith OLS with family (second generation) clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denotedby and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
35
Appendix Table 6 Alternative measures of schooling in the second generation
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Indicator for any college (years of schooling gt12)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0044lowastlowastlowast
(0017)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0011 -0006(0029) (0029)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0044lowastlowast -0043lowastlowast
(0017) (0017)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0071 0070 0071 0071
Panel B Indicator for incomplete college (years of schooling gt12 amp lt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0008(0013)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 -0001(0022) (0022)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0008 -0008(0013) (0013)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0005 0005 0005 0005
Panel C Indicator for college graduate (years of schooling = 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0022lowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0003 0006(0020) (0020)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0021lowast -0021lowastlowast
(0011) (0011)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0019 0019 0019 0019
Panel D Indicator for post-college education (years of schooling gt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0014(0010)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0011(0018) (0018)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0014 -0014(0010) (0010)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0039 0039 0039 0039
Summary amp Notes This table replaces our continuous measure of years of schooling with specified dummy variables Firstgeneration time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Secondgeneration controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and its square and birth order All estimationis performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
36
Appendix Table 7 Young mothers Direct effect on Gen 1 Females
Dependent Variable Years of Sch Job Prestige Family SES
(1) (2) (3)
Ind for First Gen Female Flu Exposure (1918-1919) -0325lowastlowast -0841 -1749lowastlowastlowast
(0137) (1015) (0584)
Ind for mother born during 1920-1921 -0567lowastlowastlowast 0745 -1157(0206) (1515) (0914)
Ind for mother born during 1922-1923 -0666lowastlowast 0098 -2113(0330) (2210) (1298)
Ind for mother born after 1924 -0392 5682 0384(0486) (3705) (2126)
Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y
Observations 8487 6683 8487R Sqr 0014 0005 0014
Summary amp Notes This table includes indicators for alternative years of birth Younger mothers are shown to have lessyears of schooling All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
37
App
endix
Tab
le8
You
ng
mot
her
sG
ener
atio
n2
and
3eff
ects
Gen
2
Gen
3
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
ln
Fam
In
c
1992
Std
N
W
2004
Sel
f-re
p
hea
lth
Hei
ght
BM
IY
ears
of
Sch
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
emal
eF
luE
xp
osu
re(1
918-
1919
)-0
201lowastlowast
-02
95lowastlowast
-00
45
-00
73lowastlowast
-00
90
02
07
-00
86(0
092)
(01
32)
(00
32)
(00
32)
(01
22)
(02
25)
(00
94)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
20-1
921
-00
22
-00
40
-00
10
-00
61
01
33
-04
10
01
13
(01
37)
(01
74)
(00
51)
(00
43)
(01
80)
(03
11)
(01
41)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
22-1
923
-00
96
-01
88
-00
57
00
20
04
61
-11
29lowastlowast
01
55(0
184)
(03
20)
(00
61)
(00
75)
(02
83)
(04
51)
(02
23)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
afte
r19
2404
58
-01
87
00
01
-00
27
03
12
-08
85
03
99
(03
06)
(03
94)
(00
87)
(01
27)
(04
94)
(10
70)
(03
21)
Bas
eC
ontr
ols
YY
YY
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
12459
12112
10498
9888
9783
9671
19913
RS
qr
00
85
00
21
00
08
00
09
05
86
00
29
00
79
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
incl
ud
esin
dic
ator
sfo
ralt
ernati
ve
years
of
bir
th
Bei
ng
born
toa
you
nger
moth
ergen
erall
yis
not
ass
oci
ate
dw
ith
gen
erati
on
2or
3rsquos
outc
omes
ofin
tere
st
inst
ead
n
egat
ive
effec
tsar
eon
lyob
serv
edfo
rth
ose
born
du
rin
gth
efl
u
All
esti
mati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hfa
mil
y(2
nd
gen
erat
ion
)cl
ust
ered
stan
dar
der
rors
rep
orte
din
par
enth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
signifi
can
ceis
den
ote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vel
y
38
Appendix Table 9 Summary Statistics by Gen 2 Sex
Variable N Mean Std Deviation
FemaleYears of Schooling 6607 13352 2088ln Family Income (1992 wave) 6411 9424 3577
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5654 10686 1010Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 5612 -0047 0539Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 5313 4164 0670Height (inches) 5231 646635 247936BMI 5124 26073 5114
Gen 3Years of Schooling 11947 14240 2291
MaleYears of Schooling 5852 14047 2587ln Family Income (1992 wave) 5701 10139 3030
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5264 10981 0836Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 4886 0059 1159Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 4575 4133 0665Height (inches) 4554 7055484 25596BMI 4547 27496 3948
Gen 3Years of Schooling 8046 14371 2332
Appendix Table 10A Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0090(0086)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0198 0214(0169) (0169)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104 -0114(0087) (0087)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6607 6607 6607 6607R Sqr 0075 0075 0075 0075
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
39
Appendix Table 10B Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0523lowastlowastlowast
(0170)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0483 -0410(0321) (0323)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0512lowastlowastlowast -0491lowastlowastlowast
(0179) (0180)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6411 6411 6411 6411R Sqr 0015 0013 0014 0015
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10C Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0007(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0078lowast 0078(0048) (0048)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0008 0005(0025) (0025)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5612 5612 5612 5612R Sqr 0007 0007 0007 0007
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
40
Appendix Table 10D Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0027(0036)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 -0001(0071) (0071)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0022 -0022(0037) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5313 5313 5313 5313r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10E Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -2382(13366)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 44280lowastlowast 46351lowastlowast
(22343) (22480)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -12253 -14428(13485) (13561)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5231 5231 5231 5231r2 0015 0016 0015 0016
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
41
Appendix Table 10F Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0353(0286)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0105 0060(0514) (0516)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0326 0323(0289) (0290)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5124 5124 5124 5124R Sqr 0010 0010 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0087(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0104 -0101(0190) (0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0042 -0039(0098) (0098)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 11906 11906 11906 11906R Sqr 0086 0086 0086 0086
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
42
Appendix Table 11A Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0322lowastlowastlowast
(0116)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0369lowastlowast -0338lowast
(0181) (0180)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0309lowastlowastlowast -0297lowastlowast
(0119) (0119)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5852 5852 5852 5852R Sqr 0060 0059 0060 0060
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11B RResults by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0116(0138)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0262 0261(0200) (0199)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0024 0014(0141) (0140)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5701 5701 5701 5701R Sqr 0009 0009 0008 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
43
Appendix Table 11C Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0038)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0001(0081) (0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0094lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0035)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4886 4886 4886 4886R Sqr 0004 0004 0004 0004
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
44
Appendix Table 11D Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0083lowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 0012(0062) (0062)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104lowastlowastlowast -0105lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0041)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4575 4575 4575 4575r2 0010 0009 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11E Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -15122(14275)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -22991 -20537(23287) (23176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -18595 -17540(14734) (14751)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4554 4554 4554 4554r2 0011 0011 0011 0011
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
45
Appendix Table 11F Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0465lowast
(0238)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0079 0006(0403) (0405)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0520lowastlowast 0520lowastlowast
(0245) (0246)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4547 4547 4547 4547R Sqr 0006 0005 0006 0006
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0177(0123)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0098 0144(0194) (0192)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0293lowastlowast -0302lowastlowast
(0125) (0126)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8007 8007 8007 8007R Sqr 0067 0067 0068 0068
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
46
Appendix Table 12A Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0253lowastlowast
(0107)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0252 -0226(0170) (0172)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0263lowastlowast -0242lowastlowast
(0113) (0115)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0084(0120)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0341 0339(0216) (0219)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0096 0056(0130) (0132)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459r2 0085 0085 0085 0085
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
47
Appendix Table 12B Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0128)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0196 0169(0190) (0189)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0081 -0104(0135) (0135)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0383lowastlowast
(0189)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0594lowast -0474(0349) (0355)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0339lowast -0283(0204) (0207)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112r2 0021 0021 0021 0021
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
48
Appendix Table 12C Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0034)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0019(0077) (0079)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0095lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0030) (0031)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0071lowast
(0038)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0072 0039(0087) (0089)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0104lowastlowastlowast 0100lowastlowastlowast
(0035) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498r2 0008 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
49
Appendix Table 12D Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0071lowast
(0036)[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0012 0031
(0058) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0093lowastlowast -0097lowastlowast
(0039) (0039)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0030(0045)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0031 -0051(0087) (0088)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0059 0065(0048) (0049)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
50
Appendix Table 12E Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0129 -0125(0223) (0224)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0152 -0129(0141) (0142)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0000(0158)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0454 0495lowast
(0279) (0287)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0031 -0090(0170) (0175)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783nr2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
51
Appendix Table 12F Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0376(0231)
[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0059 -0122(0402) (0407)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0441lowast 0457lowast
(0240) (0243)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0068(0316)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0282 0288(0573) (0589)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0035 -0069(0340) (0350)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
52
Appendix Table 12G Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0131(0114)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male 0114 0175(0185) (0188)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0237lowastlowast -0261lowastlowast
(0118) (0121)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0009(0133)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0225 -0292(0249) (0254)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0152 0189(0141) (0145)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913r2 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
53
Appendix Table 13 Family Income 1992 excluding non-earners (ie fam inc = 0)
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992 wave (excluding those reporting 0)(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0095lowastlowastlowast
(0033)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0031 -0019(0053) (0053)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0101lowastlowastlowast -0100lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0034)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10918 10918 10918 10918r2 0050 0049 0050 0050
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0084lowast
(0050)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0019 -0007(0089) (0090)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0083 -0083(0053) (0054)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5654 5654 5654 5654r2 0026 0026 0026 0026
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102lowastlowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0051 -0040(0060) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0113lowastlowastlowast -0112lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0040)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5264 5264 5264 5264r2 0029 0028 0029 0029
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel B in Table 4 excluding those who report $0 for familyincome All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
54
Appendix Table 14 Net Worth 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable Std Net Worth 2011 Wave of WLS(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0032lowastlowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0023lowast -0021lowast
(0012) (0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0032lowastlowastlowast -0031lowastlowastlowast
(0010) (0010)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9435 9435 9435 9435r2 0002 0002 0002 0002
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0012lowast
(0006)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0009 -0008(0009) (0009)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0012lowastlowast -0011lowastlowast
(0006) (0006)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5026 5026 5026 5026r2 0007 0006 0007 0007
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0057lowastlowast
(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0040lowast -0036lowast
(0023) (0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0057lowastlowast -0056lowastlowast
(0023) (0022)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4409 4409 4409 4409r2 0001 0001 0001 0001
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel C in Table 4 replacing the net worth measure from the 2004wave with an identical measure from the 2011 wave of the WLS All estimation is performed with OLS with family clusteredstandard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 105 and 1 levels respectively
55
Appendix Table 15A Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 1992 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0243(0152)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0107 0039(0252) (0255)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0285lowast 0282lowast
(0158) (0160)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9849 9849 9849 9849
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0007(0091)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0210 -0216(0170) (0173)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0007 0024(0095) (0097)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9858 9858 9858 9858
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0255(0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0107 -0169(0328) (0338)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0237 0252(0193) (0198)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9845 9845 9845 9845
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
56
Appendix Table 15B Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2004 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0018(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0190 0207(0160) (0162)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0066 -0083(0102) (0104)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10672 10672 10672 10672
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0096 0108(0124) (0125)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0051 -0059(0076) (0077)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10619 10619 10619 10619
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0108(0110)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0064 0027(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0181 0179(0113) (0113)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10617 10617 10617 10617
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
57
Appendix Table 15C Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0099(0092)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0244 0242(0154) (0155)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0033 0016(0099) (0100)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0021(0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0095 0097(0138) (0139)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0004 -0011(0085) (0086)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0134(0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0203 0181(0175) (0176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0140 0127(0107) (0107)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8709 8709 8709 8709
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
58
- text 10818
- tables 10-8-18
-
6
generation paternal exposure and male outcomes that is first generation exposure in the second
trimester lowers educational attainment for male children by 24 to 3 months or by 18-22
percent but paternal exposure showed no such effect for females Taken together first
generation exposure to the 1918 flu while in utero results in 2 to 3 months less schooling for the
second generation
Several pathways exist for the intergenerational transmission of early life health shocks
Through socioeconomic channels intergenerational persistence in poor outcomes could occur
when a fetally insulted parent marred by poorer health and socioeconomic outcomes raises a
child in a low-resource environment Biologically phenotype-to-phenotype transmission and
epigenetic inheritance are hypothesized to be key mechanisms for intergenerational transmission
(Kuzawa and Eisenberg 2014) In cases of in utero or very early life shocks phenotype-to-
phenotype transmission impacts the outcomes of the next generation through changes in parental
biological systems that lead to altered gestational andor lactation environments for offspring
(eg pre-pregnancy hypertension is linked to low birthweight) Importantly socioeconomic and
biological channels are not mutually exclusive and can also interact with one another that is the
effects of adult phenotype on offspring extend beyond physiology and metabolism to include
parental behaviorenvironmental response as a potential source of phenotypic transmission and
potentially even cumulative intergenerational phenotypic change (Benyshek 2013) For example
stress experienced by a mother prenatally may alter stress regulation in offspring which may in
turn increase risk for the same adult phenotype in the offspring as well as in subsequent
generations Epigenetic inheritance in comparison occurs when parental experiences alter gene
expression that is subsequently transmitted to offspring and future generations through the germ
line Here again there is an opportunity for socioeconomic circumstances to interact with
7
biologymdasheg where poverty through the experience of stress alters gene expression for
generations Our analysis of second generation outcomes will explore some of these channels
but not attempt to prioritize one over another
Work extending effects of in utero exposure to the 1918 flu to the third generation (the
grandchildren of those originally exposed in utero) in humans to the best of the authorsrsquo
knowledge does not exist The strongest evidence for a potential biological channel across
multiple generations comes from studies of historical data from Oumlverkalix region in Northern
Sweden that exploit variance in first generation grandparental food supply during childhood
Bygren Kaati et al (2001) for example find that an excess of food during the period just before
adolescence a time labeled the ldquoslow growth periodrdquo (SGP) shortens the grandsonrsquos longevity
A later study using the Oumlverkalix data replicates the results of Bygren Kaati et al (2001) in a
second cohort and further extends the results to include an association between first generation
paternal grandmotherrsquos food supply and granddaughterrsquos mortality risk (Pembrey Bygren et al
2006)4
Our work builds off of this evidence to conduct novel examinations of multigenerational
effects of in utero exposures in human populations The current research leverages a unique
survey to measure the multigenerational impacts of in utero exposure to the 1918 flu pandemic
Our hypothesis is that the previously documented direct effects of such shocks extend into the
outcomes of the second generation Going further we also estimate whether these effects
4 Van den Berg and Pinger (2014) externally validated the potential for transmission across three
generations by analyzing the impact of the German famine of 1916-1918 on the mental health outcomes
(an index from survey questions accounting for rsquogeneral mental healthrsquo rsquoemotional functioningrsquo rsquosocial
functioningrsquo and rsquovitalityrsquo) of the children and grandchildren of those exposed to the famine during their
SGP The authors find that paternal (maternal) grandfather (grandmothers) exposure during their SGP is
associated with better mental health in grandsons (granddaughters)
8
continue into the third generation In other words we ask whether the singular in utero shock has
a multigenerational effect--on the adult outcomes of those exposed in utero on their children
and on their grandchildren
Data and Empirical Methodology
Data
In order to examine multigenerational effects of an in utero exposure we require
multigenerational data Very few datasets in the US have a multigenerational component and fit
the relevant time period for our exposure (ie birth cohorts around 1918) Our data come from
the Wisconsin Longitudinal Survey (WLS) which is a random one-third survey of graduating
high school seniors in Wisconsin in 1957 The majority of these respondents were born in 1939
and form our second generation Thus the parents of the WLS graduates form our first
generation with birth years overlapping the 19181919 in utero exposure period This allows for
the creation of our primary measure for in utero exposure to the 1918 flu epidemic an indicator
9
for either first generation parent being born during the 1918-1919 range56 Additional data are
collected on the later life outcomes of the WLS graduates and a selected sibling as well as a
limited number of outcomes for the children (third generation) of the graduatessiblings
providing the structure for our multigenerational analysis
Summary statistics are presented in table 1 As shown approximately 10 percent of WLS
parents are born in either 1918 or 1919 On average fathers are born in 1907 and mothers are
born in 1911 consequently a birth year of 1918 or 1919 is closer to the right-tail of the
distribution of births and the rate of 10 percent is driven primarily by relatively young mother
exposures7 Since WLS graduatersquos fathers tend to be on average 4 years older than mothers this
right-tail problem is larger for generation 1 males This is seen in Figure 1 While not the
primary focus of the WLS data collection several parental (first generation) outcomes are
5 Parent year of birth is recorded from the WLS graduates This self-reported measure is used to create
the indicator of flu exposure those parents born in 1918 or 1919 To maximize sample size we use
differing waves of the WLS and reported birth years from biological siblings to supplement the reported
year of birth from WLS graduates Parent birth years are first collected for the 199293 graduate wave
Missing observations are then sequentially added from graduate reports in later wavesmdash2003 and 2011
After using all graduate reported year of parent birth variables observations are then filled in from
identically reported measures from a selected biological sibling
Specifically for mothers (gen 1 females) 7976 observations come from graduates in the 199293
wave 366 additional observations come from the 200305 wave 84 observations come from 2011 wave
and 68 observations come from the selected sibling This leaves a base sample size of 8494 ~94 of
which is from the graduate reported 199293 wave For fathers (gen 1 males) 7929 observations come
from graduates in the 199293 wave 361 additional observations come from the 200305 wave 77 come
from the 2011 wave and 91 observations come from siblings leaving a base sample size of 8458 (again
~94 is from the grad reported 199293 wave)
From this base 7 observations are dropped for gen-1-femalersquos (WLS motherrsquos) year of birth due
to reported gen 2rsquos year of birth being 10 or less years after gen 1rsquos year of birth 45 additional
observations are lost if this threshold is increased to 15 years For gen-1-malersquos year of birth 2
observations are removed for identical reasons this increases to 25 additional observations for the 15 year
threshold We attribute this reduction in the sample mostly to measurement error 6 The 1918 flu epidemic in Wisconsin was from September 1918 through December 1918 but did not
reach the severity experienced in many other states According to historical records Wisconsin had the
fourth lowest numbers of deaths out of 25 reporting states (Burg 2000 Shors and McFadden 2009) 7 Appendix tables 7 and 8 provide evidence that our results are not driven solely by confounding between
exposure to the influenza pandemic and being young mothers
10
available including years of schooling occupational prestige and family socioeconomic status
in 19578
[insert table 1 here]
The primary focus of the WLS data collection is high school seniors in 1957 Wisconsin
the second generation of our study Given this focus on graduates (and their siblings) a large
number of economic and health variables are available in each wave of the WLS (irregular
intervals roughly 10-15 years apart 197577 19929394 2003-20052004-2007 and in 2011)
In addition to examining years of schooling several additional dependent variables in the second
generation intend to capture broad differences in economic and health well-being9 These include
income during the peak earning years (ie family income collected when graduates are 53 years
of age on average) net worth at initial retirement age (ie net worth collected when graduates
are 65 years of age on average) and general indicators of health measured by body mass index
and a count of doctor diagnosed illnesses (both collected in the wave when graduates are age 53
on average) Finally the WLS data contains information that is collected from the second
generation about the third generation we focus on years of schooling as the main outcome of
interest
8 The index of socioeconomic status is a factor weighted score combining data on father and motherrsquos
years of schooling fatherrsquos occupational prestige and average parental income Replacing this measure
with average parental income (see appendix table 1) does not change the effect of the flu indicator Job
prestige measures for both mother and father are based on Duncanrsquos Socioeconomic Index which is a
measure of job prestige based on income education and surveyed perceptions of general social standing
for certain occupations (Duncan 1961) 9 We note that our three generations of individuals are drawn from three non-overlapping set of birth
years the mean birth year for generation 1 is ~1910 generation 2 is ~1940 generation 3 is ~1965 Thus
since we are performing the analysis separately by generation we are controlling for much of the time-
variation in the meaning of education We also perform analysis stratified by sex in Appendix Tables 10-
12 so that we can also control for the differential meaning of education in each generation
11
Empirical Methodology
Our empirical strategy follows that of Almond (2006) by examining harmful effects of being
exposed in utero on later life outcomes We then extend this analysis by estimating
multigenerational impacts on both the second and third generations In so doing the primary
estimating equation is given by the following form
119910119894119891119892 = 1205730 + 1205731(119884119874119861 = 191819)1198911 + 120632119931119943120783 + 120633119935119946119943119944 + 120576119894119891119892
Our primary focus is on the coefficient 1205731 which measures the effect of having a
parentgrandparent born in 1918-1919 on a number of outcomes for 119894 individuals in 119891 families
for generation 119892 Parent year of birth time trends and their square are denoted by 120632119931119943120783 120633119935119946119943119944
represents generation specific controls and 120576119894119891119892 is representative of a family clustered error
term
For the first generation we control for birth year and its square capturing age-specific
trends that are tied to our first-generation outcomes of interest (eg years of schooling) For the
analysis of second and third generations birth years and squares for both first generation parents
are included as controls along with generation-specific controls for sex age and birth order
Our estimation strategy follows an intent to treat design It is likely that the actual
incidence of flu differed by socioeconomic status and social standing (Mamelund 2018
Sydenstricker 1931) Our use of year-of-birth however avoids potential confounding by SES
because allmdashboth rich and poormdashare defined as treated if they are born in one of the two years
Although avoiding confounders associated with actual disease incidence this estimation strategy
will underestimate the true effect of flu exposure lowering the magnitude of our coefficient of
interest
12
Results
First Generation
Our initial analysis explores the direct effects of being born during the 1918 Influenza Epidemic
While health data are sparse for the WLS graduatersquos parents (first generation) a number of
economic outcomes are available especially during the initial sample year of 1957 Table 2
explores the relationship between these economic variables and an indicator for birth during
19181919 Columns (1)-(3) of table 2 show the relationship between a WLS graduatersquos father
being born during 19181919 and the fatherrsquos years of schooling the fatherrsquos occupational
prestige and the familyrsquos index of socioeconomic status in 1957 (ie when the first generation
members are approximately 40 years old) While statistically insignificant a negative association
is observed between years of schooling and being born in 1918 or 191910 This is carried over
into fatherrsquos job prestige in column (2) from which the indicator of in utero exposure to the 1918
flu is associated with an approximate 01 standard deviation decline in the index of occupational
prestige These effects culminate in column (3) which shows a statistically significant negative
effect of in utero exposure to the flu and later life economic well-being a 13 decline in the SES
index which corresponds to a decline of roughly 10 percent of a standard deviation The findings
of table 2 corroborate past studies that show in utero exposure to the 1918 flu led to poorer
economic outcomes later in life (Almond 2006)11
[insert table 2 here]
10 First generation years of schooling are reported by the second generation WLS graduates Measurement
error is likely which may result in the insignificant coefficients of table 2 11 Richter and Robling (2013 Table 12) find a similar effect for in utero female exposure to flu in the first
trimester
13
Mirroring the results for males in the first generation a negative but statistically
insignificant association is observed between an indicator of birth in 19181919 and schooling
for first generation females This association however becomes statistically significant at the 1
percent level for the index of family SES the coefficient being nearly identical to that of a
malersquos in utero exposure to the flu though it is unclear whether these effects flow from labor
market andor marriage market sources The findings of table 2 are extended in table 3 which
explores potential marriage market effects of early life exposure to the flu epidemic12
Column (1) of table 3 regresses the indicator for male in utero exposure on an identical
measure for spousersquos exposure Females who were born in 19181919 were 5 percentage points
more likely to marry men who were also born during the same period Furthermore as shown in
columns (2) and (3) these women were more likely to marry men with fewer years of school and
lower job prestige These effects are significant at the 1 percent level Similar effects are seen in
columns (4)-(6) for 19181919 born males who are 14 percentage points more likely to marry flu
exposed females (p=000) and marry females with 026 fewer years of schooling (p=0101)
Given the findings of table 3 however we cannot rule out that this is a marriage market effect13
[insert table 3 here]
Second Generation
Our hypothesis is that the direct effects observed in tables 2 and 3 extend into future generations
To address this hypothesis we regress a number of economic and health outcomes of the WLS
graduates and siblings the offspring of the first generation examined in tables 2 and 3 These
12 Mothers and fathers of WLS graduates are assumed to be married 13 Appendix table 2 repeats the estimation of table 3 while also controlling for an indicator of own-flu
exposure and own year of birth measures
14
estimations are performed in tables 4 and 5 Column (1) in both tables focus on an indicator for
either parent being born in 19181919 the primary regressor of column (2) is an indicator for
fatherrsquos (gen 1 males) in utero exposure to the 1918 flu column (3) considers motherrsquos (gen 1
females) exposure and column (4) includes separate indicators for both mother and fatherrsquos
exposure Controls included in all columns include fatherrsquos year of birth and its square motherrsquos
year of birth and its square an indicator for sex in the second generation a measure of birth
order in the second generation and second-generation year of birth and its square
Table 4 focuses on economic outcomes of the WLS graduates To reiterate our
hypothesis is that in utero exposure to the 1918 influenza pandemic has effects that persist for
multiple generations Table 2 shows the direct first generation effects while table 4 begins to
show the indirect effects that are transmitted to offspring Panel A regresses years of schooling in
the second generation on indicators of first generation exposure to the 1918 flu14 From column
(1) either parent being born in 19181919 is associated with a statistically significant decline of
021 years of schooling in the second generation This estimate is likely understated because the
sampling design of the WLS is a focus on high school seniors thus individuals with fewer than
twelve years of schooling are underrepresented in the data15 Columns (2)-(4) disambiguate this
effect into the maternal and paternal lines From which the effect of column (1) seems to be
driven by motherrsquos in utero exposure to the flu16
14 Appendix Table 6 includes a number of alternative measures for years of schooling in place of the
simple count used in Table 4 15 Table 3 includes selected siblings of the WLS graduates These siblings do not have to be high school
graduates 16 This finding differs from that of Richter and Robling (2013) who find maternal exposure tied to
daughter outcomes and paternal exposure tied to son outcomes
15
The findings of Panel A are extended into Panel B which replaces years of schooling as
the dependent variable with the natural log of family income for the 1992 wave a time when the
second generation respondents are 53 years of age on average and represents a time of peak
earning in the life course As with years of schooling a negative association is seen throughout
the specifications of Panel B Having either parent born in 19181919 is associated with a 22
percent decline in family income Once again this effect seems to be driven by motherrsquos not
fatherrsquos exposure Panel C replaces income with a measure of net worth for the 2004 wave This
measure of net worth is when the second generation respondents are on average 65 years of age
and is representative of earnings throughout the life course The dual indicator of column (1) is
negative but statistically insignificant at conventional levels (p=023) When looking at the effect
of mother exposure in column (3) however the effect becomes statistically significant at the
10 level (p=0069) implying those with mothers born during 19181919 have approximately
$36000 less in net worth by 2004
Following the broader health focus of the Barker hypothesis the economic effects of
table 4 are replaced with health measures in table 5 We consider three broad measures of
general health and well-being later in life self-reported health in later life (~53 years old)
height and BMI (again at ~53) The use of self-reported health is intended to capture general
well-being later in life (Fortin et al 2017) this is tested in Panel A of table 5 Mazumder et al
(2010) provide evidence that in utero exposure to the 1918 flu is associated with a reduction in
height and an increase cardiovascular disease so it is possible that these negative health
outcomes could be transmitted to offspring this is tested in Panel B of table 517 And given
17 Appendix Table 14 tests indicators for a number self-reported health conditions As shown a weak
positive association is shown between gen 1 female flu exposure and an indicator of cardiovascular
16
prior work linking early life exposure to the Dutch famine to BMI (Roseboom et al 2000) and
metabolic function (Lumey et al 2009) in adulthood as well as the fact that both the Dutch
famine and the 1918 flu impacted maternal stress and nutritional status18 we examine BMI as
another broad indicator of health for the second generation this is tested in Panel C of table 5 A
consistent pattern emerges across all panels Like SES outcomes in table 4 gen 1 female
exposure to the flu is shown to have negative statistically significant association with all health
outcomes in the second generation
From Panel A parentalmdashor gen 1mdashflu exposure reduces self-reported health by roughly
half a point (plt005) on a Likert scale from 1-5 1 being very poor health and 5 being excellent
health As shown and like prior estimates this effect is driven by gen 1 female exposure For
adult height gen 1 female exposure is associated with a reduction of about 02 inches (plt010)
which is larger than the direct effect documented by Mazumder et al of 005 inches however
Mazumder et alrsquos estimated effect falls within the 95 confidence interval of our estimated
coefficient Panel C considers the effect on second generation BMI From column (1) having
either parent being born in 19181919 is associated with a statistically significant increase in the
offspringrsquos BMI of 041 points As with the economic effects of table 4 this increase in BMI
appears to be driven by motherrsquos exposure This is seen in columns (2)-(4) which estimate a
statistically significant positive coefficient for motherrsquos exposure but a coefficient that is
statistically indistinguishable from zero for fatherrsquos exposure
disease during the 199293 wave of the WLS (Appendix Table 15A) This association however reduced
in magnitude and statistical significance for later-life waves of the WLS (Appendix Table 15B and 15C) 18 The Dutch famine influenced maternal nutritional status directly through caloric restriction and the
1918 flu through symptoms such as appetite loss vomiting andor diarrhea
17
A persistent effect of in utero exposure to the 1918 Flu is seen in tables 4 and 5 First
generation exposure consistently has a statistically significant and economically meaningful
effect on second generation health and economic outcomes And this effect appears to be driven
solely by motherrsquos exposure although due to marriage market associations we cannot
determine definitively that motherrsquos exposure produces this multigenerational effect through
biological mechanisms
Appendix Tables 10A-11G re-estimate Tables 4 and 5 splitting the sample by generation
2rsquos sex In short the negative effects of first generation exposure appear to be more prominent
in second generation males such that the harmful multi-generational effects are most prominent
in second generation men whose mothers were exposed to the 1918 flu19 Potential reasons for
this sex disparity could be tied to general trends in the differences between sons and daughters in
intergenerational mobility (Chadwick and Solon 2002) In other words sons are more likely to
inherit their families SES standing than daughters This implies that the negative gen 1 shock
from in utero exposure is more likely to affect sons through the proposed SES channel than
daughters resulting in a larger estimated effect for gen 2 males Furthermore there appears to
be a growing gap between in the intergenerational elastiticy between sons and daughters during
the time period in question (Olivetti and Paserman 2015) Another potential reason for the sex
difference could be the larger standard deviation in gen 2 male outcomes this is shown in
Appendix Table 9 Finally the findings of Appendix Tables 10A-11G differ from Richter and
Robling (2013) who show homogeneous sex effects from in utero flu exposure for education
19 When omitting those with no family income during the 1992 wave of the WLS negative effects from
gen 1 female flu exposure are primarily seen in second generation males This indicates however that
there is a greater frequency of no income amongst second generation females from gen 1 flu exposure
Additionally when looking at net worth in the 2011 wave of the WLS we see no difference by gen 2rsquos
sex
18
gen 1 female exposure led to reduction in gen 2 female education and gen 1 male exposure is
associated with gen 2 male education Given this disparity between the two studies our under-
representation for gen 1 male exposure and the mixed findings in Tables 10A-11G we view our
general finding of gen 1 female exposure working through gen 2 male outcomes as preliminary
and suggestive Indeed as we test in Appendix Tables 12A-12G the sex differences in gen 2 are
often not statistically significant
Third Generation
As mentioned previously the focus of the WLS data collection is high school graduates in 1957
but additional samples have been collected for a number of variables on the children of these
graduates Table 6 explores the effects of the WLS parents on the years of schooling for WLS
children estimating the effect of flu exposure across three generations20
Consistent with the second-generation estimations a persistent effect of the in utero flu
exposure is observed and this effect seems to be driven by grandmother exposure (gen 1
female) The joint indicator for either parent is negative and close to statistical significance at
the 10 percent level (p=0106) suggesting that exposure in the first generation is associated with
012 years of schooling less in the third generation The effect of grandfather exposure is
insignificantly different from zero while the coefficient of grandmother exposure is similar in
magnitude to the joint estimate of column (1) while being statistically significant at the 10
level (p=0066) Furthermore the decline in schooling seen in the third generation is similar but
slightly smaller in magnitude compared to the second generation effects seen in Panel A of table
20Analysis of the WLS gradsibling children (ie the third generation) restricts the sample to those
children that are biological children and that are 35 years of age and older by the 20032004 wave of the
WLS
19
421 This again indicates a persistent effect that may be attenuating over time Importantly while
the estimate for grandfather exposure is insignificant it is consistent with intergenerational
inheritance (Kuzawa and Eisenberg 2014) To say the same for grandmother exposure would
require effects to persist into the fourth generation (due to the differences in gametic
development) and this data is not available in the WLS
Conclusion
This paper presents novel evidence of multigenerational effects of in utero health insults We
use the sudden and unexpected influenza pandemic in 19181919 to trace out the effects of in
utero exposure to infectious disease on own outcomes for the first generation childrenrsquos
outcomes and grandchildrenrsquos outcomes We find that this exposure reduces educational
attainment and related economic outcomes across three generations For example individuals in
our second generation the WLS graduates and their siblings who have mothers who were
exposed to the 1918 flu in utero complete 15 fewer years of schooling (or 24 months less
schooling) The size of our estimated effect aligns well with those of Richter and Robling (2013)
who find that first generation in utero exposure to the 1918 flu results in 16 fewer years of
schooling (or 2 months to 25 months less schooling) for the maternal line We then extend
results to the third generation for the first time in the literature and find that individuals in the
third generation who have grandmothers who were exposed to the pandemic in utero complete
17 fewer years of schooling (or 17 months less schooling) than individuals without affected
grandmothers
21 For gen 1 female exposure in column (4) the p-value for a difference in coefficients between Panel A
of Table 4 and Table 6 is 0411 implying the effect in the third generation is statistically indistinguishable
from that in the second generation
20
There are at several potential mechanisms for the persistence of poor outcomes across
three generations we find in our data As previously outlined the intergenerational persistence in
poor outcomes due to early life health shocks could occur through socioeconomic channels
where a fetally insulted person with resulting low educational attainment raises a child in a low-
resource environment that reduces opportunities for high educational attainment of the child In
order to see multigenerational effects the reduced opportunities for high educational attainment
of the child must then reduce opportunities for their own children Alternatively
intergenerational transmission may occur through epigenetic inheritance through the germ line a
distinct possibility based on findings of the Oumlverkalix studies or phenotype-to-phenotype
transmission and cumulative intergenerational phenotypic change
Our analysis is unable to fully distinguish between these proposed intergenerational
channels the socioeconomic and biological but it is important to note that the channels are by no
means mutually exclusive Further analysis (appendix tables 3-5) that is intended to partially
account for the socioeconomic mechanism leads to mixed results in which the coefficient of first
generation flu exposure is attenuated to insignificance for some outcomes but not others This
provides evidence for a socioeconomic channel but does not eliminate the possibility of
epigenetic mechanisms or other biological channel through which socioeconomic status ldquogets
under the skinrdquo to influence outcomes of subsequent generations (eg the socioeconomic
circumstances of one generation may ldquoget under the skinrdquo of the next and subsequently be passed
via biology andor socioeconomics to other generations) Likewise the estimates of grandfather
effects on grandchildren are imprecise but consistent with transgenerational inheritance (Kuzawa
and Eisenberg 2014) Additionally while the WLS provides a unique framework to analyze
multiple generations the measurement of flu exposure is somewhat crude (from self-reported
21
parentsrsquo year of birth) and is in the right-tail of the distribution of parent birth years suggesting
the possibility of confounding from resource-poor younger mothers22 That is exposure to
influenza in the first generation is mechanically tied to motherrsquos ages of 20 and 21 because the
WLS sample is drawn based on having a child who was born in 1939 (and thus graduating high
school in 1957) While we cannot definitively separate these two effects our ability to compare
outcomes of slightly older mothers (ages 22 and 23 born in 1917 or 1916) provide evidence
more consistent with in utero exposure to influenza than impacts of having a mother who is
2021 years old
From a policy perspective our evidence may suggest a novel source of multigenerational
persistence in poverty through biosocial factors and suggest a need to consider evidence of
transgenerational social andor biological mechanisms We document the extent to which
harmful early life environments cascade through generations promoting a disadvantaged start for
those whose grandparents exposed to a hazardous early life environment
22 We specifically explore the confounding effects of younger mothers in appendix tables 7 and 8 These
tables show that younger mothers are indeed initially disadvantaged (ie less years of schooling)
however this young-mother disadvantage does not persist in subsequent generations Rather only those
mothers born in the 1918-1919 range have significant negative effects on later generations
22
References
Almond Doug 2006 Is the 1918 Influenza pandemic over Long‐term effects of in utero Influenza exposure in the post‐1940 US population Journal of Political Economy 114(4) 672-712
Almond Doug and Bhashkar Mazumder 2005 The 1918 Influenza Pandemic and Subsequent Health Outcomes An Analysis of SIPP Data American Economic Review 95(2) 258-262
Barker David James P 2007 The origins of the developmental origins theory Journal of Internal Medicine 261(5) 412-417
Benyshek Daniel C (2013) The ldquoearly liferdquo origins of obesity‐related health disorders New discoveries regarding the intergenerational transmission of developmentally programmed traits in the global cardiometabolic health crisis American Journal of Physical Anthropology 152(S57) 79-93
Brown Alan S and Elena J Derkits 2010 Prenatal infection and schizophrenia a review of epidemiologic and translational studies American Journal of Psychiatry 167(3) 261-280
Burg Steven 2000 Wisconsin and the Great Spanish Flu Epidemic of 1918rdquo Wisconsin Magazine of History 84(1) 36-56
Bygren LarsOlov Gunnar Kaati and Soumlren Edvinsson 2001 Longevity determined by paternal ancestors nutrition during their slow growth period Acta biotheoretica 49(1) 53-59
Canetta Sarah E and Alan S Brown 2012 Prenatal infection maternal immune activation and risk for schizophrenia Translational Neuroscience 3(4) 320-327
Chadwick L and Solon G (2002) Intergenerational income mobility among daughters American Economic Review 92(1) 335-344
Cohen Alan A John Tillinghast and Vladimir Canudas-Romo 2010 No consistent effects of prenatal or neonatal exposure to Spanish flu on late-life mortality in 24 developed countries Demographic Research 22(20) 579
Fatemi S Hossein Julie Earle Reena Kanodia David Kist Effat S Emamian Paul H Patterson Limin Shi and Robert Sidwell 2002 Prenatal viral infection leads to pyramidal cell atrophy and macrocephaly in adulthood implications for genesis of autism and schizophrenia Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology 22(1) 25-33
Fletcher Jason 2014 Examining the Long Term Mortality Effects of Early Health Shocks US Census Bureau Center for Economic Studies Paper No CES-WP-14-19
Kaati Gunnar Lars O Bygren and Soren Edvinsson 2002 Cardiovascular and diabetes mortality determined by nutrition during parents and grandparents slow growth period European Journal of Human Genetics EJHG 10(11) 682
Kash John C Terrence M Tumpey Sean C Proll Victoria Carter Olivia Perwitasari Matthew J Thomas Christopher F Basler et al 2006 Genomic analysis of increased host immune and cell death responses induced by 1918 influenza virus Nature 443(7111) 578-581
Kobasa Darwyn Steven M Jones Kyoko Shinya John C Kash John Copps Hideki Ebihara Yasuko Hatta et al 2007 Aberrant innate immune response in lethal infection of macaques with the 1918 influenza virus Nature 445 (7125) 319-323
Kuzawa Christopher W and Dan T Eisenberg 2014 The Long Reach of History Intergenerational and Transgenerational Pathwaysto Plasticity in Human Longevity Sociality Hierarchy Health Comparative Biodemography Papers from a Workshop National Academies Press
Li Wai-Yu Yi-Chun Chang L Jyuhn-Hsiarn Lee and Li-Jen Lee 2014 Prenatal infection affects the neuronal architecture and cognitive function in adult mice Developmental Neuroscience 36(5) 359-370
23
Lin Ming-Jen and Elaine M Liu 2014 Does in utero exposure to illness matter The 1918 influenza epidemic in Taiwan as a natural experiment Journal of Health Economics 37 152-163
Lindeboom Maarten France Portrait and Gerard J Van den Berg 2010 Long-run effects on longevity of a nutritional shock early in life the Dutch Potato famine of 1846ndash1847 Journal of Health Economics 29(5) 617-629
Mamelund SE (2018) 1918 pandemic mobidity The first wave hits the poor the second wave hits the rich Influenza and Other Respitory Viruses 12(3) 307-313
Mazumder Bhashkar Douglas Almond Kyung Park Eileen M Crimmins and Caleb E Finch 2010 Lingering prenatal effects of the 1918 influenza pandemic on cardiovascular disease Journal of developmental origins of health and disease 1(1) 26-34
Miller Veronica Y Zhu C Bucher W McGinnis L Ryan A Siegel and S Zalcman 2013 Gestational flu exposure induces changes in neurochemicals affiliative hormones and brainstem inflammation in addition to autism-like behaviors in mice Brain Behavior and Immunity 33 153-163
Myrskylauml Mikko Neil K Mehta and Virginia W Chang 2013 Early life exposure to the 1918 influenza pandemic and old-age mortality by cause of death American Journal of Public Health 103(7) e83-e90
Olivetti C and Paserman MD (2015) In the name of the son (and the daughter) Intergenerational mobility in the United States 1850-1940 American Economic Review 105(8) 2695-2724
Pembrey Marcus E Lars Olov Bygren Gunnar Kaati Soumlren Edvinsson Kate Northstone Michael Sjoumlstroumlm and Jean Golding 2006 Sex-specific male-line transgenerational responses in humans European Journal of Human Genetics 14(2) 159-166
Richter Andreacute and Per Olof Robling 2013 Multigenerational effects of the 1918-19 influenza pandemic in Sweden Swedish Institute for Social Research 5
Shors Teri and Susan H McFadden 2009 1918 Influenza A Winnebago County Wisconsin Perspective Clinical Medicine amp Research 7(4) 147-156
Sydenstricker E (1931) The incidence of influenza among persons of different economic status during the epidemic of 1918 Public Health Reports 46(4) 154-170
van den Berg Gerard J and Pia R Pinger 2013 A validation study of transgenerational effects of childhood conditions on the third generation offsprings economic and health outcomes potentially driven by epigenetic imprinting IZA Discussion Paper
Tables and Figures
Table 1 Summary Statistics
Variable N Mean Std Deviation
First GenerartionFlu Indicators
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 8368 0112 0315Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 8456 0030 0170Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 8487 0093 0290
ControlsFirst Generation Malersquos Year of Birth 8456 1907435 7021First Generation Femalersquos Year of Birth 8427 1911189 6164
Dependent VariablesFirst Generation Malersquos Years of Schooling 8456 9778 3392First Generation Femalersquos Years of Schooing 8487 10499 2804First Generation Malersquos Job Prestige 8385 330662 214361First Generation Femalersquos Job Prestige 6683 12814 19934Family SES 8487 16231 11143
Second GenerationControls
Female Indicator 12459 0530 0499Birth Year 12459 1939406 4289Birth Order 12459 2529 1828
Dependent VariablesYears of Schooling 12459 13678 2361Family Income 1992 (in $1000s) 12112 68027 177105Net Worth 2004 (in $1000s) 10498 913046 2558927Self-reported health 1992 9888 4149 0668Height (inches) 9783 67406 3851BMI 1992 9671 26742 4657
Third GenerationControls
Birth Year 19913 1963901 3636Female Indicator 19913 0497 0500Birth Order 19913 2196 1263
Dependent VariableYears of Schooling 19913 14294 2309
Summary amp Notes This table provides summary statistics for all variables used The samples above may not berepresentative for all estimations For example the inclusion of siblings in the second generation increase the sample of parentalyear of birth and the corresponding flu indicator This increase in sample does not significantly change the sample statisticsabove Similar sample changes occur for the second generation controls above For the third generation the sample is restrictedto biological children over 35 years of age
24
Tab
le2
Fir
stG
ener
atio
n
Eco
nom
icE
ffec
ts
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
am
ily
SE
SY
ears
of
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
am
ily
SE
S(1
)(2
)(3
)(4
)(5
)(6
)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale)
-01
39
-01
16lowast
-12
90lowast
lowast
(02
00)
(00
60)
(05
99)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emal
e)-0
133
-00
66
-13
61lowastlowast
lowast
(00
95)
(00
43)
(03
76)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
YY
YY
YY
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8456
8385
8456
8487
6683
8487
RS
qr
00
32
00
08
00
23
00
13
00
04
00
13
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
pro
vid
esd
irec
teff
ects
of
inu
tero
an
dea
rly
life
exp
osu
reto
the
1918
Flu
Ep
idem
ic
Bir
thye
ar
tim
etr
end
sin
lcu
de
yea
rof
bir
than
dit
ssq
uar
ean
din
clu
sion
inth
ees
tim
atio
nis
par
ent
spec
ific
All
esti
mati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
an
dard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
alsi
gnifi
can
ceis
den
oted
by
an
d
re
pre
senti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vel
y
25
Tab
le3
Fir
stG
ener
atio
n
Mar
riag
eM
arke
tE
ffec
ts
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Flu
Bir
thY
ear
Yea
rsof
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
luB
irth
Yea
rY
ears
of
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
e(1
)(2
)(3
)(4
)(5
)(6
)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale)
01
40lowast
lowastlowast-0
259
-00
39
(00
34)
(01
58)
(00
72)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emal
e)0
056lowast
lowastlowast-0
340lowast
lowastlowast-0
118lowastlowast
lowast
(00
14)
(01
17)
(00
36)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
YY
YY
YY
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8348
8487
8412
8348
8456
6660
RS
qr
00
90
00
11
00
08
01
20
00
21
00
01
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
pro
vid
esev
iden
ceof
marr
iage
mark
etse
lect
ion
inth
efi
rst
gen
erati
on
B
irth
year
tim
etr
end
sin
clu
de
year
of
bir
than
dit
ssq
uare
and
incl
usi
onin
the
esti
mat
ion
isp
aren
tsp
ecifi
cA
lles
tim
ati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
an
dard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
sign
ifica
nce
isd
enot
edby
an
d
re
pre
senti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vely
26
Table 4 Second Generation Economic Effects
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Years of Schooling
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0209lowastlowastlowast
(0073)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0084 -0059(0129) (0129)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0211lowastlowastlowast -0209lowastlowastlowast
(0075) (0075)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0085 0084 0085 0085
Panel B ln Family Income 1992
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0221lowastlowast
(0111)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0098 -0066(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0262lowastlowast -0259lowastlowast
(0116) (0116)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112R Sqr 0021 0021 0021 0021
Panel C Std Net Worth 2004
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0026(0022)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0033 0038(0047) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0038lowast -0040lowast
(0021) (0021)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498R Sqr 0007 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table provides evidence of signficant harmful effects of flu exposure in the first generation on secondgeneration economic outcomes First generation time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents(ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and itssquare and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
27
Table 5 Second Generation Health Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Self-reported health (Likert 1=very poor 5=excellent)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0054lowastlowast
(0027)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0005(0047) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0061lowastlowast -0061lowastlowast
(0028) (0028)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Panel B Height (inches)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0101)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0102 0127(0168) (0168)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0169lowast -0175lowast
(0103) (0103)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783r2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Panel C BMI
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0412lowastlowast
(0191)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0082 0023(0344) (0346)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0422lowastlowast 0421lowastlowast
(0193) (0194)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table provides evidence of harmful effects of flu exposure in the first generation on secondgeneration health outcomes First generation time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents (iegen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and itssquare and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
28
Table 6 Generation Three Effects of Generation One Flu Exposure Years of Schooling
Dependent Variable Years of Schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0125(0077)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Male) -0007 0010(0136) (0136)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Female) -0144lowast -0144lowast
(0078) (0078)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913R Sqr 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table shows that the generational effects of flu exposure extend into the third generation of theWLS First generation flu exposure is shown to have a negative association with third generation years of schooling Firstgeneration time trends are year of birth measures for each parent and their square Second generation controls inlcude anindicator for sex second generation year of birth and its square and birth order Third generation controls include a sexindicator year of birth and its square and birth order Given the focus on years of schooling the sample is restricted to thosethird generation individuals 35 years of age and older or born during or before 1970 (data were collected in 2005) Allestimation is performed with OLS with family (second generation) clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
29
(a)
Fat
her
(b)
Moth
er
Fig
ure
1F
irst
Gen
erat
ion
Dis
trib
uti
onof
Yea
rof
Bir
th
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
figu
rep
lots
the
dis
trib
uti
on
for
firs
tgen
erati
on
year
of
bir
th
Flu
exp
osu
reis
class
ified
as
bei
ng
born
inei
ther
1918
or
1919
30
Appendix Tables
Appendix Table 1 First Generation Flu Exposure Effect on Family Income
Dependent Variable Family Income ($100s) 1957
(1) (2)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -3366(2592)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -5363lowastlowast
(2390)
Birth Year Time Trends Y YObservations 7440 7456R Sqr 0013 0004
Summary amp Notes This table replaces the index of socioeconomic status with family income (in $100s) in 1957 Allestimation is performed with OLS with robust standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
31
App
endix
Tab
le2
Mar
riag
eM
arke
tE
ffec
ts
Con
trol
ling
for
Ow
nY
ear
ofB
irth
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
Job
Pre
stig
eY
ears
of
Sch
Job
Pre
stig
e
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale
)-0
052
-211
82
-01
98
-03
74
(02
03)
(131
30)
(01
61)
(14
38)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emale
)-0
346lowast
lowastlowast-2
44
97lowastlowast
lowast-0
103
-13
88
(01
16)
(76
88)
(00
94)
(08
54)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
(Male
an
dF
emale
)Y
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8348
8279
8348
6587
RS
qr
00
40
00
22
00
25
00
04
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
re-e
stim
ates
Tab
le3
wh
ile
contr
oll
ing
for
year
of
bir
than
dfl
uin
dic
ato
rsass
oci
ate
dw
ith
the
spou
sein
the
dep
end
ent
vari
ab
le
All
esti
mat
ion
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
and
ard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
sign
ifica
nce
isd
enote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
atth
e10
5
and
1le
vel
sre
spec
tive
ly
32
Appendix Table 3 2nd Gen Economic Effects Controlling for 1st Gen Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Years of Schooling
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0088(0070)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0005 0008(0119) (0119)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0116 -0117(0072) (0072)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0206 0206 0206 0206
Panel B ln Family Income 1992
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0193lowast
(0111)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0080 -0050(0184) (0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0240lowastlowast -0238lowastlowast
(0116) (0116)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112R Sqr 0024 0024 0024 0024
Panel C Std Normal Net Worth 2004
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0003(0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0047 0049(0046) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0019 -0021(0020) (0020)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498R Sqr 0033 0033 0033 0033
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 4 while controlling for generation one economic outcomes fatherrsquos years ofschooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 First generation time trends are given by year of birth and itssquare for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex secondgeneration year of birth and its square and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standarderrors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and1 levels respectively 33
Appendix Table 4 2nd Gen Health Effects Controlling for 1st Gen Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A BMI
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0352lowast
(0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0051 -0001(0342) (0344)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0372lowast 0372lowast
(0192) (0193)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671R Sqr 0035 0035 0035 0035
Panel B Count of Illnesses
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0122lowast
(0065)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0076 -0096(0102) (0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0139lowastlowast 0144lowastlowast
(0067) (0068)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9921 9921 9921 9921R Sqr 0046 0046 0046 0046
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 5 while controlling for generation one economic outcomes fatherrsquos years ofschooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 First generation time trends are given by year of birth and itssquare for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex secondgeneration year of birth and its square and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standarderrors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and1 levels respectively
34
Appendix Table 5 Generation threersquos years of schooling Controlling for previous generation economicwell-being
Dependent Variable Years of Schooling for Gen 3(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A First Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0069(0076)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0022 0034(0133) (0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0102 -0104(0077) (0078)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913R Sqr 0117 0117 0117 0117
Panel B Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0025(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0008 0013(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0038 -0039(0073) (0073)
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0190 0190 0190 0190
Panel C First and Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0008(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0016 0019(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0028 -0029(0073) (0073)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0196 0196 0196 0196
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 6 while controlling for generation one and tworsquos economic outcomes Forgeneration one these include fatherrsquos years of schooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 generation twocontrols include the WLS graduatesiblingrsquos years of schooling family income in 1992 and net worth in 2004 First generationtime trends are year of birth measures for each parent and their square Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sexsecond generation year of birth and its square and birth order Third generation controls include a sex indicator year of birthand its square and birth order Given the focus on years of schooling the sample is restricted to those third generationindividuals 35 years of age and older or born during or before 1970 (data were collected in 2005) All estimation is performedwith OLS with family (second generation) clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denotedby and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
35
Appendix Table 6 Alternative measures of schooling in the second generation
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Indicator for any college (years of schooling gt12)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0044lowastlowastlowast
(0017)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0011 -0006(0029) (0029)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0044lowastlowast -0043lowastlowast
(0017) (0017)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0071 0070 0071 0071
Panel B Indicator for incomplete college (years of schooling gt12 amp lt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0008(0013)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 -0001(0022) (0022)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0008 -0008(0013) (0013)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0005 0005 0005 0005
Panel C Indicator for college graduate (years of schooling = 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0022lowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0003 0006(0020) (0020)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0021lowast -0021lowastlowast
(0011) (0011)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0019 0019 0019 0019
Panel D Indicator for post-college education (years of schooling gt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0014(0010)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0011(0018) (0018)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0014 -0014(0010) (0010)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0039 0039 0039 0039
Summary amp Notes This table replaces our continuous measure of years of schooling with specified dummy variables Firstgeneration time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Secondgeneration controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and its square and birth order All estimationis performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
36
Appendix Table 7 Young mothers Direct effect on Gen 1 Females
Dependent Variable Years of Sch Job Prestige Family SES
(1) (2) (3)
Ind for First Gen Female Flu Exposure (1918-1919) -0325lowastlowast -0841 -1749lowastlowastlowast
(0137) (1015) (0584)
Ind for mother born during 1920-1921 -0567lowastlowastlowast 0745 -1157(0206) (1515) (0914)
Ind for mother born during 1922-1923 -0666lowastlowast 0098 -2113(0330) (2210) (1298)
Ind for mother born after 1924 -0392 5682 0384(0486) (3705) (2126)
Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y
Observations 8487 6683 8487R Sqr 0014 0005 0014
Summary amp Notes This table includes indicators for alternative years of birth Younger mothers are shown to have lessyears of schooling All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
37
App
endix
Tab
le8
You
ng
mot
her
sG
ener
atio
n2
and
3eff
ects
Gen
2
Gen
3
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
ln
Fam
In
c
1992
Std
N
W
2004
Sel
f-re
p
hea
lth
Hei
ght
BM
IY
ears
of
Sch
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
emal
eF
luE
xp
osu
re(1
918-
1919
)-0
201lowastlowast
-02
95lowastlowast
-00
45
-00
73lowastlowast
-00
90
02
07
-00
86(0
092)
(01
32)
(00
32)
(00
32)
(01
22)
(02
25)
(00
94)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
20-1
921
-00
22
-00
40
-00
10
-00
61
01
33
-04
10
01
13
(01
37)
(01
74)
(00
51)
(00
43)
(01
80)
(03
11)
(01
41)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
22-1
923
-00
96
-01
88
-00
57
00
20
04
61
-11
29lowastlowast
01
55(0
184)
(03
20)
(00
61)
(00
75)
(02
83)
(04
51)
(02
23)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
afte
r19
2404
58
-01
87
00
01
-00
27
03
12
-08
85
03
99
(03
06)
(03
94)
(00
87)
(01
27)
(04
94)
(10
70)
(03
21)
Bas
eC
ontr
ols
YY
YY
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
12459
12112
10498
9888
9783
9671
19913
RS
qr
00
85
00
21
00
08
00
09
05
86
00
29
00
79
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
incl
ud
esin
dic
ator
sfo
ralt
ernati
ve
years
of
bir
th
Bei
ng
born
toa
you
nger
moth
ergen
erall
yis
not
ass
oci
ate
dw
ith
gen
erati
on
2or
3rsquos
outc
omes
ofin
tere
st
inst
ead
n
egat
ive
effec
tsar
eon
lyob
serv
edfo
rth
ose
born
du
rin
gth
efl
u
All
esti
mati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hfa
mil
y(2
nd
gen
erat
ion
)cl
ust
ered
stan
dar
der
rors
rep
orte
din
par
enth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
signifi
can
ceis
den
ote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vel
y
38
Appendix Table 9 Summary Statistics by Gen 2 Sex
Variable N Mean Std Deviation
FemaleYears of Schooling 6607 13352 2088ln Family Income (1992 wave) 6411 9424 3577
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5654 10686 1010Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 5612 -0047 0539Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 5313 4164 0670Height (inches) 5231 646635 247936BMI 5124 26073 5114
Gen 3Years of Schooling 11947 14240 2291
MaleYears of Schooling 5852 14047 2587ln Family Income (1992 wave) 5701 10139 3030
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5264 10981 0836Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 4886 0059 1159Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 4575 4133 0665Height (inches) 4554 7055484 25596BMI 4547 27496 3948
Gen 3Years of Schooling 8046 14371 2332
Appendix Table 10A Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0090(0086)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0198 0214(0169) (0169)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104 -0114(0087) (0087)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6607 6607 6607 6607R Sqr 0075 0075 0075 0075
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
39
Appendix Table 10B Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0523lowastlowastlowast
(0170)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0483 -0410(0321) (0323)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0512lowastlowastlowast -0491lowastlowastlowast
(0179) (0180)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6411 6411 6411 6411R Sqr 0015 0013 0014 0015
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10C Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0007(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0078lowast 0078(0048) (0048)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0008 0005(0025) (0025)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5612 5612 5612 5612R Sqr 0007 0007 0007 0007
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
40
Appendix Table 10D Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0027(0036)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 -0001(0071) (0071)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0022 -0022(0037) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5313 5313 5313 5313r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10E Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -2382(13366)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 44280lowastlowast 46351lowastlowast
(22343) (22480)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -12253 -14428(13485) (13561)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5231 5231 5231 5231r2 0015 0016 0015 0016
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
41
Appendix Table 10F Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0353(0286)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0105 0060(0514) (0516)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0326 0323(0289) (0290)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5124 5124 5124 5124R Sqr 0010 0010 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0087(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0104 -0101(0190) (0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0042 -0039(0098) (0098)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 11906 11906 11906 11906R Sqr 0086 0086 0086 0086
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
42
Appendix Table 11A Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0322lowastlowastlowast
(0116)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0369lowastlowast -0338lowast
(0181) (0180)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0309lowastlowastlowast -0297lowastlowast
(0119) (0119)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5852 5852 5852 5852R Sqr 0060 0059 0060 0060
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11B RResults by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0116(0138)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0262 0261(0200) (0199)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0024 0014(0141) (0140)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5701 5701 5701 5701R Sqr 0009 0009 0008 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
43
Appendix Table 11C Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0038)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0001(0081) (0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0094lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0035)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4886 4886 4886 4886R Sqr 0004 0004 0004 0004
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
44
Appendix Table 11D Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0083lowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 0012(0062) (0062)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104lowastlowastlowast -0105lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0041)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4575 4575 4575 4575r2 0010 0009 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11E Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -15122(14275)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -22991 -20537(23287) (23176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -18595 -17540(14734) (14751)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4554 4554 4554 4554r2 0011 0011 0011 0011
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
45
Appendix Table 11F Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0465lowast
(0238)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0079 0006(0403) (0405)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0520lowastlowast 0520lowastlowast
(0245) (0246)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4547 4547 4547 4547R Sqr 0006 0005 0006 0006
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0177(0123)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0098 0144(0194) (0192)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0293lowastlowast -0302lowastlowast
(0125) (0126)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8007 8007 8007 8007R Sqr 0067 0067 0068 0068
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
46
Appendix Table 12A Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0253lowastlowast
(0107)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0252 -0226(0170) (0172)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0263lowastlowast -0242lowastlowast
(0113) (0115)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0084(0120)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0341 0339(0216) (0219)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0096 0056(0130) (0132)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459r2 0085 0085 0085 0085
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
47
Appendix Table 12B Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0128)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0196 0169(0190) (0189)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0081 -0104(0135) (0135)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0383lowastlowast
(0189)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0594lowast -0474(0349) (0355)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0339lowast -0283(0204) (0207)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112r2 0021 0021 0021 0021
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
48
Appendix Table 12C Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0034)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0019(0077) (0079)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0095lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0030) (0031)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0071lowast
(0038)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0072 0039(0087) (0089)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0104lowastlowastlowast 0100lowastlowastlowast
(0035) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498r2 0008 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
49
Appendix Table 12D Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0071lowast
(0036)[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0012 0031
(0058) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0093lowastlowast -0097lowastlowast
(0039) (0039)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0030(0045)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0031 -0051(0087) (0088)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0059 0065(0048) (0049)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
50
Appendix Table 12E Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0129 -0125(0223) (0224)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0152 -0129(0141) (0142)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0000(0158)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0454 0495lowast
(0279) (0287)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0031 -0090(0170) (0175)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783nr2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
51
Appendix Table 12F Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0376(0231)
[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0059 -0122(0402) (0407)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0441lowast 0457lowast
(0240) (0243)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0068(0316)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0282 0288(0573) (0589)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0035 -0069(0340) (0350)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
52
Appendix Table 12G Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0131(0114)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male 0114 0175(0185) (0188)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0237lowastlowast -0261lowastlowast
(0118) (0121)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0009(0133)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0225 -0292(0249) (0254)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0152 0189(0141) (0145)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913r2 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
53
Appendix Table 13 Family Income 1992 excluding non-earners (ie fam inc = 0)
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992 wave (excluding those reporting 0)(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0095lowastlowastlowast
(0033)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0031 -0019(0053) (0053)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0101lowastlowastlowast -0100lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0034)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10918 10918 10918 10918r2 0050 0049 0050 0050
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0084lowast
(0050)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0019 -0007(0089) (0090)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0083 -0083(0053) (0054)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5654 5654 5654 5654r2 0026 0026 0026 0026
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102lowastlowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0051 -0040(0060) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0113lowastlowastlowast -0112lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0040)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5264 5264 5264 5264r2 0029 0028 0029 0029
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel B in Table 4 excluding those who report $0 for familyincome All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
54
Appendix Table 14 Net Worth 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable Std Net Worth 2011 Wave of WLS(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0032lowastlowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0023lowast -0021lowast
(0012) (0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0032lowastlowastlowast -0031lowastlowastlowast
(0010) (0010)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9435 9435 9435 9435r2 0002 0002 0002 0002
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0012lowast
(0006)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0009 -0008(0009) (0009)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0012lowastlowast -0011lowastlowast
(0006) (0006)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5026 5026 5026 5026r2 0007 0006 0007 0007
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0057lowastlowast
(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0040lowast -0036lowast
(0023) (0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0057lowastlowast -0056lowastlowast
(0023) (0022)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4409 4409 4409 4409r2 0001 0001 0001 0001
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel C in Table 4 replacing the net worth measure from the 2004wave with an identical measure from the 2011 wave of the WLS All estimation is performed with OLS with family clusteredstandard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 105 and 1 levels respectively
55
Appendix Table 15A Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 1992 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0243(0152)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0107 0039(0252) (0255)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0285lowast 0282lowast
(0158) (0160)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9849 9849 9849 9849
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0007(0091)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0210 -0216(0170) (0173)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0007 0024(0095) (0097)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9858 9858 9858 9858
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0255(0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0107 -0169(0328) (0338)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0237 0252(0193) (0198)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9845 9845 9845 9845
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
56
Appendix Table 15B Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2004 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0018(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0190 0207(0160) (0162)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0066 -0083(0102) (0104)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10672 10672 10672 10672
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0096 0108(0124) (0125)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0051 -0059(0076) (0077)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10619 10619 10619 10619
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0108(0110)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0064 0027(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0181 0179(0113) (0113)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10617 10617 10617 10617
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
57
Appendix Table 15C Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0099(0092)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0244 0242(0154) (0155)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0033 0016(0099) (0100)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0021(0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0095 0097(0138) (0139)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0004 -0011(0085) (0086)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0134(0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0203 0181(0175) (0176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0140 0127(0107) (0107)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8709 8709 8709 8709
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
58
- text 10818
- tables 10-8-18
-
7
biologymdasheg where poverty through the experience of stress alters gene expression for
generations Our analysis of second generation outcomes will explore some of these channels
but not attempt to prioritize one over another
Work extending effects of in utero exposure to the 1918 flu to the third generation (the
grandchildren of those originally exposed in utero) in humans to the best of the authorsrsquo
knowledge does not exist The strongest evidence for a potential biological channel across
multiple generations comes from studies of historical data from Oumlverkalix region in Northern
Sweden that exploit variance in first generation grandparental food supply during childhood
Bygren Kaati et al (2001) for example find that an excess of food during the period just before
adolescence a time labeled the ldquoslow growth periodrdquo (SGP) shortens the grandsonrsquos longevity
A later study using the Oumlverkalix data replicates the results of Bygren Kaati et al (2001) in a
second cohort and further extends the results to include an association between first generation
paternal grandmotherrsquos food supply and granddaughterrsquos mortality risk (Pembrey Bygren et al
2006)4
Our work builds off of this evidence to conduct novel examinations of multigenerational
effects of in utero exposures in human populations The current research leverages a unique
survey to measure the multigenerational impacts of in utero exposure to the 1918 flu pandemic
Our hypothesis is that the previously documented direct effects of such shocks extend into the
outcomes of the second generation Going further we also estimate whether these effects
4 Van den Berg and Pinger (2014) externally validated the potential for transmission across three
generations by analyzing the impact of the German famine of 1916-1918 on the mental health outcomes
(an index from survey questions accounting for rsquogeneral mental healthrsquo rsquoemotional functioningrsquo rsquosocial
functioningrsquo and rsquovitalityrsquo) of the children and grandchildren of those exposed to the famine during their
SGP The authors find that paternal (maternal) grandfather (grandmothers) exposure during their SGP is
associated with better mental health in grandsons (granddaughters)
8
continue into the third generation In other words we ask whether the singular in utero shock has
a multigenerational effect--on the adult outcomes of those exposed in utero on their children
and on their grandchildren
Data and Empirical Methodology
Data
In order to examine multigenerational effects of an in utero exposure we require
multigenerational data Very few datasets in the US have a multigenerational component and fit
the relevant time period for our exposure (ie birth cohorts around 1918) Our data come from
the Wisconsin Longitudinal Survey (WLS) which is a random one-third survey of graduating
high school seniors in Wisconsin in 1957 The majority of these respondents were born in 1939
and form our second generation Thus the parents of the WLS graduates form our first
generation with birth years overlapping the 19181919 in utero exposure period This allows for
the creation of our primary measure for in utero exposure to the 1918 flu epidemic an indicator
9
for either first generation parent being born during the 1918-1919 range56 Additional data are
collected on the later life outcomes of the WLS graduates and a selected sibling as well as a
limited number of outcomes for the children (third generation) of the graduatessiblings
providing the structure for our multigenerational analysis
Summary statistics are presented in table 1 As shown approximately 10 percent of WLS
parents are born in either 1918 or 1919 On average fathers are born in 1907 and mothers are
born in 1911 consequently a birth year of 1918 or 1919 is closer to the right-tail of the
distribution of births and the rate of 10 percent is driven primarily by relatively young mother
exposures7 Since WLS graduatersquos fathers tend to be on average 4 years older than mothers this
right-tail problem is larger for generation 1 males This is seen in Figure 1 While not the
primary focus of the WLS data collection several parental (first generation) outcomes are
5 Parent year of birth is recorded from the WLS graduates This self-reported measure is used to create
the indicator of flu exposure those parents born in 1918 or 1919 To maximize sample size we use
differing waves of the WLS and reported birth years from biological siblings to supplement the reported
year of birth from WLS graduates Parent birth years are first collected for the 199293 graduate wave
Missing observations are then sequentially added from graduate reports in later wavesmdash2003 and 2011
After using all graduate reported year of parent birth variables observations are then filled in from
identically reported measures from a selected biological sibling
Specifically for mothers (gen 1 females) 7976 observations come from graduates in the 199293
wave 366 additional observations come from the 200305 wave 84 observations come from 2011 wave
and 68 observations come from the selected sibling This leaves a base sample size of 8494 ~94 of
which is from the graduate reported 199293 wave For fathers (gen 1 males) 7929 observations come
from graduates in the 199293 wave 361 additional observations come from the 200305 wave 77 come
from the 2011 wave and 91 observations come from siblings leaving a base sample size of 8458 (again
~94 is from the grad reported 199293 wave)
From this base 7 observations are dropped for gen-1-femalersquos (WLS motherrsquos) year of birth due
to reported gen 2rsquos year of birth being 10 or less years after gen 1rsquos year of birth 45 additional
observations are lost if this threshold is increased to 15 years For gen-1-malersquos year of birth 2
observations are removed for identical reasons this increases to 25 additional observations for the 15 year
threshold We attribute this reduction in the sample mostly to measurement error 6 The 1918 flu epidemic in Wisconsin was from September 1918 through December 1918 but did not
reach the severity experienced in many other states According to historical records Wisconsin had the
fourth lowest numbers of deaths out of 25 reporting states (Burg 2000 Shors and McFadden 2009) 7 Appendix tables 7 and 8 provide evidence that our results are not driven solely by confounding between
exposure to the influenza pandemic and being young mothers
10
available including years of schooling occupational prestige and family socioeconomic status
in 19578
[insert table 1 here]
The primary focus of the WLS data collection is high school seniors in 1957 Wisconsin
the second generation of our study Given this focus on graduates (and their siblings) a large
number of economic and health variables are available in each wave of the WLS (irregular
intervals roughly 10-15 years apart 197577 19929394 2003-20052004-2007 and in 2011)
In addition to examining years of schooling several additional dependent variables in the second
generation intend to capture broad differences in economic and health well-being9 These include
income during the peak earning years (ie family income collected when graduates are 53 years
of age on average) net worth at initial retirement age (ie net worth collected when graduates
are 65 years of age on average) and general indicators of health measured by body mass index
and a count of doctor diagnosed illnesses (both collected in the wave when graduates are age 53
on average) Finally the WLS data contains information that is collected from the second
generation about the third generation we focus on years of schooling as the main outcome of
interest
8 The index of socioeconomic status is a factor weighted score combining data on father and motherrsquos
years of schooling fatherrsquos occupational prestige and average parental income Replacing this measure
with average parental income (see appendix table 1) does not change the effect of the flu indicator Job
prestige measures for both mother and father are based on Duncanrsquos Socioeconomic Index which is a
measure of job prestige based on income education and surveyed perceptions of general social standing
for certain occupations (Duncan 1961) 9 We note that our three generations of individuals are drawn from three non-overlapping set of birth
years the mean birth year for generation 1 is ~1910 generation 2 is ~1940 generation 3 is ~1965 Thus
since we are performing the analysis separately by generation we are controlling for much of the time-
variation in the meaning of education We also perform analysis stratified by sex in Appendix Tables 10-
12 so that we can also control for the differential meaning of education in each generation
11
Empirical Methodology
Our empirical strategy follows that of Almond (2006) by examining harmful effects of being
exposed in utero on later life outcomes We then extend this analysis by estimating
multigenerational impacts on both the second and third generations In so doing the primary
estimating equation is given by the following form
119910119894119891119892 = 1205730 + 1205731(119884119874119861 = 191819)1198911 + 120632119931119943120783 + 120633119935119946119943119944 + 120576119894119891119892
Our primary focus is on the coefficient 1205731 which measures the effect of having a
parentgrandparent born in 1918-1919 on a number of outcomes for 119894 individuals in 119891 families
for generation 119892 Parent year of birth time trends and their square are denoted by 120632119931119943120783 120633119935119946119943119944
represents generation specific controls and 120576119894119891119892 is representative of a family clustered error
term
For the first generation we control for birth year and its square capturing age-specific
trends that are tied to our first-generation outcomes of interest (eg years of schooling) For the
analysis of second and third generations birth years and squares for both first generation parents
are included as controls along with generation-specific controls for sex age and birth order
Our estimation strategy follows an intent to treat design It is likely that the actual
incidence of flu differed by socioeconomic status and social standing (Mamelund 2018
Sydenstricker 1931) Our use of year-of-birth however avoids potential confounding by SES
because allmdashboth rich and poormdashare defined as treated if they are born in one of the two years
Although avoiding confounders associated with actual disease incidence this estimation strategy
will underestimate the true effect of flu exposure lowering the magnitude of our coefficient of
interest
12
Results
First Generation
Our initial analysis explores the direct effects of being born during the 1918 Influenza Epidemic
While health data are sparse for the WLS graduatersquos parents (first generation) a number of
economic outcomes are available especially during the initial sample year of 1957 Table 2
explores the relationship between these economic variables and an indicator for birth during
19181919 Columns (1)-(3) of table 2 show the relationship between a WLS graduatersquos father
being born during 19181919 and the fatherrsquos years of schooling the fatherrsquos occupational
prestige and the familyrsquos index of socioeconomic status in 1957 (ie when the first generation
members are approximately 40 years old) While statistically insignificant a negative association
is observed between years of schooling and being born in 1918 or 191910 This is carried over
into fatherrsquos job prestige in column (2) from which the indicator of in utero exposure to the 1918
flu is associated with an approximate 01 standard deviation decline in the index of occupational
prestige These effects culminate in column (3) which shows a statistically significant negative
effect of in utero exposure to the flu and later life economic well-being a 13 decline in the SES
index which corresponds to a decline of roughly 10 percent of a standard deviation The findings
of table 2 corroborate past studies that show in utero exposure to the 1918 flu led to poorer
economic outcomes later in life (Almond 2006)11
[insert table 2 here]
10 First generation years of schooling are reported by the second generation WLS graduates Measurement
error is likely which may result in the insignificant coefficients of table 2 11 Richter and Robling (2013 Table 12) find a similar effect for in utero female exposure to flu in the first
trimester
13
Mirroring the results for males in the first generation a negative but statistically
insignificant association is observed between an indicator of birth in 19181919 and schooling
for first generation females This association however becomes statistically significant at the 1
percent level for the index of family SES the coefficient being nearly identical to that of a
malersquos in utero exposure to the flu though it is unclear whether these effects flow from labor
market andor marriage market sources The findings of table 2 are extended in table 3 which
explores potential marriage market effects of early life exposure to the flu epidemic12
Column (1) of table 3 regresses the indicator for male in utero exposure on an identical
measure for spousersquos exposure Females who were born in 19181919 were 5 percentage points
more likely to marry men who were also born during the same period Furthermore as shown in
columns (2) and (3) these women were more likely to marry men with fewer years of school and
lower job prestige These effects are significant at the 1 percent level Similar effects are seen in
columns (4)-(6) for 19181919 born males who are 14 percentage points more likely to marry flu
exposed females (p=000) and marry females with 026 fewer years of schooling (p=0101)
Given the findings of table 3 however we cannot rule out that this is a marriage market effect13
[insert table 3 here]
Second Generation
Our hypothesis is that the direct effects observed in tables 2 and 3 extend into future generations
To address this hypothesis we regress a number of economic and health outcomes of the WLS
graduates and siblings the offspring of the first generation examined in tables 2 and 3 These
12 Mothers and fathers of WLS graduates are assumed to be married 13 Appendix table 2 repeats the estimation of table 3 while also controlling for an indicator of own-flu
exposure and own year of birth measures
14
estimations are performed in tables 4 and 5 Column (1) in both tables focus on an indicator for
either parent being born in 19181919 the primary regressor of column (2) is an indicator for
fatherrsquos (gen 1 males) in utero exposure to the 1918 flu column (3) considers motherrsquos (gen 1
females) exposure and column (4) includes separate indicators for both mother and fatherrsquos
exposure Controls included in all columns include fatherrsquos year of birth and its square motherrsquos
year of birth and its square an indicator for sex in the second generation a measure of birth
order in the second generation and second-generation year of birth and its square
Table 4 focuses on economic outcomes of the WLS graduates To reiterate our
hypothesis is that in utero exposure to the 1918 influenza pandemic has effects that persist for
multiple generations Table 2 shows the direct first generation effects while table 4 begins to
show the indirect effects that are transmitted to offspring Panel A regresses years of schooling in
the second generation on indicators of first generation exposure to the 1918 flu14 From column
(1) either parent being born in 19181919 is associated with a statistically significant decline of
021 years of schooling in the second generation This estimate is likely understated because the
sampling design of the WLS is a focus on high school seniors thus individuals with fewer than
twelve years of schooling are underrepresented in the data15 Columns (2)-(4) disambiguate this
effect into the maternal and paternal lines From which the effect of column (1) seems to be
driven by motherrsquos in utero exposure to the flu16
14 Appendix Table 6 includes a number of alternative measures for years of schooling in place of the
simple count used in Table 4 15 Table 3 includes selected siblings of the WLS graduates These siblings do not have to be high school
graduates 16 This finding differs from that of Richter and Robling (2013) who find maternal exposure tied to
daughter outcomes and paternal exposure tied to son outcomes
15
The findings of Panel A are extended into Panel B which replaces years of schooling as
the dependent variable with the natural log of family income for the 1992 wave a time when the
second generation respondents are 53 years of age on average and represents a time of peak
earning in the life course As with years of schooling a negative association is seen throughout
the specifications of Panel B Having either parent born in 19181919 is associated with a 22
percent decline in family income Once again this effect seems to be driven by motherrsquos not
fatherrsquos exposure Panel C replaces income with a measure of net worth for the 2004 wave This
measure of net worth is when the second generation respondents are on average 65 years of age
and is representative of earnings throughout the life course The dual indicator of column (1) is
negative but statistically insignificant at conventional levels (p=023) When looking at the effect
of mother exposure in column (3) however the effect becomes statistically significant at the
10 level (p=0069) implying those with mothers born during 19181919 have approximately
$36000 less in net worth by 2004
Following the broader health focus of the Barker hypothesis the economic effects of
table 4 are replaced with health measures in table 5 We consider three broad measures of
general health and well-being later in life self-reported health in later life (~53 years old)
height and BMI (again at ~53) The use of self-reported health is intended to capture general
well-being later in life (Fortin et al 2017) this is tested in Panel A of table 5 Mazumder et al
(2010) provide evidence that in utero exposure to the 1918 flu is associated with a reduction in
height and an increase cardiovascular disease so it is possible that these negative health
outcomes could be transmitted to offspring this is tested in Panel B of table 517 And given
17 Appendix Table 14 tests indicators for a number self-reported health conditions As shown a weak
positive association is shown between gen 1 female flu exposure and an indicator of cardiovascular
16
prior work linking early life exposure to the Dutch famine to BMI (Roseboom et al 2000) and
metabolic function (Lumey et al 2009) in adulthood as well as the fact that both the Dutch
famine and the 1918 flu impacted maternal stress and nutritional status18 we examine BMI as
another broad indicator of health for the second generation this is tested in Panel C of table 5 A
consistent pattern emerges across all panels Like SES outcomes in table 4 gen 1 female
exposure to the flu is shown to have negative statistically significant association with all health
outcomes in the second generation
From Panel A parentalmdashor gen 1mdashflu exposure reduces self-reported health by roughly
half a point (plt005) on a Likert scale from 1-5 1 being very poor health and 5 being excellent
health As shown and like prior estimates this effect is driven by gen 1 female exposure For
adult height gen 1 female exposure is associated with a reduction of about 02 inches (plt010)
which is larger than the direct effect documented by Mazumder et al of 005 inches however
Mazumder et alrsquos estimated effect falls within the 95 confidence interval of our estimated
coefficient Panel C considers the effect on second generation BMI From column (1) having
either parent being born in 19181919 is associated with a statistically significant increase in the
offspringrsquos BMI of 041 points As with the economic effects of table 4 this increase in BMI
appears to be driven by motherrsquos exposure This is seen in columns (2)-(4) which estimate a
statistically significant positive coefficient for motherrsquos exposure but a coefficient that is
statistically indistinguishable from zero for fatherrsquos exposure
disease during the 199293 wave of the WLS (Appendix Table 15A) This association however reduced
in magnitude and statistical significance for later-life waves of the WLS (Appendix Table 15B and 15C) 18 The Dutch famine influenced maternal nutritional status directly through caloric restriction and the
1918 flu through symptoms such as appetite loss vomiting andor diarrhea
17
A persistent effect of in utero exposure to the 1918 Flu is seen in tables 4 and 5 First
generation exposure consistently has a statistically significant and economically meaningful
effect on second generation health and economic outcomes And this effect appears to be driven
solely by motherrsquos exposure although due to marriage market associations we cannot
determine definitively that motherrsquos exposure produces this multigenerational effect through
biological mechanisms
Appendix Tables 10A-11G re-estimate Tables 4 and 5 splitting the sample by generation
2rsquos sex In short the negative effects of first generation exposure appear to be more prominent
in second generation males such that the harmful multi-generational effects are most prominent
in second generation men whose mothers were exposed to the 1918 flu19 Potential reasons for
this sex disparity could be tied to general trends in the differences between sons and daughters in
intergenerational mobility (Chadwick and Solon 2002) In other words sons are more likely to
inherit their families SES standing than daughters This implies that the negative gen 1 shock
from in utero exposure is more likely to affect sons through the proposed SES channel than
daughters resulting in a larger estimated effect for gen 2 males Furthermore there appears to
be a growing gap between in the intergenerational elastiticy between sons and daughters during
the time period in question (Olivetti and Paserman 2015) Another potential reason for the sex
difference could be the larger standard deviation in gen 2 male outcomes this is shown in
Appendix Table 9 Finally the findings of Appendix Tables 10A-11G differ from Richter and
Robling (2013) who show homogeneous sex effects from in utero flu exposure for education
19 When omitting those with no family income during the 1992 wave of the WLS negative effects from
gen 1 female flu exposure are primarily seen in second generation males This indicates however that
there is a greater frequency of no income amongst second generation females from gen 1 flu exposure
Additionally when looking at net worth in the 2011 wave of the WLS we see no difference by gen 2rsquos
sex
18
gen 1 female exposure led to reduction in gen 2 female education and gen 1 male exposure is
associated with gen 2 male education Given this disparity between the two studies our under-
representation for gen 1 male exposure and the mixed findings in Tables 10A-11G we view our
general finding of gen 1 female exposure working through gen 2 male outcomes as preliminary
and suggestive Indeed as we test in Appendix Tables 12A-12G the sex differences in gen 2 are
often not statistically significant
Third Generation
As mentioned previously the focus of the WLS data collection is high school graduates in 1957
but additional samples have been collected for a number of variables on the children of these
graduates Table 6 explores the effects of the WLS parents on the years of schooling for WLS
children estimating the effect of flu exposure across three generations20
Consistent with the second-generation estimations a persistent effect of the in utero flu
exposure is observed and this effect seems to be driven by grandmother exposure (gen 1
female) The joint indicator for either parent is negative and close to statistical significance at
the 10 percent level (p=0106) suggesting that exposure in the first generation is associated with
012 years of schooling less in the third generation The effect of grandfather exposure is
insignificantly different from zero while the coefficient of grandmother exposure is similar in
magnitude to the joint estimate of column (1) while being statistically significant at the 10
level (p=0066) Furthermore the decline in schooling seen in the third generation is similar but
slightly smaller in magnitude compared to the second generation effects seen in Panel A of table
20Analysis of the WLS gradsibling children (ie the third generation) restricts the sample to those
children that are biological children and that are 35 years of age and older by the 20032004 wave of the
WLS
19
421 This again indicates a persistent effect that may be attenuating over time Importantly while
the estimate for grandfather exposure is insignificant it is consistent with intergenerational
inheritance (Kuzawa and Eisenberg 2014) To say the same for grandmother exposure would
require effects to persist into the fourth generation (due to the differences in gametic
development) and this data is not available in the WLS
Conclusion
This paper presents novel evidence of multigenerational effects of in utero health insults We
use the sudden and unexpected influenza pandemic in 19181919 to trace out the effects of in
utero exposure to infectious disease on own outcomes for the first generation childrenrsquos
outcomes and grandchildrenrsquos outcomes We find that this exposure reduces educational
attainment and related economic outcomes across three generations For example individuals in
our second generation the WLS graduates and their siblings who have mothers who were
exposed to the 1918 flu in utero complete 15 fewer years of schooling (or 24 months less
schooling) The size of our estimated effect aligns well with those of Richter and Robling (2013)
who find that first generation in utero exposure to the 1918 flu results in 16 fewer years of
schooling (or 2 months to 25 months less schooling) for the maternal line We then extend
results to the third generation for the first time in the literature and find that individuals in the
third generation who have grandmothers who were exposed to the pandemic in utero complete
17 fewer years of schooling (or 17 months less schooling) than individuals without affected
grandmothers
21 For gen 1 female exposure in column (4) the p-value for a difference in coefficients between Panel A
of Table 4 and Table 6 is 0411 implying the effect in the third generation is statistically indistinguishable
from that in the second generation
20
There are at several potential mechanisms for the persistence of poor outcomes across
three generations we find in our data As previously outlined the intergenerational persistence in
poor outcomes due to early life health shocks could occur through socioeconomic channels
where a fetally insulted person with resulting low educational attainment raises a child in a low-
resource environment that reduces opportunities for high educational attainment of the child In
order to see multigenerational effects the reduced opportunities for high educational attainment
of the child must then reduce opportunities for their own children Alternatively
intergenerational transmission may occur through epigenetic inheritance through the germ line a
distinct possibility based on findings of the Oumlverkalix studies or phenotype-to-phenotype
transmission and cumulative intergenerational phenotypic change
Our analysis is unable to fully distinguish between these proposed intergenerational
channels the socioeconomic and biological but it is important to note that the channels are by no
means mutually exclusive Further analysis (appendix tables 3-5) that is intended to partially
account for the socioeconomic mechanism leads to mixed results in which the coefficient of first
generation flu exposure is attenuated to insignificance for some outcomes but not others This
provides evidence for a socioeconomic channel but does not eliminate the possibility of
epigenetic mechanisms or other biological channel through which socioeconomic status ldquogets
under the skinrdquo to influence outcomes of subsequent generations (eg the socioeconomic
circumstances of one generation may ldquoget under the skinrdquo of the next and subsequently be passed
via biology andor socioeconomics to other generations) Likewise the estimates of grandfather
effects on grandchildren are imprecise but consistent with transgenerational inheritance (Kuzawa
and Eisenberg 2014) Additionally while the WLS provides a unique framework to analyze
multiple generations the measurement of flu exposure is somewhat crude (from self-reported
21
parentsrsquo year of birth) and is in the right-tail of the distribution of parent birth years suggesting
the possibility of confounding from resource-poor younger mothers22 That is exposure to
influenza in the first generation is mechanically tied to motherrsquos ages of 20 and 21 because the
WLS sample is drawn based on having a child who was born in 1939 (and thus graduating high
school in 1957) While we cannot definitively separate these two effects our ability to compare
outcomes of slightly older mothers (ages 22 and 23 born in 1917 or 1916) provide evidence
more consistent with in utero exposure to influenza than impacts of having a mother who is
2021 years old
From a policy perspective our evidence may suggest a novel source of multigenerational
persistence in poverty through biosocial factors and suggest a need to consider evidence of
transgenerational social andor biological mechanisms We document the extent to which
harmful early life environments cascade through generations promoting a disadvantaged start for
those whose grandparents exposed to a hazardous early life environment
22 We specifically explore the confounding effects of younger mothers in appendix tables 7 and 8 These
tables show that younger mothers are indeed initially disadvantaged (ie less years of schooling)
however this young-mother disadvantage does not persist in subsequent generations Rather only those
mothers born in the 1918-1919 range have significant negative effects on later generations
22
References
Almond Doug 2006 Is the 1918 Influenza pandemic over Long‐term effects of in utero Influenza exposure in the post‐1940 US population Journal of Political Economy 114(4) 672-712
Almond Doug and Bhashkar Mazumder 2005 The 1918 Influenza Pandemic and Subsequent Health Outcomes An Analysis of SIPP Data American Economic Review 95(2) 258-262
Barker David James P 2007 The origins of the developmental origins theory Journal of Internal Medicine 261(5) 412-417
Benyshek Daniel C (2013) The ldquoearly liferdquo origins of obesity‐related health disorders New discoveries regarding the intergenerational transmission of developmentally programmed traits in the global cardiometabolic health crisis American Journal of Physical Anthropology 152(S57) 79-93
Brown Alan S and Elena J Derkits 2010 Prenatal infection and schizophrenia a review of epidemiologic and translational studies American Journal of Psychiatry 167(3) 261-280
Burg Steven 2000 Wisconsin and the Great Spanish Flu Epidemic of 1918rdquo Wisconsin Magazine of History 84(1) 36-56
Bygren LarsOlov Gunnar Kaati and Soumlren Edvinsson 2001 Longevity determined by paternal ancestors nutrition during their slow growth period Acta biotheoretica 49(1) 53-59
Canetta Sarah E and Alan S Brown 2012 Prenatal infection maternal immune activation and risk for schizophrenia Translational Neuroscience 3(4) 320-327
Chadwick L and Solon G (2002) Intergenerational income mobility among daughters American Economic Review 92(1) 335-344
Cohen Alan A John Tillinghast and Vladimir Canudas-Romo 2010 No consistent effects of prenatal or neonatal exposure to Spanish flu on late-life mortality in 24 developed countries Demographic Research 22(20) 579
Fatemi S Hossein Julie Earle Reena Kanodia David Kist Effat S Emamian Paul H Patterson Limin Shi and Robert Sidwell 2002 Prenatal viral infection leads to pyramidal cell atrophy and macrocephaly in adulthood implications for genesis of autism and schizophrenia Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology 22(1) 25-33
Fletcher Jason 2014 Examining the Long Term Mortality Effects of Early Health Shocks US Census Bureau Center for Economic Studies Paper No CES-WP-14-19
Kaati Gunnar Lars O Bygren and Soren Edvinsson 2002 Cardiovascular and diabetes mortality determined by nutrition during parents and grandparents slow growth period European Journal of Human Genetics EJHG 10(11) 682
Kash John C Terrence M Tumpey Sean C Proll Victoria Carter Olivia Perwitasari Matthew J Thomas Christopher F Basler et al 2006 Genomic analysis of increased host immune and cell death responses induced by 1918 influenza virus Nature 443(7111) 578-581
Kobasa Darwyn Steven M Jones Kyoko Shinya John C Kash John Copps Hideki Ebihara Yasuko Hatta et al 2007 Aberrant innate immune response in lethal infection of macaques with the 1918 influenza virus Nature 445 (7125) 319-323
Kuzawa Christopher W and Dan T Eisenberg 2014 The Long Reach of History Intergenerational and Transgenerational Pathwaysto Plasticity in Human Longevity Sociality Hierarchy Health Comparative Biodemography Papers from a Workshop National Academies Press
Li Wai-Yu Yi-Chun Chang L Jyuhn-Hsiarn Lee and Li-Jen Lee 2014 Prenatal infection affects the neuronal architecture and cognitive function in adult mice Developmental Neuroscience 36(5) 359-370
23
Lin Ming-Jen and Elaine M Liu 2014 Does in utero exposure to illness matter The 1918 influenza epidemic in Taiwan as a natural experiment Journal of Health Economics 37 152-163
Lindeboom Maarten France Portrait and Gerard J Van den Berg 2010 Long-run effects on longevity of a nutritional shock early in life the Dutch Potato famine of 1846ndash1847 Journal of Health Economics 29(5) 617-629
Mamelund SE (2018) 1918 pandemic mobidity The first wave hits the poor the second wave hits the rich Influenza and Other Respitory Viruses 12(3) 307-313
Mazumder Bhashkar Douglas Almond Kyung Park Eileen M Crimmins and Caleb E Finch 2010 Lingering prenatal effects of the 1918 influenza pandemic on cardiovascular disease Journal of developmental origins of health and disease 1(1) 26-34
Miller Veronica Y Zhu C Bucher W McGinnis L Ryan A Siegel and S Zalcman 2013 Gestational flu exposure induces changes in neurochemicals affiliative hormones and brainstem inflammation in addition to autism-like behaviors in mice Brain Behavior and Immunity 33 153-163
Myrskylauml Mikko Neil K Mehta and Virginia W Chang 2013 Early life exposure to the 1918 influenza pandemic and old-age mortality by cause of death American Journal of Public Health 103(7) e83-e90
Olivetti C and Paserman MD (2015) In the name of the son (and the daughter) Intergenerational mobility in the United States 1850-1940 American Economic Review 105(8) 2695-2724
Pembrey Marcus E Lars Olov Bygren Gunnar Kaati Soumlren Edvinsson Kate Northstone Michael Sjoumlstroumlm and Jean Golding 2006 Sex-specific male-line transgenerational responses in humans European Journal of Human Genetics 14(2) 159-166
Richter Andreacute and Per Olof Robling 2013 Multigenerational effects of the 1918-19 influenza pandemic in Sweden Swedish Institute for Social Research 5
Shors Teri and Susan H McFadden 2009 1918 Influenza A Winnebago County Wisconsin Perspective Clinical Medicine amp Research 7(4) 147-156
Sydenstricker E (1931) The incidence of influenza among persons of different economic status during the epidemic of 1918 Public Health Reports 46(4) 154-170
van den Berg Gerard J and Pia R Pinger 2013 A validation study of transgenerational effects of childhood conditions on the third generation offsprings economic and health outcomes potentially driven by epigenetic imprinting IZA Discussion Paper
Tables and Figures
Table 1 Summary Statistics
Variable N Mean Std Deviation
First GenerartionFlu Indicators
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 8368 0112 0315Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 8456 0030 0170Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 8487 0093 0290
ControlsFirst Generation Malersquos Year of Birth 8456 1907435 7021First Generation Femalersquos Year of Birth 8427 1911189 6164
Dependent VariablesFirst Generation Malersquos Years of Schooling 8456 9778 3392First Generation Femalersquos Years of Schooing 8487 10499 2804First Generation Malersquos Job Prestige 8385 330662 214361First Generation Femalersquos Job Prestige 6683 12814 19934Family SES 8487 16231 11143
Second GenerationControls
Female Indicator 12459 0530 0499Birth Year 12459 1939406 4289Birth Order 12459 2529 1828
Dependent VariablesYears of Schooling 12459 13678 2361Family Income 1992 (in $1000s) 12112 68027 177105Net Worth 2004 (in $1000s) 10498 913046 2558927Self-reported health 1992 9888 4149 0668Height (inches) 9783 67406 3851BMI 1992 9671 26742 4657
Third GenerationControls
Birth Year 19913 1963901 3636Female Indicator 19913 0497 0500Birth Order 19913 2196 1263
Dependent VariableYears of Schooling 19913 14294 2309
Summary amp Notes This table provides summary statistics for all variables used The samples above may not berepresentative for all estimations For example the inclusion of siblings in the second generation increase the sample of parentalyear of birth and the corresponding flu indicator This increase in sample does not significantly change the sample statisticsabove Similar sample changes occur for the second generation controls above For the third generation the sample is restrictedto biological children over 35 years of age
24
Tab
le2
Fir
stG
ener
atio
n
Eco
nom
icE
ffec
ts
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
am
ily
SE
SY
ears
of
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
am
ily
SE
S(1
)(2
)(3
)(4
)(5
)(6
)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale)
-01
39
-01
16lowast
-12
90lowast
lowast
(02
00)
(00
60)
(05
99)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emal
e)-0
133
-00
66
-13
61lowastlowast
lowast
(00
95)
(00
43)
(03
76)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
YY
YY
YY
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8456
8385
8456
8487
6683
8487
RS
qr
00
32
00
08
00
23
00
13
00
04
00
13
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
pro
vid
esd
irec
teff
ects
of
inu
tero
an
dea
rly
life
exp
osu
reto
the
1918
Flu
Ep
idem
ic
Bir
thye
ar
tim
etr
end
sin
lcu
de
yea
rof
bir
than
dit
ssq
uar
ean
din
clu
sion
inth
ees
tim
atio
nis
par
ent
spec
ific
All
esti
mati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
an
dard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
alsi
gnifi
can
ceis
den
oted
by
an
d
re
pre
senti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vel
y
25
Tab
le3
Fir
stG
ener
atio
n
Mar
riag
eM
arke
tE
ffec
ts
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Flu
Bir
thY
ear
Yea
rsof
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
luB
irth
Yea
rY
ears
of
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
e(1
)(2
)(3
)(4
)(5
)(6
)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale)
01
40lowast
lowastlowast-0
259
-00
39
(00
34)
(01
58)
(00
72)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emal
e)0
056lowast
lowastlowast-0
340lowast
lowastlowast-0
118lowastlowast
lowast
(00
14)
(01
17)
(00
36)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
YY
YY
YY
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8348
8487
8412
8348
8456
6660
RS
qr
00
90
00
11
00
08
01
20
00
21
00
01
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
pro
vid
esev
iden
ceof
marr
iage
mark
etse
lect
ion
inth
efi
rst
gen
erati
on
B
irth
year
tim
etr
end
sin
clu
de
year
of
bir
than
dit
ssq
uare
and
incl
usi
onin
the
esti
mat
ion
isp
aren
tsp
ecifi
cA
lles
tim
ati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
an
dard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
sign
ifica
nce
isd
enot
edby
an
d
re
pre
senti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vely
26
Table 4 Second Generation Economic Effects
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Years of Schooling
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0209lowastlowastlowast
(0073)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0084 -0059(0129) (0129)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0211lowastlowastlowast -0209lowastlowastlowast
(0075) (0075)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0085 0084 0085 0085
Panel B ln Family Income 1992
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0221lowastlowast
(0111)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0098 -0066(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0262lowastlowast -0259lowastlowast
(0116) (0116)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112R Sqr 0021 0021 0021 0021
Panel C Std Net Worth 2004
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0026(0022)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0033 0038(0047) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0038lowast -0040lowast
(0021) (0021)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498R Sqr 0007 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table provides evidence of signficant harmful effects of flu exposure in the first generation on secondgeneration economic outcomes First generation time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents(ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and itssquare and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
27
Table 5 Second Generation Health Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Self-reported health (Likert 1=very poor 5=excellent)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0054lowastlowast
(0027)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0005(0047) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0061lowastlowast -0061lowastlowast
(0028) (0028)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Panel B Height (inches)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0101)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0102 0127(0168) (0168)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0169lowast -0175lowast
(0103) (0103)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783r2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Panel C BMI
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0412lowastlowast
(0191)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0082 0023(0344) (0346)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0422lowastlowast 0421lowastlowast
(0193) (0194)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table provides evidence of harmful effects of flu exposure in the first generation on secondgeneration health outcomes First generation time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents (iegen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and itssquare and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
28
Table 6 Generation Three Effects of Generation One Flu Exposure Years of Schooling
Dependent Variable Years of Schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0125(0077)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Male) -0007 0010(0136) (0136)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Female) -0144lowast -0144lowast
(0078) (0078)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913R Sqr 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table shows that the generational effects of flu exposure extend into the third generation of theWLS First generation flu exposure is shown to have a negative association with third generation years of schooling Firstgeneration time trends are year of birth measures for each parent and their square Second generation controls inlcude anindicator for sex second generation year of birth and its square and birth order Third generation controls include a sexindicator year of birth and its square and birth order Given the focus on years of schooling the sample is restricted to thosethird generation individuals 35 years of age and older or born during or before 1970 (data were collected in 2005) Allestimation is performed with OLS with family (second generation) clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
29
(a)
Fat
her
(b)
Moth
er
Fig
ure
1F
irst
Gen
erat
ion
Dis
trib
uti
onof
Yea
rof
Bir
th
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
figu
rep
lots
the
dis
trib
uti
on
for
firs
tgen
erati
on
year
of
bir
th
Flu
exp
osu
reis
class
ified
as
bei
ng
born
inei
ther
1918
or
1919
30
Appendix Tables
Appendix Table 1 First Generation Flu Exposure Effect on Family Income
Dependent Variable Family Income ($100s) 1957
(1) (2)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -3366(2592)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -5363lowastlowast
(2390)
Birth Year Time Trends Y YObservations 7440 7456R Sqr 0013 0004
Summary amp Notes This table replaces the index of socioeconomic status with family income (in $100s) in 1957 Allestimation is performed with OLS with robust standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
31
App
endix
Tab
le2
Mar
riag
eM
arke
tE
ffec
ts
Con
trol
ling
for
Ow
nY
ear
ofB
irth
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
Job
Pre
stig
eY
ears
of
Sch
Job
Pre
stig
e
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale
)-0
052
-211
82
-01
98
-03
74
(02
03)
(131
30)
(01
61)
(14
38)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emale
)-0
346lowast
lowastlowast-2
44
97lowastlowast
lowast-0
103
-13
88
(01
16)
(76
88)
(00
94)
(08
54)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
(Male
an
dF
emale
)Y
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8348
8279
8348
6587
RS
qr
00
40
00
22
00
25
00
04
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
re-e
stim
ates
Tab
le3
wh
ile
contr
oll
ing
for
year
of
bir
than
dfl
uin
dic
ato
rsass
oci
ate
dw
ith
the
spou
sein
the
dep
end
ent
vari
ab
le
All
esti
mat
ion
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
and
ard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
sign
ifica
nce
isd
enote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
atth
e10
5
and
1le
vel
sre
spec
tive
ly
32
Appendix Table 3 2nd Gen Economic Effects Controlling for 1st Gen Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Years of Schooling
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0088(0070)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0005 0008(0119) (0119)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0116 -0117(0072) (0072)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0206 0206 0206 0206
Panel B ln Family Income 1992
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0193lowast
(0111)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0080 -0050(0184) (0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0240lowastlowast -0238lowastlowast
(0116) (0116)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112R Sqr 0024 0024 0024 0024
Panel C Std Normal Net Worth 2004
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0003(0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0047 0049(0046) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0019 -0021(0020) (0020)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498R Sqr 0033 0033 0033 0033
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 4 while controlling for generation one economic outcomes fatherrsquos years ofschooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 First generation time trends are given by year of birth and itssquare for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex secondgeneration year of birth and its square and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standarderrors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and1 levels respectively 33
Appendix Table 4 2nd Gen Health Effects Controlling for 1st Gen Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A BMI
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0352lowast
(0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0051 -0001(0342) (0344)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0372lowast 0372lowast
(0192) (0193)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671R Sqr 0035 0035 0035 0035
Panel B Count of Illnesses
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0122lowast
(0065)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0076 -0096(0102) (0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0139lowastlowast 0144lowastlowast
(0067) (0068)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9921 9921 9921 9921R Sqr 0046 0046 0046 0046
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 5 while controlling for generation one economic outcomes fatherrsquos years ofschooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 First generation time trends are given by year of birth and itssquare for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex secondgeneration year of birth and its square and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standarderrors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and1 levels respectively
34
Appendix Table 5 Generation threersquos years of schooling Controlling for previous generation economicwell-being
Dependent Variable Years of Schooling for Gen 3(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A First Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0069(0076)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0022 0034(0133) (0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0102 -0104(0077) (0078)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913R Sqr 0117 0117 0117 0117
Panel B Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0025(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0008 0013(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0038 -0039(0073) (0073)
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0190 0190 0190 0190
Panel C First and Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0008(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0016 0019(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0028 -0029(0073) (0073)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0196 0196 0196 0196
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 6 while controlling for generation one and tworsquos economic outcomes Forgeneration one these include fatherrsquos years of schooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 generation twocontrols include the WLS graduatesiblingrsquos years of schooling family income in 1992 and net worth in 2004 First generationtime trends are year of birth measures for each parent and their square Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sexsecond generation year of birth and its square and birth order Third generation controls include a sex indicator year of birthand its square and birth order Given the focus on years of schooling the sample is restricted to those third generationindividuals 35 years of age and older or born during or before 1970 (data were collected in 2005) All estimation is performedwith OLS with family (second generation) clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denotedby and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
35
Appendix Table 6 Alternative measures of schooling in the second generation
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Indicator for any college (years of schooling gt12)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0044lowastlowastlowast
(0017)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0011 -0006(0029) (0029)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0044lowastlowast -0043lowastlowast
(0017) (0017)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0071 0070 0071 0071
Panel B Indicator for incomplete college (years of schooling gt12 amp lt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0008(0013)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 -0001(0022) (0022)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0008 -0008(0013) (0013)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0005 0005 0005 0005
Panel C Indicator for college graduate (years of schooling = 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0022lowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0003 0006(0020) (0020)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0021lowast -0021lowastlowast
(0011) (0011)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0019 0019 0019 0019
Panel D Indicator for post-college education (years of schooling gt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0014(0010)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0011(0018) (0018)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0014 -0014(0010) (0010)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0039 0039 0039 0039
Summary amp Notes This table replaces our continuous measure of years of schooling with specified dummy variables Firstgeneration time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Secondgeneration controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and its square and birth order All estimationis performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
36
Appendix Table 7 Young mothers Direct effect on Gen 1 Females
Dependent Variable Years of Sch Job Prestige Family SES
(1) (2) (3)
Ind for First Gen Female Flu Exposure (1918-1919) -0325lowastlowast -0841 -1749lowastlowastlowast
(0137) (1015) (0584)
Ind for mother born during 1920-1921 -0567lowastlowastlowast 0745 -1157(0206) (1515) (0914)
Ind for mother born during 1922-1923 -0666lowastlowast 0098 -2113(0330) (2210) (1298)
Ind for mother born after 1924 -0392 5682 0384(0486) (3705) (2126)
Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y
Observations 8487 6683 8487R Sqr 0014 0005 0014
Summary amp Notes This table includes indicators for alternative years of birth Younger mothers are shown to have lessyears of schooling All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
37
App
endix
Tab
le8
You
ng
mot
her
sG
ener
atio
n2
and
3eff
ects
Gen
2
Gen
3
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
ln
Fam
In
c
1992
Std
N
W
2004
Sel
f-re
p
hea
lth
Hei
ght
BM
IY
ears
of
Sch
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
emal
eF
luE
xp
osu
re(1
918-
1919
)-0
201lowastlowast
-02
95lowastlowast
-00
45
-00
73lowastlowast
-00
90
02
07
-00
86(0
092)
(01
32)
(00
32)
(00
32)
(01
22)
(02
25)
(00
94)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
20-1
921
-00
22
-00
40
-00
10
-00
61
01
33
-04
10
01
13
(01
37)
(01
74)
(00
51)
(00
43)
(01
80)
(03
11)
(01
41)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
22-1
923
-00
96
-01
88
-00
57
00
20
04
61
-11
29lowastlowast
01
55(0
184)
(03
20)
(00
61)
(00
75)
(02
83)
(04
51)
(02
23)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
afte
r19
2404
58
-01
87
00
01
-00
27
03
12
-08
85
03
99
(03
06)
(03
94)
(00
87)
(01
27)
(04
94)
(10
70)
(03
21)
Bas
eC
ontr
ols
YY
YY
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
12459
12112
10498
9888
9783
9671
19913
RS
qr
00
85
00
21
00
08
00
09
05
86
00
29
00
79
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
incl
ud
esin
dic
ator
sfo
ralt
ernati
ve
years
of
bir
th
Bei
ng
born
toa
you
nger
moth
ergen
erall
yis
not
ass
oci
ate
dw
ith
gen
erati
on
2or
3rsquos
outc
omes
ofin
tere
st
inst
ead
n
egat
ive
effec
tsar
eon
lyob
serv
edfo
rth
ose
born
du
rin
gth
efl
u
All
esti
mati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hfa
mil
y(2
nd
gen
erat
ion
)cl
ust
ered
stan
dar
der
rors
rep
orte
din
par
enth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
signifi
can
ceis
den
ote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vel
y
38
Appendix Table 9 Summary Statistics by Gen 2 Sex
Variable N Mean Std Deviation
FemaleYears of Schooling 6607 13352 2088ln Family Income (1992 wave) 6411 9424 3577
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5654 10686 1010Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 5612 -0047 0539Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 5313 4164 0670Height (inches) 5231 646635 247936BMI 5124 26073 5114
Gen 3Years of Schooling 11947 14240 2291
MaleYears of Schooling 5852 14047 2587ln Family Income (1992 wave) 5701 10139 3030
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5264 10981 0836Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 4886 0059 1159Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 4575 4133 0665Height (inches) 4554 7055484 25596BMI 4547 27496 3948
Gen 3Years of Schooling 8046 14371 2332
Appendix Table 10A Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0090(0086)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0198 0214(0169) (0169)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104 -0114(0087) (0087)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6607 6607 6607 6607R Sqr 0075 0075 0075 0075
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
39
Appendix Table 10B Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0523lowastlowastlowast
(0170)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0483 -0410(0321) (0323)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0512lowastlowastlowast -0491lowastlowastlowast
(0179) (0180)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6411 6411 6411 6411R Sqr 0015 0013 0014 0015
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10C Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0007(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0078lowast 0078(0048) (0048)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0008 0005(0025) (0025)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5612 5612 5612 5612R Sqr 0007 0007 0007 0007
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
40
Appendix Table 10D Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0027(0036)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 -0001(0071) (0071)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0022 -0022(0037) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5313 5313 5313 5313r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10E Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -2382(13366)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 44280lowastlowast 46351lowastlowast
(22343) (22480)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -12253 -14428(13485) (13561)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5231 5231 5231 5231r2 0015 0016 0015 0016
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
41
Appendix Table 10F Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0353(0286)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0105 0060(0514) (0516)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0326 0323(0289) (0290)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5124 5124 5124 5124R Sqr 0010 0010 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0087(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0104 -0101(0190) (0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0042 -0039(0098) (0098)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 11906 11906 11906 11906R Sqr 0086 0086 0086 0086
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
42
Appendix Table 11A Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0322lowastlowastlowast
(0116)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0369lowastlowast -0338lowast
(0181) (0180)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0309lowastlowastlowast -0297lowastlowast
(0119) (0119)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5852 5852 5852 5852R Sqr 0060 0059 0060 0060
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11B RResults by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0116(0138)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0262 0261(0200) (0199)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0024 0014(0141) (0140)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5701 5701 5701 5701R Sqr 0009 0009 0008 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
43
Appendix Table 11C Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0038)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0001(0081) (0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0094lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0035)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4886 4886 4886 4886R Sqr 0004 0004 0004 0004
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
44
Appendix Table 11D Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0083lowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 0012(0062) (0062)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104lowastlowastlowast -0105lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0041)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4575 4575 4575 4575r2 0010 0009 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11E Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -15122(14275)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -22991 -20537(23287) (23176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -18595 -17540(14734) (14751)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4554 4554 4554 4554r2 0011 0011 0011 0011
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
45
Appendix Table 11F Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0465lowast
(0238)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0079 0006(0403) (0405)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0520lowastlowast 0520lowastlowast
(0245) (0246)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4547 4547 4547 4547R Sqr 0006 0005 0006 0006
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0177(0123)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0098 0144(0194) (0192)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0293lowastlowast -0302lowastlowast
(0125) (0126)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8007 8007 8007 8007R Sqr 0067 0067 0068 0068
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
46
Appendix Table 12A Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0253lowastlowast
(0107)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0252 -0226(0170) (0172)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0263lowastlowast -0242lowastlowast
(0113) (0115)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0084(0120)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0341 0339(0216) (0219)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0096 0056(0130) (0132)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459r2 0085 0085 0085 0085
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
47
Appendix Table 12B Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0128)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0196 0169(0190) (0189)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0081 -0104(0135) (0135)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0383lowastlowast
(0189)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0594lowast -0474(0349) (0355)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0339lowast -0283(0204) (0207)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112r2 0021 0021 0021 0021
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
48
Appendix Table 12C Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0034)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0019(0077) (0079)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0095lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0030) (0031)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0071lowast
(0038)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0072 0039(0087) (0089)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0104lowastlowastlowast 0100lowastlowastlowast
(0035) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498r2 0008 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
49
Appendix Table 12D Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0071lowast
(0036)[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0012 0031
(0058) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0093lowastlowast -0097lowastlowast
(0039) (0039)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0030(0045)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0031 -0051(0087) (0088)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0059 0065(0048) (0049)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
50
Appendix Table 12E Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0129 -0125(0223) (0224)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0152 -0129(0141) (0142)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0000(0158)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0454 0495lowast
(0279) (0287)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0031 -0090(0170) (0175)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783nr2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
51
Appendix Table 12F Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0376(0231)
[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0059 -0122(0402) (0407)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0441lowast 0457lowast
(0240) (0243)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0068(0316)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0282 0288(0573) (0589)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0035 -0069(0340) (0350)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
52
Appendix Table 12G Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0131(0114)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male 0114 0175(0185) (0188)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0237lowastlowast -0261lowastlowast
(0118) (0121)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0009(0133)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0225 -0292(0249) (0254)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0152 0189(0141) (0145)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913r2 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
53
Appendix Table 13 Family Income 1992 excluding non-earners (ie fam inc = 0)
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992 wave (excluding those reporting 0)(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0095lowastlowastlowast
(0033)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0031 -0019(0053) (0053)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0101lowastlowastlowast -0100lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0034)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10918 10918 10918 10918r2 0050 0049 0050 0050
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0084lowast
(0050)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0019 -0007(0089) (0090)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0083 -0083(0053) (0054)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5654 5654 5654 5654r2 0026 0026 0026 0026
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102lowastlowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0051 -0040(0060) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0113lowastlowastlowast -0112lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0040)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5264 5264 5264 5264r2 0029 0028 0029 0029
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel B in Table 4 excluding those who report $0 for familyincome All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
54
Appendix Table 14 Net Worth 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable Std Net Worth 2011 Wave of WLS(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0032lowastlowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0023lowast -0021lowast
(0012) (0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0032lowastlowastlowast -0031lowastlowastlowast
(0010) (0010)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9435 9435 9435 9435r2 0002 0002 0002 0002
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0012lowast
(0006)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0009 -0008(0009) (0009)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0012lowastlowast -0011lowastlowast
(0006) (0006)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5026 5026 5026 5026r2 0007 0006 0007 0007
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0057lowastlowast
(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0040lowast -0036lowast
(0023) (0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0057lowastlowast -0056lowastlowast
(0023) (0022)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4409 4409 4409 4409r2 0001 0001 0001 0001
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel C in Table 4 replacing the net worth measure from the 2004wave with an identical measure from the 2011 wave of the WLS All estimation is performed with OLS with family clusteredstandard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 105 and 1 levels respectively
55
Appendix Table 15A Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 1992 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0243(0152)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0107 0039(0252) (0255)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0285lowast 0282lowast
(0158) (0160)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9849 9849 9849 9849
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0007(0091)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0210 -0216(0170) (0173)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0007 0024(0095) (0097)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9858 9858 9858 9858
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0255(0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0107 -0169(0328) (0338)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0237 0252(0193) (0198)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9845 9845 9845 9845
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
56
Appendix Table 15B Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2004 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0018(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0190 0207(0160) (0162)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0066 -0083(0102) (0104)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10672 10672 10672 10672
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0096 0108(0124) (0125)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0051 -0059(0076) (0077)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10619 10619 10619 10619
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0108(0110)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0064 0027(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0181 0179(0113) (0113)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10617 10617 10617 10617
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
57
Appendix Table 15C Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0099(0092)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0244 0242(0154) (0155)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0033 0016(0099) (0100)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0021(0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0095 0097(0138) (0139)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0004 -0011(0085) (0086)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0134(0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0203 0181(0175) (0176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0140 0127(0107) (0107)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8709 8709 8709 8709
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
58
- text 10818
- tables 10-8-18
-
8
continue into the third generation In other words we ask whether the singular in utero shock has
a multigenerational effect--on the adult outcomes of those exposed in utero on their children
and on their grandchildren
Data and Empirical Methodology
Data
In order to examine multigenerational effects of an in utero exposure we require
multigenerational data Very few datasets in the US have a multigenerational component and fit
the relevant time period for our exposure (ie birth cohorts around 1918) Our data come from
the Wisconsin Longitudinal Survey (WLS) which is a random one-third survey of graduating
high school seniors in Wisconsin in 1957 The majority of these respondents were born in 1939
and form our second generation Thus the parents of the WLS graduates form our first
generation with birth years overlapping the 19181919 in utero exposure period This allows for
the creation of our primary measure for in utero exposure to the 1918 flu epidemic an indicator
9
for either first generation parent being born during the 1918-1919 range56 Additional data are
collected on the later life outcomes of the WLS graduates and a selected sibling as well as a
limited number of outcomes for the children (third generation) of the graduatessiblings
providing the structure for our multigenerational analysis
Summary statistics are presented in table 1 As shown approximately 10 percent of WLS
parents are born in either 1918 or 1919 On average fathers are born in 1907 and mothers are
born in 1911 consequently a birth year of 1918 or 1919 is closer to the right-tail of the
distribution of births and the rate of 10 percent is driven primarily by relatively young mother
exposures7 Since WLS graduatersquos fathers tend to be on average 4 years older than mothers this
right-tail problem is larger for generation 1 males This is seen in Figure 1 While not the
primary focus of the WLS data collection several parental (first generation) outcomes are
5 Parent year of birth is recorded from the WLS graduates This self-reported measure is used to create
the indicator of flu exposure those parents born in 1918 or 1919 To maximize sample size we use
differing waves of the WLS and reported birth years from biological siblings to supplement the reported
year of birth from WLS graduates Parent birth years are first collected for the 199293 graduate wave
Missing observations are then sequentially added from graduate reports in later wavesmdash2003 and 2011
After using all graduate reported year of parent birth variables observations are then filled in from
identically reported measures from a selected biological sibling
Specifically for mothers (gen 1 females) 7976 observations come from graduates in the 199293
wave 366 additional observations come from the 200305 wave 84 observations come from 2011 wave
and 68 observations come from the selected sibling This leaves a base sample size of 8494 ~94 of
which is from the graduate reported 199293 wave For fathers (gen 1 males) 7929 observations come
from graduates in the 199293 wave 361 additional observations come from the 200305 wave 77 come
from the 2011 wave and 91 observations come from siblings leaving a base sample size of 8458 (again
~94 is from the grad reported 199293 wave)
From this base 7 observations are dropped for gen-1-femalersquos (WLS motherrsquos) year of birth due
to reported gen 2rsquos year of birth being 10 or less years after gen 1rsquos year of birth 45 additional
observations are lost if this threshold is increased to 15 years For gen-1-malersquos year of birth 2
observations are removed for identical reasons this increases to 25 additional observations for the 15 year
threshold We attribute this reduction in the sample mostly to measurement error 6 The 1918 flu epidemic in Wisconsin was from September 1918 through December 1918 but did not
reach the severity experienced in many other states According to historical records Wisconsin had the
fourth lowest numbers of deaths out of 25 reporting states (Burg 2000 Shors and McFadden 2009) 7 Appendix tables 7 and 8 provide evidence that our results are not driven solely by confounding between
exposure to the influenza pandemic and being young mothers
10
available including years of schooling occupational prestige and family socioeconomic status
in 19578
[insert table 1 here]
The primary focus of the WLS data collection is high school seniors in 1957 Wisconsin
the second generation of our study Given this focus on graduates (and their siblings) a large
number of economic and health variables are available in each wave of the WLS (irregular
intervals roughly 10-15 years apart 197577 19929394 2003-20052004-2007 and in 2011)
In addition to examining years of schooling several additional dependent variables in the second
generation intend to capture broad differences in economic and health well-being9 These include
income during the peak earning years (ie family income collected when graduates are 53 years
of age on average) net worth at initial retirement age (ie net worth collected when graduates
are 65 years of age on average) and general indicators of health measured by body mass index
and a count of doctor diagnosed illnesses (both collected in the wave when graduates are age 53
on average) Finally the WLS data contains information that is collected from the second
generation about the third generation we focus on years of schooling as the main outcome of
interest
8 The index of socioeconomic status is a factor weighted score combining data on father and motherrsquos
years of schooling fatherrsquos occupational prestige and average parental income Replacing this measure
with average parental income (see appendix table 1) does not change the effect of the flu indicator Job
prestige measures for both mother and father are based on Duncanrsquos Socioeconomic Index which is a
measure of job prestige based on income education and surveyed perceptions of general social standing
for certain occupations (Duncan 1961) 9 We note that our three generations of individuals are drawn from three non-overlapping set of birth
years the mean birth year for generation 1 is ~1910 generation 2 is ~1940 generation 3 is ~1965 Thus
since we are performing the analysis separately by generation we are controlling for much of the time-
variation in the meaning of education We also perform analysis stratified by sex in Appendix Tables 10-
12 so that we can also control for the differential meaning of education in each generation
11
Empirical Methodology
Our empirical strategy follows that of Almond (2006) by examining harmful effects of being
exposed in utero on later life outcomes We then extend this analysis by estimating
multigenerational impacts on both the second and third generations In so doing the primary
estimating equation is given by the following form
119910119894119891119892 = 1205730 + 1205731(119884119874119861 = 191819)1198911 + 120632119931119943120783 + 120633119935119946119943119944 + 120576119894119891119892
Our primary focus is on the coefficient 1205731 which measures the effect of having a
parentgrandparent born in 1918-1919 on a number of outcomes for 119894 individuals in 119891 families
for generation 119892 Parent year of birth time trends and their square are denoted by 120632119931119943120783 120633119935119946119943119944
represents generation specific controls and 120576119894119891119892 is representative of a family clustered error
term
For the first generation we control for birth year and its square capturing age-specific
trends that are tied to our first-generation outcomes of interest (eg years of schooling) For the
analysis of second and third generations birth years and squares for both first generation parents
are included as controls along with generation-specific controls for sex age and birth order
Our estimation strategy follows an intent to treat design It is likely that the actual
incidence of flu differed by socioeconomic status and social standing (Mamelund 2018
Sydenstricker 1931) Our use of year-of-birth however avoids potential confounding by SES
because allmdashboth rich and poormdashare defined as treated if they are born in one of the two years
Although avoiding confounders associated with actual disease incidence this estimation strategy
will underestimate the true effect of flu exposure lowering the magnitude of our coefficient of
interest
12
Results
First Generation
Our initial analysis explores the direct effects of being born during the 1918 Influenza Epidemic
While health data are sparse for the WLS graduatersquos parents (first generation) a number of
economic outcomes are available especially during the initial sample year of 1957 Table 2
explores the relationship between these economic variables and an indicator for birth during
19181919 Columns (1)-(3) of table 2 show the relationship between a WLS graduatersquos father
being born during 19181919 and the fatherrsquos years of schooling the fatherrsquos occupational
prestige and the familyrsquos index of socioeconomic status in 1957 (ie when the first generation
members are approximately 40 years old) While statistically insignificant a negative association
is observed between years of schooling and being born in 1918 or 191910 This is carried over
into fatherrsquos job prestige in column (2) from which the indicator of in utero exposure to the 1918
flu is associated with an approximate 01 standard deviation decline in the index of occupational
prestige These effects culminate in column (3) which shows a statistically significant negative
effect of in utero exposure to the flu and later life economic well-being a 13 decline in the SES
index which corresponds to a decline of roughly 10 percent of a standard deviation The findings
of table 2 corroborate past studies that show in utero exposure to the 1918 flu led to poorer
economic outcomes later in life (Almond 2006)11
[insert table 2 here]
10 First generation years of schooling are reported by the second generation WLS graduates Measurement
error is likely which may result in the insignificant coefficients of table 2 11 Richter and Robling (2013 Table 12) find a similar effect for in utero female exposure to flu in the first
trimester
13
Mirroring the results for males in the first generation a negative but statistically
insignificant association is observed between an indicator of birth in 19181919 and schooling
for first generation females This association however becomes statistically significant at the 1
percent level for the index of family SES the coefficient being nearly identical to that of a
malersquos in utero exposure to the flu though it is unclear whether these effects flow from labor
market andor marriage market sources The findings of table 2 are extended in table 3 which
explores potential marriage market effects of early life exposure to the flu epidemic12
Column (1) of table 3 regresses the indicator for male in utero exposure on an identical
measure for spousersquos exposure Females who were born in 19181919 were 5 percentage points
more likely to marry men who were also born during the same period Furthermore as shown in
columns (2) and (3) these women were more likely to marry men with fewer years of school and
lower job prestige These effects are significant at the 1 percent level Similar effects are seen in
columns (4)-(6) for 19181919 born males who are 14 percentage points more likely to marry flu
exposed females (p=000) and marry females with 026 fewer years of schooling (p=0101)
Given the findings of table 3 however we cannot rule out that this is a marriage market effect13
[insert table 3 here]
Second Generation
Our hypothesis is that the direct effects observed in tables 2 and 3 extend into future generations
To address this hypothesis we regress a number of economic and health outcomes of the WLS
graduates and siblings the offspring of the first generation examined in tables 2 and 3 These
12 Mothers and fathers of WLS graduates are assumed to be married 13 Appendix table 2 repeats the estimation of table 3 while also controlling for an indicator of own-flu
exposure and own year of birth measures
14
estimations are performed in tables 4 and 5 Column (1) in both tables focus on an indicator for
either parent being born in 19181919 the primary regressor of column (2) is an indicator for
fatherrsquos (gen 1 males) in utero exposure to the 1918 flu column (3) considers motherrsquos (gen 1
females) exposure and column (4) includes separate indicators for both mother and fatherrsquos
exposure Controls included in all columns include fatherrsquos year of birth and its square motherrsquos
year of birth and its square an indicator for sex in the second generation a measure of birth
order in the second generation and second-generation year of birth and its square
Table 4 focuses on economic outcomes of the WLS graduates To reiterate our
hypothesis is that in utero exposure to the 1918 influenza pandemic has effects that persist for
multiple generations Table 2 shows the direct first generation effects while table 4 begins to
show the indirect effects that are transmitted to offspring Panel A regresses years of schooling in
the second generation on indicators of first generation exposure to the 1918 flu14 From column
(1) either parent being born in 19181919 is associated with a statistically significant decline of
021 years of schooling in the second generation This estimate is likely understated because the
sampling design of the WLS is a focus on high school seniors thus individuals with fewer than
twelve years of schooling are underrepresented in the data15 Columns (2)-(4) disambiguate this
effect into the maternal and paternal lines From which the effect of column (1) seems to be
driven by motherrsquos in utero exposure to the flu16
14 Appendix Table 6 includes a number of alternative measures for years of schooling in place of the
simple count used in Table 4 15 Table 3 includes selected siblings of the WLS graduates These siblings do not have to be high school
graduates 16 This finding differs from that of Richter and Robling (2013) who find maternal exposure tied to
daughter outcomes and paternal exposure tied to son outcomes
15
The findings of Panel A are extended into Panel B which replaces years of schooling as
the dependent variable with the natural log of family income for the 1992 wave a time when the
second generation respondents are 53 years of age on average and represents a time of peak
earning in the life course As with years of schooling a negative association is seen throughout
the specifications of Panel B Having either parent born in 19181919 is associated with a 22
percent decline in family income Once again this effect seems to be driven by motherrsquos not
fatherrsquos exposure Panel C replaces income with a measure of net worth for the 2004 wave This
measure of net worth is when the second generation respondents are on average 65 years of age
and is representative of earnings throughout the life course The dual indicator of column (1) is
negative but statistically insignificant at conventional levels (p=023) When looking at the effect
of mother exposure in column (3) however the effect becomes statistically significant at the
10 level (p=0069) implying those with mothers born during 19181919 have approximately
$36000 less in net worth by 2004
Following the broader health focus of the Barker hypothesis the economic effects of
table 4 are replaced with health measures in table 5 We consider three broad measures of
general health and well-being later in life self-reported health in later life (~53 years old)
height and BMI (again at ~53) The use of self-reported health is intended to capture general
well-being later in life (Fortin et al 2017) this is tested in Panel A of table 5 Mazumder et al
(2010) provide evidence that in utero exposure to the 1918 flu is associated with a reduction in
height and an increase cardiovascular disease so it is possible that these negative health
outcomes could be transmitted to offspring this is tested in Panel B of table 517 And given
17 Appendix Table 14 tests indicators for a number self-reported health conditions As shown a weak
positive association is shown between gen 1 female flu exposure and an indicator of cardiovascular
16
prior work linking early life exposure to the Dutch famine to BMI (Roseboom et al 2000) and
metabolic function (Lumey et al 2009) in adulthood as well as the fact that both the Dutch
famine and the 1918 flu impacted maternal stress and nutritional status18 we examine BMI as
another broad indicator of health for the second generation this is tested in Panel C of table 5 A
consistent pattern emerges across all panels Like SES outcomes in table 4 gen 1 female
exposure to the flu is shown to have negative statistically significant association with all health
outcomes in the second generation
From Panel A parentalmdashor gen 1mdashflu exposure reduces self-reported health by roughly
half a point (plt005) on a Likert scale from 1-5 1 being very poor health and 5 being excellent
health As shown and like prior estimates this effect is driven by gen 1 female exposure For
adult height gen 1 female exposure is associated with a reduction of about 02 inches (plt010)
which is larger than the direct effect documented by Mazumder et al of 005 inches however
Mazumder et alrsquos estimated effect falls within the 95 confidence interval of our estimated
coefficient Panel C considers the effect on second generation BMI From column (1) having
either parent being born in 19181919 is associated with a statistically significant increase in the
offspringrsquos BMI of 041 points As with the economic effects of table 4 this increase in BMI
appears to be driven by motherrsquos exposure This is seen in columns (2)-(4) which estimate a
statistically significant positive coefficient for motherrsquos exposure but a coefficient that is
statistically indistinguishable from zero for fatherrsquos exposure
disease during the 199293 wave of the WLS (Appendix Table 15A) This association however reduced
in magnitude and statistical significance for later-life waves of the WLS (Appendix Table 15B and 15C) 18 The Dutch famine influenced maternal nutritional status directly through caloric restriction and the
1918 flu through symptoms such as appetite loss vomiting andor diarrhea
17
A persistent effect of in utero exposure to the 1918 Flu is seen in tables 4 and 5 First
generation exposure consistently has a statistically significant and economically meaningful
effect on second generation health and economic outcomes And this effect appears to be driven
solely by motherrsquos exposure although due to marriage market associations we cannot
determine definitively that motherrsquos exposure produces this multigenerational effect through
biological mechanisms
Appendix Tables 10A-11G re-estimate Tables 4 and 5 splitting the sample by generation
2rsquos sex In short the negative effects of first generation exposure appear to be more prominent
in second generation males such that the harmful multi-generational effects are most prominent
in second generation men whose mothers were exposed to the 1918 flu19 Potential reasons for
this sex disparity could be tied to general trends in the differences between sons and daughters in
intergenerational mobility (Chadwick and Solon 2002) In other words sons are more likely to
inherit their families SES standing than daughters This implies that the negative gen 1 shock
from in utero exposure is more likely to affect sons through the proposed SES channel than
daughters resulting in a larger estimated effect for gen 2 males Furthermore there appears to
be a growing gap between in the intergenerational elastiticy between sons and daughters during
the time period in question (Olivetti and Paserman 2015) Another potential reason for the sex
difference could be the larger standard deviation in gen 2 male outcomes this is shown in
Appendix Table 9 Finally the findings of Appendix Tables 10A-11G differ from Richter and
Robling (2013) who show homogeneous sex effects from in utero flu exposure for education
19 When omitting those with no family income during the 1992 wave of the WLS negative effects from
gen 1 female flu exposure are primarily seen in second generation males This indicates however that
there is a greater frequency of no income amongst second generation females from gen 1 flu exposure
Additionally when looking at net worth in the 2011 wave of the WLS we see no difference by gen 2rsquos
sex
18
gen 1 female exposure led to reduction in gen 2 female education and gen 1 male exposure is
associated with gen 2 male education Given this disparity between the two studies our under-
representation for gen 1 male exposure and the mixed findings in Tables 10A-11G we view our
general finding of gen 1 female exposure working through gen 2 male outcomes as preliminary
and suggestive Indeed as we test in Appendix Tables 12A-12G the sex differences in gen 2 are
often not statistically significant
Third Generation
As mentioned previously the focus of the WLS data collection is high school graduates in 1957
but additional samples have been collected for a number of variables on the children of these
graduates Table 6 explores the effects of the WLS parents on the years of schooling for WLS
children estimating the effect of flu exposure across three generations20
Consistent with the second-generation estimations a persistent effect of the in utero flu
exposure is observed and this effect seems to be driven by grandmother exposure (gen 1
female) The joint indicator for either parent is negative and close to statistical significance at
the 10 percent level (p=0106) suggesting that exposure in the first generation is associated with
012 years of schooling less in the third generation The effect of grandfather exposure is
insignificantly different from zero while the coefficient of grandmother exposure is similar in
magnitude to the joint estimate of column (1) while being statistically significant at the 10
level (p=0066) Furthermore the decline in schooling seen in the third generation is similar but
slightly smaller in magnitude compared to the second generation effects seen in Panel A of table
20Analysis of the WLS gradsibling children (ie the third generation) restricts the sample to those
children that are biological children and that are 35 years of age and older by the 20032004 wave of the
WLS
19
421 This again indicates a persistent effect that may be attenuating over time Importantly while
the estimate for grandfather exposure is insignificant it is consistent with intergenerational
inheritance (Kuzawa and Eisenberg 2014) To say the same for grandmother exposure would
require effects to persist into the fourth generation (due to the differences in gametic
development) and this data is not available in the WLS
Conclusion
This paper presents novel evidence of multigenerational effects of in utero health insults We
use the sudden and unexpected influenza pandemic in 19181919 to trace out the effects of in
utero exposure to infectious disease on own outcomes for the first generation childrenrsquos
outcomes and grandchildrenrsquos outcomes We find that this exposure reduces educational
attainment and related economic outcomes across three generations For example individuals in
our second generation the WLS graduates and their siblings who have mothers who were
exposed to the 1918 flu in utero complete 15 fewer years of schooling (or 24 months less
schooling) The size of our estimated effect aligns well with those of Richter and Robling (2013)
who find that first generation in utero exposure to the 1918 flu results in 16 fewer years of
schooling (or 2 months to 25 months less schooling) for the maternal line We then extend
results to the third generation for the first time in the literature and find that individuals in the
third generation who have grandmothers who were exposed to the pandemic in utero complete
17 fewer years of schooling (or 17 months less schooling) than individuals without affected
grandmothers
21 For gen 1 female exposure in column (4) the p-value for a difference in coefficients between Panel A
of Table 4 and Table 6 is 0411 implying the effect in the third generation is statistically indistinguishable
from that in the second generation
20
There are at several potential mechanisms for the persistence of poor outcomes across
three generations we find in our data As previously outlined the intergenerational persistence in
poor outcomes due to early life health shocks could occur through socioeconomic channels
where a fetally insulted person with resulting low educational attainment raises a child in a low-
resource environment that reduces opportunities for high educational attainment of the child In
order to see multigenerational effects the reduced opportunities for high educational attainment
of the child must then reduce opportunities for their own children Alternatively
intergenerational transmission may occur through epigenetic inheritance through the germ line a
distinct possibility based on findings of the Oumlverkalix studies or phenotype-to-phenotype
transmission and cumulative intergenerational phenotypic change
Our analysis is unable to fully distinguish between these proposed intergenerational
channels the socioeconomic and biological but it is important to note that the channels are by no
means mutually exclusive Further analysis (appendix tables 3-5) that is intended to partially
account for the socioeconomic mechanism leads to mixed results in which the coefficient of first
generation flu exposure is attenuated to insignificance for some outcomes but not others This
provides evidence for a socioeconomic channel but does not eliminate the possibility of
epigenetic mechanisms or other biological channel through which socioeconomic status ldquogets
under the skinrdquo to influence outcomes of subsequent generations (eg the socioeconomic
circumstances of one generation may ldquoget under the skinrdquo of the next and subsequently be passed
via biology andor socioeconomics to other generations) Likewise the estimates of grandfather
effects on grandchildren are imprecise but consistent with transgenerational inheritance (Kuzawa
and Eisenberg 2014) Additionally while the WLS provides a unique framework to analyze
multiple generations the measurement of flu exposure is somewhat crude (from self-reported
21
parentsrsquo year of birth) and is in the right-tail of the distribution of parent birth years suggesting
the possibility of confounding from resource-poor younger mothers22 That is exposure to
influenza in the first generation is mechanically tied to motherrsquos ages of 20 and 21 because the
WLS sample is drawn based on having a child who was born in 1939 (and thus graduating high
school in 1957) While we cannot definitively separate these two effects our ability to compare
outcomes of slightly older mothers (ages 22 and 23 born in 1917 or 1916) provide evidence
more consistent with in utero exposure to influenza than impacts of having a mother who is
2021 years old
From a policy perspective our evidence may suggest a novel source of multigenerational
persistence in poverty through biosocial factors and suggest a need to consider evidence of
transgenerational social andor biological mechanisms We document the extent to which
harmful early life environments cascade through generations promoting a disadvantaged start for
those whose grandparents exposed to a hazardous early life environment
22 We specifically explore the confounding effects of younger mothers in appendix tables 7 and 8 These
tables show that younger mothers are indeed initially disadvantaged (ie less years of schooling)
however this young-mother disadvantage does not persist in subsequent generations Rather only those
mothers born in the 1918-1919 range have significant negative effects on later generations
22
References
Almond Doug 2006 Is the 1918 Influenza pandemic over Long‐term effects of in utero Influenza exposure in the post‐1940 US population Journal of Political Economy 114(4) 672-712
Almond Doug and Bhashkar Mazumder 2005 The 1918 Influenza Pandemic and Subsequent Health Outcomes An Analysis of SIPP Data American Economic Review 95(2) 258-262
Barker David James P 2007 The origins of the developmental origins theory Journal of Internal Medicine 261(5) 412-417
Benyshek Daniel C (2013) The ldquoearly liferdquo origins of obesity‐related health disorders New discoveries regarding the intergenerational transmission of developmentally programmed traits in the global cardiometabolic health crisis American Journal of Physical Anthropology 152(S57) 79-93
Brown Alan S and Elena J Derkits 2010 Prenatal infection and schizophrenia a review of epidemiologic and translational studies American Journal of Psychiatry 167(3) 261-280
Burg Steven 2000 Wisconsin and the Great Spanish Flu Epidemic of 1918rdquo Wisconsin Magazine of History 84(1) 36-56
Bygren LarsOlov Gunnar Kaati and Soumlren Edvinsson 2001 Longevity determined by paternal ancestors nutrition during their slow growth period Acta biotheoretica 49(1) 53-59
Canetta Sarah E and Alan S Brown 2012 Prenatal infection maternal immune activation and risk for schizophrenia Translational Neuroscience 3(4) 320-327
Chadwick L and Solon G (2002) Intergenerational income mobility among daughters American Economic Review 92(1) 335-344
Cohen Alan A John Tillinghast and Vladimir Canudas-Romo 2010 No consistent effects of prenatal or neonatal exposure to Spanish flu on late-life mortality in 24 developed countries Demographic Research 22(20) 579
Fatemi S Hossein Julie Earle Reena Kanodia David Kist Effat S Emamian Paul H Patterson Limin Shi and Robert Sidwell 2002 Prenatal viral infection leads to pyramidal cell atrophy and macrocephaly in adulthood implications for genesis of autism and schizophrenia Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology 22(1) 25-33
Fletcher Jason 2014 Examining the Long Term Mortality Effects of Early Health Shocks US Census Bureau Center for Economic Studies Paper No CES-WP-14-19
Kaati Gunnar Lars O Bygren and Soren Edvinsson 2002 Cardiovascular and diabetes mortality determined by nutrition during parents and grandparents slow growth period European Journal of Human Genetics EJHG 10(11) 682
Kash John C Terrence M Tumpey Sean C Proll Victoria Carter Olivia Perwitasari Matthew J Thomas Christopher F Basler et al 2006 Genomic analysis of increased host immune and cell death responses induced by 1918 influenza virus Nature 443(7111) 578-581
Kobasa Darwyn Steven M Jones Kyoko Shinya John C Kash John Copps Hideki Ebihara Yasuko Hatta et al 2007 Aberrant innate immune response in lethal infection of macaques with the 1918 influenza virus Nature 445 (7125) 319-323
Kuzawa Christopher W and Dan T Eisenberg 2014 The Long Reach of History Intergenerational and Transgenerational Pathwaysto Plasticity in Human Longevity Sociality Hierarchy Health Comparative Biodemography Papers from a Workshop National Academies Press
Li Wai-Yu Yi-Chun Chang L Jyuhn-Hsiarn Lee and Li-Jen Lee 2014 Prenatal infection affects the neuronal architecture and cognitive function in adult mice Developmental Neuroscience 36(5) 359-370
23
Lin Ming-Jen and Elaine M Liu 2014 Does in utero exposure to illness matter The 1918 influenza epidemic in Taiwan as a natural experiment Journal of Health Economics 37 152-163
Lindeboom Maarten France Portrait and Gerard J Van den Berg 2010 Long-run effects on longevity of a nutritional shock early in life the Dutch Potato famine of 1846ndash1847 Journal of Health Economics 29(5) 617-629
Mamelund SE (2018) 1918 pandemic mobidity The first wave hits the poor the second wave hits the rich Influenza and Other Respitory Viruses 12(3) 307-313
Mazumder Bhashkar Douglas Almond Kyung Park Eileen M Crimmins and Caleb E Finch 2010 Lingering prenatal effects of the 1918 influenza pandemic on cardiovascular disease Journal of developmental origins of health and disease 1(1) 26-34
Miller Veronica Y Zhu C Bucher W McGinnis L Ryan A Siegel and S Zalcman 2013 Gestational flu exposure induces changes in neurochemicals affiliative hormones and brainstem inflammation in addition to autism-like behaviors in mice Brain Behavior and Immunity 33 153-163
Myrskylauml Mikko Neil K Mehta and Virginia W Chang 2013 Early life exposure to the 1918 influenza pandemic and old-age mortality by cause of death American Journal of Public Health 103(7) e83-e90
Olivetti C and Paserman MD (2015) In the name of the son (and the daughter) Intergenerational mobility in the United States 1850-1940 American Economic Review 105(8) 2695-2724
Pembrey Marcus E Lars Olov Bygren Gunnar Kaati Soumlren Edvinsson Kate Northstone Michael Sjoumlstroumlm and Jean Golding 2006 Sex-specific male-line transgenerational responses in humans European Journal of Human Genetics 14(2) 159-166
Richter Andreacute and Per Olof Robling 2013 Multigenerational effects of the 1918-19 influenza pandemic in Sweden Swedish Institute for Social Research 5
Shors Teri and Susan H McFadden 2009 1918 Influenza A Winnebago County Wisconsin Perspective Clinical Medicine amp Research 7(4) 147-156
Sydenstricker E (1931) The incidence of influenza among persons of different economic status during the epidemic of 1918 Public Health Reports 46(4) 154-170
van den Berg Gerard J and Pia R Pinger 2013 A validation study of transgenerational effects of childhood conditions on the third generation offsprings economic and health outcomes potentially driven by epigenetic imprinting IZA Discussion Paper
Tables and Figures
Table 1 Summary Statistics
Variable N Mean Std Deviation
First GenerartionFlu Indicators
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 8368 0112 0315Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 8456 0030 0170Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 8487 0093 0290
ControlsFirst Generation Malersquos Year of Birth 8456 1907435 7021First Generation Femalersquos Year of Birth 8427 1911189 6164
Dependent VariablesFirst Generation Malersquos Years of Schooling 8456 9778 3392First Generation Femalersquos Years of Schooing 8487 10499 2804First Generation Malersquos Job Prestige 8385 330662 214361First Generation Femalersquos Job Prestige 6683 12814 19934Family SES 8487 16231 11143
Second GenerationControls
Female Indicator 12459 0530 0499Birth Year 12459 1939406 4289Birth Order 12459 2529 1828
Dependent VariablesYears of Schooling 12459 13678 2361Family Income 1992 (in $1000s) 12112 68027 177105Net Worth 2004 (in $1000s) 10498 913046 2558927Self-reported health 1992 9888 4149 0668Height (inches) 9783 67406 3851BMI 1992 9671 26742 4657
Third GenerationControls
Birth Year 19913 1963901 3636Female Indicator 19913 0497 0500Birth Order 19913 2196 1263
Dependent VariableYears of Schooling 19913 14294 2309
Summary amp Notes This table provides summary statistics for all variables used The samples above may not berepresentative for all estimations For example the inclusion of siblings in the second generation increase the sample of parentalyear of birth and the corresponding flu indicator This increase in sample does not significantly change the sample statisticsabove Similar sample changes occur for the second generation controls above For the third generation the sample is restrictedto biological children over 35 years of age
24
Tab
le2
Fir
stG
ener
atio
n
Eco
nom
icE
ffec
ts
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
am
ily
SE
SY
ears
of
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
am
ily
SE
S(1
)(2
)(3
)(4
)(5
)(6
)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale)
-01
39
-01
16lowast
-12
90lowast
lowast
(02
00)
(00
60)
(05
99)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emal
e)-0
133
-00
66
-13
61lowastlowast
lowast
(00
95)
(00
43)
(03
76)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
YY
YY
YY
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8456
8385
8456
8487
6683
8487
RS
qr
00
32
00
08
00
23
00
13
00
04
00
13
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
pro
vid
esd
irec
teff
ects
of
inu
tero
an
dea
rly
life
exp
osu
reto
the
1918
Flu
Ep
idem
ic
Bir
thye
ar
tim
etr
end
sin
lcu
de
yea
rof
bir
than
dit
ssq
uar
ean
din
clu
sion
inth
ees
tim
atio
nis
par
ent
spec
ific
All
esti
mati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
an
dard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
alsi
gnifi
can
ceis
den
oted
by
an
d
re
pre
senti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vel
y
25
Tab
le3
Fir
stG
ener
atio
n
Mar
riag
eM
arke
tE
ffec
ts
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Flu
Bir
thY
ear
Yea
rsof
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
luB
irth
Yea
rY
ears
of
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
e(1
)(2
)(3
)(4
)(5
)(6
)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale)
01
40lowast
lowastlowast-0
259
-00
39
(00
34)
(01
58)
(00
72)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emal
e)0
056lowast
lowastlowast-0
340lowast
lowastlowast-0
118lowastlowast
lowast
(00
14)
(01
17)
(00
36)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
YY
YY
YY
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8348
8487
8412
8348
8456
6660
RS
qr
00
90
00
11
00
08
01
20
00
21
00
01
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
pro
vid
esev
iden
ceof
marr
iage
mark
etse
lect
ion
inth
efi
rst
gen
erati
on
B
irth
year
tim
etr
end
sin
clu
de
year
of
bir
than
dit
ssq
uare
and
incl
usi
onin
the
esti
mat
ion
isp
aren
tsp
ecifi
cA
lles
tim
ati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
an
dard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
sign
ifica
nce
isd
enot
edby
an
d
re
pre
senti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vely
26
Table 4 Second Generation Economic Effects
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Years of Schooling
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0209lowastlowastlowast
(0073)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0084 -0059(0129) (0129)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0211lowastlowastlowast -0209lowastlowastlowast
(0075) (0075)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0085 0084 0085 0085
Panel B ln Family Income 1992
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0221lowastlowast
(0111)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0098 -0066(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0262lowastlowast -0259lowastlowast
(0116) (0116)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112R Sqr 0021 0021 0021 0021
Panel C Std Net Worth 2004
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0026(0022)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0033 0038(0047) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0038lowast -0040lowast
(0021) (0021)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498R Sqr 0007 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table provides evidence of signficant harmful effects of flu exposure in the first generation on secondgeneration economic outcomes First generation time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents(ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and itssquare and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
27
Table 5 Second Generation Health Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Self-reported health (Likert 1=very poor 5=excellent)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0054lowastlowast
(0027)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0005(0047) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0061lowastlowast -0061lowastlowast
(0028) (0028)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Panel B Height (inches)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0101)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0102 0127(0168) (0168)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0169lowast -0175lowast
(0103) (0103)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783r2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Panel C BMI
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0412lowastlowast
(0191)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0082 0023(0344) (0346)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0422lowastlowast 0421lowastlowast
(0193) (0194)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table provides evidence of harmful effects of flu exposure in the first generation on secondgeneration health outcomes First generation time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents (iegen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and itssquare and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
28
Table 6 Generation Three Effects of Generation One Flu Exposure Years of Schooling
Dependent Variable Years of Schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0125(0077)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Male) -0007 0010(0136) (0136)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Female) -0144lowast -0144lowast
(0078) (0078)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913R Sqr 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table shows that the generational effects of flu exposure extend into the third generation of theWLS First generation flu exposure is shown to have a negative association with third generation years of schooling Firstgeneration time trends are year of birth measures for each parent and their square Second generation controls inlcude anindicator for sex second generation year of birth and its square and birth order Third generation controls include a sexindicator year of birth and its square and birth order Given the focus on years of schooling the sample is restricted to thosethird generation individuals 35 years of age and older or born during or before 1970 (data were collected in 2005) Allestimation is performed with OLS with family (second generation) clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
29
(a)
Fat
her
(b)
Moth
er
Fig
ure
1F
irst
Gen
erat
ion
Dis
trib
uti
onof
Yea
rof
Bir
th
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
figu
rep
lots
the
dis
trib
uti
on
for
firs
tgen
erati
on
year
of
bir
th
Flu
exp
osu
reis
class
ified
as
bei
ng
born
inei
ther
1918
or
1919
30
Appendix Tables
Appendix Table 1 First Generation Flu Exposure Effect on Family Income
Dependent Variable Family Income ($100s) 1957
(1) (2)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -3366(2592)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -5363lowastlowast
(2390)
Birth Year Time Trends Y YObservations 7440 7456R Sqr 0013 0004
Summary amp Notes This table replaces the index of socioeconomic status with family income (in $100s) in 1957 Allestimation is performed with OLS with robust standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
31
App
endix
Tab
le2
Mar
riag
eM
arke
tE
ffec
ts
Con
trol
ling
for
Ow
nY
ear
ofB
irth
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
Job
Pre
stig
eY
ears
of
Sch
Job
Pre
stig
e
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale
)-0
052
-211
82
-01
98
-03
74
(02
03)
(131
30)
(01
61)
(14
38)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emale
)-0
346lowast
lowastlowast-2
44
97lowastlowast
lowast-0
103
-13
88
(01
16)
(76
88)
(00
94)
(08
54)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
(Male
an
dF
emale
)Y
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8348
8279
8348
6587
RS
qr
00
40
00
22
00
25
00
04
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
re-e
stim
ates
Tab
le3
wh
ile
contr
oll
ing
for
year
of
bir
than
dfl
uin
dic
ato
rsass
oci
ate
dw
ith
the
spou
sein
the
dep
end
ent
vari
ab
le
All
esti
mat
ion
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
and
ard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
sign
ifica
nce
isd
enote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
atth
e10
5
and
1le
vel
sre
spec
tive
ly
32
Appendix Table 3 2nd Gen Economic Effects Controlling for 1st Gen Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Years of Schooling
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0088(0070)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0005 0008(0119) (0119)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0116 -0117(0072) (0072)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0206 0206 0206 0206
Panel B ln Family Income 1992
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0193lowast
(0111)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0080 -0050(0184) (0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0240lowastlowast -0238lowastlowast
(0116) (0116)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112R Sqr 0024 0024 0024 0024
Panel C Std Normal Net Worth 2004
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0003(0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0047 0049(0046) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0019 -0021(0020) (0020)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498R Sqr 0033 0033 0033 0033
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 4 while controlling for generation one economic outcomes fatherrsquos years ofschooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 First generation time trends are given by year of birth and itssquare for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex secondgeneration year of birth and its square and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standarderrors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and1 levels respectively 33
Appendix Table 4 2nd Gen Health Effects Controlling for 1st Gen Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A BMI
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0352lowast
(0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0051 -0001(0342) (0344)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0372lowast 0372lowast
(0192) (0193)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671R Sqr 0035 0035 0035 0035
Panel B Count of Illnesses
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0122lowast
(0065)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0076 -0096(0102) (0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0139lowastlowast 0144lowastlowast
(0067) (0068)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9921 9921 9921 9921R Sqr 0046 0046 0046 0046
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 5 while controlling for generation one economic outcomes fatherrsquos years ofschooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 First generation time trends are given by year of birth and itssquare for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex secondgeneration year of birth and its square and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standarderrors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and1 levels respectively
34
Appendix Table 5 Generation threersquos years of schooling Controlling for previous generation economicwell-being
Dependent Variable Years of Schooling for Gen 3(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A First Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0069(0076)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0022 0034(0133) (0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0102 -0104(0077) (0078)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913R Sqr 0117 0117 0117 0117
Panel B Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0025(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0008 0013(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0038 -0039(0073) (0073)
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0190 0190 0190 0190
Panel C First and Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0008(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0016 0019(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0028 -0029(0073) (0073)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0196 0196 0196 0196
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 6 while controlling for generation one and tworsquos economic outcomes Forgeneration one these include fatherrsquos years of schooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 generation twocontrols include the WLS graduatesiblingrsquos years of schooling family income in 1992 and net worth in 2004 First generationtime trends are year of birth measures for each parent and their square Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sexsecond generation year of birth and its square and birth order Third generation controls include a sex indicator year of birthand its square and birth order Given the focus on years of schooling the sample is restricted to those third generationindividuals 35 years of age and older or born during or before 1970 (data were collected in 2005) All estimation is performedwith OLS with family (second generation) clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denotedby and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
35
Appendix Table 6 Alternative measures of schooling in the second generation
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Indicator for any college (years of schooling gt12)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0044lowastlowastlowast
(0017)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0011 -0006(0029) (0029)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0044lowastlowast -0043lowastlowast
(0017) (0017)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0071 0070 0071 0071
Panel B Indicator for incomplete college (years of schooling gt12 amp lt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0008(0013)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 -0001(0022) (0022)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0008 -0008(0013) (0013)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0005 0005 0005 0005
Panel C Indicator for college graduate (years of schooling = 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0022lowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0003 0006(0020) (0020)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0021lowast -0021lowastlowast
(0011) (0011)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0019 0019 0019 0019
Panel D Indicator for post-college education (years of schooling gt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0014(0010)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0011(0018) (0018)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0014 -0014(0010) (0010)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0039 0039 0039 0039
Summary amp Notes This table replaces our continuous measure of years of schooling with specified dummy variables Firstgeneration time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Secondgeneration controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and its square and birth order All estimationis performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
36
Appendix Table 7 Young mothers Direct effect on Gen 1 Females
Dependent Variable Years of Sch Job Prestige Family SES
(1) (2) (3)
Ind for First Gen Female Flu Exposure (1918-1919) -0325lowastlowast -0841 -1749lowastlowastlowast
(0137) (1015) (0584)
Ind for mother born during 1920-1921 -0567lowastlowastlowast 0745 -1157(0206) (1515) (0914)
Ind for mother born during 1922-1923 -0666lowastlowast 0098 -2113(0330) (2210) (1298)
Ind for mother born after 1924 -0392 5682 0384(0486) (3705) (2126)
Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y
Observations 8487 6683 8487R Sqr 0014 0005 0014
Summary amp Notes This table includes indicators for alternative years of birth Younger mothers are shown to have lessyears of schooling All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
37
App
endix
Tab
le8
You
ng
mot
her
sG
ener
atio
n2
and
3eff
ects
Gen
2
Gen
3
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
ln
Fam
In
c
1992
Std
N
W
2004
Sel
f-re
p
hea
lth
Hei
ght
BM
IY
ears
of
Sch
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
emal
eF
luE
xp
osu
re(1
918-
1919
)-0
201lowastlowast
-02
95lowastlowast
-00
45
-00
73lowastlowast
-00
90
02
07
-00
86(0
092)
(01
32)
(00
32)
(00
32)
(01
22)
(02
25)
(00
94)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
20-1
921
-00
22
-00
40
-00
10
-00
61
01
33
-04
10
01
13
(01
37)
(01
74)
(00
51)
(00
43)
(01
80)
(03
11)
(01
41)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
22-1
923
-00
96
-01
88
-00
57
00
20
04
61
-11
29lowastlowast
01
55(0
184)
(03
20)
(00
61)
(00
75)
(02
83)
(04
51)
(02
23)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
afte
r19
2404
58
-01
87
00
01
-00
27
03
12
-08
85
03
99
(03
06)
(03
94)
(00
87)
(01
27)
(04
94)
(10
70)
(03
21)
Bas
eC
ontr
ols
YY
YY
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
12459
12112
10498
9888
9783
9671
19913
RS
qr
00
85
00
21
00
08
00
09
05
86
00
29
00
79
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
incl
ud
esin
dic
ator
sfo
ralt
ernati
ve
years
of
bir
th
Bei
ng
born
toa
you
nger
moth
ergen
erall
yis
not
ass
oci
ate
dw
ith
gen
erati
on
2or
3rsquos
outc
omes
ofin
tere
st
inst
ead
n
egat
ive
effec
tsar
eon
lyob
serv
edfo
rth
ose
born
du
rin
gth
efl
u
All
esti
mati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hfa
mil
y(2
nd
gen
erat
ion
)cl
ust
ered
stan
dar
der
rors
rep
orte
din
par
enth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
signifi
can
ceis
den
ote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vel
y
38
Appendix Table 9 Summary Statistics by Gen 2 Sex
Variable N Mean Std Deviation
FemaleYears of Schooling 6607 13352 2088ln Family Income (1992 wave) 6411 9424 3577
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5654 10686 1010Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 5612 -0047 0539Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 5313 4164 0670Height (inches) 5231 646635 247936BMI 5124 26073 5114
Gen 3Years of Schooling 11947 14240 2291
MaleYears of Schooling 5852 14047 2587ln Family Income (1992 wave) 5701 10139 3030
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5264 10981 0836Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 4886 0059 1159Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 4575 4133 0665Height (inches) 4554 7055484 25596BMI 4547 27496 3948
Gen 3Years of Schooling 8046 14371 2332
Appendix Table 10A Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0090(0086)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0198 0214(0169) (0169)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104 -0114(0087) (0087)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6607 6607 6607 6607R Sqr 0075 0075 0075 0075
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
39
Appendix Table 10B Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0523lowastlowastlowast
(0170)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0483 -0410(0321) (0323)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0512lowastlowastlowast -0491lowastlowastlowast
(0179) (0180)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6411 6411 6411 6411R Sqr 0015 0013 0014 0015
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10C Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0007(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0078lowast 0078(0048) (0048)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0008 0005(0025) (0025)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5612 5612 5612 5612R Sqr 0007 0007 0007 0007
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
40
Appendix Table 10D Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0027(0036)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 -0001(0071) (0071)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0022 -0022(0037) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5313 5313 5313 5313r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10E Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -2382(13366)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 44280lowastlowast 46351lowastlowast
(22343) (22480)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -12253 -14428(13485) (13561)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5231 5231 5231 5231r2 0015 0016 0015 0016
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
41
Appendix Table 10F Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0353(0286)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0105 0060(0514) (0516)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0326 0323(0289) (0290)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5124 5124 5124 5124R Sqr 0010 0010 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0087(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0104 -0101(0190) (0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0042 -0039(0098) (0098)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 11906 11906 11906 11906R Sqr 0086 0086 0086 0086
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
42
Appendix Table 11A Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0322lowastlowastlowast
(0116)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0369lowastlowast -0338lowast
(0181) (0180)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0309lowastlowastlowast -0297lowastlowast
(0119) (0119)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5852 5852 5852 5852R Sqr 0060 0059 0060 0060
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11B RResults by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0116(0138)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0262 0261(0200) (0199)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0024 0014(0141) (0140)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5701 5701 5701 5701R Sqr 0009 0009 0008 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
43
Appendix Table 11C Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0038)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0001(0081) (0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0094lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0035)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4886 4886 4886 4886R Sqr 0004 0004 0004 0004
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
44
Appendix Table 11D Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0083lowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 0012(0062) (0062)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104lowastlowastlowast -0105lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0041)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4575 4575 4575 4575r2 0010 0009 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11E Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -15122(14275)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -22991 -20537(23287) (23176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -18595 -17540(14734) (14751)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4554 4554 4554 4554r2 0011 0011 0011 0011
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
45
Appendix Table 11F Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0465lowast
(0238)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0079 0006(0403) (0405)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0520lowastlowast 0520lowastlowast
(0245) (0246)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4547 4547 4547 4547R Sqr 0006 0005 0006 0006
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0177(0123)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0098 0144(0194) (0192)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0293lowastlowast -0302lowastlowast
(0125) (0126)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8007 8007 8007 8007R Sqr 0067 0067 0068 0068
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
46
Appendix Table 12A Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0253lowastlowast
(0107)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0252 -0226(0170) (0172)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0263lowastlowast -0242lowastlowast
(0113) (0115)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0084(0120)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0341 0339(0216) (0219)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0096 0056(0130) (0132)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459r2 0085 0085 0085 0085
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
47
Appendix Table 12B Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0128)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0196 0169(0190) (0189)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0081 -0104(0135) (0135)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0383lowastlowast
(0189)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0594lowast -0474(0349) (0355)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0339lowast -0283(0204) (0207)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112r2 0021 0021 0021 0021
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
48
Appendix Table 12C Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0034)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0019(0077) (0079)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0095lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0030) (0031)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0071lowast
(0038)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0072 0039(0087) (0089)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0104lowastlowastlowast 0100lowastlowastlowast
(0035) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498r2 0008 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
49
Appendix Table 12D Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0071lowast
(0036)[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0012 0031
(0058) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0093lowastlowast -0097lowastlowast
(0039) (0039)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0030(0045)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0031 -0051(0087) (0088)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0059 0065(0048) (0049)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
50
Appendix Table 12E Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0129 -0125(0223) (0224)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0152 -0129(0141) (0142)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0000(0158)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0454 0495lowast
(0279) (0287)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0031 -0090(0170) (0175)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783nr2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
51
Appendix Table 12F Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0376(0231)
[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0059 -0122(0402) (0407)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0441lowast 0457lowast
(0240) (0243)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0068(0316)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0282 0288(0573) (0589)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0035 -0069(0340) (0350)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
52
Appendix Table 12G Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0131(0114)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male 0114 0175(0185) (0188)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0237lowastlowast -0261lowastlowast
(0118) (0121)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0009(0133)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0225 -0292(0249) (0254)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0152 0189(0141) (0145)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913r2 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
53
Appendix Table 13 Family Income 1992 excluding non-earners (ie fam inc = 0)
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992 wave (excluding those reporting 0)(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0095lowastlowastlowast
(0033)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0031 -0019(0053) (0053)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0101lowastlowastlowast -0100lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0034)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10918 10918 10918 10918r2 0050 0049 0050 0050
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0084lowast
(0050)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0019 -0007(0089) (0090)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0083 -0083(0053) (0054)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5654 5654 5654 5654r2 0026 0026 0026 0026
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102lowastlowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0051 -0040(0060) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0113lowastlowastlowast -0112lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0040)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5264 5264 5264 5264r2 0029 0028 0029 0029
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel B in Table 4 excluding those who report $0 for familyincome All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
54
Appendix Table 14 Net Worth 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable Std Net Worth 2011 Wave of WLS(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0032lowastlowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0023lowast -0021lowast
(0012) (0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0032lowastlowastlowast -0031lowastlowastlowast
(0010) (0010)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9435 9435 9435 9435r2 0002 0002 0002 0002
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0012lowast
(0006)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0009 -0008(0009) (0009)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0012lowastlowast -0011lowastlowast
(0006) (0006)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5026 5026 5026 5026r2 0007 0006 0007 0007
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0057lowastlowast
(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0040lowast -0036lowast
(0023) (0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0057lowastlowast -0056lowastlowast
(0023) (0022)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4409 4409 4409 4409r2 0001 0001 0001 0001
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel C in Table 4 replacing the net worth measure from the 2004wave with an identical measure from the 2011 wave of the WLS All estimation is performed with OLS with family clusteredstandard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 105 and 1 levels respectively
55
Appendix Table 15A Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 1992 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0243(0152)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0107 0039(0252) (0255)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0285lowast 0282lowast
(0158) (0160)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9849 9849 9849 9849
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0007(0091)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0210 -0216(0170) (0173)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0007 0024(0095) (0097)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9858 9858 9858 9858
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0255(0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0107 -0169(0328) (0338)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0237 0252(0193) (0198)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9845 9845 9845 9845
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
56
Appendix Table 15B Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2004 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0018(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0190 0207(0160) (0162)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0066 -0083(0102) (0104)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10672 10672 10672 10672
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0096 0108(0124) (0125)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0051 -0059(0076) (0077)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10619 10619 10619 10619
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0108(0110)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0064 0027(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0181 0179(0113) (0113)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10617 10617 10617 10617
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
57
Appendix Table 15C Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0099(0092)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0244 0242(0154) (0155)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0033 0016(0099) (0100)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0021(0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0095 0097(0138) (0139)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0004 -0011(0085) (0086)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0134(0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0203 0181(0175) (0176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0140 0127(0107) (0107)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8709 8709 8709 8709
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
58
- text 10818
- tables 10-8-18
-
9
for either first generation parent being born during the 1918-1919 range56 Additional data are
collected on the later life outcomes of the WLS graduates and a selected sibling as well as a
limited number of outcomes for the children (third generation) of the graduatessiblings
providing the structure for our multigenerational analysis
Summary statistics are presented in table 1 As shown approximately 10 percent of WLS
parents are born in either 1918 or 1919 On average fathers are born in 1907 and mothers are
born in 1911 consequently a birth year of 1918 or 1919 is closer to the right-tail of the
distribution of births and the rate of 10 percent is driven primarily by relatively young mother
exposures7 Since WLS graduatersquos fathers tend to be on average 4 years older than mothers this
right-tail problem is larger for generation 1 males This is seen in Figure 1 While not the
primary focus of the WLS data collection several parental (first generation) outcomes are
5 Parent year of birth is recorded from the WLS graduates This self-reported measure is used to create
the indicator of flu exposure those parents born in 1918 or 1919 To maximize sample size we use
differing waves of the WLS and reported birth years from biological siblings to supplement the reported
year of birth from WLS graduates Parent birth years are first collected for the 199293 graduate wave
Missing observations are then sequentially added from graduate reports in later wavesmdash2003 and 2011
After using all graduate reported year of parent birth variables observations are then filled in from
identically reported measures from a selected biological sibling
Specifically for mothers (gen 1 females) 7976 observations come from graduates in the 199293
wave 366 additional observations come from the 200305 wave 84 observations come from 2011 wave
and 68 observations come from the selected sibling This leaves a base sample size of 8494 ~94 of
which is from the graduate reported 199293 wave For fathers (gen 1 males) 7929 observations come
from graduates in the 199293 wave 361 additional observations come from the 200305 wave 77 come
from the 2011 wave and 91 observations come from siblings leaving a base sample size of 8458 (again
~94 is from the grad reported 199293 wave)
From this base 7 observations are dropped for gen-1-femalersquos (WLS motherrsquos) year of birth due
to reported gen 2rsquos year of birth being 10 or less years after gen 1rsquos year of birth 45 additional
observations are lost if this threshold is increased to 15 years For gen-1-malersquos year of birth 2
observations are removed for identical reasons this increases to 25 additional observations for the 15 year
threshold We attribute this reduction in the sample mostly to measurement error 6 The 1918 flu epidemic in Wisconsin was from September 1918 through December 1918 but did not
reach the severity experienced in many other states According to historical records Wisconsin had the
fourth lowest numbers of deaths out of 25 reporting states (Burg 2000 Shors and McFadden 2009) 7 Appendix tables 7 and 8 provide evidence that our results are not driven solely by confounding between
exposure to the influenza pandemic and being young mothers
10
available including years of schooling occupational prestige and family socioeconomic status
in 19578
[insert table 1 here]
The primary focus of the WLS data collection is high school seniors in 1957 Wisconsin
the second generation of our study Given this focus on graduates (and their siblings) a large
number of economic and health variables are available in each wave of the WLS (irregular
intervals roughly 10-15 years apart 197577 19929394 2003-20052004-2007 and in 2011)
In addition to examining years of schooling several additional dependent variables in the second
generation intend to capture broad differences in economic and health well-being9 These include
income during the peak earning years (ie family income collected when graduates are 53 years
of age on average) net worth at initial retirement age (ie net worth collected when graduates
are 65 years of age on average) and general indicators of health measured by body mass index
and a count of doctor diagnosed illnesses (both collected in the wave when graduates are age 53
on average) Finally the WLS data contains information that is collected from the second
generation about the third generation we focus on years of schooling as the main outcome of
interest
8 The index of socioeconomic status is a factor weighted score combining data on father and motherrsquos
years of schooling fatherrsquos occupational prestige and average parental income Replacing this measure
with average parental income (see appendix table 1) does not change the effect of the flu indicator Job
prestige measures for both mother and father are based on Duncanrsquos Socioeconomic Index which is a
measure of job prestige based on income education and surveyed perceptions of general social standing
for certain occupations (Duncan 1961) 9 We note that our three generations of individuals are drawn from three non-overlapping set of birth
years the mean birth year for generation 1 is ~1910 generation 2 is ~1940 generation 3 is ~1965 Thus
since we are performing the analysis separately by generation we are controlling for much of the time-
variation in the meaning of education We also perform analysis stratified by sex in Appendix Tables 10-
12 so that we can also control for the differential meaning of education in each generation
11
Empirical Methodology
Our empirical strategy follows that of Almond (2006) by examining harmful effects of being
exposed in utero on later life outcomes We then extend this analysis by estimating
multigenerational impacts on both the second and third generations In so doing the primary
estimating equation is given by the following form
119910119894119891119892 = 1205730 + 1205731(119884119874119861 = 191819)1198911 + 120632119931119943120783 + 120633119935119946119943119944 + 120576119894119891119892
Our primary focus is on the coefficient 1205731 which measures the effect of having a
parentgrandparent born in 1918-1919 on a number of outcomes for 119894 individuals in 119891 families
for generation 119892 Parent year of birth time trends and their square are denoted by 120632119931119943120783 120633119935119946119943119944
represents generation specific controls and 120576119894119891119892 is representative of a family clustered error
term
For the first generation we control for birth year and its square capturing age-specific
trends that are tied to our first-generation outcomes of interest (eg years of schooling) For the
analysis of second and third generations birth years and squares for both first generation parents
are included as controls along with generation-specific controls for sex age and birth order
Our estimation strategy follows an intent to treat design It is likely that the actual
incidence of flu differed by socioeconomic status and social standing (Mamelund 2018
Sydenstricker 1931) Our use of year-of-birth however avoids potential confounding by SES
because allmdashboth rich and poormdashare defined as treated if they are born in one of the two years
Although avoiding confounders associated with actual disease incidence this estimation strategy
will underestimate the true effect of flu exposure lowering the magnitude of our coefficient of
interest
12
Results
First Generation
Our initial analysis explores the direct effects of being born during the 1918 Influenza Epidemic
While health data are sparse for the WLS graduatersquos parents (first generation) a number of
economic outcomes are available especially during the initial sample year of 1957 Table 2
explores the relationship between these economic variables and an indicator for birth during
19181919 Columns (1)-(3) of table 2 show the relationship between a WLS graduatersquos father
being born during 19181919 and the fatherrsquos years of schooling the fatherrsquos occupational
prestige and the familyrsquos index of socioeconomic status in 1957 (ie when the first generation
members are approximately 40 years old) While statistically insignificant a negative association
is observed between years of schooling and being born in 1918 or 191910 This is carried over
into fatherrsquos job prestige in column (2) from which the indicator of in utero exposure to the 1918
flu is associated with an approximate 01 standard deviation decline in the index of occupational
prestige These effects culminate in column (3) which shows a statistically significant negative
effect of in utero exposure to the flu and later life economic well-being a 13 decline in the SES
index which corresponds to a decline of roughly 10 percent of a standard deviation The findings
of table 2 corroborate past studies that show in utero exposure to the 1918 flu led to poorer
economic outcomes later in life (Almond 2006)11
[insert table 2 here]
10 First generation years of schooling are reported by the second generation WLS graduates Measurement
error is likely which may result in the insignificant coefficients of table 2 11 Richter and Robling (2013 Table 12) find a similar effect for in utero female exposure to flu in the first
trimester
13
Mirroring the results for males in the first generation a negative but statistically
insignificant association is observed between an indicator of birth in 19181919 and schooling
for first generation females This association however becomes statistically significant at the 1
percent level for the index of family SES the coefficient being nearly identical to that of a
malersquos in utero exposure to the flu though it is unclear whether these effects flow from labor
market andor marriage market sources The findings of table 2 are extended in table 3 which
explores potential marriage market effects of early life exposure to the flu epidemic12
Column (1) of table 3 regresses the indicator for male in utero exposure on an identical
measure for spousersquos exposure Females who were born in 19181919 were 5 percentage points
more likely to marry men who were also born during the same period Furthermore as shown in
columns (2) and (3) these women were more likely to marry men with fewer years of school and
lower job prestige These effects are significant at the 1 percent level Similar effects are seen in
columns (4)-(6) for 19181919 born males who are 14 percentage points more likely to marry flu
exposed females (p=000) and marry females with 026 fewer years of schooling (p=0101)
Given the findings of table 3 however we cannot rule out that this is a marriage market effect13
[insert table 3 here]
Second Generation
Our hypothesis is that the direct effects observed in tables 2 and 3 extend into future generations
To address this hypothesis we regress a number of economic and health outcomes of the WLS
graduates and siblings the offspring of the first generation examined in tables 2 and 3 These
12 Mothers and fathers of WLS graduates are assumed to be married 13 Appendix table 2 repeats the estimation of table 3 while also controlling for an indicator of own-flu
exposure and own year of birth measures
14
estimations are performed in tables 4 and 5 Column (1) in both tables focus on an indicator for
either parent being born in 19181919 the primary regressor of column (2) is an indicator for
fatherrsquos (gen 1 males) in utero exposure to the 1918 flu column (3) considers motherrsquos (gen 1
females) exposure and column (4) includes separate indicators for both mother and fatherrsquos
exposure Controls included in all columns include fatherrsquos year of birth and its square motherrsquos
year of birth and its square an indicator for sex in the second generation a measure of birth
order in the second generation and second-generation year of birth and its square
Table 4 focuses on economic outcomes of the WLS graduates To reiterate our
hypothesis is that in utero exposure to the 1918 influenza pandemic has effects that persist for
multiple generations Table 2 shows the direct first generation effects while table 4 begins to
show the indirect effects that are transmitted to offspring Panel A regresses years of schooling in
the second generation on indicators of first generation exposure to the 1918 flu14 From column
(1) either parent being born in 19181919 is associated with a statistically significant decline of
021 years of schooling in the second generation This estimate is likely understated because the
sampling design of the WLS is a focus on high school seniors thus individuals with fewer than
twelve years of schooling are underrepresented in the data15 Columns (2)-(4) disambiguate this
effect into the maternal and paternal lines From which the effect of column (1) seems to be
driven by motherrsquos in utero exposure to the flu16
14 Appendix Table 6 includes a number of alternative measures for years of schooling in place of the
simple count used in Table 4 15 Table 3 includes selected siblings of the WLS graduates These siblings do not have to be high school
graduates 16 This finding differs from that of Richter and Robling (2013) who find maternal exposure tied to
daughter outcomes and paternal exposure tied to son outcomes
15
The findings of Panel A are extended into Panel B which replaces years of schooling as
the dependent variable with the natural log of family income for the 1992 wave a time when the
second generation respondents are 53 years of age on average and represents a time of peak
earning in the life course As with years of schooling a negative association is seen throughout
the specifications of Panel B Having either parent born in 19181919 is associated with a 22
percent decline in family income Once again this effect seems to be driven by motherrsquos not
fatherrsquos exposure Panel C replaces income with a measure of net worth for the 2004 wave This
measure of net worth is when the second generation respondents are on average 65 years of age
and is representative of earnings throughout the life course The dual indicator of column (1) is
negative but statistically insignificant at conventional levels (p=023) When looking at the effect
of mother exposure in column (3) however the effect becomes statistically significant at the
10 level (p=0069) implying those with mothers born during 19181919 have approximately
$36000 less in net worth by 2004
Following the broader health focus of the Barker hypothesis the economic effects of
table 4 are replaced with health measures in table 5 We consider three broad measures of
general health and well-being later in life self-reported health in later life (~53 years old)
height and BMI (again at ~53) The use of self-reported health is intended to capture general
well-being later in life (Fortin et al 2017) this is tested in Panel A of table 5 Mazumder et al
(2010) provide evidence that in utero exposure to the 1918 flu is associated with a reduction in
height and an increase cardiovascular disease so it is possible that these negative health
outcomes could be transmitted to offspring this is tested in Panel B of table 517 And given
17 Appendix Table 14 tests indicators for a number self-reported health conditions As shown a weak
positive association is shown between gen 1 female flu exposure and an indicator of cardiovascular
16
prior work linking early life exposure to the Dutch famine to BMI (Roseboom et al 2000) and
metabolic function (Lumey et al 2009) in adulthood as well as the fact that both the Dutch
famine and the 1918 flu impacted maternal stress and nutritional status18 we examine BMI as
another broad indicator of health for the second generation this is tested in Panel C of table 5 A
consistent pattern emerges across all panels Like SES outcomes in table 4 gen 1 female
exposure to the flu is shown to have negative statistically significant association with all health
outcomes in the second generation
From Panel A parentalmdashor gen 1mdashflu exposure reduces self-reported health by roughly
half a point (plt005) on a Likert scale from 1-5 1 being very poor health and 5 being excellent
health As shown and like prior estimates this effect is driven by gen 1 female exposure For
adult height gen 1 female exposure is associated with a reduction of about 02 inches (plt010)
which is larger than the direct effect documented by Mazumder et al of 005 inches however
Mazumder et alrsquos estimated effect falls within the 95 confidence interval of our estimated
coefficient Panel C considers the effect on second generation BMI From column (1) having
either parent being born in 19181919 is associated with a statistically significant increase in the
offspringrsquos BMI of 041 points As with the economic effects of table 4 this increase in BMI
appears to be driven by motherrsquos exposure This is seen in columns (2)-(4) which estimate a
statistically significant positive coefficient for motherrsquos exposure but a coefficient that is
statistically indistinguishable from zero for fatherrsquos exposure
disease during the 199293 wave of the WLS (Appendix Table 15A) This association however reduced
in magnitude and statistical significance for later-life waves of the WLS (Appendix Table 15B and 15C) 18 The Dutch famine influenced maternal nutritional status directly through caloric restriction and the
1918 flu through symptoms such as appetite loss vomiting andor diarrhea
17
A persistent effect of in utero exposure to the 1918 Flu is seen in tables 4 and 5 First
generation exposure consistently has a statistically significant and economically meaningful
effect on second generation health and economic outcomes And this effect appears to be driven
solely by motherrsquos exposure although due to marriage market associations we cannot
determine definitively that motherrsquos exposure produces this multigenerational effect through
biological mechanisms
Appendix Tables 10A-11G re-estimate Tables 4 and 5 splitting the sample by generation
2rsquos sex In short the negative effects of first generation exposure appear to be more prominent
in second generation males such that the harmful multi-generational effects are most prominent
in second generation men whose mothers were exposed to the 1918 flu19 Potential reasons for
this sex disparity could be tied to general trends in the differences between sons and daughters in
intergenerational mobility (Chadwick and Solon 2002) In other words sons are more likely to
inherit their families SES standing than daughters This implies that the negative gen 1 shock
from in utero exposure is more likely to affect sons through the proposed SES channel than
daughters resulting in a larger estimated effect for gen 2 males Furthermore there appears to
be a growing gap between in the intergenerational elastiticy between sons and daughters during
the time period in question (Olivetti and Paserman 2015) Another potential reason for the sex
difference could be the larger standard deviation in gen 2 male outcomes this is shown in
Appendix Table 9 Finally the findings of Appendix Tables 10A-11G differ from Richter and
Robling (2013) who show homogeneous sex effects from in utero flu exposure for education
19 When omitting those with no family income during the 1992 wave of the WLS negative effects from
gen 1 female flu exposure are primarily seen in second generation males This indicates however that
there is a greater frequency of no income amongst second generation females from gen 1 flu exposure
Additionally when looking at net worth in the 2011 wave of the WLS we see no difference by gen 2rsquos
sex
18
gen 1 female exposure led to reduction in gen 2 female education and gen 1 male exposure is
associated with gen 2 male education Given this disparity between the two studies our under-
representation for gen 1 male exposure and the mixed findings in Tables 10A-11G we view our
general finding of gen 1 female exposure working through gen 2 male outcomes as preliminary
and suggestive Indeed as we test in Appendix Tables 12A-12G the sex differences in gen 2 are
often not statistically significant
Third Generation
As mentioned previously the focus of the WLS data collection is high school graduates in 1957
but additional samples have been collected for a number of variables on the children of these
graduates Table 6 explores the effects of the WLS parents on the years of schooling for WLS
children estimating the effect of flu exposure across three generations20
Consistent with the second-generation estimations a persistent effect of the in utero flu
exposure is observed and this effect seems to be driven by grandmother exposure (gen 1
female) The joint indicator for either parent is negative and close to statistical significance at
the 10 percent level (p=0106) suggesting that exposure in the first generation is associated with
012 years of schooling less in the third generation The effect of grandfather exposure is
insignificantly different from zero while the coefficient of grandmother exposure is similar in
magnitude to the joint estimate of column (1) while being statistically significant at the 10
level (p=0066) Furthermore the decline in schooling seen in the third generation is similar but
slightly smaller in magnitude compared to the second generation effects seen in Panel A of table
20Analysis of the WLS gradsibling children (ie the third generation) restricts the sample to those
children that are biological children and that are 35 years of age and older by the 20032004 wave of the
WLS
19
421 This again indicates a persistent effect that may be attenuating over time Importantly while
the estimate for grandfather exposure is insignificant it is consistent with intergenerational
inheritance (Kuzawa and Eisenberg 2014) To say the same for grandmother exposure would
require effects to persist into the fourth generation (due to the differences in gametic
development) and this data is not available in the WLS
Conclusion
This paper presents novel evidence of multigenerational effects of in utero health insults We
use the sudden and unexpected influenza pandemic in 19181919 to trace out the effects of in
utero exposure to infectious disease on own outcomes for the first generation childrenrsquos
outcomes and grandchildrenrsquos outcomes We find that this exposure reduces educational
attainment and related economic outcomes across three generations For example individuals in
our second generation the WLS graduates and their siblings who have mothers who were
exposed to the 1918 flu in utero complete 15 fewer years of schooling (or 24 months less
schooling) The size of our estimated effect aligns well with those of Richter and Robling (2013)
who find that first generation in utero exposure to the 1918 flu results in 16 fewer years of
schooling (or 2 months to 25 months less schooling) for the maternal line We then extend
results to the third generation for the first time in the literature and find that individuals in the
third generation who have grandmothers who were exposed to the pandemic in utero complete
17 fewer years of schooling (or 17 months less schooling) than individuals without affected
grandmothers
21 For gen 1 female exposure in column (4) the p-value for a difference in coefficients between Panel A
of Table 4 and Table 6 is 0411 implying the effect in the third generation is statistically indistinguishable
from that in the second generation
20
There are at several potential mechanisms for the persistence of poor outcomes across
three generations we find in our data As previously outlined the intergenerational persistence in
poor outcomes due to early life health shocks could occur through socioeconomic channels
where a fetally insulted person with resulting low educational attainment raises a child in a low-
resource environment that reduces opportunities for high educational attainment of the child In
order to see multigenerational effects the reduced opportunities for high educational attainment
of the child must then reduce opportunities for their own children Alternatively
intergenerational transmission may occur through epigenetic inheritance through the germ line a
distinct possibility based on findings of the Oumlverkalix studies or phenotype-to-phenotype
transmission and cumulative intergenerational phenotypic change
Our analysis is unable to fully distinguish between these proposed intergenerational
channels the socioeconomic and biological but it is important to note that the channels are by no
means mutually exclusive Further analysis (appendix tables 3-5) that is intended to partially
account for the socioeconomic mechanism leads to mixed results in which the coefficient of first
generation flu exposure is attenuated to insignificance for some outcomes but not others This
provides evidence for a socioeconomic channel but does not eliminate the possibility of
epigenetic mechanisms or other biological channel through which socioeconomic status ldquogets
under the skinrdquo to influence outcomes of subsequent generations (eg the socioeconomic
circumstances of one generation may ldquoget under the skinrdquo of the next and subsequently be passed
via biology andor socioeconomics to other generations) Likewise the estimates of grandfather
effects on grandchildren are imprecise but consistent with transgenerational inheritance (Kuzawa
and Eisenberg 2014) Additionally while the WLS provides a unique framework to analyze
multiple generations the measurement of flu exposure is somewhat crude (from self-reported
21
parentsrsquo year of birth) and is in the right-tail of the distribution of parent birth years suggesting
the possibility of confounding from resource-poor younger mothers22 That is exposure to
influenza in the first generation is mechanically tied to motherrsquos ages of 20 and 21 because the
WLS sample is drawn based on having a child who was born in 1939 (and thus graduating high
school in 1957) While we cannot definitively separate these two effects our ability to compare
outcomes of slightly older mothers (ages 22 and 23 born in 1917 or 1916) provide evidence
more consistent with in utero exposure to influenza than impacts of having a mother who is
2021 years old
From a policy perspective our evidence may suggest a novel source of multigenerational
persistence in poverty through biosocial factors and suggest a need to consider evidence of
transgenerational social andor biological mechanisms We document the extent to which
harmful early life environments cascade through generations promoting a disadvantaged start for
those whose grandparents exposed to a hazardous early life environment
22 We specifically explore the confounding effects of younger mothers in appendix tables 7 and 8 These
tables show that younger mothers are indeed initially disadvantaged (ie less years of schooling)
however this young-mother disadvantage does not persist in subsequent generations Rather only those
mothers born in the 1918-1919 range have significant negative effects on later generations
22
References
Almond Doug 2006 Is the 1918 Influenza pandemic over Long‐term effects of in utero Influenza exposure in the post‐1940 US population Journal of Political Economy 114(4) 672-712
Almond Doug and Bhashkar Mazumder 2005 The 1918 Influenza Pandemic and Subsequent Health Outcomes An Analysis of SIPP Data American Economic Review 95(2) 258-262
Barker David James P 2007 The origins of the developmental origins theory Journal of Internal Medicine 261(5) 412-417
Benyshek Daniel C (2013) The ldquoearly liferdquo origins of obesity‐related health disorders New discoveries regarding the intergenerational transmission of developmentally programmed traits in the global cardiometabolic health crisis American Journal of Physical Anthropology 152(S57) 79-93
Brown Alan S and Elena J Derkits 2010 Prenatal infection and schizophrenia a review of epidemiologic and translational studies American Journal of Psychiatry 167(3) 261-280
Burg Steven 2000 Wisconsin and the Great Spanish Flu Epidemic of 1918rdquo Wisconsin Magazine of History 84(1) 36-56
Bygren LarsOlov Gunnar Kaati and Soumlren Edvinsson 2001 Longevity determined by paternal ancestors nutrition during their slow growth period Acta biotheoretica 49(1) 53-59
Canetta Sarah E and Alan S Brown 2012 Prenatal infection maternal immune activation and risk for schizophrenia Translational Neuroscience 3(4) 320-327
Chadwick L and Solon G (2002) Intergenerational income mobility among daughters American Economic Review 92(1) 335-344
Cohen Alan A John Tillinghast and Vladimir Canudas-Romo 2010 No consistent effects of prenatal or neonatal exposure to Spanish flu on late-life mortality in 24 developed countries Demographic Research 22(20) 579
Fatemi S Hossein Julie Earle Reena Kanodia David Kist Effat S Emamian Paul H Patterson Limin Shi and Robert Sidwell 2002 Prenatal viral infection leads to pyramidal cell atrophy and macrocephaly in adulthood implications for genesis of autism and schizophrenia Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology 22(1) 25-33
Fletcher Jason 2014 Examining the Long Term Mortality Effects of Early Health Shocks US Census Bureau Center for Economic Studies Paper No CES-WP-14-19
Kaati Gunnar Lars O Bygren and Soren Edvinsson 2002 Cardiovascular and diabetes mortality determined by nutrition during parents and grandparents slow growth period European Journal of Human Genetics EJHG 10(11) 682
Kash John C Terrence M Tumpey Sean C Proll Victoria Carter Olivia Perwitasari Matthew J Thomas Christopher F Basler et al 2006 Genomic analysis of increased host immune and cell death responses induced by 1918 influenza virus Nature 443(7111) 578-581
Kobasa Darwyn Steven M Jones Kyoko Shinya John C Kash John Copps Hideki Ebihara Yasuko Hatta et al 2007 Aberrant innate immune response in lethal infection of macaques with the 1918 influenza virus Nature 445 (7125) 319-323
Kuzawa Christopher W and Dan T Eisenberg 2014 The Long Reach of History Intergenerational and Transgenerational Pathwaysto Plasticity in Human Longevity Sociality Hierarchy Health Comparative Biodemography Papers from a Workshop National Academies Press
Li Wai-Yu Yi-Chun Chang L Jyuhn-Hsiarn Lee and Li-Jen Lee 2014 Prenatal infection affects the neuronal architecture and cognitive function in adult mice Developmental Neuroscience 36(5) 359-370
23
Lin Ming-Jen and Elaine M Liu 2014 Does in utero exposure to illness matter The 1918 influenza epidemic in Taiwan as a natural experiment Journal of Health Economics 37 152-163
Lindeboom Maarten France Portrait and Gerard J Van den Berg 2010 Long-run effects on longevity of a nutritional shock early in life the Dutch Potato famine of 1846ndash1847 Journal of Health Economics 29(5) 617-629
Mamelund SE (2018) 1918 pandemic mobidity The first wave hits the poor the second wave hits the rich Influenza and Other Respitory Viruses 12(3) 307-313
Mazumder Bhashkar Douglas Almond Kyung Park Eileen M Crimmins and Caleb E Finch 2010 Lingering prenatal effects of the 1918 influenza pandemic on cardiovascular disease Journal of developmental origins of health and disease 1(1) 26-34
Miller Veronica Y Zhu C Bucher W McGinnis L Ryan A Siegel and S Zalcman 2013 Gestational flu exposure induces changes in neurochemicals affiliative hormones and brainstem inflammation in addition to autism-like behaviors in mice Brain Behavior and Immunity 33 153-163
Myrskylauml Mikko Neil K Mehta and Virginia W Chang 2013 Early life exposure to the 1918 influenza pandemic and old-age mortality by cause of death American Journal of Public Health 103(7) e83-e90
Olivetti C and Paserman MD (2015) In the name of the son (and the daughter) Intergenerational mobility in the United States 1850-1940 American Economic Review 105(8) 2695-2724
Pembrey Marcus E Lars Olov Bygren Gunnar Kaati Soumlren Edvinsson Kate Northstone Michael Sjoumlstroumlm and Jean Golding 2006 Sex-specific male-line transgenerational responses in humans European Journal of Human Genetics 14(2) 159-166
Richter Andreacute and Per Olof Robling 2013 Multigenerational effects of the 1918-19 influenza pandemic in Sweden Swedish Institute for Social Research 5
Shors Teri and Susan H McFadden 2009 1918 Influenza A Winnebago County Wisconsin Perspective Clinical Medicine amp Research 7(4) 147-156
Sydenstricker E (1931) The incidence of influenza among persons of different economic status during the epidemic of 1918 Public Health Reports 46(4) 154-170
van den Berg Gerard J and Pia R Pinger 2013 A validation study of transgenerational effects of childhood conditions on the third generation offsprings economic and health outcomes potentially driven by epigenetic imprinting IZA Discussion Paper
Tables and Figures
Table 1 Summary Statistics
Variable N Mean Std Deviation
First GenerartionFlu Indicators
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 8368 0112 0315Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 8456 0030 0170Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 8487 0093 0290
ControlsFirst Generation Malersquos Year of Birth 8456 1907435 7021First Generation Femalersquos Year of Birth 8427 1911189 6164
Dependent VariablesFirst Generation Malersquos Years of Schooling 8456 9778 3392First Generation Femalersquos Years of Schooing 8487 10499 2804First Generation Malersquos Job Prestige 8385 330662 214361First Generation Femalersquos Job Prestige 6683 12814 19934Family SES 8487 16231 11143
Second GenerationControls
Female Indicator 12459 0530 0499Birth Year 12459 1939406 4289Birth Order 12459 2529 1828
Dependent VariablesYears of Schooling 12459 13678 2361Family Income 1992 (in $1000s) 12112 68027 177105Net Worth 2004 (in $1000s) 10498 913046 2558927Self-reported health 1992 9888 4149 0668Height (inches) 9783 67406 3851BMI 1992 9671 26742 4657
Third GenerationControls
Birth Year 19913 1963901 3636Female Indicator 19913 0497 0500Birth Order 19913 2196 1263
Dependent VariableYears of Schooling 19913 14294 2309
Summary amp Notes This table provides summary statistics for all variables used The samples above may not berepresentative for all estimations For example the inclusion of siblings in the second generation increase the sample of parentalyear of birth and the corresponding flu indicator This increase in sample does not significantly change the sample statisticsabove Similar sample changes occur for the second generation controls above For the third generation the sample is restrictedto biological children over 35 years of age
24
Tab
le2
Fir
stG
ener
atio
n
Eco
nom
icE
ffec
ts
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
am
ily
SE
SY
ears
of
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
am
ily
SE
S(1
)(2
)(3
)(4
)(5
)(6
)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale)
-01
39
-01
16lowast
-12
90lowast
lowast
(02
00)
(00
60)
(05
99)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emal
e)-0
133
-00
66
-13
61lowastlowast
lowast
(00
95)
(00
43)
(03
76)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
YY
YY
YY
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8456
8385
8456
8487
6683
8487
RS
qr
00
32
00
08
00
23
00
13
00
04
00
13
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
pro
vid
esd
irec
teff
ects
of
inu
tero
an
dea
rly
life
exp
osu
reto
the
1918
Flu
Ep
idem
ic
Bir
thye
ar
tim
etr
end
sin
lcu
de
yea
rof
bir
than
dit
ssq
uar
ean
din
clu
sion
inth
ees
tim
atio
nis
par
ent
spec
ific
All
esti
mati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
an
dard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
alsi
gnifi
can
ceis
den
oted
by
an
d
re
pre
senti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vel
y
25
Tab
le3
Fir
stG
ener
atio
n
Mar
riag
eM
arke
tE
ffec
ts
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Flu
Bir
thY
ear
Yea
rsof
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
luB
irth
Yea
rY
ears
of
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
e(1
)(2
)(3
)(4
)(5
)(6
)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale)
01
40lowast
lowastlowast-0
259
-00
39
(00
34)
(01
58)
(00
72)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emal
e)0
056lowast
lowastlowast-0
340lowast
lowastlowast-0
118lowastlowast
lowast
(00
14)
(01
17)
(00
36)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
YY
YY
YY
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8348
8487
8412
8348
8456
6660
RS
qr
00
90
00
11
00
08
01
20
00
21
00
01
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
pro
vid
esev
iden
ceof
marr
iage
mark
etse
lect
ion
inth
efi
rst
gen
erati
on
B
irth
year
tim
etr
end
sin
clu
de
year
of
bir
than
dit
ssq
uare
and
incl
usi
onin
the
esti
mat
ion
isp
aren
tsp
ecifi
cA
lles
tim
ati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
an
dard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
sign
ifica
nce
isd
enot
edby
an
d
re
pre
senti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vely
26
Table 4 Second Generation Economic Effects
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Years of Schooling
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0209lowastlowastlowast
(0073)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0084 -0059(0129) (0129)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0211lowastlowastlowast -0209lowastlowastlowast
(0075) (0075)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0085 0084 0085 0085
Panel B ln Family Income 1992
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0221lowastlowast
(0111)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0098 -0066(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0262lowastlowast -0259lowastlowast
(0116) (0116)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112R Sqr 0021 0021 0021 0021
Panel C Std Net Worth 2004
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0026(0022)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0033 0038(0047) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0038lowast -0040lowast
(0021) (0021)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498R Sqr 0007 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table provides evidence of signficant harmful effects of flu exposure in the first generation on secondgeneration economic outcomes First generation time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents(ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and itssquare and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
27
Table 5 Second Generation Health Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Self-reported health (Likert 1=very poor 5=excellent)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0054lowastlowast
(0027)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0005(0047) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0061lowastlowast -0061lowastlowast
(0028) (0028)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Panel B Height (inches)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0101)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0102 0127(0168) (0168)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0169lowast -0175lowast
(0103) (0103)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783r2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Panel C BMI
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0412lowastlowast
(0191)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0082 0023(0344) (0346)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0422lowastlowast 0421lowastlowast
(0193) (0194)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table provides evidence of harmful effects of flu exposure in the first generation on secondgeneration health outcomes First generation time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents (iegen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and itssquare and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
28
Table 6 Generation Three Effects of Generation One Flu Exposure Years of Schooling
Dependent Variable Years of Schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0125(0077)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Male) -0007 0010(0136) (0136)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Female) -0144lowast -0144lowast
(0078) (0078)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913R Sqr 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table shows that the generational effects of flu exposure extend into the third generation of theWLS First generation flu exposure is shown to have a negative association with third generation years of schooling Firstgeneration time trends are year of birth measures for each parent and their square Second generation controls inlcude anindicator for sex second generation year of birth and its square and birth order Third generation controls include a sexindicator year of birth and its square and birth order Given the focus on years of schooling the sample is restricted to thosethird generation individuals 35 years of age and older or born during or before 1970 (data were collected in 2005) Allestimation is performed with OLS with family (second generation) clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
29
(a)
Fat
her
(b)
Moth
er
Fig
ure
1F
irst
Gen
erat
ion
Dis
trib
uti
onof
Yea
rof
Bir
th
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
figu
rep
lots
the
dis
trib
uti
on
for
firs
tgen
erati
on
year
of
bir
th
Flu
exp
osu
reis
class
ified
as
bei
ng
born
inei
ther
1918
or
1919
30
Appendix Tables
Appendix Table 1 First Generation Flu Exposure Effect on Family Income
Dependent Variable Family Income ($100s) 1957
(1) (2)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -3366(2592)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -5363lowastlowast
(2390)
Birth Year Time Trends Y YObservations 7440 7456R Sqr 0013 0004
Summary amp Notes This table replaces the index of socioeconomic status with family income (in $100s) in 1957 Allestimation is performed with OLS with robust standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
31
App
endix
Tab
le2
Mar
riag
eM
arke
tE
ffec
ts
Con
trol
ling
for
Ow
nY
ear
ofB
irth
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
Job
Pre
stig
eY
ears
of
Sch
Job
Pre
stig
e
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale
)-0
052
-211
82
-01
98
-03
74
(02
03)
(131
30)
(01
61)
(14
38)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emale
)-0
346lowast
lowastlowast-2
44
97lowastlowast
lowast-0
103
-13
88
(01
16)
(76
88)
(00
94)
(08
54)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
(Male
an
dF
emale
)Y
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8348
8279
8348
6587
RS
qr
00
40
00
22
00
25
00
04
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
re-e
stim
ates
Tab
le3
wh
ile
contr
oll
ing
for
year
of
bir
than
dfl
uin
dic
ato
rsass
oci
ate
dw
ith
the
spou
sein
the
dep
end
ent
vari
ab
le
All
esti
mat
ion
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
and
ard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
sign
ifica
nce
isd
enote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
atth
e10
5
and
1le
vel
sre
spec
tive
ly
32
Appendix Table 3 2nd Gen Economic Effects Controlling for 1st Gen Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Years of Schooling
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0088(0070)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0005 0008(0119) (0119)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0116 -0117(0072) (0072)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0206 0206 0206 0206
Panel B ln Family Income 1992
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0193lowast
(0111)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0080 -0050(0184) (0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0240lowastlowast -0238lowastlowast
(0116) (0116)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112R Sqr 0024 0024 0024 0024
Panel C Std Normal Net Worth 2004
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0003(0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0047 0049(0046) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0019 -0021(0020) (0020)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498R Sqr 0033 0033 0033 0033
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 4 while controlling for generation one economic outcomes fatherrsquos years ofschooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 First generation time trends are given by year of birth and itssquare for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex secondgeneration year of birth and its square and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standarderrors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and1 levels respectively 33
Appendix Table 4 2nd Gen Health Effects Controlling for 1st Gen Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A BMI
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0352lowast
(0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0051 -0001(0342) (0344)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0372lowast 0372lowast
(0192) (0193)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671R Sqr 0035 0035 0035 0035
Panel B Count of Illnesses
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0122lowast
(0065)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0076 -0096(0102) (0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0139lowastlowast 0144lowastlowast
(0067) (0068)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9921 9921 9921 9921R Sqr 0046 0046 0046 0046
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 5 while controlling for generation one economic outcomes fatherrsquos years ofschooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 First generation time trends are given by year of birth and itssquare for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex secondgeneration year of birth and its square and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standarderrors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and1 levels respectively
34
Appendix Table 5 Generation threersquos years of schooling Controlling for previous generation economicwell-being
Dependent Variable Years of Schooling for Gen 3(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A First Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0069(0076)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0022 0034(0133) (0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0102 -0104(0077) (0078)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913R Sqr 0117 0117 0117 0117
Panel B Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0025(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0008 0013(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0038 -0039(0073) (0073)
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0190 0190 0190 0190
Panel C First and Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0008(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0016 0019(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0028 -0029(0073) (0073)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0196 0196 0196 0196
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 6 while controlling for generation one and tworsquos economic outcomes Forgeneration one these include fatherrsquos years of schooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 generation twocontrols include the WLS graduatesiblingrsquos years of schooling family income in 1992 and net worth in 2004 First generationtime trends are year of birth measures for each parent and their square Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sexsecond generation year of birth and its square and birth order Third generation controls include a sex indicator year of birthand its square and birth order Given the focus on years of schooling the sample is restricted to those third generationindividuals 35 years of age and older or born during or before 1970 (data were collected in 2005) All estimation is performedwith OLS with family (second generation) clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denotedby and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
35
Appendix Table 6 Alternative measures of schooling in the second generation
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Indicator for any college (years of schooling gt12)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0044lowastlowastlowast
(0017)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0011 -0006(0029) (0029)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0044lowastlowast -0043lowastlowast
(0017) (0017)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0071 0070 0071 0071
Panel B Indicator for incomplete college (years of schooling gt12 amp lt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0008(0013)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 -0001(0022) (0022)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0008 -0008(0013) (0013)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0005 0005 0005 0005
Panel C Indicator for college graduate (years of schooling = 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0022lowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0003 0006(0020) (0020)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0021lowast -0021lowastlowast
(0011) (0011)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0019 0019 0019 0019
Panel D Indicator for post-college education (years of schooling gt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0014(0010)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0011(0018) (0018)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0014 -0014(0010) (0010)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0039 0039 0039 0039
Summary amp Notes This table replaces our continuous measure of years of schooling with specified dummy variables Firstgeneration time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Secondgeneration controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and its square and birth order All estimationis performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
36
Appendix Table 7 Young mothers Direct effect on Gen 1 Females
Dependent Variable Years of Sch Job Prestige Family SES
(1) (2) (3)
Ind for First Gen Female Flu Exposure (1918-1919) -0325lowastlowast -0841 -1749lowastlowastlowast
(0137) (1015) (0584)
Ind for mother born during 1920-1921 -0567lowastlowastlowast 0745 -1157(0206) (1515) (0914)
Ind for mother born during 1922-1923 -0666lowastlowast 0098 -2113(0330) (2210) (1298)
Ind for mother born after 1924 -0392 5682 0384(0486) (3705) (2126)
Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y
Observations 8487 6683 8487R Sqr 0014 0005 0014
Summary amp Notes This table includes indicators for alternative years of birth Younger mothers are shown to have lessyears of schooling All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
37
App
endix
Tab
le8
You
ng
mot
her
sG
ener
atio
n2
and
3eff
ects
Gen
2
Gen
3
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
ln
Fam
In
c
1992
Std
N
W
2004
Sel
f-re
p
hea
lth
Hei
ght
BM
IY
ears
of
Sch
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
emal
eF
luE
xp
osu
re(1
918-
1919
)-0
201lowastlowast
-02
95lowastlowast
-00
45
-00
73lowastlowast
-00
90
02
07
-00
86(0
092)
(01
32)
(00
32)
(00
32)
(01
22)
(02
25)
(00
94)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
20-1
921
-00
22
-00
40
-00
10
-00
61
01
33
-04
10
01
13
(01
37)
(01
74)
(00
51)
(00
43)
(01
80)
(03
11)
(01
41)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
22-1
923
-00
96
-01
88
-00
57
00
20
04
61
-11
29lowastlowast
01
55(0
184)
(03
20)
(00
61)
(00
75)
(02
83)
(04
51)
(02
23)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
afte
r19
2404
58
-01
87
00
01
-00
27
03
12
-08
85
03
99
(03
06)
(03
94)
(00
87)
(01
27)
(04
94)
(10
70)
(03
21)
Bas
eC
ontr
ols
YY
YY
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
12459
12112
10498
9888
9783
9671
19913
RS
qr
00
85
00
21
00
08
00
09
05
86
00
29
00
79
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
incl
ud
esin
dic
ator
sfo
ralt
ernati
ve
years
of
bir
th
Bei
ng
born
toa
you
nger
moth
ergen
erall
yis
not
ass
oci
ate
dw
ith
gen
erati
on
2or
3rsquos
outc
omes
ofin
tere
st
inst
ead
n
egat
ive
effec
tsar
eon
lyob
serv
edfo
rth
ose
born
du
rin
gth
efl
u
All
esti
mati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hfa
mil
y(2
nd
gen
erat
ion
)cl
ust
ered
stan
dar
der
rors
rep
orte
din
par
enth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
signifi
can
ceis
den
ote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vel
y
38
Appendix Table 9 Summary Statistics by Gen 2 Sex
Variable N Mean Std Deviation
FemaleYears of Schooling 6607 13352 2088ln Family Income (1992 wave) 6411 9424 3577
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5654 10686 1010Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 5612 -0047 0539Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 5313 4164 0670Height (inches) 5231 646635 247936BMI 5124 26073 5114
Gen 3Years of Schooling 11947 14240 2291
MaleYears of Schooling 5852 14047 2587ln Family Income (1992 wave) 5701 10139 3030
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5264 10981 0836Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 4886 0059 1159Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 4575 4133 0665Height (inches) 4554 7055484 25596BMI 4547 27496 3948
Gen 3Years of Schooling 8046 14371 2332
Appendix Table 10A Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0090(0086)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0198 0214(0169) (0169)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104 -0114(0087) (0087)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6607 6607 6607 6607R Sqr 0075 0075 0075 0075
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
39
Appendix Table 10B Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0523lowastlowastlowast
(0170)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0483 -0410(0321) (0323)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0512lowastlowastlowast -0491lowastlowastlowast
(0179) (0180)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6411 6411 6411 6411R Sqr 0015 0013 0014 0015
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10C Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0007(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0078lowast 0078(0048) (0048)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0008 0005(0025) (0025)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5612 5612 5612 5612R Sqr 0007 0007 0007 0007
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
40
Appendix Table 10D Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0027(0036)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 -0001(0071) (0071)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0022 -0022(0037) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5313 5313 5313 5313r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10E Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -2382(13366)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 44280lowastlowast 46351lowastlowast
(22343) (22480)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -12253 -14428(13485) (13561)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5231 5231 5231 5231r2 0015 0016 0015 0016
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
41
Appendix Table 10F Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0353(0286)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0105 0060(0514) (0516)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0326 0323(0289) (0290)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5124 5124 5124 5124R Sqr 0010 0010 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0087(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0104 -0101(0190) (0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0042 -0039(0098) (0098)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 11906 11906 11906 11906R Sqr 0086 0086 0086 0086
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
42
Appendix Table 11A Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0322lowastlowastlowast
(0116)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0369lowastlowast -0338lowast
(0181) (0180)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0309lowastlowastlowast -0297lowastlowast
(0119) (0119)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5852 5852 5852 5852R Sqr 0060 0059 0060 0060
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11B RResults by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0116(0138)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0262 0261(0200) (0199)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0024 0014(0141) (0140)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5701 5701 5701 5701R Sqr 0009 0009 0008 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
43
Appendix Table 11C Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0038)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0001(0081) (0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0094lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0035)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4886 4886 4886 4886R Sqr 0004 0004 0004 0004
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
44
Appendix Table 11D Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0083lowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 0012(0062) (0062)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104lowastlowastlowast -0105lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0041)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4575 4575 4575 4575r2 0010 0009 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11E Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -15122(14275)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -22991 -20537(23287) (23176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -18595 -17540(14734) (14751)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4554 4554 4554 4554r2 0011 0011 0011 0011
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
45
Appendix Table 11F Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0465lowast
(0238)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0079 0006(0403) (0405)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0520lowastlowast 0520lowastlowast
(0245) (0246)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4547 4547 4547 4547R Sqr 0006 0005 0006 0006
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0177(0123)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0098 0144(0194) (0192)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0293lowastlowast -0302lowastlowast
(0125) (0126)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8007 8007 8007 8007R Sqr 0067 0067 0068 0068
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
46
Appendix Table 12A Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0253lowastlowast
(0107)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0252 -0226(0170) (0172)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0263lowastlowast -0242lowastlowast
(0113) (0115)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0084(0120)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0341 0339(0216) (0219)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0096 0056(0130) (0132)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459r2 0085 0085 0085 0085
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
47
Appendix Table 12B Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0128)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0196 0169(0190) (0189)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0081 -0104(0135) (0135)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0383lowastlowast
(0189)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0594lowast -0474(0349) (0355)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0339lowast -0283(0204) (0207)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112r2 0021 0021 0021 0021
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
48
Appendix Table 12C Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0034)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0019(0077) (0079)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0095lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0030) (0031)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0071lowast
(0038)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0072 0039(0087) (0089)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0104lowastlowastlowast 0100lowastlowastlowast
(0035) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498r2 0008 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
49
Appendix Table 12D Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0071lowast
(0036)[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0012 0031
(0058) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0093lowastlowast -0097lowastlowast
(0039) (0039)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0030(0045)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0031 -0051(0087) (0088)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0059 0065(0048) (0049)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
50
Appendix Table 12E Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0129 -0125(0223) (0224)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0152 -0129(0141) (0142)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0000(0158)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0454 0495lowast
(0279) (0287)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0031 -0090(0170) (0175)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783nr2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
51
Appendix Table 12F Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0376(0231)
[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0059 -0122(0402) (0407)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0441lowast 0457lowast
(0240) (0243)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0068(0316)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0282 0288(0573) (0589)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0035 -0069(0340) (0350)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
52
Appendix Table 12G Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0131(0114)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male 0114 0175(0185) (0188)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0237lowastlowast -0261lowastlowast
(0118) (0121)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0009(0133)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0225 -0292(0249) (0254)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0152 0189(0141) (0145)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913r2 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
53
Appendix Table 13 Family Income 1992 excluding non-earners (ie fam inc = 0)
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992 wave (excluding those reporting 0)(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0095lowastlowastlowast
(0033)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0031 -0019(0053) (0053)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0101lowastlowastlowast -0100lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0034)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10918 10918 10918 10918r2 0050 0049 0050 0050
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0084lowast
(0050)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0019 -0007(0089) (0090)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0083 -0083(0053) (0054)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5654 5654 5654 5654r2 0026 0026 0026 0026
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102lowastlowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0051 -0040(0060) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0113lowastlowastlowast -0112lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0040)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5264 5264 5264 5264r2 0029 0028 0029 0029
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel B in Table 4 excluding those who report $0 for familyincome All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
54
Appendix Table 14 Net Worth 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable Std Net Worth 2011 Wave of WLS(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0032lowastlowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0023lowast -0021lowast
(0012) (0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0032lowastlowastlowast -0031lowastlowastlowast
(0010) (0010)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9435 9435 9435 9435r2 0002 0002 0002 0002
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0012lowast
(0006)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0009 -0008(0009) (0009)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0012lowastlowast -0011lowastlowast
(0006) (0006)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5026 5026 5026 5026r2 0007 0006 0007 0007
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0057lowastlowast
(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0040lowast -0036lowast
(0023) (0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0057lowastlowast -0056lowastlowast
(0023) (0022)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4409 4409 4409 4409r2 0001 0001 0001 0001
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel C in Table 4 replacing the net worth measure from the 2004wave with an identical measure from the 2011 wave of the WLS All estimation is performed with OLS with family clusteredstandard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 105 and 1 levels respectively
55
Appendix Table 15A Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 1992 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0243(0152)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0107 0039(0252) (0255)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0285lowast 0282lowast
(0158) (0160)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9849 9849 9849 9849
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0007(0091)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0210 -0216(0170) (0173)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0007 0024(0095) (0097)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9858 9858 9858 9858
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0255(0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0107 -0169(0328) (0338)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0237 0252(0193) (0198)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9845 9845 9845 9845
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
56
Appendix Table 15B Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2004 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0018(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0190 0207(0160) (0162)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0066 -0083(0102) (0104)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10672 10672 10672 10672
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0096 0108(0124) (0125)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0051 -0059(0076) (0077)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10619 10619 10619 10619
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0108(0110)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0064 0027(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0181 0179(0113) (0113)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10617 10617 10617 10617
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
57
Appendix Table 15C Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0099(0092)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0244 0242(0154) (0155)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0033 0016(0099) (0100)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0021(0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0095 0097(0138) (0139)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0004 -0011(0085) (0086)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0134(0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0203 0181(0175) (0176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0140 0127(0107) (0107)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8709 8709 8709 8709
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
58
- text 10818
- tables 10-8-18
-
10
available including years of schooling occupational prestige and family socioeconomic status
in 19578
[insert table 1 here]
The primary focus of the WLS data collection is high school seniors in 1957 Wisconsin
the second generation of our study Given this focus on graduates (and their siblings) a large
number of economic and health variables are available in each wave of the WLS (irregular
intervals roughly 10-15 years apart 197577 19929394 2003-20052004-2007 and in 2011)
In addition to examining years of schooling several additional dependent variables in the second
generation intend to capture broad differences in economic and health well-being9 These include
income during the peak earning years (ie family income collected when graduates are 53 years
of age on average) net worth at initial retirement age (ie net worth collected when graduates
are 65 years of age on average) and general indicators of health measured by body mass index
and a count of doctor diagnosed illnesses (both collected in the wave when graduates are age 53
on average) Finally the WLS data contains information that is collected from the second
generation about the third generation we focus on years of schooling as the main outcome of
interest
8 The index of socioeconomic status is a factor weighted score combining data on father and motherrsquos
years of schooling fatherrsquos occupational prestige and average parental income Replacing this measure
with average parental income (see appendix table 1) does not change the effect of the flu indicator Job
prestige measures for both mother and father are based on Duncanrsquos Socioeconomic Index which is a
measure of job prestige based on income education and surveyed perceptions of general social standing
for certain occupations (Duncan 1961) 9 We note that our three generations of individuals are drawn from three non-overlapping set of birth
years the mean birth year for generation 1 is ~1910 generation 2 is ~1940 generation 3 is ~1965 Thus
since we are performing the analysis separately by generation we are controlling for much of the time-
variation in the meaning of education We also perform analysis stratified by sex in Appendix Tables 10-
12 so that we can also control for the differential meaning of education in each generation
11
Empirical Methodology
Our empirical strategy follows that of Almond (2006) by examining harmful effects of being
exposed in utero on later life outcomes We then extend this analysis by estimating
multigenerational impacts on both the second and third generations In so doing the primary
estimating equation is given by the following form
119910119894119891119892 = 1205730 + 1205731(119884119874119861 = 191819)1198911 + 120632119931119943120783 + 120633119935119946119943119944 + 120576119894119891119892
Our primary focus is on the coefficient 1205731 which measures the effect of having a
parentgrandparent born in 1918-1919 on a number of outcomes for 119894 individuals in 119891 families
for generation 119892 Parent year of birth time trends and their square are denoted by 120632119931119943120783 120633119935119946119943119944
represents generation specific controls and 120576119894119891119892 is representative of a family clustered error
term
For the first generation we control for birth year and its square capturing age-specific
trends that are tied to our first-generation outcomes of interest (eg years of schooling) For the
analysis of second and third generations birth years and squares for both first generation parents
are included as controls along with generation-specific controls for sex age and birth order
Our estimation strategy follows an intent to treat design It is likely that the actual
incidence of flu differed by socioeconomic status and social standing (Mamelund 2018
Sydenstricker 1931) Our use of year-of-birth however avoids potential confounding by SES
because allmdashboth rich and poormdashare defined as treated if they are born in one of the two years
Although avoiding confounders associated with actual disease incidence this estimation strategy
will underestimate the true effect of flu exposure lowering the magnitude of our coefficient of
interest
12
Results
First Generation
Our initial analysis explores the direct effects of being born during the 1918 Influenza Epidemic
While health data are sparse for the WLS graduatersquos parents (first generation) a number of
economic outcomes are available especially during the initial sample year of 1957 Table 2
explores the relationship between these economic variables and an indicator for birth during
19181919 Columns (1)-(3) of table 2 show the relationship between a WLS graduatersquos father
being born during 19181919 and the fatherrsquos years of schooling the fatherrsquos occupational
prestige and the familyrsquos index of socioeconomic status in 1957 (ie when the first generation
members are approximately 40 years old) While statistically insignificant a negative association
is observed between years of schooling and being born in 1918 or 191910 This is carried over
into fatherrsquos job prestige in column (2) from which the indicator of in utero exposure to the 1918
flu is associated with an approximate 01 standard deviation decline in the index of occupational
prestige These effects culminate in column (3) which shows a statistically significant negative
effect of in utero exposure to the flu and later life economic well-being a 13 decline in the SES
index which corresponds to a decline of roughly 10 percent of a standard deviation The findings
of table 2 corroborate past studies that show in utero exposure to the 1918 flu led to poorer
economic outcomes later in life (Almond 2006)11
[insert table 2 here]
10 First generation years of schooling are reported by the second generation WLS graduates Measurement
error is likely which may result in the insignificant coefficients of table 2 11 Richter and Robling (2013 Table 12) find a similar effect for in utero female exposure to flu in the first
trimester
13
Mirroring the results for males in the first generation a negative but statistically
insignificant association is observed between an indicator of birth in 19181919 and schooling
for first generation females This association however becomes statistically significant at the 1
percent level for the index of family SES the coefficient being nearly identical to that of a
malersquos in utero exposure to the flu though it is unclear whether these effects flow from labor
market andor marriage market sources The findings of table 2 are extended in table 3 which
explores potential marriage market effects of early life exposure to the flu epidemic12
Column (1) of table 3 regresses the indicator for male in utero exposure on an identical
measure for spousersquos exposure Females who were born in 19181919 were 5 percentage points
more likely to marry men who were also born during the same period Furthermore as shown in
columns (2) and (3) these women were more likely to marry men with fewer years of school and
lower job prestige These effects are significant at the 1 percent level Similar effects are seen in
columns (4)-(6) for 19181919 born males who are 14 percentage points more likely to marry flu
exposed females (p=000) and marry females with 026 fewer years of schooling (p=0101)
Given the findings of table 3 however we cannot rule out that this is a marriage market effect13
[insert table 3 here]
Second Generation
Our hypothesis is that the direct effects observed in tables 2 and 3 extend into future generations
To address this hypothesis we regress a number of economic and health outcomes of the WLS
graduates and siblings the offspring of the first generation examined in tables 2 and 3 These
12 Mothers and fathers of WLS graduates are assumed to be married 13 Appendix table 2 repeats the estimation of table 3 while also controlling for an indicator of own-flu
exposure and own year of birth measures
14
estimations are performed in tables 4 and 5 Column (1) in both tables focus on an indicator for
either parent being born in 19181919 the primary regressor of column (2) is an indicator for
fatherrsquos (gen 1 males) in utero exposure to the 1918 flu column (3) considers motherrsquos (gen 1
females) exposure and column (4) includes separate indicators for both mother and fatherrsquos
exposure Controls included in all columns include fatherrsquos year of birth and its square motherrsquos
year of birth and its square an indicator for sex in the second generation a measure of birth
order in the second generation and second-generation year of birth and its square
Table 4 focuses on economic outcomes of the WLS graduates To reiterate our
hypothesis is that in utero exposure to the 1918 influenza pandemic has effects that persist for
multiple generations Table 2 shows the direct first generation effects while table 4 begins to
show the indirect effects that are transmitted to offspring Panel A regresses years of schooling in
the second generation on indicators of first generation exposure to the 1918 flu14 From column
(1) either parent being born in 19181919 is associated with a statistically significant decline of
021 years of schooling in the second generation This estimate is likely understated because the
sampling design of the WLS is a focus on high school seniors thus individuals with fewer than
twelve years of schooling are underrepresented in the data15 Columns (2)-(4) disambiguate this
effect into the maternal and paternal lines From which the effect of column (1) seems to be
driven by motherrsquos in utero exposure to the flu16
14 Appendix Table 6 includes a number of alternative measures for years of schooling in place of the
simple count used in Table 4 15 Table 3 includes selected siblings of the WLS graduates These siblings do not have to be high school
graduates 16 This finding differs from that of Richter and Robling (2013) who find maternal exposure tied to
daughter outcomes and paternal exposure tied to son outcomes
15
The findings of Panel A are extended into Panel B which replaces years of schooling as
the dependent variable with the natural log of family income for the 1992 wave a time when the
second generation respondents are 53 years of age on average and represents a time of peak
earning in the life course As with years of schooling a negative association is seen throughout
the specifications of Panel B Having either parent born in 19181919 is associated with a 22
percent decline in family income Once again this effect seems to be driven by motherrsquos not
fatherrsquos exposure Panel C replaces income with a measure of net worth for the 2004 wave This
measure of net worth is when the second generation respondents are on average 65 years of age
and is representative of earnings throughout the life course The dual indicator of column (1) is
negative but statistically insignificant at conventional levels (p=023) When looking at the effect
of mother exposure in column (3) however the effect becomes statistically significant at the
10 level (p=0069) implying those with mothers born during 19181919 have approximately
$36000 less in net worth by 2004
Following the broader health focus of the Barker hypothesis the economic effects of
table 4 are replaced with health measures in table 5 We consider three broad measures of
general health and well-being later in life self-reported health in later life (~53 years old)
height and BMI (again at ~53) The use of self-reported health is intended to capture general
well-being later in life (Fortin et al 2017) this is tested in Panel A of table 5 Mazumder et al
(2010) provide evidence that in utero exposure to the 1918 flu is associated with a reduction in
height and an increase cardiovascular disease so it is possible that these negative health
outcomes could be transmitted to offspring this is tested in Panel B of table 517 And given
17 Appendix Table 14 tests indicators for a number self-reported health conditions As shown a weak
positive association is shown between gen 1 female flu exposure and an indicator of cardiovascular
16
prior work linking early life exposure to the Dutch famine to BMI (Roseboom et al 2000) and
metabolic function (Lumey et al 2009) in adulthood as well as the fact that both the Dutch
famine and the 1918 flu impacted maternal stress and nutritional status18 we examine BMI as
another broad indicator of health for the second generation this is tested in Panel C of table 5 A
consistent pattern emerges across all panels Like SES outcomes in table 4 gen 1 female
exposure to the flu is shown to have negative statistically significant association with all health
outcomes in the second generation
From Panel A parentalmdashor gen 1mdashflu exposure reduces self-reported health by roughly
half a point (plt005) on a Likert scale from 1-5 1 being very poor health and 5 being excellent
health As shown and like prior estimates this effect is driven by gen 1 female exposure For
adult height gen 1 female exposure is associated with a reduction of about 02 inches (plt010)
which is larger than the direct effect documented by Mazumder et al of 005 inches however
Mazumder et alrsquos estimated effect falls within the 95 confidence interval of our estimated
coefficient Panel C considers the effect on second generation BMI From column (1) having
either parent being born in 19181919 is associated with a statistically significant increase in the
offspringrsquos BMI of 041 points As with the economic effects of table 4 this increase in BMI
appears to be driven by motherrsquos exposure This is seen in columns (2)-(4) which estimate a
statistically significant positive coefficient for motherrsquos exposure but a coefficient that is
statistically indistinguishable from zero for fatherrsquos exposure
disease during the 199293 wave of the WLS (Appendix Table 15A) This association however reduced
in magnitude and statistical significance for later-life waves of the WLS (Appendix Table 15B and 15C) 18 The Dutch famine influenced maternal nutritional status directly through caloric restriction and the
1918 flu through symptoms such as appetite loss vomiting andor diarrhea
17
A persistent effect of in utero exposure to the 1918 Flu is seen in tables 4 and 5 First
generation exposure consistently has a statistically significant and economically meaningful
effect on second generation health and economic outcomes And this effect appears to be driven
solely by motherrsquos exposure although due to marriage market associations we cannot
determine definitively that motherrsquos exposure produces this multigenerational effect through
biological mechanisms
Appendix Tables 10A-11G re-estimate Tables 4 and 5 splitting the sample by generation
2rsquos sex In short the negative effects of first generation exposure appear to be more prominent
in second generation males such that the harmful multi-generational effects are most prominent
in second generation men whose mothers were exposed to the 1918 flu19 Potential reasons for
this sex disparity could be tied to general trends in the differences between sons and daughters in
intergenerational mobility (Chadwick and Solon 2002) In other words sons are more likely to
inherit their families SES standing than daughters This implies that the negative gen 1 shock
from in utero exposure is more likely to affect sons through the proposed SES channel than
daughters resulting in a larger estimated effect for gen 2 males Furthermore there appears to
be a growing gap between in the intergenerational elastiticy between sons and daughters during
the time period in question (Olivetti and Paserman 2015) Another potential reason for the sex
difference could be the larger standard deviation in gen 2 male outcomes this is shown in
Appendix Table 9 Finally the findings of Appendix Tables 10A-11G differ from Richter and
Robling (2013) who show homogeneous sex effects from in utero flu exposure for education
19 When omitting those with no family income during the 1992 wave of the WLS negative effects from
gen 1 female flu exposure are primarily seen in second generation males This indicates however that
there is a greater frequency of no income amongst second generation females from gen 1 flu exposure
Additionally when looking at net worth in the 2011 wave of the WLS we see no difference by gen 2rsquos
sex
18
gen 1 female exposure led to reduction in gen 2 female education and gen 1 male exposure is
associated with gen 2 male education Given this disparity between the two studies our under-
representation for gen 1 male exposure and the mixed findings in Tables 10A-11G we view our
general finding of gen 1 female exposure working through gen 2 male outcomes as preliminary
and suggestive Indeed as we test in Appendix Tables 12A-12G the sex differences in gen 2 are
often not statistically significant
Third Generation
As mentioned previously the focus of the WLS data collection is high school graduates in 1957
but additional samples have been collected for a number of variables on the children of these
graduates Table 6 explores the effects of the WLS parents on the years of schooling for WLS
children estimating the effect of flu exposure across three generations20
Consistent with the second-generation estimations a persistent effect of the in utero flu
exposure is observed and this effect seems to be driven by grandmother exposure (gen 1
female) The joint indicator for either parent is negative and close to statistical significance at
the 10 percent level (p=0106) suggesting that exposure in the first generation is associated with
012 years of schooling less in the third generation The effect of grandfather exposure is
insignificantly different from zero while the coefficient of grandmother exposure is similar in
magnitude to the joint estimate of column (1) while being statistically significant at the 10
level (p=0066) Furthermore the decline in schooling seen in the third generation is similar but
slightly smaller in magnitude compared to the second generation effects seen in Panel A of table
20Analysis of the WLS gradsibling children (ie the third generation) restricts the sample to those
children that are biological children and that are 35 years of age and older by the 20032004 wave of the
WLS
19
421 This again indicates a persistent effect that may be attenuating over time Importantly while
the estimate for grandfather exposure is insignificant it is consistent with intergenerational
inheritance (Kuzawa and Eisenberg 2014) To say the same for grandmother exposure would
require effects to persist into the fourth generation (due to the differences in gametic
development) and this data is not available in the WLS
Conclusion
This paper presents novel evidence of multigenerational effects of in utero health insults We
use the sudden and unexpected influenza pandemic in 19181919 to trace out the effects of in
utero exposure to infectious disease on own outcomes for the first generation childrenrsquos
outcomes and grandchildrenrsquos outcomes We find that this exposure reduces educational
attainment and related economic outcomes across three generations For example individuals in
our second generation the WLS graduates and their siblings who have mothers who were
exposed to the 1918 flu in utero complete 15 fewer years of schooling (or 24 months less
schooling) The size of our estimated effect aligns well with those of Richter and Robling (2013)
who find that first generation in utero exposure to the 1918 flu results in 16 fewer years of
schooling (or 2 months to 25 months less schooling) for the maternal line We then extend
results to the third generation for the first time in the literature and find that individuals in the
third generation who have grandmothers who were exposed to the pandemic in utero complete
17 fewer years of schooling (or 17 months less schooling) than individuals without affected
grandmothers
21 For gen 1 female exposure in column (4) the p-value for a difference in coefficients between Panel A
of Table 4 and Table 6 is 0411 implying the effect in the third generation is statistically indistinguishable
from that in the second generation
20
There are at several potential mechanisms for the persistence of poor outcomes across
three generations we find in our data As previously outlined the intergenerational persistence in
poor outcomes due to early life health shocks could occur through socioeconomic channels
where a fetally insulted person with resulting low educational attainment raises a child in a low-
resource environment that reduces opportunities for high educational attainment of the child In
order to see multigenerational effects the reduced opportunities for high educational attainment
of the child must then reduce opportunities for their own children Alternatively
intergenerational transmission may occur through epigenetic inheritance through the germ line a
distinct possibility based on findings of the Oumlverkalix studies or phenotype-to-phenotype
transmission and cumulative intergenerational phenotypic change
Our analysis is unable to fully distinguish between these proposed intergenerational
channels the socioeconomic and biological but it is important to note that the channels are by no
means mutually exclusive Further analysis (appendix tables 3-5) that is intended to partially
account for the socioeconomic mechanism leads to mixed results in which the coefficient of first
generation flu exposure is attenuated to insignificance for some outcomes but not others This
provides evidence for a socioeconomic channel but does not eliminate the possibility of
epigenetic mechanisms or other biological channel through which socioeconomic status ldquogets
under the skinrdquo to influence outcomes of subsequent generations (eg the socioeconomic
circumstances of one generation may ldquoget under the skinrdquo of the next and subsequently be passed
via biology andor socioeconomics to other generations) Likewise the estimates of grandfather
effects on grandchildren are imprecise but consistent with transgenerational inheritance (Kuzawa
and Eisenberg 2014) Additionally while the WLS provides a unique framework to analyze
multiple generations the measurement of flu exposure is somewhat crude (from self-reported
21
parentsrsquo year of birth) and is in the right-tail of the distribution of parent birth years suggesting
the possibility of confounding from resource-poor younger mothers22 That is exposure to
influenza in the first generation is mechanically tied to motherrsquos ages of 20 and 21 because the
WLS sample is drawn based on having a child who was born in 1939 (and thus graduating high
school in 1957) While we cannot definitively separate these two effects our ability to compare
outcomes of slightly older mothers (ages 22 and 23 born in 1917 or 1916) provide evidence
more consistent with in utero exposure to influenza than impacts of having a mother who is
2021 years old
From a policy perspective our evidence may suggest a novel source of multigenerational
persistence in poverty through biosocial factors and suggest a need to consider evidence of
transgenerational social andor biological mechanisms We document the extent to which
harmful early life environments cascade through generations promoting a disadvantaged start for
those whose grandparents exposed to a hazardous early life environment
22 We specifically explore the confounding effects of younger mothers in appendix tables 7 and 8 These
tables show that younger mothers are indeed initially disadvantaged (ie less years of schooling)
however this young-mother disadvantage does not persist in subsequent generations Rather only those
mothers born in the 1918-1919 range have significant negative effects on later generations
22
References
Almond Doug 2006 Is the 1918 Influenza pandemic over Long‐term effects of in utero Influenza exposure in the post‐1940 US population Journal of Political Economy 114(4) 672-712
Almond Doug and Bhashkar Mazumder 2005 The 1918 Influenza Pandemic and Subsequent Health Outcomes An Analysis of SIPP Data American Economic Review 95(2) 258-262
Barker David James P 2007 The origins of the developmental origins theory Journal of Internal Medicine 261(5) 412-417
Benyshek Daniel C (2013) The ldquoearly liferdquo origins of obesity‐related health disorders New discoveries regarding the intergenerational transmission of developmentally programmed traits in the global cardiometabolic health crisis American Journal of Physical Anthropology 152(S57) 79-93
Brown Alan S and Elena J Derkits 2010 Prenatal infection and schizophrenia a review of epidemiologic and translational studies American Journal of Psychiatry 167(3) 261-280
Burg Steven 2000 Wisconsin and the Great Spanish Flu Epidemic of 1918rdquo Wisconsin Magazine of History 84(1) 36-56
Bygren LarsOlov Gunnar Kaati and Soumlren Edvinsson 2001 Longevity determined by paternal ancestors nutrition during their slow growth period Acta biotheoretica 49(1) 53-59
Canetta Sarah E and Alan S Brown 2012 Prenatal infection maternal immune activation and risk for schizophrenia Translational Neuroscience 3(4) 320-327
Chadwick L and Solon G (2002) Intergenerational income mobility among daughters American Economic Review 92(1) 335-344
Cohen Alan A John Tillinghast and Vladimir Canudas-Romo 2010 No consistent effects of prenatal or neonatal exposure to Spanish flu on late-life mortality in 24 developed countries Demographic Research 22(20) 579
Fatemi S Hossein Julie Earle Reena Kanodia David Kist Effat S Emamian Paul H Patterson Limin Shi and Robert Sidwell 2002 Prenatal viral infection leads to pyramidal cell atrophy and macrocephaly in adulthood implications for genesis of autism and schizophrenia Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology 22(1) 25-33
Fletcher Jason 2014 Examining the Long Term Mortality Effects of Early Health Shocks US Census Bureau Center for Economic Studies Paper No CES-WP-14-19
Kaati Gunnar Lars O Bygren and Soren Edvinsson 2002 Cardiovascular and diabetes mortality determined by nutrition during parents and grandparents slow growth period European Journal of Human Genetics EJHG 10(11) 682
Kash John C Terrence M Tumpey Sean C Proll Victoria Carter Olivia Perwitasari Matthew J Thomas Christopher F Basler et al 2006 Genomic analysis of increased host immune and cell death responses induced by 1918 influenza virus Nature 443(7111) 578-581
Kobasa Darwyn Steven M Jones Kyoko Shinya John C Kash John Copps Hideki Ebihara Yasuko Hatta et al 2007 Aberrant innate immune response in lethal infection of macaques with the 1918 influenza virus Nature 445 (7125) 319-323
Kuzawa Christopher W and Dan T Eisenberg 2014 The Long Reach of History Intergenerational and Transgenerational Pathwaysto Plasticity in Human Longevity Sociality Hierarchy Health Comparative Biodemography Papers from a Workshop National Academies Press
Li Wai-Yu Yi-Chun Chang L Jyuhn-Hsiarn Lee and Li-Jen Lee 2014 Prenatal infection affects the neuronal architecture and cognitive function in adult mice Developmental Neuroscience 36(5) 359-370
23
Lin Ming-Jen and Elaine M Liu 2014 Does in utero exposure to illness matter The 1918 influenza epidemic in Taiwan as a natural experiment Journal of Health Economics 37 152-163
Lindeboom Maarten France Portrait and Gerard J Van den Berg 2010 Long-run effects on longevity of a nutritional shock early in life the Dutch Potato famine of 1846ndash1847 Journal of Health Economics 29(5) 617-629
Mamelund SE (2018) 1918 pandemic mobidity The first wave hits the poor the second wave hits the rich Influenza and Other Respitory Viruses 12(3) 307-313
Mazumder Bhashkar Douglas Almond Kyung Park Eileen M Crimmins and Caleb E Finch 2010 Lingering prenatal effects of the 1918 influenza pandemic on cardiovascular disease Journal of developmental origins of health and disease 1(1) 26-34
Miller Veronica Y Zhu C Bucher W McGinnis L Ryan A Siegel and S Zalcman 2013 Gestational flu exposure induces changes in neurochemicals affiliative hormones and brainstem inflammation in addition to autism-like behaviors in mice Brain Behavior and Immunity 33 153-163
Myrskylauml Mikko Neil K Mehta and Virginia W Chang 2013 Early life exposure to the 1918 influenza pandemic and old-age mortality by cause of death American Journal of Public Health 103(7) e83-e90
Olivetti C and Paserman MD (2015) In the name of the son (and the daughter) Intergenerational mobility in the United States 1850-1940 American Economic Review 105(8) 2695-2724
Pembrey Marcus E Lars Olov Bygren Gunnar Kaati Soumlren Edvinsson Kate Northstone Michael Sjoumlstroumlm and Jean Golding 2006 Sex-specific male-line transgenerational responses in humans European Journal of Human Genetics 14(2) 159-166
Richter Andreacute and Per Olof Robling 2013 Multigenerational effects of the 1918-19 influenza pandemic in Sweden Swedish Institute for Social Research 5
Shors Teri and Susan H McFadden 2009 1918 Influenza A Winnebago County Wisconsin Perspective Clinical Medicine amp Research 7(4) 147-156
Sydenstricker E (1931) The incidence of influenza among persons of different economic status during the epidemic of 1918 Public Health Reports 46(4) 154-170
van den Berg Gerard J and Pia R Pinger 2013 A validation study of transgenerational effects of childhood conditions on the third generation offsprings economic and health outcomes potentially driven by epigenetic imprinting IZA Discussion Paper
Tables and Figures
Table 1 Summary Statistics
Variable N Mean Std Deviation
First GenerartionFlu Indicators
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 8368 0112 0315Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 8456 0030 0170Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 8487 0093 0290
ControlsFirst Generation Malersquos Year of Birth 8456 1907435 7021First Generation Femalersquos Year of Birth 8427 1911189 6164
Dependent VariablesFirst Generation Malersquos Years of Schooling 8456 9778 3392First Generation Femalersquos Years of Schooing 8487 10499 2804First Generation Malersquos Job Prestige 8385 330662 214361First Generation Femalersquos Job Prestige 6683 12814 19934Family SES 8487 16231 11143
Second GenerationControls
Female Indicator 12459 0530 0499Birth Year 12459 1939406 4289Birth Order 12459 2529 1828
Dependent VariablesYears of Schooling 12459 13678 2361Family Income 1992 (in $1000s) 12112 68027 177105Net Worth 2004 (in $1000s) 10498 913046 2558927Self-reported health 1992 9888 4149 0668Height (inches) 9783 67406 3851BMI 1992 9671 26742 4657
Third GenerationControls
Birth Year 19913 1963901 3636Female Indicator 19913 0497 0500Birth Order 19913 2196 1263
Dependent VariableYears of Schooling 19913 14294 2309
Summary amp Notes This table provides summary statistics for all variables used The samples above may not berepresentative for all estimations For example the inclusion of siblings in the second generation increase the sample of parentalyear of birth and the corresponding flu indicator This increase in sample does not significantly change the sample statisticsabove Similar sample changes occur for the second generation controls above For the third generation the sample is restrictedto biological children over 35 years of age
24
Tab
le2
Fir
stG
ener
atio
n
Eco
nom
icE
ffec
ts
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
am
ily
SE
SY
ears
of
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
am
ily
SE
S(1
)(2
)(3
)(4
)(5
)(6
)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale)
-01
39
-01
16lowast
-12
90lowast
lowast
(02
00)
(00
60)
(05
99)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emal
e)-0
133
-00
66
-13
61lowastlowast
lowast
(00
95)
(00
43)
(03
76)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
YY
YY
YY
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8456
8385
8456
8487
6683
8487
RS
qr
00
32
00
08
00
23
00
13
00
04
00
13
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
pro
vid
esd
irec
teff
ects
of
inu
tero
an
dea
rly
life
exp
osu
reto
the
1918
Flu
Ep
idem
ic
Bir
thye
ar
tim
etr
end
sin
lcu
de
yea
rof
bir
than
dit
ssq
uar
ean
din
clu
sion
inth
ees
tim
atio
nis
par
ent
spec
ific
All
esti
mati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
an
dard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
alsi
gnifi
can
ceis
den
oted
by
an
d
re
pre
senti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vel
y
25
Tab
le3
Fir
stG
ener
atio
n
Mar
riag
eM
arke
tE
ffec
ts
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Flu
Bir
thY
ear
Yea
rsof
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
luB
irth
Yea
rY
ears
of
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
e(1
)(2
)(3
)(4
)(5
)(6
)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale)
01
40lowast
lowastlowast-0
259
-00
39
(00
34)
(01
58)
(00
72)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emal
e)0
056lowast
lowastlowast-0
340lowast
lowastlowast-0
118lowastlowast
lowast
(00
14)
(01
17)
(00
36)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
YY
YY
YY
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8348
8487
8412
8348
8456
6660
RS
qr
00
90
00
11
00
08
01
20
00
21
00
01
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
pro
vid
esev
iden
ceof
marr
iage
mark
etse
lect
ion
inth
efi
rst
gen
erati
on
B
irth
year
tim
etr
end
sin
clu
de
year
of
bir
than
dit
ssq
uare
and
incl
usi
onin
the
esti
mat
ion
isp
aren
tsp
ecifi
cA
lles
tim
ati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
an
dard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
sign
ifica
nce
isd
enot
edby
an
d
re
pre
senti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vely
26
Table 4 Second Generation Economic Effects
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Years of Schooling
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0209lowastlowastlowast
(0073)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0084 -0059(0129) (0129)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0211lowastlowastlowast -0209lowastlowastlowast
(0075) (0075)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0085 0084 0085 0085
Panel B ln Family Income 1992
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0221lowastlowast
(0111)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0098 -0066(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0262lowastlowast -0259lowastlowast
(0116) (0116)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112R Sqr 0021 0021 0021 0021
Panel C Std Net Worth 2004
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0026(0022)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0033 0038(0047) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0038lowast -0040lowast
(0021) (0021)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498R Sqr 0007 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table provides evidence of signficant harmful effects of flu exposure in the first generation on secondgeneration economic outcomes First generation time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents(ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and itssquare and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
27
Table 5 Second Generation Health Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Self-reported health (Likert 1=very poor 5=excellent)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0054lowastlowast
(0027)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0005(0047) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0061lowastlowast -0061lowastlowast
(0028) (0028)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Panel B Height (inches)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0101)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0102 0127(0168) (0168)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0169lowast -0175lowast
(0103) (0103)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783r2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Panel C BMI
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0412lowastlowast
(0191)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0082 0023(0344) (0346)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0422lowastlowast 0421lowastlowast
(0193) (0194)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table provides evidence of harmful effects of flu exposure in the first generation on secondgeneration health outcomes First generation time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents (iegen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and itssquare and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
28
Table 6 Generation Three Effects of Generation One Flu Exposure Years of Schooling
Dependent Variable Years of Schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0125(0077)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Male) -0007 0010(0136) (0136)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Female) -0144lowast -0144lowast
(0078) (0078)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913R Sqr 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table shows that the generational effects of flu exposure extend into the third generation of theWLS First generation flu exposure is shown to have a negative association with third generation years of schooling Firstgeneration time trends are year of birth measures for each parent and their square Second generation controls inlcude anindicator for sex second generation year of birth and its square and birth order Third generation controls include a sexindicator year of birth and its square and birth order Given the focus on years of schooling the sample is restricted to thosethird generation individuals 35 years of age and older or born during or before 1970 (data were collected in 2005) Allestimation is performed with OLS with family (second generation) clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
29
(a)
Fat
her
(b)
Moth
er
Fig
ure
1F
irst
Gen
erat
ion
Dis
trib
uti
onof
Yea
rof
Bir
th
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
figu
rep
lots
the
dis
trib
uti
on
for
firs
tgen
erati
on
year
of
bir
th
Flu
exp
osu
reis
class
ified
as
bei
ng
born
inei
ther
1918
or
1919
30
Appendix Tables
Appendix Table 1 First Generation Flu Exposure Effect on Family Income
Dependent Variable Family Income ($100s) 1957
(1) (2)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -3366(2592)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -5363lowastlowast
(2390)
Birth Year Time Trends Y YObservations 7440 7456R Sqr 0013 0004
Summary amp Notes This table replaces the index of socioeconomic status with family income (in $100s) in 1957 Allestimation is performed with OLS with robust standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
31
App
endix
Tab
le2
Mar
riag
eM
arke
tE
ffec
ts
Con
trol
ling
for
Ow
nY
ear
ofB
irth
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
Job
Pre
stig
eY
ears
of
Sch
Job
Pre
stig
e
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale
)-0
052
-211
82
-01
98
-03
74
(02
03)
(131
30)
(01
61)
(14
38)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emale
)-0
346lowast
lowastlowast-2
44
97lowastlowast
lowast-0
103
-13
88
(01
16)
(76
88)
(00
94)
(08
54)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
(Male
an
dF
emale
)Y
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8348
8279
8348
6587
RS
qr
00
40
00
22
00
25
00
04
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
re-e
stim
ates
Tab
le3
wh
ile
contr
oll
ing
for
year
of
bir
than
dfl
uin
dic
ato
rsass
oci
ate
dw
ith
the
spou
sein
the
dep
end
ent
vari
ab
le
All
esti
mat
ion
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
and
ard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
sign
ifica
nce
isd
enote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
atth
e10
5
and
1le
vel
sre
spec
tive
ly
32
Appendix Table 3 2nd Gen Economic Effects Controlling for 1st Gen Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Years of Schooling
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0088(0070)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0005 0008(0119) (0119)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0116 -0117(0072) (0072)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0206 0206 0206 0206
Panel B ln Family Income 1992
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0193lowast
(0111)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0080 -0050(0184) (0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0240lowastlowast -0238lowastlowast
(0116) (0116)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112R Sqr 0024 0024 0024 0024
Panel C Std Normal Net Worth 2004
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0003(0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0047 0049(0046) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0019 -0021(0020) (0020)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498R Sqr 0033 0033 0033 0033
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 4 while controlling for generation one economic outcomes fatherrsquos years ofschooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 First generation time trends are given by year of birth and itssquare for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex secondgeneration year of birth and its square and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standarderrors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and1 levels respectively 33
Appendix Table 4 2nd Gen Health Effects Controlling for 1st Gen Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A BMI
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0352lowast
(0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0051 -0001(0342) (0344)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0372lowast 0372lowast
(0192) (0193)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671R Sqr 0035 0035 0035 0035
Panel B Count of Illnesses
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0122lowast
(0065)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0076 -0096(0102) (0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0139lowastlowast 0144lowastlowast
(0067) (0068)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9921 9921 9921 9921R Sqr 0046 0046 0046 0046
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 5 while controlling for generation one economic outcomes fatherrsquos years ofschooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 First generation time trends are given by year of birth and itssquare for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex secondgeneration year of birth and its square and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standarderrors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and1 levels respectively
34
Appendix Table 5 Generation threersquos years of schooling Controlling for previous generation economicwell-being
Dependent Variable Years of Schooling for Gen 3(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A First Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0069(0076)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0022 0034(0133) (0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0102 -0104(0077) (0078)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913R Sqr 0117 0117 0117 0117
Panel B Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0025(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0008 0013(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0038 -0039(0073) (0073)
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0190 0190 0190 0190
Panel C First and Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0008(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0016 0019(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0028 -0029(0073) (0073)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0196 0196 0196 0196
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 6 while controlling for generation one and tworsquos economic outcomes Forgeneration one these include fatherrsquos years of schooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 generation twocontrols include the WLS graduatesiblingrsquos years of schooling family income in 1992 and net worth in 2004 First generationtime trends are year of birth measures for each parent and their square Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sexsecond generation year of birth and its square and birth order Third generation controls include a sex indicator year of birthand its square and birth order Given the focus on years of schooling the sample is restricted to those third generationindividuals 35 years of age and older or born during or before 1970 (data were collected in 2005) All estimation is performedwith OLS with family (second generation) clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denotedby and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
35
Appendix Table 6 Alternative measures of schooling in the second generation
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Indicator for any college (years of schooling gt12)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0044lowastlowastlowast
(0017)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0011 -0006(0029) (0029)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0044lowastlowast -0043lowastlowast
(0017) (0017)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0071 0070 0071 0071
Panel B Indicator for incomplete college (years of schooling gt12 amp lt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0008(0013)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 -0001(0022) (0022)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0008 -0008(0013) (0013)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0005 0005 0005 0005
Panel C Indicator for college graduate (years of schooling = 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0022lowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0003 0006(0020) (0020)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0021lowast -0021lowastlowast
(0011) (0011)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0019 0019 0019 0019
Panel D Indicator for post-college education (years of schooling gt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0014(0010)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0011(0018) (0018)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0014 -0014(0010) (0010)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0039 0039 0039 0039
Summary amp Notes This table replaces our continuous measure of years of schooling with specified dummy variables Firstgeneration time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Secondgeneration controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and its square and birth order All estimationis performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
36
Appendix Table 7 Young mothers Direct effect on Gen 1 Females
Dependent Variable Years of Sch Job Prestige Family SES
(1) (2) (3)
Ind for First Gen Female Flu Exposure (1918-1919) -0325lowastlowast -0841 -1749lowastlowastlowast
(0137) (1015) (0584)
Ind for mother born during 1920-1921 -0567lowastlowastlowast 0745 -1157(0206) (1515) (0914)
Ind for mother born during 1922-1923 -0666lowastlowast 0098 -2113(0330) (2210) (1298)
Ind for mother born after 1924 -0392 5682 0384(0486) (3705) (2126)
Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y
Observations 8487 6683 8487R Sqr 0014 0005 0014
Summary amp Notes This table includes indicators for alternative years of birth Younger mothers are shown to have lessyears of schooling All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
37
App
endix
Tab
le8
You
ng
mot
her
sG
ener
atio
n2
and
3eff
ects
Gen
2
Gen
3
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
ln
Fam
In
c
1992
Std
N
W
2004
Sel
f-re
p
hea
lth
Hei
ght
BM
IY
ears
of
Sch
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
emal
eF
luE
xp
osu
re(1
918-
1919
)-0
201lowastlowast
-02
95lowastlowast
-00
45
-00
73lowastlowast
-00
90
02
07
-00
86(0
092)
(01
32)
(00
32)
(00
32)
(01
22)
(02
25)
(00
94)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
20-1
921
-00
22
-00
40
-00
10
-00
61
01
33
-04
10
01
13
(01
37)
(01
74)
(00
51)
(00
43)
(01
80)
(03
11)
(01
41)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
22-1
923
-00
96
-01
88
-00
57
00
20
04
61
-11
29lowastlowast
01
55(0
184)
(03
20)
(00
61)
(00
75)
(02
83)
(04
51)
(02
23)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
afte
r19
2404
58
-01
87
00
01
-00
27
03
12
-08
85
03
99
(03
06)
(03
94)
(00
87)
(01
27)
(04
94)
(10
70)
(03
21)
Bas
eC
ontr
ols
YY
YY
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
12459
12112
10498
9888
9783
9671
19913
RS
qr
00
85
00
21
00
08
00
09
05
86
00
29
00
79
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
incl
ud
esin
dic
ator
sfo
ralt
ernati
ve
years
of
bir
th
Bei
ng
born
toa
you
nger
moth
ergen
erall
yis
not
ass
oci
ate
dw
ith
gen
erati
on
2or
3rsquos
outc
omes
ofin
tere
st
inst
ead
n
egat
ive
effec
tsar
eon
lyob
serv
edfo
rth
ose
born
du
rin
gth
efl
u
All
esti
mati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hfa
mil
y(2
nd
gen
erat
ion
)cl
ust
ered
stan
dar
der
rors
rep
orte
din
par
enth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
signifi
can
ceis
den
ote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vel
y
38
Appendix Table 9 Summary Statistics by Gen 2 Sex
Variable N Mean Std Deviation
FemaleYears of Schooling 6607 13352 2088ln Family Income (1992 wave) 6411 9424 3577
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5654 10686 1010Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 5612 -0047 0539Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 5313 4164 0670Height (inches) 5231 646635 247936BMI 5124 26073 5114
Gen 3Years of Schooling 11947 14240 2291
MaleYears of Schooling 5852 14047 2587ln Family Income (1992 wave) 5701 10139 3030
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5264 10981 0836Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 4886 0059 1159Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 4575 4133 0665Height (inches) 4554 7055484 25596BMI 4547 27496 3948
Gen 3Years of Schooling 8046 14371 2332
Appendix Table 10A Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0090(0086)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0198 0214(0169) (0169)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104 -0114(0087) (0087)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6607 6607 6607 6607R Sqr 0075 0075 0075 0075
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
39
Appendix Table 10B Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0523lowastlowastlowast
(0170)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0483 -0410(0321) (0323)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0512lowastlowastlowast -0491lowastlowastlowast
(0179) (0180)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6411 6411 6411 6411R Sqr 0015 0013 0014 0015
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10C Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0007(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0078lowast 0078(0048) (0048)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0008 0005(0025) (0025)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5612 5612 5612 5612R Sqr 0007 0007 0007 0007
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
40
Appendix Table 10D Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0027(0036)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 -0001(0071) (0071)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0022 -0022(0037) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5313 5313 5313 5313r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10E Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -2382(13366)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 44280lowastlowast 46351lowastlowast
(22343) (22480)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -12253 -14428(13485) (13561)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5231 5231 5231 5231r2 0015 0016 0015 0016
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
41
Appendix Table 10F Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0353(0286)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0105 0060(0514) (0516)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0326 0323(0289) (0290)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5124 5124 5124 5124R Sqr 0010 0010 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0087(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0104 -0101(0190) (0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0042 -0039(0098) (0098)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 11906 11906 11906 11906R Sqr 0086 0086 0086 0086
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
42
Appendix Table 11A Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0322lowastlowastlowast
(0116)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0369lowastlowast -0338lowast
(0181) (0180)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0309lowastlowastlowast -0297lowastlowast
(0119) (0119)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5852 5852 5852 5852R Sqr 0060 0059 0060 0060
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11B RResults by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0116(0138)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0262 0261(0200) (0199)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0024 0014(0141) (0140)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5701 5701 5701 5701R Sqr 0009 0009 0008 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
43
Appendix Table 11C Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0038)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0001(0081) (0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0094lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0035)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4886 4886 4886 4886R Sqr 0004 0004 0004 0004
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
44
Appendix Table 11D Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0083lowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 0012(0062) (0062)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104lowastlowastlowast -0105lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0041)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4575 4575 4575 4575r2 0010 0009 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11E Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -15122(14275)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -22991 -20537(23287) (23176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -18595 -17540(14734) (14751)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4554 4554 4554 4554r2 0011 0011 0011 0011
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
45
Appendix Table 11F Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0465lowast
(0238)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0079 0006(0403) (0405)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0520lowastlowast 0520lowastlowast
(0245) (0246)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4547 4547 4547 4547R Sqr 0006 0005 0006 0006
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0177(0123)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0098 0144(0194) (0192)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0293lowastlowast -0302lowastlowast
(0125) (0126)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8007 8007 8007 8007R Sqr 0067 0067 0068 0068
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
46
Appendix Table 12A Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0253lowastlowast
(0107)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0252 -0226(0170) (0172)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0263lowastlowast -0242lowastlowast
(0113) (0115)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0084(0120)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0341 0339(0216) (0219)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0096 0056(0130) (0132)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459r2 0085 0085 0085 0085
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
47
Appendix Table 12B Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0128)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0196 0169(0190) (0189)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0081 -0104(0135) (0135)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0383lowastlowast
(0189)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0594lowast -0474(0349) (0355)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0339lowast -0283(0204) (0207)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112r2 0021 0021 0021 0021
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
48
Appendix Table 12C Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0034)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0019(0077) (0079)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0095lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0030) (0031)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0071lowast
(0038)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0072 0039(0087) (0089)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0104lowastlowastlowast 0100lowastlowastlowast
(0035) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498r2 0008 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
49
Appendix Table 12D Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0071lowast
(0036)[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0012 0031
(0058) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0093lowastlowast -0097lowastlowast
(0039) (0039)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0030(0045)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0031 -0051(0087) (0088)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0059 0065(0048) (0049)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
50
Appendix Table 12E Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0129 -0125(0223) (0224)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0152 -0129(0141) (0142)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0000(0158)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0454 0495lowast
(0279) (0287)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0031 -0090(0170) (0175)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783nr2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
51
Appendix Table 12F Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0376(0231)
[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0059 -0122(0402) (0407)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0441lowast 0457lowast
(0240) (0243)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0068(0316)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0282 0288(0573) (0589)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0035 -0069(0340) (0350)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
52
Appendix Table 12G Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0131(0114)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male 0114 0175(0185) (0188)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0237lowastlowast -0261lowastlowast
(0118) (0121)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0009(0133)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0225 -0292(0249) (0254)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0152 0189(0141) (0145)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913r2 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
53
Appendix Table 13 Family Income 1992 excluding non-earners (ie fam inc = 0)
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992 wave (excluding those reporting 0)(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0095lowastlowastlowast
(0033)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0031 -0019(0053) (0053)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0101lowastlowastlowast -0100lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0034)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10918 10918 10918 10918r2 0050 0049 0050 0050
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0084lowast
(0050)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0019 -0007(0089) (0090)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0083 -0083(0053) (0054)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5654 5654 5654 5654r2 0026 0026 0026 0026
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102lowastlowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0051 -0040(0060) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0113lowastlowastlowast -0112lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0040)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5264 5264 5264 5264r2 0029 0028 0029 0029
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel B in Table 4 excluding those who report $0 for familyincome All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
54
Appendix Table 14 Net Worth 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable Std Net Worth 2011 Wave of WLS(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0032lowastlowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0023lowast -0021lowast
(0012) (0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0032lowastlowastlowast -0031lowastlowastlowast
(0010) (0010)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9435 9435 9435 9435r2 0002 0002 0002 0002
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0012lowast
(0006)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0009 -0008(0009) (0009)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0012lowastlowast -0011lowastlowast
(0006) (0006)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5026 5026 5026 5026r2 0007 0006 0007 0007
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0057lowastlowast
(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0040lowast -0036lowast
(0023) (0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0057lowastlowast -0056lowastlowast
(0023) (0022)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4409 4409 4409 4409r2 0001 0001 0001 0001
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel C in Table 4 replacing the net worth measure from the 2004wave with an identical measure from the 2011 wave of the WLS All estimation is performed with OLS with family clusteredstandard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 105 and 1 levels respectively
55
Appendix Table 15A Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 1992 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0243(0152)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0107 0039(0252) (0255)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0285lowast 0282lowast
(0158) (0160)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9849 9849 9849 9849
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0007(0091)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0210 -0216(0170) (0173)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0007 0024(0095) (0097)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9858 9858 9858 9858
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0255(0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0107 -0169(0328) (0338)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0237 0252(0193) (0198)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9845 9845 9845 9845
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
56
Appendix Table 15B Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2004 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0018(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0190 0207(0160) (0162)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0066 -0083(0102) (0104)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10672 10672 10672 10672
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0096 0108(0124) (0125)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0051 -0059(0076) (0077)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10619 10619 10619 10619
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0108(0110)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0064 0027(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0181 0179(0113) (0113)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10617 10617 10617 10617
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
57
Appendix Table 15C Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0099(0092)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0244 0242(0154) (0155)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0033 0016(0099) (0100)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0021(0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0095 0097(0138) (0139)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0004 -0011(0085) (0086)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0134(0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0203 0181(0175) (0176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0140 0127(0107) (0107)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8709 8709 8709 8709
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
58
- text 10818
- tables 10-8-18
-
11
Empirical Methodology
Our empirical strategy follows that of Almond (2006) by examining harmful effects of being
exposed in utero on later life outcomes We then extend this analysis by estimating
multigenerational impacts on both the second and third generations In so doing the primary
estimating equation is given by the following form
119910119894119891119892 = 1205730 + 1205731(119884119874119861 = 191819)1198911 + 120632119931119943120783 + 120633119935119946119943119944 + 120576119894119891119892
Our primary focus is on the coefficient 1205731 which measures the effect of having a
parentgrandparent born in 1918-1919 on a number of outcomes for 119894 individuals in 119891 families
for generation 119892 Parent year of birth time trends and their square are denoted by 120632119931119943120783 120633119935119946119943119944
represents generation specific controls and 120576119894119891119892 is representative of a family clustered error
term
For the first generation we control for birth year and its square capturing age-specific
trends that are tied to our first-generation outcomes of interest (eg years of schooling) For the
analysis of second and third generations birth years and squares for both first generation parents
are included as controls along with generation-specific controls for sex age and birth order
Our estimation strategy follows an intent to treat design It is likely that the actual
incidence of flu differed by socioeconomic status and social standing (Mamelund 2018
Sydenstricker 1931) Our use of year-of-birth however avoids potential confounding by SES
because allmdashboth rich and poormdashare defined as treated if they are born in one of the two years
Although avoiding confounders associated with actual disease incidence this estimation strategy
will underestimate the true effect of flu exposure lowering the magnitude of our coefficient of
interest
12
Results
First Generation
Our initial analysis explores the direct effects of being born during the 1918 Influenza Epidemic
While health data are sparse for the WLS graduatersquos parents (first generation) a number of
economic outcomes are available especially during the initial sample year of 1957 Table 2
explores the relationship between these economic variables and an indicator for birth during
19181919 Columns (1)-(3) of table 2 show the relationship between a WLS graduatersquos father
being born during 19181919 and the fatherrsquos years of schooling the fatherrsquos occupational
prestige and the familyrsquos index of socioeconomic status in 1957 (ie when the first generation
members are approximately 40 years old) While statistically insignificant a negative association
is observed between years of schooling and being born in 1918 or 191910 This is carried over
into fatherrsquos job prestige in column (2) from which the indicator of in utero exposure to the 1918
flu is associated with an approximate 01 standard deviation decline in the index of occupational
prestige These effects culminate in column (3) which shows a statistically significant negative
effect of in utero exposure to the flu and later life economic well-being a 13 decline in the SES
index which corresponds to a decline of roughly 10 percent of a standard deviation The findings
of table 2 corroborate past studies that show in utero exposure to the 1918 flu led to poorer
economic outcomes later in life (Almond 2006)11
[insert table 2 here]
10 First generation years of schooling are reported by the second generation WLS graduates Measurement
error is likely which may result in the insignificant coefficients of table 2 11 Richter and Robling (2013 Table 12) find a similar effect for in utero female exposure to flu in the first
trimester
13
Mirroring the results for males in the first generation a negative but statistically
insignificant association is observed between an indicator of birth in 19181919 and schooling
for first generation females This association however becomes statistically significant at the 1
percent level for the index of family SES the coefficient being nearly identical to that of a
malersquos in utero exposure to the flu though it is unclear whether these effects flow from labor
market andor marriage market sources The findings of table 2 are extended in table 3 which
explores potential marriage market effects of early life exposure to the flu epidemic12
Column (1) of table 3 regresses the indicator for male in utero exposure on an identical
measure for spousersquos exposure Females who were born in 19181919 were 5 percentage points
more likely to marry men who were also born during the same period Furthermore as shown in
columns (2) and (3) these women were more likely to marry men with fewer years of school and
lower job prestige These effects are significant at the 1 percent level Similar effects are seen in
columns (4)-(6) for 19181919 born males who are 14 percentage points more likely to marry flu
exposed females (p=000) and marry females with 026 fewer years of schooling (p=0101)
Given the findings of table 3 however we cannot rule out that this is a marriage market effect13
[insert table 3 here]
Second Generation
Our hypothesis is that the direct effects observed in tables 2 and 3 extend into future generations
To address this hypothesis we regress a number of economic and health outcomes of the WLS
graduates and siblings the offspring of the first generation examined in tables 2 and 3 These
12 Mothers and fathers of WLS graduates are assumed to be married 13 Appendix table 2 repeats the estimation of table 3 while also controlling for an indicator of own-flu
exposure and own year of birth measures
14
estimations are performed in tables 4 and 5 Column (1) in both tables focus on an indicator for
either parent being born in 19181919 the primary regressor of column (2) is an indicator for
fatherrsquos (gen 1 males) in utero exposure to the 1918 flu column (3) considers motherrsquos (gen 1
females) exposure and column (4) includes separate indicators for both mother and fatherrsquos
exposure Controls included in all columns include fatherrsquos year of birth and its square motherrsquos
year of birth and its square an indicator for sex in the second generation a measure of birth
order in the second generation and second-generation year of birth and its square
Table 4 focuses on economic outcomes of the WLS graduates To reiterate our
hypothesis is that in utero exposure to the 1918 influenza pandemic has effects that persist for
multiple generations Table 2 shows the direct first generation effects while table 4 begins to
show the indirect effects that are transmitted to offspring Panel A regresses years of schooling in
the second generation on indicators of first generation exposure to the 1918 flu14 From column
(1) either parent being born in 19181919 is associated with a statistically significant decline of
021 years of schooling in the second generation This estimate is likely understated because the
sampling design of the WLS is a focus on high school seniors thus individuals with fewer than
twelve years of schooling are underrepresented in the data15 Columns (2)-(4) disambiguate this
effect into the maternal and paternal lines From which the effect of column (1) seems to be
driven by motherrsquos in utero exposure to the flu16
14 Appendix Table 6 includes a number of alternative measures for years of schooling in place of the
simple count used in Table 4 15 Table 3 includes selected siblings of the WLS graduates These siblings do not have to be high school
graduates 16 This finding differs from that of Richter and Robling (2013) who find maternal exposure tied to
daughter outcomes and paternal exposure tied to son outcomes
15
The findings of Panel A are extended into Panel B which replaces years of schooling as
the dependent variable with the natural log of family income for the 1992 wave a time when the
second generation respondents are 53 years of age on average and represents a time of peak
earning in the life course As with years of schooling a negative association is seen throughout
the specifications of Panel B Having either parent born in 19181919 is associated with a 22
percent decline in family income Once again this effect seems to be driven by motherrsquos not
fatherrsquos exposure Panel C replaces income with a measure of net worth for the 2004 wave This
measure of net worth is when the second generation respondents are on average 65 years of age
and is representative of earnings throughout the life course The dual indicator of column (1) is
negative but statistically insignificant at conventional levels (p=023) When looking at the effect
of mother exposure in column (3) however the effect becomes statistically significant at the
10 level (p=0069) implying those with mothers born during 19181919 have approximately
$36000 less in net worth by 2004
Following the broader health focus of the Barker hypothesis the economic effects of
table 4 are replaced with health measures in table 5 We consider three broad measures of
general health and well-being later in life self-reported health in later life (~53 years old)
height and BMI (again at ~53) The use of self-reported health is intended to capture general
well-being later in life (Fortin et al 2017) this is tested in Panel A of table 5 Mazumder et al
(2010) provide evidence that in utero exposure to the 1918 flu is associated with a reduction in
height and an increase cardiovascular disease so it is possible that these negative health
outcomes could be transmitted to offspring this is tested in Panel B of table 517 And given
17 Appendix Table 14 tests indicators for a number self-reported health conditions As shown a weak
positive association is shown between gen 1 female flu exposure and an indicator of cardiovascular
16
prior work linking early life exposure to the Dutch famine to BMI (Roseboom et al 2000) and
metabolic function (Lumey et al 2009) in adulthood as well as the fact that both the Dutch
famine and the 1918 flu impacted maternal stress and nutritional status18 we examine BMI as
another broad indicator of health for the second generation this is tested in Panel C of table 5 A
consistent pattern emerges across all panels Like SES outcomes in table 4 gen 1 female
exposure to the flu is shown to have negative statistically significant association with all health
outcomes in the second generation
From Panel A parentalmdashor gen 1mdashflu exposure reduces self-reported health by roughly
half a point (plt005) on a Likert scale from 1-5 1 being very poor health and 5 being excellent
health As shown and like prior estimates this effect is driven by gen 1 female exposure For
adult height gen 1 female exposure is associated with a reduction of about 02 inches (plt010)
which is larger than the direct effect documented by Mazumder et al of 005 inches however
Mazumder et alrsquos estimated effect falls within the 95 confidence interval of our estimated
coefficient Panel C considers the effect on second generation BMI From column (1) having
either parent being born in 19181919 is associated with a statistically significant increase in the
offspringrsquos BMI of 041 points As with the economic effects of table 4 this increase in BMI
appears to be driven by motherrsquos exposure This is seen in columns (2)-(4) which estimate a
statistically significant positive coefficient for motherrsquos exposure but a coefficient that is
statistically indistinguishable from zero for fatherrsquos exposure
disease during the 199293 wave of the WLS (Appendix Table 15A) This association however reduced
in magnitude and statistical significance for later-life waves of the WLS (Appendix Table 15B and 15C) 18 The Dutch famine influenced maternal nutritional status directly through caloric restriction and the
1918 flu through symptoms such as appetite loss vomiting andor diarrhea
17
A persistent effect of in utero exposure to the 1918 Flu is seen in tables 4 and 5 First
generation exposure consistently has a statistically significant and economically meaningful
effect on second generation health and economic outcomes And this effect appears to be driven
solely by motherrsquos exposure although due to marriage market associations we cannot
determine definitively that motherrsquos exposure produces this multigenerational effect through
biological mechanisms
Appendix Tables 10A-11G re-estimate Tables 4 and 5 splitting the sample by generation
2rsquos sex In short the negative effects of first generation exposure appear to be more prominent
in second generation males such that the harmful multi-generational effects are most prominent
in second generation men whose mothers were exposed to the 1918 flu19 Potential reasons for
this sex disparity could be tied to general trends in the differences between sons and daughters in
intergenerational mobility (Chadwick and Solon 2002) In other words sons are more likely to
inherit their families SES standing than daughters This implies that the negative gen 1 shock
from in utero exposure is more likely to affect sons through the proposed SES channel than
daughters resulting in a larger estimated effect for gen 2 males Furthermore there appears to
be a growing gap between in the intergenerational elastiticy between sons and daughters during
the time period in question (Olivetti and Paserman 2015) Another potential reason for the sex
difference could be the larger standard deviation in gen 2 male outcomes this is shown in
Appendix Table 9 Finally the findings of Appendix Tables 10A-11G differ from Richter and
Robling (2013) who show homogeneous sex effects from in utero flu exposure for education
19 When omitting those with no family income during the 1992 wave of the WLS negative effects from
gen 1 female flu exposure are primarily seen in second generation males This indicates however that
there is a greater frequency of no income amongst second generation females from gen 1 flu exposure
Additionally when looking at net worth in the 2011 wave of the WLS we see no difference by gen 2rsquos
sex
18
gen 1 female exposure led to reduction in gen 2 female education and gen 1 male exposure is
associated with gen 2 male education Given this disparity between the two studies our under-
representation for gen 1 male exposure and the mixed findings in Tables 10A-11G we view our
general finding of gen 1 female exposure working through gen 2 male outcomes as preliminary
and suggestive Indeed as we test in Appendix Tables 12A-12G the sex differences in gen 2 are
often not statistically significant
Third Generation
As mentioned previously the focus of the WLS data collection is high school graduates in 1957
but additional samples have been collected for a number of variables on the children of these
graduates Table 6 explores the effects of the WLS parents on the years of schooling for WLS
children estimating the effect of flu exposure across three generations20
Consistent with the second-generation estimations a persistent effect of the in utero flu
exposure is observed and this effect seems to be driven by grandmother exposure (gen 1
female) The joint indicator for either parent is negative and close to statistical significance at
the 10 percent level (p=0106) suggesting that exposure in the first generation is associated with
012 years of schooling less in the third generation The effect of grandfather exposure is
insignificantly different from zero while the coefficient of grandmother exposure is similar in
magnitude to the joint estimate of column (1) while being statistically significant at the 10
level (p=0066) Furthermore the decline in schooling seen in the third generation is similar but
slightly smaller in magnitude compared to the second generation effects seen in Panel A of table
20Analysis of the WLS gradsibling children (ie the third generation) restricts the sample to those
children that are biological children and that are 35 years of age and older by the 20032004 wave of the
WLS
19
421 This again indicates a persistent effect that may be attenuating over time Importantly while
the estimate for grandfather exposure is insignificant it is consistent with intergenerational
inheritance (Kuzawa and Eisenberg 2014) To say the same for grandmother exposure would
require effects to persist into the fourth generation (due to the differences in gametic
development) and this data is not available in the WLS
Conclusion
This paper presents novel evidence of multigenerational effects of in utero health insults We
use the sudden and unexpected influenza pandemic in 19181919 to trace out the effects of in
utero exposure to infectious disease on own outcomes for the first generation childrenrsquos
outcomes and grandchildrenrsquos outcomes We find that this exposure reduces educational
attainment and related economic outcomes across three generations For example individuals in
our second generation the WLS graduates and their siblings who have mothers who were
exposed to the 1918 flu in utero complete 15 fewer years of schooling (or 24 months less
schooling) The size of our estimated effect aligns well with those of Richter and Robling (2013)
who find that first generation in utero exposure to the 1918 flu results in 16 fewer years of
schooling (or 2 months to 25 months less schooling) for the maternal line We then extend
results to the third generation for the first time in the literature and find that individuals in the
third generation who have grandmothers who were exposed to the pandemic in utero complete
17 fewer years of schooling (or 17 months less schooling) than individuals without affected
grandmothers
21 For gen 1 female exposure in column (4) the p-value for a difference in coefficients between Panel A
of Table 4 and Table 6 is 0411 implying the effect in the third generation is statistically indistinguishable
from that in the second generation
20
There are at several potential mechanisms for the persistence of poor outcomes across
three generations we find in our data As previously outlined the intergenerational persistence in
poor outcomes due to early life health shocks could occur through socioeconomic channels
where a fetally insulted person with resulting low educational attainment raises a child in a low-
resource environment that reduces opportunities for high educational attainment of the child In
order to see multigenerational effects the reduced opportunities for high educational attainment
of the child must then reduce opportunities for their own children Alternatively
intergenerational transmission may occur through epigenetic inheritance through the germ line a
distinct possibility based on findings of the Oumlverkalix studies or phenotype-to-phenotype
transmission and cumulative intergenerational phenotypic change
Our analysis is unable to fully distinguish between these proposed intergenerational
channels the socioeconomic and biological but it is important to note that the channels are by no
means mutually exclusive Further analysis (appendix tables 3-5) that is intended to partially
account for the socioeconomic mechanism leads to mixed results in which the coefficient of first
generation flu exposure is attenuated to insignificance for some outcomes but not others This
provides evidence for a socioeconomic channel but does not eliminate the possibility of
epigenetic mechanisms or other biological channel through which socioeconomic status ldquogets
under the skinrdquo to influence outcomes of subsequent generations (eg the socioeconomic
circumstances of one generation may ldquoget under the skinrdquo of the next and subsequently be passed
via biology andor socioeconomics to other generations) Likewise the estimates of grandfather
effects on grandchildren are imprecise but consistent with transgenerational inheritance (Kuzawa
and Eisenberg 2014) Additionally while the WLS provides a unique framework to analyze
multiple generations the measurement of flu exposure is somewhat crude (from self-reported
21
parentsrsquo year of birth) and is in the right-tail of the distribution of parent birth years suggesting
the possibility of confounding from resource-poor younger mothers22 That is exposure to
influenza in the first generation is mechanically tied to motherrsquos ages of 20 and 21 because the
WLS sample is drawn based on having a child who was born in 1939 (and thus graduating high
school in 1957) While we cannot definitively separate these two effects our ability to compare
outcomes of slightly older mothers (ages 22 and 23 born in 1917 or 1916) provide evidence
more consistent with in utero exposure to influenza than impacts of having a mother who is
2021 years old
From a policy perspective our evidence may suggest a novel source of multigenerational
persistence in poverty through biosocial factors and suggest a need to consider evidence of
transgenerational social andor biological mechanisms We document the extent to which
harmful early life environments cascade through generations promoting a disadvantaged start for
those whose grandparents exposed to a hazardous early life environment
22 We specifically explore the confounding effects of younger mothers in appendix tables 7 and 8 These
tables show that younger mothers are indeed initially disadvantaged (ie less years of schooling)
however this young-mother disadvantage does not persist in subsequent generations Rather only those
mothers born in the 1918-1919 range have significant negative effects on later generations
22
References
Almond Doug 2006 Is the 1918 Influenza pandemic over Long‐term effects of in utero Influenza exposure in the post‐1940 US population Journal of Political Economy 114(4) 672-712
Almond Doug and Bhashkar Mazumder 2005 The 1918 Influenza Pandemic and Subsequent Health Outcomes An Analysis of SIPP Data American Economic Review 95(2) 258-262
Barker David James P 2007 The origins of the developmental origins theory Journal of Internal Medicine 261(5) 412-417
Benyshek Daniel C (2013) The ldquoearly liferdquo origins of obesity‐related health disorders New discoveries regarding the intergenerational transmission of developmentally programmed traits in the global cardiometabolic health crisis American Journal of Physical Anthropology 152(S57) 79-93
Brown Alan S and Elena J Derkits 2010 Prenatal infection and schizophrenia a review of epidemiologic and translational studies American Journal of Psychiatry 167(3) 261-280
Burg Steven 2000 Wisconsin and the Great Spanish Flu Epidemic of 1918rdquo Wisconsin Magazine of History 84(1) 36-56
Bygren LarsOlov Gunnar Kaati and Soumlren Edvinsson 2001 Longevity determined by paternal ancestors nutrition during their slow growth period Acta biotheoretica 49(1) 53-59
Canetta Sarah E and Alan S Brown 2012 Prenatal infection maternal immune activation and risk for schizophrenia Translational Neuroscience 3(4) 320-327
Chadwick L and Solon G (2002) Intergenerational income mobility among daughters American Economic Review 92(1) 335-344
Cohen Alan A John Tillinghast and Vladimir Canudas-Romo 2010 No consistent effects of prenatal or neonatal exposure to Spanish flu on late-life mortality in 24 developed countries Demographic Research 22(20) 579
Fatemi S Hossein Julie Earle Reena Kanodia David Kist Effat S Emamian Paul H Patterson Limin Shi and Robert Sidwell 2002 Prenatal viral infection leads to pyramidal cell atrophy and macrocephaly in adulthood implications for genesis of autism and schizophrenia Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology 22(1) 25-33
Fletcher Jason 2014 Examining the Long Term Mortality Effects of Early Health Shocks US Census Bureau Center for Economic Studies Paper No CES-WP-14-19
Kaati Gunnar Lars O Bygren and Soren Edvinsson 2002 Cardiovascular and diabetes mortality determined by nutrition during parents and grandparents slow growth period European Journal of Human Genetics EJHG 10(11) 682
Kash John C Terrence M Tumpey Sean C Proll Victoria Carter Olivia Perwitasari Matthew J Thomas Christopher F Basler et al 2006 Genomic analysis of increased host immune and cell death responses induced by 1918 influenza virus Nature 443(7111) 578-581
Kobasa Darwyn Steven M Jones Kyoko Shinya John C Kash John Copps Hideki Ebihara Yasuko Hatta et al 2007 Aberrant innate immune response in lethal infection of macaques with the 1918 influenza virus Nature 445 (7125) 319-323
Kuzawa Christopher W and Dan T Eisenberg 2014 The Long Reach of History Intergenerational and Transgenerational Pathwaysto Plasticity in Human Longevity Sociality Hierarchy Health Comparative Biodemography Papers from a Workshop National Academies Press
Li Wai-Yu Yi-Chun Chang L Jyuhn-Hsiarn Lee and Li-Jen Lee 2014 Prenatal infection affects the neuronal architecture and cognitive function in adult mice Developmental Neuroscience 36(5) 359-370
23
Lin Ming-Jen and Elaine M Liu 2014 Does in utero exposure to illness matter The 1918 influenza epidemic in Taiwan as a natural experiment Journal of Health Economics 37 152-163
Lindeboom Maarten France Portrait and Gerard J Van den Berg 2010 Long-run effects on longevity of a nutritional shock early in life the Dutch Potato famine of 1846ndash1847 Journal of Health Economics 29(5) 617-629
Mamelund SE (2018) 1918 pandemic mobidity The first wave hits the poor the second wave hits the rich Influenza and Other Respitory Viruses 12(3) 307-313
Mazumder Bhashkar Douglas Almond Kyung Park Eileen M Crimmins and Caleb E Finch 2010 Lingering prenatal effects of the 1918 influenza pandemic on cardiovascular disease Journal of developmental origins of health and disease 1(1) 26-34
Miller Veronica Y Zhu C Bucher W McGinnis L Ryan A Siegel and S Zalcman 2013 Gestational flu exposure induces changes in neurochemicals affiliative hormones and brainstem inflammation in addition to autism-like behaviors in mice Brain Behavior and Immunity 33 153-163
Myrskylauml Mikko Neil K Mehta and Virginia W Chang 2013 Early life exposure to the 1918 influenza pandemic and old-age mortality by cause of death American Journal of Public Health 103(7) e83-e90
Olivetti C and Paserman MD (2015) In the name of the son (and the daughter) Intergenerational mobility in the United States 1850-1940 American Economic Review 105(8) 2695-2724
Pembrey Marcus E Lars Olov Bygren Gunnar Kaati Soumlren Edvinsson Kate Northstone Michael Sjoumlstroumlm and Jean Golding 2006 Sex-specific male-line transgenerational responses in humans European Journal of Human Genetics 14(2) 159-166
Richter Andreacute and Per Olof Robling 2013 Multigenerational effects of the 1918-19 influenza pandemic in Sweden Swedish Institute for Social Research 5
Shors Teri and Susan H McFadden 2009 1918 Influenza A Winnebago County Wisconsin Perspective Clinical Medicine amp Research 7(4) 147-156
Sydenstricker E (1931) The incidence of influenza among persons of different economic status during the epidemic of 1918 Public Health Reports 46(4) 154-170
van den Berg Gerard J and Pia R Pinger 2013 A validation study of transgenerational effects of childhood conditions on the third generation offsprings economic and health outcomes potentially driven by epigenetic imprinting IZA Discussion Paper
Tables and Figures
Table 1 Summary Statistics
Variable N Mean Std Deviation
First GenerartionFlu Indicators
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 8368 0112 0315Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 8456 0030 0170Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 8487 0093 0290
ControlsFirst Generation Malersquos Year of Birth 8456 1907435 7021First Generation Femalersquos Year of Birth 8427 1911189 6164
Dependent VariablesFirst Generation Malersquos Years of Schooling 8456 9778 3392First Generation Femalersquos Years of Schooing 8487 10499 2804First Generation Malersquos Job Prestige 8385 330662 214361First Generation Femalersquos Job Prestige 6683 12814 19934Family SES 8487 16231 11143
Second GenerationControls
Female Indicator 12459 0530 0499Birth Year 12459 1939406 4289Birth Order 12459 2529 1828
Dependent VariablesYears of Schooling 12459 13678 2361Family Income 1992 (in $1000s) 12112 68027 177105Net Worth 2004 (in $1000s) 10498 913046 2558927Self-reported health 1992 9888 4149 0668Height (inches) 9783 67406 3851BMI 1992 9671 26742 4657
Third GenerationControls
Birth Year 19913 1963901 3636Female Indicator 19913 0497 0500Birth Order 19913 2196 1263
Dependent VariableYears of Schooling 19913 14294 2309
Summary amp Notes This table provides summary statistics for all variables used The samples above may not berepresentative for all estimations For example the inclusion of siblings in the second generation increase the sample of parentalyear of birth and the corresponding flu indicator This increase in sample does not significantly change the sample statisticsabove Similar sample changes occur for the second generation controls above For the third generation the sample is restrictedto biological children over 35 years of age
24
Tab
le2
Fir
stG
ener
atio
n
Eco
nom
icE
ffec
ts
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
am
ily
SE
SY
ears
of
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
am
ily
SE
S(1
)(2
)(3
)(4
)(5
)(6
)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale)
-01
39
-01
16lowast
-12
90lowast
lowast
(02
00)
(00
60)
(05
99)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emal
e)-0
133
-00
66
-13
61lowastlowast
lowast
(00
95)
(00
43)
(03
76)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
YY
YY
YY
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8456
8385
8456
8487
6683
8487
RS
qr
00
32
00
08
00
23
00
13
00
04
00
13
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
pro
vid
esd
irec
teff
ects
of
inu
tero
an
dea
rly
life
exp
osu
reto
the
1918
Flu
Ep
idem
ic
Bir
thye
ar
tim
etr
end
sin
lcu
de
yea
rof
bir
than
dit
ssq
uar
ean
din
clu
sion
inth
ees
tim
atio
nis
par
ent
spec
ific
All
esti
mati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
an
dard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
alsi
gnifi
can
ceis
den
oted
by
an
d
re
pre
senti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vel
y
25
Tab
le3
Fir
stG
ener
atio
n
Mar
riag
eM
arke
tE
ffec
ts
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Flu
Bir
thY
ear
Yea
rsof
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
luB
irth
Yea
rY
ears
of
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
e(1
)(2
)(3
)(4
)(5
)(6
)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale)
01
40lowast
lowastlowast-0
259
-00
39
(00
34)
(01
58)
(00
72)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emal
e)0
056lowast
lowastlowast-0
340lowast
lowastlowast-0
118lowastlowast
lowast
(00
14)
(01
17)
(00
36)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
YY
YY
YY
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8348
8487
8412
8348
8456
6660
RS
qr
00
90
00
11
00
08
01
20
00
21
00
01
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
pro
vid
esev
iden
ceof
marr
iage
mark
etse
lect
ion
inth
efi
rst
gen
erati
on
B
irth
year
tim
etr
end
sin
clu
de
year
of
bir
than
dit
ssq
uare
and
incl
usi
onin
the
esti
mat
ion
isp
aren
tsp
ecifi
cA
lles
tim
ati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
an
dard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
sign
ifica
nce
isd
enot
edby
an
d
re
pre
senti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vely
26
Table 4 Second Generation Economic Effects
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Years of Schooling
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0209lowastlowastlowast
(0073)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0084 -0059(0129) (0129)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0211lowastlowastlowast -0209lowastlowastlowast
(0075) (0075)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0085 0084 0085 0085
Panel B ln Family Income 1992
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0221lowastlowast
(0111)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0098 -0066(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0262lowastlowast -0259lowastlowast
(0116) (0116)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112R Sqr 0021 0021 0021 0021
Panel C Std Net Worth 2004
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0026(0022)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0033 0038(0047) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0038lowast -0040lowast
(0021) (0021)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498R Sqr 0007 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table provides evidence of signficant harmful effects of flu exposure in the first generation on secondgeneration economic outcomes First generation time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents(ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and itssquare and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
27
Table 5 Second Generation Health Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Self-reported health (Likert 1=very poor 5=excellent)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0054lowastlowast
(0027)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0005(0047) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0061lowastlowast -0061lowastlowast
(0028) (0028)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Panel B Height (inches)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0101)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0102 0127(0168) (0168)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0169lowast -0175lowast
(0103) (0103)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783r2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Panel C BMI
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0412lowastlowast
(0191)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0082 0023(0344) (0346)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0422lowastlowast 0421lowastlowast
(0193) (0194)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table provides evidence of harmful effects of flu exposure in the first generation on secondgeneration health outcomes First generation time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents (iegen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and itssquare and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
28
Table 6 Generation Three Effects of Generation One Flu Exposure Years of Schooling
Dependent Variable Years of Schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0125(0077)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Male) -0007 0010(0136) (0136)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Female) -0144lowast -0144lowast
(0078) (0078)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913R Sqr 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table shows that the generational effects of flu exposure extend into the third generation of theWLS First generation flu exposure is shown to have a negative association with third generation years of schooling Firstgeneration time trends are year of birth measures for each parent and their square Second generation controls inlcude anindicator for sex second generation year of birth and its square and birth order Third generation controls include a sexindicator year of birth and its square and birth order Given the focus on years of schooling the sample is restricted to thosethird generation individuals 35 years of age and older or born during or before 1970 (data were collected in 2005) Allestimation is performed with OLS with family (second generation) clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
29
(a)
Fat
her
(b)
Moth
er
Fig
ure
1F
irst
Gen
erat
ion
Dis
trib
uti
onof
Yea
rof
Bir
th
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
figu
rep
lots
the
dis
trib
uti
on
for
firs
tgen
erati
on
year
of
bir
th
Flu
exp
osu
reis
class
ified
as
bei
ng
born
inei
ther
1918
or
1919
30
Appendix Tables
Appendix Table 1 First Generation Flu Exposure Effect on Family Income
Dependent Variable Family Income ($100s) 1957
(1) (2)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -3366(2592)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -5363lowastlowast
(2390)
Birth Year Time Trends Y YObservations 7440 7456R Sqr 0013 0004
Summary amp Notes This table replaces the index of socioeconomic status with family income (in $100s) in 1957 Allestimation is performed with OLS with robust standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
31
App
endix
Tab
le2
Mar
riag
eM
arke
tE
ffec
ts
Con
trol
ling
for
Ow
nY
ear
ofB
irth
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
Job
Pre
stig
eY
ears
of
Sch
Job
Pre
stig
e
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale
)-0
052
-211
82
-01
98
-03
74
(02
03)
(131
30)
(01
61)
(14
38)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emale
)-0
346lowast
lowastlowast-2
44
97lowastlowast
lowast-0
103
-13
88
(01
16)
(76
88)
(00
94)
(08
54)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
(Male
an
dF
emale
)Y
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8348
8279
8348
6587
RS
qr
00
40
00
22
00
25
00
04
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
re-e
stim
ates
Tab
le3
wh
ile
contr
oll
ing
for
year
of
bir
than
dfl
uin
dic
ato
rsass
oci
ate
dw
ith
the
spou
sein
the
dep
end
ent
vari
ab
le
All
esti
mat
ion
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
and
ard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
sign
ifica
nce
isd
enote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
atth
e10
5
and
1le
vel
sre
spec
tive
ly
32
Appendix Table 3 2nd Gen Economic Effects Controlling for 1st Gen Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Years of Schooling
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0088(0070)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0005 0008(0119) (0119)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0116 -0117(0072) (0072)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0206 0206 0206 0206
Panel B ln Family Income 1992
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0193lowast
(0111)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0080 -0050(0184) (0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0240lowastlowast -0238lowastlowast
(0116) (0116)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112R Sqr 0024 0024 0024 0024
Panel C Std Normal Net Worth 2004
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0003(0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0047 0049(0046) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0019 -0021(0020) (0020)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498R Sqr 0033 0033 0033 0033
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 4 while controlling for generation one economic outcomes fatherrsquos years ofschooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 First generation time trends are given by year of birth and itssquare for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex secondgeneration year of birth and its square and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standarderrors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and1 levels respectively 33
Appendix Table 4 2nd Gen Health Effects Controlling for 1st Gen Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A BMI
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0352lowast
(0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0051 -0001(0342) (0344)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0372lowast 0372lowast
(0192) (0193)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671R Sqr 0035 0035 0035 0035
Panel B Count of Illnesses
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0122lowast
(0065)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0076 -0096(0102) (0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0139lowastlowast 0144lowastlowast
(0067) (0068)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9921 9921 9921 9921R Sqr 0046 0046 0046 0046
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 5 while controlling for generation one economic outcomes fatherrsquos years ofschooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 First generation time trends are given by year of birth and itssquare for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex secondgeneration year of birth and its square and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standarderrors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and1 levels respectively
34
Appendix Table 5 Generation threersquos years of schooling Controlling for previous generation economicwell-being
Dependent Variable Years of Schooling for Gen 3(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A First Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0069(0076)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0022 0034(0133) (0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0102 -0104(0077) (0078)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913R Sqr 0117 0117 0117 0117
Panel B Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0025(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0008 0013(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0038 -0039(0073) (0073)
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0190 0190 0190 0190
Panel C First and Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0008(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0016 0019(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0028 -0029(0073) (0073)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0196 0196 0196 0196
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 6 while controlling for generation one and tworsquos economic outcomes Forgeneration one these include fatherrsquos years of schooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 generation twocontrols include the WLS graduatesiblingrsquos years of schooling family income in 1992 and net worth in 2004 First generationtime trends are year of birth measures for each parent and their square Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sexsecond generation year of birth and its square and birth order Third generation controls include a sex indicator year of birthand its square and birth order Given the focus on years of schooling the sample is restricted to those third generationindividuals 35 years of age and older or born during or before 1970 (data were collected in 2005) All estimation is performedwith OLS with family (second generation) clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denotedby and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
35
Appendix Table 6 Alternative measures of schooling in the second generation
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Indicator for any college (years of schooling gt12)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0044lowastlowastlowast
(0017)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0011 -0006(0029) (0029)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0044lowastlowast -0043lowastlowast
(0017) (0017)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0071 0070 0071 0071
Panel B Indicator for incomplete college (years of schooling gt12 amp lt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0008(0013)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 -0001(0022) (0022)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0008 -0008(0013) (0013)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0005 0005 0005 0005
Panel C Indicator for college graduate (years of schooling = 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0022lowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0003 0006(0020) (0020)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0021lowast -0021lowastlowast
(0011) (0011)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0019 0019 0019 0019
Panel D Indicator for post-college education (years of schooling gt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0014(0010)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0011(0018) (0018)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0014 -0014(0010) (0010)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0039 0039 0039 0039
Summary amp Notes This table replaces our continuous measure of years of schooling with specified dummy variables Firstgeneration time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Secondgeneration controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and its square and birth order All estimationis performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
36
Appendix Table 7 Young mothers Direct effect on Gen 1 Females
Dependent Variable Years of Sch Job Prestige Family SES
(1) (2) (3)
Ind for First Gen Female Flu Exposure (1918-1919) -0325lowastlowast -0841 -1749lowastlowastlowast
(0137) (1015) (0584)
Ind for mother born during 1920-1921 -0567lowastlowastlowast 0745 -1157(0206) (1515) (0914)
Ind for mother born during 1922-1923 -0666lowastlowast 0098 -2113(0330) (2210) (1298)
Ind for mother born after 1924 -0392 5682 0384(0486) (3705) (2126)
Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y
Observations 8487 6683 8487R Sqr 0014 0005 0014
Summary amp Notes This table includes indicators for alternative years of birth Younger mothers are shown to have lessyears of schooling All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
37
App
endix
Tab
le8
You
ng
mot
her
sG
ener
atio
n2
and
3eff
ects
Gen
2
Gen
3
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
ln
Fam
In
c
1992
Std
N
W
2004
Sel
f-re
p
hea
lth
Hei
ght
BM
IY
ears
of
Sch
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
emal
eF
luE
xp
osu
re(1
918-
1919
)-0
201lowastlowast
-02
95lowastlowast
-00
45
-00
73lowastlowast
-00
90
02
07
-00
86(0
092)
(01
32)
(00
32)
(00
32)
(01
22)
(02
25)
(00
94)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
20-1
921
-00
22
-00
40
-00
10
-00
61
01
33
-04
10
01
13
(01
37)
(01
74)
(00
51)
(00
43)
(01
80)
(03
11)
(01
41)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
22-1
923
-00
96
-01
88
-00
57
00
20
04
61
-11
29lowastlowast
01
55(0
184)
(03
20)
(00
61)
(00
75)
(02
83)
(04
51)
(02
23)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
afte
r19
2404
58
-01
87
00
01
-00
27
03
12
-08
85
03
99
(03
06)
(03
94)
(00
87)
(01
27)
(04
94)
(10
70)
(03
21)
Bas
eC
ontr
ols
YY
YY
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
12459
12112
10498
9888
9783
9671
19913
RS
qr
00
85
00
21
00
08
00
09
05
86
00
29
00
79
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
incl
ud
esin
dic
ator
sfo
ralt
ernati
ve
years
of
bir
th
Bei
ng
born
toa
you
nger
moth
ergen
erall
yis
not
ass
oci
ate
dw
ith
gen
erati
on
2or
3rsquos
outc
omes
ofin
tere
st
inst
ead
n
egat
ive
effec
tsar
eon
lyob
serv
edfo
rth
ose
born
du
rin
gth
efl
u
All
esti
mati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hfa
mil
y(2
nd
gen
erat
ion
)cl
ust
ered
stan
dar
der
rors
rep
orte
din
par
enth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
signifi
can
ceis
den
ote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vel
y
38
Appendix Table 9 Summary Statistics by Gen 2 Sex
Variable N Mean Std Deviation
FemaleYears of Schooling 6607 13352 2088ln Family Income (1992 wave) 6411 9424 3577
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5654 10686 1010Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 5612 -0047 0539Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 5313 4164 0670Height (inches) 5231 646635 247936BMI 5124 26073 5114
Gen 3Years of Schooling 11947 14240 2291
MaleYears of Schooling 5852 14047 2587ln Family Income (1992 wave) 5701 10139 3030
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5264 10981 0836Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 4886 0059 1159Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 4575 4133 0665Height (inches) 4554 7055484 25596BMI 4547 27496 3948
Gen 3Years of Schooling 8046 14371 2332
Appendix Table 10A Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0090(0086)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0198 0214(0169) (0169)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104 -0114(0087) (0087)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6607 6607 6607 6607R Sqr 0075 0075 0075 0075
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
39
Appendix Table 10B Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0523lowastlowastlowast
(0170)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0483 -0410(0321) (0323)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0512lowastlowastlowast -0491lowastlowastlowast
(0179) (0180)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6411 6411 6411 6411R Sqr 0015 0013 0014 0015
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10C Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0007(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0078lowast 0078(0048) (0048)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0008 0005(0025) (0025)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5612 5612 5612 5612R Sqr 0007 0007 0007 0007
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
40
Appendix Table 10D Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0027(0036)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 -0001(0071) (0071)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0022 -0022(0037) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5313 5313 5313 5313r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10E Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -2382(13366)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 44280lowastlowast 46351lowastlowast
(22343) (22480)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -12253 -14428(13485) (13561)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5231 5231 5231 5231r2 0015 0016 0015 0016
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
41
Appendix Table 10F Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0353(0286)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0105 0060(0514) (0516)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0326 0323(0289) (0290)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5124 5124 5124 5124R Sqr 0010 0010 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0087(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0104 -0101(0190) (0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0042 -0039(0098) (0098)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 11906 11906 11906 11906R Sqr 0086 0086 0086 0086
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
42
Appendix Table 11A Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0322lowastlowastlowast
(0116)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0369lowastlowast -0338lowast
(0181) (0180)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0309lowastlowastlowast -0297lowastlowast
(0119) (0119)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5852 5852 5852 5852R Sqr 0060 0059 0060 0060
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11B RResults by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0116(0138)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0262 0261(0200) (0199)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0024 0014(0141) (0140)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5701 5701 5701 5701R Sqr 0009 0009 0008 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
43
Appendix Table 11C Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0038)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0001(0081) (0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0094lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0035)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4886 4886 4886 4886R Sqr 0004 0004 0004 0004
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
44
Appendix Table 11D Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0083lowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 0012(0062) (0062)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104lowastlowastlowast -0105lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0041)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4575 4575 4575 4575r2 0010 0009 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11E Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -15122(14275)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -22991 -20537(23287) (23176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -18595 -17540(14734) (14751)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4554 4554 4554 4554r2 0011 0011 0011 0011
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
45
Appendix Table 11F Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0465lowast
(0238)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0079 0006(0403) (0405)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0520lowastlowast 0520lowastlowast
(0245) (0246)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4547 4547 4547 4547R Sqr 0006 0005 0006 0006
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0177(0123)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0098 0144(0194) (0192)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0293lowastlowast -0302lowastlowast
(0125) (0126)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8007 8007 8007 8007R Sqr 0067 0067 0068 0068
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
46
Appendix Table 12A Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0253lowastlowast
(0107)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0252 -0226(0170) (0172)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0263lowastlowast -0242lowastlowast
(0113) (0115)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0084(0120)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0341 0339(0216) (0219)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0096 0056(0130) (0132)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459r2 0085 0085 0085 0085
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
47
Appendix Table 12B Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0128)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0196 0169(0190) (0189)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0081 -0104(0135) (0135)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0383lowastlowast
(0189)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0594lowast -0474(0349) (0355)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0339lowast -0283(0204) (0207)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112r2 0021 0021 0021 0021
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
48
Appendix Table 12C Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0034)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0019(0077) (0079)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0095lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0030) (0031)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0071lowast
(0038)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0072 0039(0087) (0089)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0104lowastlowastlowast 0100lowastlowastlowast
(0035) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498r2 0008 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
49
Appendix Table 12D Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0071lowast
(0036)[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0012 0031
(0058) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0093lowastlowast -0097lowastlowast
(0039) (0039)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0030(0045)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0031 -0051(0087) (0088)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0059 0065(0048) (0049)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
50
Appendix Table 12E Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0129 -0125(0223) (0224)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0152 -0129(0141) (0142)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0000(0158)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0454 0495lowast
(0279) (0287)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0031 -0090(0170) (0175)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783nr2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
51
Appendix Table 12F Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0376(0231)
[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0059 -0122(0402) (0407)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0441lowast 0457lowast
(0240) (0243)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0068(0316)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0282 0288(0573) (0589)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0035 -0069(0340) (0350)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
52
Appendix Table 12G Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0131(0114)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male 0114 0175(0185) (0188)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0237lowastlowast -0261lowastlowast
(0118) (0121)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0009(0133)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0225 -0292(0249) (0254)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0152 0189(0141) (0145)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913r2 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
53
Appendix Table 13 Family Income 1992 excluding non-earners (ie fam inc = 0)
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992 wave (excluding those reporting 0)(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0095lowastlowastlowast
(0033)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0031 -0019(0053) (0053)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0101lowastlowastlowast -0100lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0034)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10918 10918 10918 10918r2 0050 0049 0050 0050
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0084lowast
(0050)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0019 -0007(0089) (0090)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0083 -0083(0053) (0054)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5654 5654 5654 5654r2 0026 0026 0026 0026
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102lowastlowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0051 -0040(0060) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0113lowastlowastlowast -0112lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0040)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5264 5264 5264 5264r2 0029 0028 0029 0029
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel B in Table 4 excluding those who report $0 for familyincome All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
54
Appendix Table 14 Net Worth 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable Std Net Worth 2011 Wave of WLS(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0032lowastlowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0023lowast -0021lowast
(0012) (0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0032lowastlowastlowast -0031lowastlowastlowast
(0010) (0010)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9435 9435 9435 9435r2 0002 0002 0002 0002
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0012lowast
(0006)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0009 -0008(0009) (0009)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0012lowastlowast -0011lowastlowast
(0006) (0006)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5026 5026 5026 5026r2 0007 0006 0007 0007
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0057lowastlowast
(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0040lowast -0036lowast
(0023) (0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0057lowastlowast -0056lowastlowast
(0023) (0022)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4409 4409 4409 4409r2 0001 0001 0001 0001
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel C in Table 4 replacing the net worth measure from the 2004wave with an identical measure from the 2011 wave of the WLS All estimation is performed with OLS with family clusteredstandard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 105 and 1 levels respectively
55
Appendix Table 15A Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 1992 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0243(0152)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0107 0039(0252) (0255)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0285lowast 0282lowast
(0158) (0160)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9849 9849 9849 9849
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0007(0091)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0210 -0216(0170) (0173)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0007 0024(0095) (0097)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9858 9858 9858 9858
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0255(0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0107 -0169(0328) (0338)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0237 0252(0193) (0198)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9845 9845 9845 9845
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
56
Appendix Table 15B Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2004 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0018(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0190 0207(0160) (0162)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0066 -0083(0102) (0104)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10672 10672 10672 10672
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0096 0108(0124) (0125)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0051 -0059(0076) (0077)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10619 10619 10619 10619
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0108(0110)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0064 0027(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0181 0179(0113) (0113)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10617 10617 10617 10617
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
57
Appendix Table 15C Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0099(0092)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0244 0242(0154) (0155)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0033 0016(0099) (0100)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0021(0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0095 0097(0138) (0139)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0004 -0011(0085) (0086)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0134(0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0203 0181(0175) (0176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0140 0127(0107) (0107)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8709 8709 8709 8709
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
58
- text 10818
- tables 10-8-18
-
12
Results
First Generation
Our initial analysis explores the direct effects of being born during the 1918 Influenza Epidemic
While health data are sparse for the WLS graduatersquos parents (first generation) a number of
economic outcomes are available especially during the initial sample year of 1957 Table 2
explores the relationship between these economic variables and an indicator for birth during
19181919 Columns (1)-(3) of table 2 show the relationship between a WLS graduatersquos father
being born during 19181919 and the fatherrsquos years of schooling the fatherrsquos occupational
prestige and the familyrsquos index of socioeconomic status in 1957 (ie when the first generation
members are approximately 40 years old) While statistically insignificant a negative association
is observed between years of schooling and being born in 1918 or 191910 This is carried over
into fatherrsquos job prestige in column (2) from which the indicator of in utero exposure to the 1918
flu is associated with an approximate 01 standard deviation decline in the index of occupational
prestige These effects culminate in column (3) which shows a statistically significant negative
effect of in utero exposure to the flu and later life economic well-being a 13 decline in the SES
index which corresponds to a decline of roughly 10 percent of a standard deviation The findings
of table 2 corroborate past studies that show in utero exposure to the 1918 flu led to poorer
economic outcomes later in life (Almond 2006)11
[insert table 2 here]
10 First generation years of schooling are reported by the second generation WLS graduates Measurement
error is likely which may result in the insignificant coefficients of table 2 11 Richter and Robling (2013 Table 12) find a similar effect for in utero female exposure to flu in the first
trimester
13
Mirroring the results for males in the first generation a negative but statistically
insignificant association is observed between an indicator of birth in 19181919 and schooling
for first generation females This association however becomes statistically significant at the 1
percent level for the index of family SES the coefficient being nearly identical to that of a
malersquos in utero exposure to the flu though it is unclear whether these effects flow from labor
market andor marriage market sources The findings of table 2 are extended in table 3 which
explores potential marriage market effects of early life exposure to the flu epidemic12
Column (1) of table 3 regresses the indicator for male in utero exposure on an identical
measure for spousersquos exposure Females who were born in 19181919 were 5 percentage points
more likely to marry men who were also born during the same period Furthermore as shown in
columns (2) and (3) these women were more likely to marry men with fewer years of school and
lower job prestige These effects are significant at the 1 percent level Similar effects are seen in
columns (4)-(6) for 19181919 born males who are 14 percentage points more likely to marry flu
exposed females (p=000) and marry females with 026 fewer years of schooling (p=0101)
Given the findings of table 3 however we cannot rule out that this is a marriage market effect13
[insert table 3 here]
Second Generation
Our hypothesis is that the direct effects observed in tables 2 and 3 extend into future generations
To address this hypothesis we regress a number of economic and health outcomes of the WLS
graduates and siblings the offspring of the first generation examined in tables 2 and 3 These
12 Mothers and fathers of WLS graduates are assumed to be married 13 Appendix table 2 repeats the estimation of table 3 while also controlling for an indicator of own-flu
exposure and own year of birth measures
14
estimations are performed in tables 4 and 5 Column (1) in both tables focus on an indicator for
either parent being born in 19181919 the primary regressor of column (2) is an indicator for
fatherrsquos (gen 1 males) in utero exposure to the 1918 flu column (3) considers motherrsquos (gen 1
females) exposure and column (4) includes separate indicators for both mother and fatherrsquos
exposure Controls included in all columns include fatherrsquos year of birth and its square motherrsquos
year of birth and its square an indicator for sex in the second generation a measure of birth
order in the second generation and second-generation year of birth and its square
Table 4 focuses on economic outcomes of the WLS graduates To reiterate our
hypothesis is that in utero exposure to the 1918 influenza pandemic has effects that persist for
multiple generations Table 2 shows the direct first generation effects while table 4 begins to
show the indirect effects that are transmitted to offspring Panel A regresses years of schooling in
the second generation on indicators of first generation exposure to the 1918 flu14 From column
(1) either parent being born in 19181919 is associated with a statistically significant decline of
021 years of schooling in the second generation This estimate is likely understated because the
sampling design of the WLS is a focus on high school seniors thus individuals with fewer than
twelve years of schooling are underrepresented in the data15 Columns (2)-(4) disambiguate this
effect into the maternal and paternal lines From which the effect of column (1) seems to be
driven by motherrsquos in utero exposure to the flu16
14 Appendix Table 6 includes a number of alternative measures for years of schooling in place of the
simple count used in Table 4 15 Table 3 includes selected siblings of the WLS graduates These siblings do not have to be high school
graduates 16 This finding differs from that of Richter and Robling (2013) who find maternal exposure tied to
daughter outcomes and paternal exposure tied to son outcomes
15
The findings of Panel A are extended into Panel B which replaces years of schooling as
the dependent variable with the natural log of family income for the 1992 wave a time when the
second generation respondents are 53 years of age on average and represents a time of peak
earning in the life course As with years of schooling a negative association is seen throughout
the specifications of Panel B Having either parent born in 19181919 is associated with a 22
percent decline in family income Once again this effect seems to be driven by motherrsquos not
fatherrsquos exposure Panel C replaces income with a measure of net worth for the 2004 wave This
measure of net worth is when the second generation respondents are on average 65 years of age
and is representative of earnings throughout the life course The dual indicator of column (1) is
negative but statistically insignificant at conventional levels (p=023) When looking at the effect
of mother exposure in column (3) however the effect becomes statistically significant at the
10 level (p=0069) implying those with mothers born during 19181919 have approximately
$36000 less in net worth by 2004
Following the broader health focus of the Barker hypothesis the economic effects of
table 4 are replaced with health measures in table 5 We consider three broad measures of
general health and well-being later in life self-reported health in later life (~53 years old)
height and BMI (again at ~53) The use of self-reported health is intended to capture general
well-being later in life (Fortin et al 2017) this is tested in Panel A of table 5 Mazumder et al
(2010) provide evidence that in utero exposure to the 1918 flu is associated with a reduction in
height and an increase cardiovascular disease so it is possible that these negative health
outcomes could be transmitted to offspring this is tested in Panel B of table 517 And given
17 Appendix Table 14 tests indicators for a number self-reported health conditions As shown a weak
positive association is shown between gen 1 female flu exposure and an indicator of cardiovascular
16
prior work linking early life exposure to the Dutch famine to BMI (Roseboom et al 2000) and
metabolic function (Lumey et al 2009) in adulthood as well as the fact that both the Dutch
famine and the 1918 flu impacted maternal stress and nutritional status18 we examine BMI as
another broad indicator of health for the second generation this is tested in Panel C of table 5 A
consistent pattern emerges across all panels Like SES outcomes in table 4 gen 1 female
exposure to the flu is shown to have negative statistically significant association with all health
outcomes in the second generation
From Panel A parentalmdashor gen 1mdashflu exposure reduces self-reported health by roughly
half a point (plt005) on a Likert scale from 1-5 1 being very poor health and 5 being excellent
health As shown and like prior estimates this effect is driven by gen 1 female exposure For
adult height gen 1 female exposure is associated with a reduction of about 02 inches (plt010)
which is larger than the direct effect documented by Mazumder et al of 005 inches however
Mazumder et alrsquos estimated effect falls within the 95 confidence interval of our estimated
coefficient Panel C considers the effect on second generation BMI From column (1) having
either parent being born in 19181919 is associated with a statistically significant increase in the
offspringrsquos BMI of 041 points As with the economic effects of table 4 this increase in BMI
appears to be driven by motherrsquos exposure This is seen in columns (2)-(4) which estimate a
statistically significant positive coefficient for motherrsquos exposure but a coefficient that is
statistically indistinguishable from zero for fatherrsquos exposure
disease during the 199293 wave of the WLS (Appendix Table 15A) This association however reduced
in magnitude and statistical significance for later-life waves of the WLS (Appendix Table 15B and 15C) 18 The Dutch famine influenced maternal nutritional status directly through caloric restriction and the
1918 flu through symptoms such as appetite loss vomiting andor diarrhea
17
A persistent effect of in utero exposure to the 1918 Flu is seen in tables 4 and 5 First
generation exposure consistently has a statistically significant and economically meaningful
effect on second generation health and economic outcomes And this effect appears to be driven
solely by motherrsquos exposure although due to marriage market associations we cannot
determine definitively that motherrsquos exposure produces this multigenerational effect through
biological mechanisms
Appendix Tables 10A-11G re-estimate Tables 4 and 5 splitting the sample by generation
2rsquos sex In short the negative effects of first generation exposure appear to be more prominent
in second generation males such that the harmful multi-generational effects are most prominent
in second generation men whose mothers were exposed to the 1918 flu19 Potential reasons for
this sex disparity could be tied to general trends in the differences between sons and daughters in
intergenerational mobility (Chadwick and Solon 2002) In other words sons are more likely to
inherit their families SES standing than daughters This implies that the negative gen 1 shock
from in utero exposure is more likely to affect sons through the proposed SES channel than
daughters resulting in a larger estimated effect for gen 2 males Furthermore there appears to
be a growing gap between in the intergenerational elastiticy between sons and daughters during
the time period in question (Olivetti and Paserman 2015) Another potential reason for the sex
difference could be the larger standard deviation in gen 2 male outcomes this is shown in
Appendix Table 9 Finally the findings of Appendix Tables 10A-11G differ from Richter and
Robling (2013) who show homogeneous sex effects from in utero flu exposure for education
19 When omitting those with no family income during the 1992 wave of the WLS negative effects from
gen 1 female flu exposure are primarily seen in second generation males This indicates however that
there is a greater frequency of no income amongst second generation females from gen 1 flu exposure
Additionally when looking at net worth in the 2011 wave of the WLS we see no difference by gen 2rsquos
sex
18
gen 1 female exposure led to reduction in gen 2 female education and gen 1 male exposure is
associated with gen 2 male education Given this disparity between the two studies our under-
representation for gen 1 male exposure and the mixed findings in Tables 10A-11G we view our
general finding of gen 1 female exposure working through gen 2 male outcomes as preliminary
and suggestive Indeed as we test in Appendix Tables 12A-12G the sex differences in gen 2 are
often not statistically significant
Third Generation
As mentioned previously the focus of the WLS data collection is high school graduates in 1957
but additional samples have been collected for a number of variables on the children of these
graduates Table 6 explores the effects of the WLS parents on the years of schooling for WLS
children estimating the effect of flu exposure across three generations20
Consistent with the second-generation estimations a persistent effect of the in utero flu
exposure is observed and this effect seems to be driven by grandmother exposure (gen 1
female) The joint indicator for either parent is negative and close to statistical significance at
the 10 percent level (p=0106) suggesting that exposure in the first generation is associated with
012 years of schooling less in the third generation The effect of grandfather exposure is
insignificantly different from zero while the coefficient of grandmother exposure is similar in
magnitude to the joint estimate of column (1) while being statistically significant at the 10
level (p=0066) Furthermore the decline in schooling seen in the third generation is similar but
slightly smaller in magnitude compared to the second generation effects seen in Panel A of table
20Analysis of the WLS gradsibling children (ie the third generation) restricts the sample to those
children that are biological children and that are 35 years of age and older by the 20032004 wave of the
WLS
19
421 This again indicates a persistent effect that may be attenuating over time Importantly while
the estimate for grandfather exposure is insignificant it is consistent with intergenerational
inheritance (Kuzawa and Eisenberg 2014) To say the same for grandmother exposure would
require effects to persist into the fourth generation (due to the differences in gametic
development) and this data is not available in the WLS
Conclusion
This paper presents novel evidence of multigenerational effects of in utero health insults We
use the sudden and unexpected influenza pandemic in 19181919 to trace out the effects of in
utero exposure to infectious disease on own outcomes for the first generation childrenrsquos
outcomes and grandchildrenrsquos outcomes We find that this exposure reduces educational
attainment and related economic outcomes across three generations For example individuals in
our second generation the WLS graduates and their siblings who have mothers who were
exposed to the 1918 flu in utero complete 15 fewer years of schooling (or 24 months less
schooling) The size of our estimated effect aligns well with those of Richter and Robling (2013)
who find that first generation in utero exposure to the 1918 flu results in 16 fewer years of
schooling (or 2 months to 25 months less schooling) for the maternal line We then extend
results to the third generation for the first time in the literature and find that individuals in the
third generation who have grandmothers who were exposed to the pandemic in utero complete
17 fewer years of schooling (or 17 months less schooling) than individuals without affected
grandmothers
21 For gen 1 female exposure in column (4) the p-value for a difference in coefficients between Panel A
of Table 4 and Table 6 is 0411 implying the effect in the third generation is statistically indistinguishable
from that in the second generation
20
There are at several potential mechanisms for the persistence of poor outcomes across
three generations we find in our data As previously outlined the intergenerational persistence in
poor outcomes due to early life health shocks could occur through socioeconomic channels
where a fetally insulted person with resulting low educational attainment raises a child in a low-
resource environment that reduces opportunities for high educational attainment of the child In
order to see multigenerational effects the reduced opportunities for high educational attainment
of the child must then reduce opportunities for their own children Alternatively
intergenerational transmission may occur through epigenetic inheritance through the germ line a
distinct possibility based on findings of the Oumlverkalix studies or phenotype-to-phenotype
transmission and cumulative intergenerational phenotypic change
Our analysis is unable to fully distinguish between these proposed intergenerational
channels the socioeconomic and biological but it is important to note that the channels are by no
means mutually exclusive Further analysis (appendix tables 3-5) that is intended to partially
account for the socioeconomic mechanism leads to mixed results in which the coefficient of first
generation flu exposure is attenuated to insignificance for some outcomes but not others This
provides evidence for a socioeconomic channel but does not eliminate the possibility of
epigenetic mechanisms or other biological channel through which socioeconomic status ldquogets
under the skinrdquo to influence outcomes of subsequent generations (eg the socioeconomic
circumstances of one generation may ldquoget under the skinrdquo of the next and subsequently be passed
via biology andor socioeconomics to other generations) Likewise the estimates of grandfather
effects on grandchildren are imprecise but consistent with transgenerational inheritance (Kuzawa
and Eisenberg 2014) Additionally while the WLS provides a unique framework to analyze
multiple generations the measurement of flu exposure is somewhat crude (from self-reported
21
parentsrsquo year of birth) and is in the right-tail of the distribution of parent birth years suggesting
the possibility of confounding from resource-poor younger mothers22 That is exposure to
influenza in the first generation is mechanically tied to motherrsquos ages of 20 and 21 because the
WLS sample is drawn based on having a child who was born in 1939 (and thus graduating high
school in 1957) While we cannot definitively separate these two effects our ability to compare
outcomes of slightly older mothers (ages 22 and 23 born in 1917 or 1916) provide evidence
more consistent with in utero exposure to influenza than impacts of having a mother who is
2021 years old
From a policy perspective our evidence may suggest a novel source of multigenerational
persistence in poverty through biosocial factors and suggest a need to consider evidence of
transgenerational social andor biological mechanisms We document the extent to which
harmful early life environments cascade through generations promoting a disadvantaged start for
those whose grandparents exposed to a hazardous early life environment
22 We specifically explore the confounding effects of younger mothers in appendix tables 7 and 8 These
tables show that younger mothers are indeed initially disadvantaged (ie less years of schooling)
however this young-mother disadvantage does not persist in subsequent generations Rather only those
mothers born in the 1918-1919 range have significant negative effects on later generations
22
References
Almond Doug 2006 Is the 1918 Influenza pandemic over Long‐term effects of in utero Influenza exposure in the post‐1940 US population Journal of Political Economy 114(4) 672-712
Almond Doug and Bhashkar Mazumder 2005 The 1918 Influenza Pandemic and Subsequent Health Outcomes An Analysis of SIPP Data American Economic Review 95(2) 258-262
Barker David James P 2007 The origins of the developmental origins theory Journal of Internal Medicine 261(5) 412-417
Benyshek Daniel C (2013) The ldquoearly liferdquo origins of obesity‐related health disorders New discoveries regarding the intergenerational transmission of developmentally programmed traits in the global cardiometabolic health crisis American Journal of Physical Anthropology 152(S57) 79-93
Brown Alan S and Elena J Derkits 2010 Prenatal infection and schizophrenia a review of epidemiologic and translational studies American Journal of Psychiatry 167(3) 261-280
Burg Steven 2000 Wisconsin and the Great Spanish Flu Epidemic of 1918rdquo Wisconsin Magazine of History 84(1) 36-56
Bygren LarsOlov Gunnar Kaati and Soumlren Edvinsson 2001 Longevity determined by paternal ancestors nutrition during their slow growth period Acta biotheoretica 49(1) 53-59
Canetta Sarah E and Alan S Brown 2012 Prenatal infection maternal immune activation and risk for schizophrenia Translational Neuroscience 3(4) 320-327
Chadwick L and Solon G (2002) Intergenerational income mobility among daughters American Economic Review 92(1) 335-344
Cohen Alan A John Tillinghast and Vladimir Canudas-Romo 2010 No consistent effects of prenatal or neonatal exposure to Spanish flu on late-life mortality in 24 developed countries Demographic Research 22(20) 579
Fatemi S Hossein Julie Earle Reena Kanodia David Kist Effat S Emamian Paul H Patterson Limin Shi and Robert Sidwell 2002 Prenatal viral infection leads to pyramidal cell atrophy and macrocephaly in adulthood implications for genesis of autism and schizophrenia Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology 22(1) 25-33
Fletcher Jason 2014 Examining the Long Term Mortality Effects of Early Health Shocks US Census Bureau Center for Economic Studies Paper No CES-WP-14-19
Kaati Gunnar Lars O Bygren and Soren Edvinsson 2002 Cardiovascular and diabetes mortality determined by nutrition during parents and grandparents slow growth period European Journal of Human Genetics EJHG 10(11) 682
Kash John C Terrence M Tumpey Sean C Proll Victoria Carter Olivia Perwitasari Matthew J Thomas Christopher F Basler et al 2006 Genomic analysis of increased host immune and cell death responses induced by 1918 influenza virus Nature 443(7111) 578-581
Kobasa Darwyn Steven M Jones Kyoko Shinya John C Kash John Copps Hideki Ebihara Yasuko Hatta et al 2007 Aberrant innate immune response in lethal infection of macaques with the 1918 influenza virus Nature 445 (7125) 319-323
Kuzawa Christopher W and Dan T Eisenberg 2014 The Long Reach of History Intergenerational and Transgenerational Pathwaysto Plasticity in Human Longevity Sociality Hierarchy Health Comparative Biodemography Papers from a Workshop National Academies Press
Li Wai-Yu Yi-Chun Chang L Jyuhn-Hsiarn Lee and Li-Jen Lee 2014 Prenatal infection affects the neuronal architecture and cognitive function in adult mice Developmental Neuroscience 36(5) 359-370
23
Lin Ming-Jen and Elaine M Liu 2014 Does in utero exposure to illness matter The 1918 influenza epidemic in Taiwan as a natural experiment Journal of Health Economics 37 152-163
Lindeboom Maarten France Portrait and Gerard J Van den Berg 2010 Long-run effects on longevity of a nutritional shock early in life the Dutch Potato famine of 1846ndash1847 Journal of Health Economics 29(5) 617-629
Mamelund SE (2018) 1918 pandemic mobidity The first wave hits the poor the second wave hits the rich Influenza and Other Respitory Viruses 12(3) 307-313
Mazumder Bhashkar Douglas Almond Kyung Park Eileen M Crimmins and Caleb E Finch 2010 Lingering prenatal effects of the 1918 influenza pandemic on cardiovascular disease Journal of developmental origins of health and disease 1(1) 26-34
Miller Veronica Y Zhu C Bucher W McGinnis L Ryan A Siegel and S Zalcman 2013 Gestational flu exposure induces changes in neurochemicals affiliative hormones and brainstem inflammation in addition to autism-like behaviors in mice Brain Behavior and Immunity 33 153-163
Myrskylauml Mikko Neil K Mehta and Virginia W Chang 2013 Early life exposure to the 1918 influenza pandemic and old-age mortality by cause of death American Journal of Public Health 103(7) e83-e90
Olivetti C and Paserman MD (2015) In the name of the son (and the daughter) Intergenerational mobility in the United States 1850-1940 American Economic Review 105(8) 2695-2724
Pembrey Marcus E Lars Olov Bygren Gunnar Kaati Soumlren Edvinsson Kate Northstone Michael Sjoumlstroumlm and Jean Golding 2006 Sex-specific male-line transgenerational responses in humans European Journal of Human Genetics 14(2) 159-166
Richter Andreacute and Per Olof Robling 2013 Multigenerational effects of the 1918-19 influenza pandemic in Sweden Swedish Institute for Social Research 5
Shors Teri and Susan H McFadden 2009 1918 Influenza A Winnebago County Wisconsin Perspective Clinical Medicine amp Research 7(4) 147-156
Sydenstricker E (1931) The incidence of influenza among persons of different economic status during the epidemic of 1918 Public Health Reports 46(4) 154-170
van den Berg Gerard J and Pia R Pinger 2013 A validation study of transgenerational effects of childhood conditions on the third generation offsprings economic and health outcomes potentially driven by epigenetic imprinting IZA Discussion Paper
Tables and Figures
Table 1 Summary Statistics
Variable N Mean Std Deviation
First GenerartionFlu Indicators
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 8368 0112 0315Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 8456 0030 0170Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 8487 0093 0290
ControlsFirst Generation Malersquos Year of Birth 8456 1907435 7021First Generation Femalersquos Year of Birth 8427 1911189 6164
Dependent VariablesFirst Generation Malersquos Years of Schooling 8456 9778 3392First Generation Femalersquos Years of Schooing 8487 10499 2804First Generation Malersquos Job Prestige 8385 330662 214361First Generation Femalersquos Job Prestige 6683 12814 19934Family SES 8487 16231 11143
Second GenerationControls
Female Indicator 12459 0530 0499Birth Year 12459 1939406 4289Birth Order 12459 2529 1828
Dependent VariablesYears of Schooling 12459 13678 2361Family Income 1992 (in $1000s) 12112 68027 177105Net Worth 2004 (in $1000s) 10498 913046 2558927Self-reported health 1992 9888 4149 0668Height (inches) 9783 67406 3851BMI 1992 9671 26742 4657
Third GenerationControls
Birth Year 19913 1963901 3636Female Indicator 19913 0497 0500Birth Order 19913 2196 1263
Dependent VariableYears of Schooling 19913 14294 2309
Summary amp Notes This table provides summary statistics for all variables used The samples above may not berepresentative for all estimations For example the inclusion of siblings in the second generation increase the sample of parentalyear of birth and the corresponding flu indicator This increase in sample does not significantly change the sample statisticsabove Similar sample changes occur for the second generation controls above For the third generation the sample is restrictedto biological children over 35 years of age
24
Tab
le2
Fir
stG
ener
atio
n
Eco
nom
icE
ffec
ts
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
am
ily
SE
SY
ears
of
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
am
ily
SE
S(1
)(2
)(3
)(4
)(5
)(6
)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale)
-01
39
-01
16lowast
-12
90lowast
lowast
(02
00)
(00
60)
(05
99)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emal
e)-0
133
-00
66
-13
61lowastlowast
lowast
(00
95)
(00
43)
(03
76)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
YY
YY
YY
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8456
8385
8456
8487
6683
8487
RS
qr
00
32
00
08
00
23
00
13
00
04
00
13
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
pro
vid
esd
irec
teff
ects
of
inu
tero
an
dea
rly
life
exp
osu
reto
the
1918
Flu
Ep
idem
ic
Bir
thye
ar
tim
etr
end
sin
lcu
de
yea
rof
bir
than
dit
ssq
uar
ean
din
clu
sion
inth
ees
tim
atio
nis
par
ent
spec
ific
All
esti
mati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
an
dard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
alsi
gnifi
can
ceis
den
oted
by
an
d
re
pre
senti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vel
y
25
Tab
le3
Fir
stG
ener
atio
n
Mar
riag
eM
arke
tE
ffec
ts
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Flu
Bir
thY
ear
Yea
rsof
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
luB
irth
Yea
rY
ears
of
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
e(1
)(2
)(3
)(4
)(5
)(6
)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale)
01
40lowast
lowastlowast-0
259
-00
39
(00
34)
(01
58)
(00
72)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emal
e)0
056lowast
lowastlowast-0
340lowast
lowastlowast-0
118lowastlowast
lowast
(00
14)
(01
17)
(00
36)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
YY
YY
YY
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8348
8487
8412
8348
8456
6660
RS
qr
00
90
00
11
00
08
01
20
00
21
00
01
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
pro
vid
esev
iden
ceof
marr
iage
mark
etse
lect
ion
inth
efi
rst
gen
erati
on
B
irth
year
tim
etr
end
sin
clu
de
year
of
bir
than
dit
ssq
uare
and
incl
usi
onin
the
esti
mat
ion
isp
aren
tsp
ecifi
cA
lles
tim
ati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
an
dard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
sign
ifica
nce
isd
enot
edby
an
d
re
pre
senti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vely
26
Table 4 Second Generation Economic Effects
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Years of Schooling
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0209lowastlowastlowast
(0073)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0084 -0059(0129) (0129)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0211lowastlowastlowast -0209lowastlowastlowast
(0075) (0075)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0085 0084 0085 0085
Panel B ln Family Income 1992
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0221lowastlowast
(0111)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0098 -0066(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0262lowastlowast -0259lowastlowast
(0116) (0116)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112R Sqr 0021 0021 0021 0021
Panel C Std Net Worth 2004
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0026(0022)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0033 0038(0047) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0038lowast -0040lowast
(0021) (0021)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498R Sqr 0007 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table provides evidence of signficant harmful effects of flu exposure in the first generation on secondgeneration economic outcomes First generation time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents(ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and itssquare and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
27
Table 5 Second Generation Health Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Self-reported health (Likert 1=very poor 5=excellent)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0054lowastlowast
(0027)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0005(0047) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0061lowastlowast -0061lowastlowast
(0028) (0028)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Panel B Height (inches)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0101)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0102 0127(0168) (0168)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0169lowast -0175lowast
(0103) (0103)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783r2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Panel C BMI
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0412lowastlowast
(0191)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0082 0023(0344) (0346)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0422lowastlowast 0421lowastlowast
(0193) (0194)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table provides evidence of harmful effects of flu exposure in the first generation on secondgeneration health outcomes First generation time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents (iegen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and itssquare and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
28
Table 6 Generation Three Effects of Generation One Flu Exposure Years of Schooling
Dependent Variable Years of Schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0125(0077)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Male) -0007 0010(0136) (0136)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Female) -0144lowast -0144lowast
(0078) (0078)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913R Sqr 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table shows that the generational effects of flu exposure extend into the third generation of theWLS First generation flu exposure is shown to have a negative association with third generation years of schooling Firstgeneration time trends are year of birth measures for each parent and their square Second generation controls inlcude anindicator for sex second generation year of birth and its square and birth order Third generation controls include a sexindicator year of birth and its square and birth order Given the focus on years of schooling the sample is restricted to thosethird generation individuals 35 years of age and older or born during or before 1970 (data were collected in 2005) Allestimation is performed with OLS with family (second generation) clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
29
(a)
Fat
her
(b)
Moth
er
Fig
ure
1F
irst
Gen
erat
ion
Dis
trib
uti
onof
Yea
rof
Bir
th
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
figu
rep
lots
the
dis
trib
uti
on
for
firs
tgen
erati
on
year
of
bir
th
Flu
exp
osu
reis
class
ified
as
bei
ng
born
inei
ther
1918
or
1919
30
Appendix Tables
Appendix Table 1 First Generation Flu Exposure Effect on Family Income
Dependent Variable Family Income ($100s) 1957
(1) (2)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -3366(2592)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -5363lowastlowast
(2390)
Birth Year Time Trends Y YObservations 7440 7456R Sqr 0013 0004
Summary amp Notes This table replaces the index of socioeconomic status with family income (in $100s) in 1957 Allestimation is performed with OLS with robust standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
31
App
endix
Tab
le2
Mar
riag
eM
arke
tE
ffec
ts
Con
trol
ling
for
Ow
nY
ear
ofB
irth
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
Job
Pre
stig
eY
ears
of
Sch
Job
Pre
stig
e
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale
)-0
052
-211
82
-01
98
-03
74
(02
03)
(131
30)
(01
61)
(14
38)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emale
)-0
346lowast
lowastlowast-2
44
97lowastlowast
lowast-0
103
-13
88
(01
16)
(76
88)
(00
94)
(08
54)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
(Male
an
dF
emale
)Y
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8348
8279
8348
6587
RS
qr
00
40
00
22
00
25
00
04
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
re-e
stim
ates
Tab
le3
wh
ile
contr
oll
ing
for
year
of
bir
than
dfl
uin
dic
ato
rsass
oci
ate
dw
ith
the
spou
sein
the
dep
end
ent
vari
ab
le
All
esti
mat
ion
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
and
ard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
sign
ifica
nce
isd
enote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
atth
e10
5
and
1le
vel
sre
spec
tive
ly
32
Appendix Table 3 2nd Gen Economic Effects Controlling for 1st Gen Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Years of Schooling
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0088(0070)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0005 0008(0119) (0119)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0116 -0117(0072) (0072)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0206 0206 0206 0206
Panel B ln Family Income 1992
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0193lowast
(0111)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0080 -0050(0184) (0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0240lowastlowast -0238lowastlowast
(0116) (0116)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112R Sqr 0024 0024 0024 0024
Panel C Std Normal Net Worth 2004
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0003(0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0047 0049(0046) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0019 -0021(0020) (0020)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498R Sqr 0033 0033 0033 0033
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 4 while controlling for generation one economic outcomes fatherrsquos years ofschooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 First generation time trends are given by year of birth and itssquare for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex secondgeneration year of birth and its square and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standarderrors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and1 levels respectively 33
Appendix Table 4 2nd Gen Health Effects Controlling for 1st Gen Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A BMI
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0352lowast
(0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0051 -0001(0342) (0344)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0372lowast 0372lowast
(0192) (0193)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671R Sqr 0035 0035 0035 0035
Panel B Count of Illnesses
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0122lowast
(0065)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0076 -0096(0102) (0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0139lowastlowast 0144lowastlowast
(0067) (0068)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9921 9921 9921 9921R Sqr 0046 0046 0046 0046
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 5 while controlling for generation one economic outcomes fatherrsquos years ofschooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 First generation time trends are given by year of birth and itssquare for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex secondgeneration year of birth and its square and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standarderrors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and1 levels respectively
34
Appendix Table 5 Generation threersquos years of schooling Controlling for previous generation economicwell-being
Dependent Variable Years of Schooling for Gen 3(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A First Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0069(0076)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0022 0034(0133) (0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0102 -0104(0077) (0078)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913R Sqr 0117 0117 0117 0117
Panel B Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0025(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0008 0013(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0038 -0039(0073) (0073)
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0190 0190 0190 0190
Panel C First and Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0008(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0016 0019(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0028 -0029(0073) (0073)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0196 0196 0196 0196
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 6 while controlling for generation one and tworsquos economic outcomes Forgeneration one these include fatherrsquos years of schooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 generation twocontrols include the WLS graduatesiblingrsquos years of schooling family income in 1992 and net worth in 2004 First generationtime trends are year of birth measures for each parent and their square Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sexsecond generation year of birth and its square and birth order Third generation controls include a sex indicator year of birthand its square and birth order Given the focus on years of schooling the sample is restricted to those third generationindividuals 35 years of age and older or born during or before 1970 (data were collected in 2005) All estimation is performedwith OLS with family (second generation) clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denotedby and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
35
Appendix Table 6 Alternative measures of schooling in the second generation
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Indicator for any college (years of schooling gt12)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0044lowastlowastlowast
(0017)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0011 -0006(0029) (0029)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0044lowastlowast -0043lowastlowast
(0017) (0017)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0071 0070 0071 0071
Panel B Indicator for incomplete college (years of schooling gt12 amp lt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0008(0013)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 -0001(0022) (0022)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0008 -0008(0013) (0013)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0005 0005 0005 0005
Panel C Indicator for college graduate (years of schooling = 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0022lowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0003 0006(0020) (0020)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0021lowast -0021lowastlowast
(0011) (0011)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0019 0019 0019 0019
Panel D Indicator for post-college education (years of schooling gt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0014(0010)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0011(0018) (0018)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0014 -0014(0010) (0010)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0039 0039 0039 0039
Summary amp Notes This table replaces our continuous measure of years of schooling with specified dummy variables Firstgeneration time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Secondgeneration controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and its square and birth order All estimationis performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
36
Appendix Table 7 Young mothers Direct effect on Gen 1 Females
Dependent Variable Years of Sch Job Prestige Family SES
(1) (2) (3)
Ind for First Gen Female Flu Exposure (1918-1919) -0325lowastlowast -0841 -1749lowastlowastlowast
(0137) (1015) (0584)
Ind for mother born during 1920-1921 -0567lowastlowastlowast 0745 -1157(0206) (1515) (0914)
Ind for mother born during 1922-1923 -0666lowastlowast 0098 -2113(0330) (2210) (1298)
Ind for mother born after 1924 -0392 5682 0384(0486) (3705) (2126)
Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y
Observations 8487 6683 8487R Sqr 0014 0005 0014
Summary amp Notes This table includes indicators for alternative years of birth Younger mothers are shown to have lessyears of schooling All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
37
App
endix
Tab
le8
You
ng
mot
her
sG
ener
atio
n2
and
3eff
ects
Gen
2
Gen
3
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
ln
Fam
In
c
1992
Std
N
W
2004
Sel
f-re
p
hea
lth
Hei
ght
BM
IY
ears
of
Sch
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
emal
eF
luE
xp
osu
re(1
918-
1919
)-0
201lowastlowast
-02
95lowastlowast
-00
45
-00
73lowastlowast
-00
90
02
07
-00
86(0
092)
(01
32)
(00
32)
(00
32)
(01
22)
(02
25)
(00
94)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
20-1
921
-00
22
-00
40
-00
10
-00
61
01
33
-04
10
01
13
(01
37)
(01
74)
(00
51)
(00
43)
(01
80)
(03
11)
(01
41)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
22-1
923
-00
96
-01
88
-00
57
00
20
04
61
-11
29lowastlowast
01
55(0
184)
(03
20)
(00
61)
(00
75)
(02
83)
(04
51)
(02
23)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
afte
r19
2404
58
-01
87
00
01
-00
27
03
12
-08
85
03
99
(03
06)
(03
94)
(00
87)
(01
27)
(04
94)
(10
70)
(03
21)
Bas
eC
ontr
ols
YY
YY
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
12459
12112
10498
9888
9783
9671
19913
RS
qr
00
85
00
21
00
08
00
09
05
86
00
29
00
79
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
incl
ud
esin
dic
ator
sfo
ralt
ernati
ve
years
of
bir
th
Bei
ng
born
toa
you
nger
moth
ergen
erall
yis
not
ass
oci
ate
dw
ith
gen
erati
on
2or
3rsquos
outc
omes
ofin
tere
st
inst
ead
n
egat
ive
effec
tsar
eon
lyob
serv
edfo
rth
ose
born
du
rin
gth
efl
u
All
esti
mati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hfa
mil
y(2
nd
gen
erat
ion
)cl
ust
ered
stan
dar
der
rors
rep
orte
din
par
enth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
signifi
can
ceis
den
ote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vel
y
38
Appendix Table 9 Summary Statistics by Gen 2 Sex
Variable N Mean Std Deviation
FemaleYears of Schooling 6607 13352 2088ln Family Income (1992 wave) 6411 9424 3577
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5654 10686 1010Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 5612 -0047 0539Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 5313 4164 0670Height (inches) 5231 646635 247936BMI 5124 26073 5114
Gen 3Years of Schooling 11947 14240 2291
MaleYears of Schooling 5852 14047 2587ln Family Income (1992 wave) 5701 10139 3030
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5264 10981 0836Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 4886 0059 1159Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 4575 4133 0665Height (inches) 4554 7055484 25596BMI 4547 27496 3948
Gen 3Years of Schooling 8046 14371 2332
Appendix Table 10A Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0090(0086)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0198 0214(0169) (0169)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104 -0114(0087) (0087)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6607 6607 6607 6607R Sqr 0075 0075 0075 0075
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
39
Appendix Table 10B Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0523lowastlowastlowast
(0170)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0483 -0410(0321) (0323)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0512lowastlowastlowast -0491lowastlowastlowast
(0179) (0180)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6411 6411 6411 6411R Sqr 0015 0013 0014 0015
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10C Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0007(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0078lowast 0078(0048) (0048)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0008 0005(0025) (0025)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5612 5612 5612 5612R Sqr 0007 0007 0007 0007
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
40
Appendix Table 10D Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0027(0036)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 -0001(0071) (0071)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0022 -0022(0037) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5313 5313 5313 5313r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10E Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -2382(13366)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 44280lowastlowast 46351lowastlowast
(22343) (22480)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -12253 -14428(13485) (13561)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5231 5231 5231 5231r2 0015 0016 0015 0016
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
41
Appendix Table 10F Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0353(0286)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0105 0060(0514) (0516)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0326 0323(0289) (0290)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5124 5124 5124 5124R Sqr 0010 0010 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0087(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0104 -0101(0190) (0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0042 -0039(0098) (0098)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 11906 11906 11906 11906R Sqr 0086 0086 0086 0086
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
42
Appendix Table 11A Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0322lowastlowastlowast
(0116)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0369lowastlowast -0338lowast
(0181) (0180)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0309lowastlowastlowast -0297lowastlowast
(0119) (0119)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5852 5852 5852 5852R Sqr 0060 0059 0060 0060
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11B RResults by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0116(0138)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0262 0261(0200) (0199)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0024 0014(0141) (0140)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5701 5701 5701 5701R Sqr 0009 0009 0008 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
43
Appendix Table 11C Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0038)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0001(0081) (0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0094lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0035)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4886 4886 4886 4886R Sqr 0004 0004 0004 0004
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
44
Appendix Table 11D Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0083lowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 0012(0062) (0062)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104lowastlowastlowast -0105lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0041)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4575 4575 4575 4575r2 0010 0009 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11E Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -15122(14275)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -22991 -20537(23287) (23176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -18595 -17540(14734) (14751)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4554 4554 4554 4554r2 0011 0011 0011 0011
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
45
Appendix Table 11F Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0465lowast
(0238)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0079 0006(0403) (0405)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0520lowastlowast 0520lowastlowast
(0245) (0246)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4547 4547 4547 4547R Sqr 0006 0005 0006 0006
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0177(0123)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0098 0144(0194) (0192)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0293lowastlowast -0302lowastlowast
(0125) (0126)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8007 8007 8007 8007R Sqr 0067 0067 0068 0068
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
46
Appendix Table 12A Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0253lowastlowast
(0107)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0252 -0226(0170) (0172)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0263lowastlowast -0242lowastlowast
(0113) (0115)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0084(0120)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0341 0339(0216) (0219)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0096 0056(0130) (0132)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459r2 0085 0085 0085 0085
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
47
Appendix Table 12B Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0128)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0196 0169(0190) (0189)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0081 -0104(0135) (0135)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0383lowastlowast
(0189)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0594lowast -0474(0349) (0355)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0339lowast -0283(0204) (0207)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112r2 0021 0021 0021 0021
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
48
Appendix Table 12C Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0034)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0019(0077) (0079)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0095lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0030) (0031)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0071lowast
(0038)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0072 0039(0087) (0089)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0104lowastlowastlowast 0100lowastlowastlowast
(0035) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498r2 0008 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
49
Appendix Table 12D Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0071lowast
(0036)[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0012 0031
(0058) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0093lowastlowast -0097lowastlowast
(0039) (0039)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0030(0045)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0031 -0051(0087) (0088)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0059 0065(0048) (0049)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
50
Appendix Table 12E Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0129 -0125(0223) (0224)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0152 -0129(0141) (0142)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0000(0158)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0454 0495lowast
(0279) (0287)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0031 -0090(0170) (0175)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783nr2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
51
Appendix Table 12F Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0376(0231)
[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0059 -0122(0402) (0407)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0441lowast 0457lowast
(0240) (0243)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0068(0316)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0282 0288(0573) (0589)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0035 -0069(0340) (0350)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
52
Appendix Table 12G Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0131(0114)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male 0114 0175(0185) (0188)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0237lowastlowast -0261lowastlowast
(0118) (0121)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0009(0133)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0225 -0292(0249) (0254)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0152 0189(0141) (0145)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913r2 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
53
Appendix Table 13 Family Income 1992 excluding non-earners (ie fam inc = 0)
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992 wave (excluding those reporting 0)(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0095lowastlowastlowast
(0033)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0031 -0019(0053) (0053)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0101lowastlowastlowast -0100lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0034)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10918 10918 10918 10918r2 0050 0049 0050 0050
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0084lowast
(0050)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0019 -0007(0089) (0090)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0083 -0083(0053) (0054)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5654 5654 5654 5654r2 0026 0026 0026 0026
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102lowastlowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0051 -0040(0060) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0113lowastlowastlowast -0112lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0040)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5264 5264 5264 5264r2 0029 0028 0029 0029
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel B in Table 4 excluding those who report $0 for familyincome All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
54
Appendix Table 14 Net Worth 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable Std Net Worth 2011 Wave of WLS(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0032lowastlowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0023lowast -0021lowast
(0012) (0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0032lowastlowastlowast -0031lowastlowastlowast
(0010) (0010)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9435 9435 9435 9435r2 0002 0002 0002 0002
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0012lowast
(0006)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0009 -0008(0009) (0009)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0012lowastlowast -0011lowastlowast
(0006) (0006)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5026 5026 5026 5026r2 0007 0006 0007 0007
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0057lowastlowast
(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0040lowast -0036lowast
(0023) (0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0057lowastlowast -0056lowastlowast
(0023) (0022)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4409 4409 4409 4409r2 0001 0001 0001 0001
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel C in Table 4 replacing the net worth measure from the 2004wave with an identical measure from the 2011 wave of the WLS All estimation is performed with OLS with family clusteredstandard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 105 and 1 levels respectively
55
Appendix Table 15A Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 1992 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0243(0152)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0107 0039(0252) (0255)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0285lowast 0282lowast
(0158) (0160)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9849 9849 9849 9849
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0007(0091)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0210 -0216(0170) (0173)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0007 0024(0095) (0097)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9858 9858 9858 9858
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0255(0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0107 -0169(0328) (0338)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0237 0252(0193) (0198)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9845 9845 9845 9845
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
56
Appendix Table 15B Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2004 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0018(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0190 0207(0160) (0162)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0066 -0083(0102) (0104)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10672 10672 10672 10672
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0096 0108(0124) (0125)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0051 -0059(0076) (0077)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10619 10619 10619 10619
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0108(0110)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0064 0027(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0181 0179(0113) (0113)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10617 10617 10617 10617
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
57
Appendix Table 15C Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0099(0092)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0244 0242(0154) (0155)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0033 0016(0099) (0100)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0021(0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0095 0097(0138) (0139)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0004 -0011(0085) (0086)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0134(0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0203 0181(0175) (0176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0140 0127(0107) (0107)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8709 8709 8709 8709
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
58
- text 10818
- tables 10-8-18
-
13
Mirroring the results for males in the first generation a negative but statistically
insignificant association is observed between an indicator of birth in 19181919 and schooling
for first generation females This association however becomes statistically significant at the 1
percent level for the index of family SES the coefficient being nearly identical to that of a
malersquos in utero exposure to the flu though it is unclear whether these effects flow from labor
market andor marriage market sources The findings of table 2 are extended in table 3 which
explores potential marriage market effects of early life exposure to the flu epidemic12
Column (1) of table 3 regresses the indicator for male in utero exposure on an identical
measure for spousersquos exposure Females who were born in 19181919 were 5 percentage points
more likely to marry men who were also born during the same period Furthermore as shown in
columns (2) and (3) these women were more likely to marry men with fewer years of school and
lower job prestige These effects are significant at the 1 percent level Similar effects are seen in
columns (4)-(6) for 19181919 born males who are 14 percentage points more likely to marry flu
exposed females (p=000) and marry females with 026 fewer years of schooling (p=0101)
Given the findings of table 3 however we cannot rule out that this is a marriage market effect13
[insert table 3 here]
Second Generation
Our hypothesis is that the direct effects observed in tables 2 and 3 extend into future generations
To address this hypothesis we regress a number of economic and health outcomes of the WLS
graduates and siblings the offspring of the first generation examined in tables 2 and 3 These
12 Mothers and fathers of WLS graduates are assumed to be married 13 Appendix table 2 repeats the estimation of table 3 while also controlling for an indicator of own-flu
exposure and own year of birth measures
14
estimations are performed in tables 4 and 5 Column (1) in both tables focus on an indicator for
either parent being born in 19181919 the primary regressor of column (2) is an indicator for
fatherrsquos (gen 1 males) in utero exposure to the 1918 flu column (3) considers motherrsquos (gen 1
females) exposure and column (4) includes separate indicators for both mother and fatherrsquos
exposure Controls included in all columns include fatherrsquos year of birth and its square motherrsquos
year of birth and its square an indicator for sex in the second generation a measure of birth
order in the second generation and second-generation year of birth and its square
Table 4 focuses on economic outcomes of the WLS graduates To reiterate our
hypothesis is that in utero exposure to the 1918 influenza pandemic has effects that persist for
multiple generations Table 2 shows the direct first generation effects while table 4 begins to
show the indirect effects that are transmitted to offspring Panel A regresses years of schooling in
the second generation on indicators of first generation exposure to the 1918 flu14 From column
(1) either parent being born in 19181919 is associated with a statistically significant decline of
021 years of schooling in the second generation This estimate is likely understated because the
sampling design of the WLS is a focus on high school seniors thus individuals with fewer than
twelve years of schooling are underrepresented in the data15 Columns (2)-(4) disambiguate this
effect into the maternal and paternal lines From which the effect of column (1) seems to be
driven by motherrsquos in utero exposure to the flu16
14 Appendix Table 6 includes a number of alternative measures for years of schooling in place of the
simple count used in Table 4 15 Table 3 includes selected siblings of the WLS graduates These siblings do not have to be high school
graduates 16 This finding differs from that of Richter and Robling (2013) who find maternal exposure tied to
daughter outcomes and paternal exposure tied to son outcomes
15
The findings of Panel A are extended into Panel B which replaces years of schooling as
the dependent variable with the natural log of family income for the 1992 wave a time when the
second generation respondents are 53 years of age on average and represents a time of peak
earning in the life course As with years of schooling a negative association is seen throughout
the specifications of Panel B Having either parent born in 19181919 is associated with a 22
percent decline in family income Once again this effect seems to be driven by motherrsquos not
fatherrsquos exposure Panel C replaces income with a measure of net worth for the 2004 wave This
measure of net worth is when the second generation respondents are on average 65 years of age
and is representative of earnings throughout the life course The dual indicator of column (1) is
negative but statistically insignificant at conventional levels (p=023) When looking at the effect
of mother exposure in column (3) however the effect becomes statistically significant at the
10 level (p=0069) implying those with mothers born during 19181919 have approximately
$36000 less in net worth by 2004
Following the broader health focus of the Barker hypothesis the economic effects of
table 4 are replaced with health measures in table 5 We consider three broad measures of
general health and well-being later in life self-reported health in later life (~53 years old)
height and BMI (again at ~53) The use of self-reported health is intended to capture general
well-being later in life (Fortin et al 2017) this is tested in Panel A of table 5 Mazumder et al
(2010) provide evidence that in utero exposure to the 1918 flu is associated with a reduction in
height and an increase cardiovascular disease so it is possible that these negative health
outcomes could be transmitted to offspring this is tested in Panel B of table 517 And given
17 Appendix Table 14 tests indicators for a number self-reported health conditions As shown a weak
positive association is shown between gen 1 female flu exposure and an indicator of cardiovascular
16
prior work linking early life exposure to the Dutch famine to BMI (Roseboom et al 2000) and
metabolic function (Lumey et al 2009) in adulthood as well as the fact that both the Dutch
famine and the 1918 flu impacted maternal stress and nutritional status18 we examine BMI as
another broad indicator of health for the second generation this is tested in Panel C of table 5 A
consistent pattern emerges across all panels Like SES outcomes in table 4 gen 1 female
exposure to the flu is shown to have negative statistically significant association with all health
outcomes in the second generation
From Panel A parentalmdashor gen 1mdashflu exposure reduces self-reported health by roughly
half a point (plt005) on a Likert scale from 1-5 1 being very poor health and 5 being excellent
health As shown and like prior estimates this effect is driven by gen 1 female exposure For
adult height gen 1 female exposure is associated with a reduction of about 02 inches (plt010)
which is larger than the direct effect documented by Mazumder et al of 005 inches however
Mazumder et alrsquos estimated effect falls within the 95 confidence interval of our estimated
coefficient Panel C considers the effect on second generation BMI From column (1) having
either parent being born in 19181919 is associated with a statistically significant increase in the
offspringrsquos BMI of 041 points As with the economic effects of table 4 this increase in BMI
appears to be driven by motherrsquos exposure This is seen in columns (2)-(4) which estimate a
statistically significant positive coefficient for motherrsquos exposure but a coefficient that is
statistically indistinguishable from zero for fatherrsquos exposure
disease during the 199293 wave of the WLS (Appendix Table 15A) This association however reduced
in magnitude and statistical significance for later-life waves of the WLS (Appendix Table 15B and 15C) 18 The Dutch famine influenced maternal nutritional status directly through caloric restriction and the
1918 flu through symptoms such as appetite loss vomiting andor diarrhea
17
A persistent effect of in utero exposure to the 1918 Flu is seen in tables 4 and 5 First
generation exposure consistently has a statistically significant and economically meaningful
effect on second generation health and economic outcomes And this effect appears to be driven
solely by motherrsquos exposure although due to marriage market associations we cannot
determine definitively that motherrsquos exposure produces this multigenerational effect through
biological mechanisms
Appendix Tables 10A-11G re-estimate Tables 4 and 5 splitting the sample by generation
2rsquos sex In short the negative effects of first generation exposure appear to be more prominent
in second generation males such that the harmful multi-generational effects are most prominent
in second generation men whose mothers were exposed to the 1918 flu19 Potential reasons for
this sex disparity could be tied to general trends in the differences between sons and daughters in
intergenerational mobility (Chadwick and Solon 2002) In other words sons are more likely to
inherit their families SES standing than daughters This implies that the negative gen 1 shock
from in utero exposure is more likely to affect sons through the proposed SES channel than
daughters resulting in a larger estimated effect for gen 2 males Furthermore there appears to
be a growing gap between in the intergenerational elastiticy between sons and daughters during
the time period in question (Olivetti and Paserman 2015) Another potential reason for the sex
difference could be the larger standard deviation in gen 2 male outcomes this is shown in
Appendix Table 9 Finally the findings of Appendix Tables 10A-11G differ from Richter and
Robling (2013) who show homogeneous sex effects from in utero flu exposure for education
19 When omitting those with no family income during the 1992 wave of the WLS negative effects from
gen 1 female flu exposure are primarily seen in second generation males This indicates however that
there is a greater frequency of no income amongst second generation females from gen 1 flu exposure
Additionally when looking at net worth in the 2011 wave of the WLS we see no difference by gen 2rsquos
sex
18
gen 1 female exposure led to reduction in gen 2 female education and gen 1 male exposure is
associated with gen 2 male education Given this disparity between the two studies our under-
representation for gen 1 male exposure and the mixed findings in Tables 10A-11G we view our
general finding of gen 1 female exposure working through gen 2 male outcomes as preliminary
and suggestive Indeed as we test in Appendix Tables 12A-12G the sex differences in gen 2 are
often not statistically significant
Third Generation
As mentioned previously the focus of the WLS data collection is high school graduates in 1957
but additional samples have been collected for a number of variables on the children of these
graduates Table 6 explores the effects of the WLS parents on the years of schooling for WLS
children estimating the effect of flu exposure across three generations20
Consistent with the second-generation estimations a persistent effect of the in utero flu
exposure is observed and this effect seems to be driven by grandmother exposure (gen 1
female) The joint indicator for either parent is negative and close to statistical significance at
the 10 percent level (p=0106) suggesting that exposure in the first generation is associated with
012 years of schooling less in the third generation The effect of grandfather exposure is
insignificantly different from zero while the coefficient of grandmother exposure is similar in
magnitude to the joint estimate of column (1) while being statistically significant at the 10
level (p=0066) Furthermore the decline in schooling seen in the third generation is similar but
slightly smaller in magnitude compared to the second generation effects seen in Panel A of table
20Analysis of the WLS gradsibling children (ie the third generation) restricts the sample to those
children that are biological children and that are 35 years of age and older by the 20032004 wave of the
WLS
19
421 This again indicates a persistent effect that may be attenuating over time Importantly while
the estimate for grandfather exposure is insignificant it is consistent with intergenerational
inheritance (Kuzawa and Eisenberg 2014) To say the same for grandmother exposure would
require effects to persist into the fourth generation (due to the differences in gametic
development) and this data is not available in the WLS
Conclusion
This paper presents novel evidence of multigenerational effects of in utero health insults We
use the sudden and unexpected influenza pandemic in 19181919 to trace out the effects of in
utero exposure to infectious disease on own outcomes for the first generation childrenrsquos
outcomes and grandchildrenrsquos outcomes We find that this exposure reduces educational
attainment and related economic outcomes across three generations For example individuals in
our second generation the WLS graduates and their siblings who have mothers who were
exposed to the 1918 flu in utero complete 15 fewer years of schooling (or 24 months less
schooling) The size of our estimated effect aligns well with those of Richter and Robling (2013)
who find that first generation in utero exposure to the 1918 flu results in 16 fewer years of
schooling (or 2 months to 25 months less schooling) for the maternal line We then extend
results to the third generation for the first time in the literature and find that individuals in the
third generation who have grandmothers who were exposed to the pandemic in utero complete
17 fewer years of schooling (or 17 months less schooling) than individuals without affected
grandmothers
21 For gen 1 female exposure in column (4) the p-value for a difference in coefficients between Panel A
of Table 4 and Table 6 is 0411 implying the effect in the third generation is statistically indistinguishable
from that in the second generation
20
There are at several potential mechanisms for the persistence of poor outcomes across
three generations we find in our data As previously outlined the intergenerational persistence in
poor outcomes due to early life health shocks could occur through socioeconomic channels
where a fetally insulted person with resulting low educational attainment raises a child in a low-
resource environment that reduces opportunities for high educational attainment of the child In
order to see multigenerational effects the reduced opportunities for high educational attainment
of the child must then reduce opportunities for their own children Alternatively
intergenerational transmission may occur through epigenetic inheritance through the germ line a
distinct possibility based on findings of the Oumlverkalix studies or phenotype-to-phenotype
transmission and cumulative intergenerational phenotypic change
Our analysis is unable to fully distinguish between these proposed intergenerational
channels the socioeconomic and biological but it is important to note that the channels are by no
means mutually exclusive Further analysis (appendix tables 3-5) that is intended to partially
account for the socioeconomic mechanism leads to mixed results in which the coefficient of first
generation flu exposure is attenuated to insignificance for some outcomes but not others This
provides evidence for a socioeconomic channel but does not eliminate the possibility of
epigenetic mechanisms or other biological channel through which socioeconomic status ldquogets
under the skinrdquo to influence outcomes of subsequent generations (eg the socioeconomic
circumstances of one generation may ldquoget under the skinrdquo of the next and subsequently be passed
via biology andor socioeconomics to other generations) Likewise the estimates of grandfather
effects on grandchildren are imprecise but consistent with transgenerational inheritance (Kuzawa
and Eisenberg 2014) Additionally while the WLS provides a unique framework to analyze
multiple generations the measurement of flu exposure is somewhat crude (from self-reported
21
parentsrsquo year of birth) and is in the right-tail of the distribution of parent birth years suggesting
the possibility of confounding from resource-poor younger mothers22 That is exposure to
influenza in the first generation is mechanically tied to motherrsquos ages of 20 and 21 because the
WLS sample is drawn based on having a child who was born in 1939 (and thus graduating high
school in 1957) While we cannot definitively separate these two effects our ability to compare
outcomes of slightly older mothers (ages 22 and 23 born in 1917 or 1916) provide evidence
more consistent with in utero exposure to influenza than impacts of having a mother who is
2021 years old
From a policy perspective our evidence may suggest a novel source of multigenerational
persistence in poverty through biosocial factors and suggest a need to consider evidence of
transgenerational social andor biological mechanisms We document the extent to which
harmful early life environments cascade through generations promoting a disadvantaged start for
those whose grandparents exposed to a hazardous early life environment
22 We specifically explore the confounding effects of younger mothers in appendix tables 7 and 8 These
tables show that younger mothers are indeed initially disadvantaged (ie less years of schooling)
however this young-mother disadvantage does not persist in subsequent generations Rather only those
mothers born in the 1918-1919 range have significant negative effects on later generations
22
References
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Almond Doug and Bhashkar Mazumder 2005 The 1918 Influenza Pandemic and Subsequent Health Outcomes An Analysis of SIPP Data American Economic Review 95(2) 258-262
Barker David James P 2007 The origins of the developmental origins theory Journal of Internal Medicine 261(5) 412-417
Benyshek Daniel C (2013) The ldquoearly liferdquo origins of obesity‐related health disorders New discoveries regarding the intergenerational transmission of developmentally programmed traits in the global cardiometabolic health crisis American Journal of Physical Anthropology 152(S57) 79-93
Brown Alan S and Elena J Derkits 2010 Prenatal infection and schizophrenia a review of epidemiologic and translational studies American Journal of Psychiatry 167(3) 261-280
Burg Steven 2000 Wisconsin and the Great Spanish Flu Epidemic of 1918rdquo Wisconsin Magazine of History 84(1) 36-56
Bygren LarsOlov Gunnar Kaati and Soumlren Edvinsson 2001 Longevity determined by paternal ancestors nutrition during their slow growth period Acta biotheoretica 49(1) 53-59
Canetta Sarah E and Alan S Brown 2012 Prenatal infection maternal immune activation and risk for schizophrenia Translational Neuroscience 3(4) 320-327
Chadwick L and Solon G (2002) Intergenerational income mobility among daughters American Economic Review 92(1) 335-344
Cohen Alan A John Tillinghast and Vladimir Canudas-Romo 2010 No consistent effects of prenatal or neonatal exposure to Spanish flu on late-life mortality in 24 developed countries Demographic Research 22(20) 579
Fatemi S Hossein Julie Earle Reena Kanodia David Kist Effat S Emamian Paul H Patterson Limin Shi and Robert Sidwell 2002 Prenatal viral infection leads to pyramidal cell atrophy and macrocephaly in adulthood implications for genesis of autism and schizophrenia Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology 22(1) 25-33
Fletcher Jason 2014 Examining the Long Term Mortality Effects of Early Health Shocks US Census Bureau Center for Economic Studies Paper No CES-WP-14-19
Kaati Gunnar Lars O Bygren and Soren Edvinsson 2002 Cardiovascular and diabetes mortality determined by nutrition during parents and grandparents slow growth period European Journal of Human Genetics EJHG 10(11) 682
Kash John C Terrence M Tumpey Sean C Proll Victoria Carter Olivia Perwitasari Matthew J Thomas Christopher F Basler et al 2006 Genomic analysis of increased host immune and cell death responses induced by 1918 influenza virus Nature 443(7111) 578-581
Kobasa Darwyn Steven M Jones Kyoko Shinya John C Kash John Copps Hideki Ebihara Yasuko Hatta et al 2007 Aberrant innate immune response in lethal infection of macaques with the 1918 influenza virus Nature 445 (7125) 319-323
Kuzawa Christopher W and Dan T Eisenberg 2014 The Long Reach of History Intergenerational and Transgenerational Pathwaysto Plasticity in Human Longevity Sociality Hierarchy Health Comparative Biodemography Papers from a Workshop National Academies Press
Li Wai-Yu Yi-Chun Chang L Jyuhn-Hsiarn Lee and Li-Jen Lee 2014 Prenatal infection affects the neuronal architecture and cognitive function in adult mice Developmental Neuroscience 36(5) 359-370
23
Lin Ming-Jen and Elaine M Liu 2014 Does in utero exposure to illness matter The 1918 influenza epidemic in Taiwan as a natural experiment Journal of Health Economics 37 152-163
Lindeboom Maarten France Portrait and Gerard J Van den Berg 2010 Long-run effects on longevity of a nutritional shock early in life the Dutch Potato famine of 1846ndash1847 Journal of Health Economics 29(5) 617-629
Mamelund SE (2018) 1918 pandemic mobidity The first wave hits the poor the second wave hits the rich Influenza and Other Respitory Viruses 12(3) 307-313
Mazumder Bhashkar Douglas Almond Kyung Park Eileen M Crimmins and Caleb E Finch 2010 Lingering prenatal effects of the 1918 influenza pandemic on cardiovascular disease Journal of developmental origins of health and disease 1(1) 26-34
Miller Veronica Y Zhu C Bucher W McGinnis L Ryan A Siegel and S Zalcman 2013 Gestational flu exposure induces changes in neurochemicals affiliative hormones and brainstem inflammation in addition to autism-like behaviors in mice Brain Behavior and Immunity 33 153-163
Myrskylauml Mikko Neil K Mehta and Virginia W Chang 2013 Early life exposure to the 1918 influenza pandemic and old-age mortality by cause of death American Journal of Public Health 103(7) e83-e90
Olivetti C and Paserman MD (2015) In the name of the son (and the daughter) Intergenerational mobility in the United States 1850-1940 American Economic Review 105(8) 2695-2724
Pembrey Marcus E Lars Olov Bygren Gunnar Kaati Soumlren Edvinsson Kate Northstone Michael Sjoumlstroumlm and Jean Golding 2006 Sex-specific male-line transgenerational responses in humans European Journal of Human Genetics 14(2) 159-166
Richter Andreacute and Per Olof Robling 2013 Multigenerational effects of the 1918-19 influenza pandemic in Sweden Swedish Institute for Social Research 5
Shors Teri and Susan H McFadden 2009 1918 Influenza A Winnebago County Wisconsin Perspective Clinical Medicine amp Research 7(4) 147-156
Sydenstricker E (1931) The incidence of influenza among persons of different economic status during the epidemic of 1918 Public Health Reports 46(4) 154-170
van den Berg Gerard J and Pia R Pinger 2013 A validation study of transgenerational effects of childhood conditions on the third generation offsprings economic and health outcomes potentially driven by epigenetic imprinting IZA Discussion Paper
Tables and Figures
Table 1 Summary Statistics
Variable N Mean Std Deviation
First GenerartionFlu Indicators
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 8368 0112 0315Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 8456 0030 0170Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 8487 0093 0290
ControlsFirst Generation Malersquos Year of Birth 8456 1907435 7021First Generation Femalersquos Year of Birth 8427 1911189 6164
Dependent VariablesFirst Generation Malersquos Years of Schooling 8456 9778 3392First Generation Femalersquos Years of Schooing 8487 10499 2804First Generation Malersquos Job Prestige 8385 330662 214361First Generation Femalersquos Job Prestige 6683 12814 19934Family SES 8487 16231 11143
Second GenerationControls
Female Indicator 12459 0530 0499Birth Year 12459 1939406 4289Birth Order 12459 2529 1828
Dependent VariablesYears of Schooling 12459 13678 2361Family Income 1992 (in $1000s) 12112 68027 177105Net Worth 2004 (in $1000s) 10498 913046 2558927Self-reported health 1992 9888 4149 0668Height (inches) 9783 67406 3851BMI 1992 9671 26742 4657
Third GenerationControls
Birth Year 19913 1963901 3636Female Indicator 19913 0497 0500Birth Order 19913 2196 1263
Dependent VariableYears of Schooling 19913 14294 2309
Summary amp Notes This table provides summary statistics for all variables used The samples above may not berepresentative for all estimations For example the inclusion of siblings in the second generation increase the sample of parentalyear of birth and the corresponding flu indicator This increase in sample does not significantly change the sample statisticsabove Similar sample changes occur for the second generation controls above For the third generation the sample is restrictedto biological children over 35 years of age
24
Tab
le2
Fir
stG
ener
atio
n
Eco
nom
icE
ffec
ts
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
am
ily
SE
SY
ears
of
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
am
ily
SE
S(1
)(2
)(3
)(4
)(5
)(6
)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale)
-01
39
-01
16lowast
-12
90lowast
lowast
(02
00)
(00
60)
(05
99)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emal
e)-0
133
-00
66
-13
61lowastlowast
lowast
(00
95)
(00
43)
(03
76)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
YY
YY
YY
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8456
8385
8456
8487
6683
8487
RS
qr
00
32
00
08
00
23
00
13
00
04
00
13
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
pro
vid
esd
irec
teff
ects
of
inu
tero
an
dea
rly
life
exp
osu
reto
the
1918
Flu
Ep
idem
ic
Bir
thye
ar
tim
etr
end
sin
lcu
de
yea
rof
bir
than
dit
ssq
uar
ean
din
clu
sion
inth
ees
tim
atio
nis
par
ent
spec
ific
All
esti
mati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
an
dard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
alsi
gnifi
can
ceis
den
oted
by
an
d
re
pre
senti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vel
y
25
Tab
le3
Fir
stG
ener
atio
n
Mar
riag
eM
arke
tE
ffec
ts
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Flu
Bir
thY
ear
Yea
rsof
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
luB
irth
Yea
rY
ears
of
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
e(1
)(2
)(3
)(4
)(5
)(6
)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale)
01
40lowast
lowastlowast-0
259
-00
39
(00
34)
(01
58)
(00
72)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emal
e)0
056lowast
lowastlowast-0
340lowast
lowastlowast-0
118lowastlowast
lowast
(00
14)
(01
17)
(00
36)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
YY
YY
YY
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8348
8487
8412
8348
8456
6660
RS
qr
00
90
00
11
00
08
01
20
00
21
00
01
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
pro
vid
esev
iden
ceof
marr
iage
mark
etse
lect
ion
inth
efi
rst
gen
erati
on
B
irth
year
tim
etr
end
sin
clu
de
year
of
bir
than
dit
ssq
uare
and
incl
usi
onin
the
esti
mat
ion
isp
aren
tsp
ecifi
cA
lles
tim
ati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
an
dard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
sign
ifica
nce
isd
enot
edby
an
d
re
pre
senti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vely
26
Table 4 Second Generation Economic Effects
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Years of Schooling
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0209lowastlowastlowast
(0073)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0084 -0059(0129) (0129)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0211lowastlowastlowast -0209lowastlowastlowast
(0075) (0075)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0085 0084 0085 0085
Panel B ln Family Income 1992
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0221lowastlowast
(0111)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0098 -0066(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0262lowastlowast -0259lowastlowast
(0116) (0116)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112R Sqr 0021 0021 0021 0021
Panel C Std Net Worth 2004
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0026(0022)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0033 0038(0047) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0038lowast -0040lowast
(0021) (0021)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498R Sqr 0007 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table provides evidence of signficant harmful effects of flu exposure in the first generation on secondgeneration economic outcomes First generation time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents(ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and itssquare and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
27
Table 5 Second Generation Health Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Self-reported health (Likert 1=very poor 5=excellent)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0054lowastlowast
(0027)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0005(0047) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0061lowastlowast -0061lowastlowast
(0028) (0028)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Panel B Height (inches)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0101)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0102 0127(0168) (0168)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0169lowast -0175lowast
(0103) (0103)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783r2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Panel C BMI
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0412lowastlowast
(0191)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0082 0023(0344) (0346)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0422lowastlowast 0421lowastlowast
(0193) (0194)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table provides evidence of harmful effects of flu exposure in the first generation on secondgeneration health outcomes First generation time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents (iegen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and itssquare and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
28
Table 6 Generation Three Effects of Generation One Flu Exposure Years of Schooling
Dependent Variable Years of Schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0125(0077)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Male) -0007 0010(0136) (0136)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Female) -0144lowast -0144lowast
(0078) (0078)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913R Sqr 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table shows that the generational effects of flu exposure extend into the third generation of theWLS First generation flu exposure is shown to have a negative association with third generation years of schooling Firstgeneration time trends are year of birth measures for each parent and their square Second generation controls inlcude anindicator for sex second generation year of birth and its square and birth order Third generation controls include a sexindicator year of birth and its square and birth order Given the focus on years of schooling the sample is restricted to thosethird generation individuals 35 years of age and older or born during or before 1970 (data were collected in 2005) Allestimation is performed with OLS with family (second generation) clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
29
(a)
Fat
her
(b)
Moth
er
Fig
ure
1F
irst
Gen
erat
ion
Dis
trib
uti
onof
Yea
rof
Bir
th
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
figu
rep
lots
the
dis
trib
uti
on
for
firs
tgen
erati
on
year
of
bir
th
Flu
exp
osu
reis
class
ified
as
bei
ng
born
inei
ther
1918
or
1919
30
Appendix Tables
Appendix Table 1 First Generation Flu Exposure Effect on Family Income
Dependent Variable Family Income ($100s) 1957
(1) (2)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -3366(2592)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -5363lowastlowast
(2390)
Birth Year Time Trends Y YObservations 7440 7456R Sqr 0013 0004
Summary amp Notes This table replaces the index of socioeconomic status with family income (in $100s) in 1957 Allestimation is performed with OLS with robust standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
31
App
endix
Tab
le2
Mar
riag
eM
arke
tE
ffec
ts
Con
trol
ling
for
Ow
nY
ear
ofB
irth
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
Job
Pre
stig
eY
ears
of
Sch
Job
Pre
stig
e
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale
)-0
052
-211
82
-01
98
-03
74
(02
03)
(131
30)
(01
61)
(14
38)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emale
)-0
346lowast
lowastlowast-2
44
97lowastlowast
lowast-0
103
-13
88
(01
16)
(76
88)
(00
94)
(08
54)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
(Male
an
dF
emale
)Y
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8348
8279
8348
6587
RS
qr
00
40
00
22
00
25
00
04
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
re-e
stim
ates
Tab
le3
wh
ile
contr
oll
ing
for
year
of
bir
than
dfl
uin
dic
ato
rsass
oci
ate
dw
ith
the
spou
sein
the
dep
end
ent
vari
ab
le
All
esti
mat
ion
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
and
ard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
sign
ifica
nce
isd
enote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
atth
e10
5
and
1le
vel
sre
spec
tive
ly
32
Appendix Table 3 2nd Gen Economic Effects Controlling for 1st Gen Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Years of Schooling
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0088(0070)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0005 0008(0119) (0119)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0116 -0117(0072) (0072)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0206 0206 0206 0206
Panel B ln Family Income 1992
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0193lowast
(0111)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0080 -0050(0184) (0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0240lowastlowast -0238lowastlowast
(0116) (0116)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112R Sqr 0024 0024 0024 0024
Panel C Std Normal Net Worth 2004
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0003(0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0047 0049(0046) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0019 -0021(0020) (0020)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498R Sqr 0033 0033 0033 0033
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 4 while controlling for generation one economic outcomes fatherrsquos years ofschooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 First generation time trends are given by year of birth and itssquare for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex secondgeneration year of birth and its square and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standarderrors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and1 levels respectively 33
Appendix Table 4 2nd Gen Health Effects Controlling for 1st Gen Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A BMI
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0352lowast
(0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0051 -0001(0342) (0344)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0372lowast 0372lowast
(0192) (0193)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671R Sqr 0035 0035 0035 0035
Panel B Count of Illnesses
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0122lowast
(0065)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0076 -0096(0102) (0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0139lowastlowast 0144lowastlowast
(0067) (0068)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9921 9921 9921 9921R Sqr 0046 0046 0046 0046
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 5 while controlling for generation one economic outcomes fatherrsquos years ofschooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 First generation time trends are given by year of birth and itssquare for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex secondgeneration year of birth and its square and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standarderrors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and1 levels respectively
34
Appendix Table 5 Generation threersquos years of schooling Controlling for previous generation economicwell-being
Dependent Variable Years of Schooling for Gen 3(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A First Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0069(0076)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0022 0034(0133) (0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0102 -0104(0077) (0078)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913R Sqr 0117 0117 0117 0117
Panel B Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0025(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0008 0013(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0038 -0039(0073) (0073)
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0190 0190 0190 0190
Panel C First and Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0008(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0016 0019(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0028 -0029(0073) (0073)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0196 0196 0196 0196
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 6 while controlling for generation one and tworsquos economic outcomes Forgeneration one these include fatherrsquos years of schooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 generation twocontrols include the WLS graduatesiblingrsquos years of schooling family income in 1992 and net worth in 2004 First generationtime trends are year of birth measures for each parent and their square Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sexsecond generation year of birth and its square and birth order Third generation controls include a sex indicator year of birthand its square and birth order Given the focus on years of schooling the sample is restricted to those third generationindividuals 35 years of age and older or born during or before 1970 (data were collected in 2005) All estimation is performedwith OLS with family (second generation) clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denotedby and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
35
Appendix Table 6 Alternative measures of schooling in the second generation
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Indicator for any college (years of schooling gt12)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0044lowastlowastlowast
(0017)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0011 -0006(0029) (0029)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0044lowastlowast -0043lowastlowast
(0017) (0017)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0071 0070 0071 0071
Panel B Indicator for incomplete college (years of schooling gt12 amp lt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0008(0013)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 -0001(0022) (0022)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0008 -0008(0013) (0013)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0005 0005 0005 0005
Panel C Indicator for college graduate (years of schooling = 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0022lowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0003 0006(0020) (0020)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0021lowast -0021lowastlowast
(0011) (0011)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0019 0019 0019 0019
Panel D Indicator for post-college education (years of schooling gt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0014(0010)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0011(0018) (0018)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0014 -0014(0010) (0010)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0039 0039 0039 0039
Summary amp Notes This table replaces our continuous measure of years of schooling with specified dummy variables Firstgeneration time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Secondgeneration controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and its square and birth order All estimationis performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
36
Appendix Table 7 Young mothers Direct effect on Gen 1 Females
Dependent Variable Years of Sch Job Prestige Family SES
(1) (2) (3)
Ind for First Gen Female Flu Exposure (1918-1919) -0325lowastlowast -0841 -1749lowastlowastlowast
(0137) (1015) (0584)
Ind for mother born during 1920-1921 -0567lowastlowastlowast 0745 -1157(0206) (1515) (0914)
Ind for mother born during 1922-1923 -0666lowastlowast 0098 -2113(0330) (2210) (1298)
Ind for mother born after 1924 -0392 5682 0384(0486) (3705) (2126)
Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y
Observations 8487 6683 8487R Sqr 0014 0005 0014
Summary amp Notes This table includes indicators for alternative years of birth Younger mothers are shown to have lessyears of schooling All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
37
App
endix
Tab
le8
You
ng
mot
her
sG
ener
atio
n2
and
3eff
ects
Gen
2
Gen
3
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
ln
Fam
In
c
1992
Std
N
W
2004
Sel
f-re
p
hea
lth
Hei
ght
BM
IY
ears
of
Sch
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
emal
eF
luE
xp
osu
re(1
918-
1919
)-0
201lowastlowast
-02
95lowastlowast
-00
45
-00
73lowastlowast
-00
90
02
07
-00
86(0
092)
(01
32)
(00
32)
(00
32)
(01
22)
(02
25)
(00
94)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
20-1
921
-00
22
-00
40
-00
10
-00
61
01
33
-04
10
01
13
(01
37)
(01
74)
(00
51)
(00
43)
(01
80)
(03
11)
(01
41)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
22-1
923
-00
96
-01
88
-00
57
00
20
04
61
-11
29lowastlowast
01
55(0
184)
(03
20)
(00
61)
(00
75)
(02
83)
(04
51)
(02
23)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
afte
r19
2404
58
-01
87
00
01
-00
27
03
12
-08
85
03
99
(03
06)
(03
94)
(00
87)
(01
27)
(04
94)
(10
70)
(03
21)
Bas
eC
ontr
ols
YY
YY
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
12459
12112
10498
9888
9783
9671
19913
RS
qr
00
85
00
21
00
08
00
09
05
86
00
29
00
79
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
incl
ud
esin
dic
ator
sfo
ralt
ernati
ve
years
of
bir
th
Bei
ng
born
toa
you
nger
moth
ergen
erall
yis
not
ass
oci
ate
dw
ith
gen
erati
on
2or
3rsquos
outc
omes
ofin
tere
st
inst
ead
n
egat
ive
effec
tsar
eon
lyob
serv
edfo
rth
ose
born
du
rin
gth
efl
u
All
esti
mati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hfa
mil
y(2
nd
gen
erat
ion
)cl
ust
ered
stan
dar
der
rors
rep
orte
din
par
enth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
signifi
can
ceis
den
ote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vel
y
38
Appendix Table 9 Summary Statistics by Gen 2 Sex
Variable N Mean Std Deviation
FemaleYears of Schooling 6607 13352 2088ln Family Income (1992 wave) 6411 9424 3577
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5654 10686 1010Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 5612 -0047 0539Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 5313 4164 0670Height (inches) 5231 646635 247936BMI 5124 26073 5114
Gen 3Years of Schooling 11947 14240 2291
MaleYears of Schooling 5852 14047 2587ln Family Income (1992 wave) 5701 10139 3030
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5264 10981 0836Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 4886 0059 1159Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 4575 4133 0665Height (inches) 4554 7055484 25596BMI 4547 27496 3948
Gen 3Years of Schooling 8046 14371 2332
Appendix Table 10A Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0090(0086)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0198 0214(0169) (0169)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104 -0114(0087) (0087)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6607 6607 6607 6607R Sqr 0075 0075 0075 0075
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
39
Appendix Table 10B Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0523lowastlowastlowast
(0170)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0483 -0410(0321) (0323)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0512lowastlowastlowast -0491lowastlowastlowast
(0179) (0180)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6411 6411 6411 6411R Sqr 0015 0013 0014 0015
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10C Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0007(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0078lowast 0078(0048) (0048)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0008 0005(0025) (0025)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5612 5612 5612 5612R Sqr 0007 0007 0007 0007
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
40
Appendix Table 10D Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0027(0036)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 -0001(0071) (0071)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0022 -0022(0037) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5313 5313 5313 5313r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10E Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -2382(13366)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 44280lowastlowast 46351lowastlowast
(22343) (22480)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -12253 -14428(13485) (13561)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5231 5231 5231 5231r2 0015 0016 0015 0016
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
41
Appendix Table 10F Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0353(0286)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0105 0060(0514) (0516)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0326 0323(0289) (0290)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5124 5124 5124 5124R Sqr 0010 0010 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0087(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0104 -0101(0190) (0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0042 -0039(0098) (0098)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 11906 11906 11906 11906R Sqr 0086 0086 0086 0086
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
42
Appendix Table 11A Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0322lowastlowastlowast
(0116)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0369lowastlowast -0338lowast
(0181) (0180)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0309lowastlowastlowast -0297lowastlowast
(0119) (0119)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5852 5852 5852 5852R Sqr 0060 0059 0060 0060
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11B RResults by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0116(0138)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0262 0261(0200) (0199)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0024 0014(0141) (0140)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5701 5701 5701 5701R Sqr 0009 0009 0008 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
43
Appendix Table 11C Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0038)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0001(0081) (0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0094lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0035)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4886 4886 4886 4886R Sqr 0004 0004 0004 0004
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
44
Appendix Table 11D Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0083lowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 0012(0062) (0062)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104lowastlowastlowast -0105lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0041)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4575 4575 4575 4575r2 0010 0009 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11E Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -15122(14275)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -22991 -20537(23287) (23176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -18595 -17540(14734) (14751)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4554 4554 4554 4554r2 0011 0011 0011 0011
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
45
Appendix Table 11F Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0465lowast
(0238)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0079 0006(0403) (0405)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0520lowastlowast 0520lowastlowast
(0245) (0246)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4547 4547 4547 4547R Sqr 0006 0005 0006 0006
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0177(0123)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0098 0144(0194) (0192)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0293lowastlowast -0302lowastlowast
(0125) (0126)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8007 8007 8007 8007R Sqr 0067 0067 0068 0068
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
46
Appendix Table 12A Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0253lowastlowast
(0107)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0252 -0226(0170) (0172)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0263lowastlowast -0242lowastlowast
(0113) (0115)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0084(0120)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0341 0339(0216) (0219)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0096 0056(0130) (0132)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459r2 0085 0085 0085 0085
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
47
Appendix Table 12B Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0128)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0196 0169(0190) (0189)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0081 -0104(0135) (0135)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0383lowastlowast
(0189)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0594lowast -0474(0349) (0355)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0339lowast -0283(0204) (0207)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112r2 0021 0021 0021 0021
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
48
Appendix Table 12C Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0034)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0019(0077) (0079)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0095lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0030) (0031)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0071lowast
(0038)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0072 0039(0087) (0089)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0104lowastlowastlowast 0100lowastlowastlowast
(0035) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498r2 0008 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
49
Appendix Table 12D Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0071lowast
(0036)[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0012 0031
(0058) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0093lowastlowast -0097lowastlowast
(0039) (0039)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0030(0045)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0031 -0051(0087) (0088)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0059 0065(0048) (0049)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
50
Appendix Table 12E Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0129 -0125(0223) (0224)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0152 -0129(0141) (0142)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0000(0158)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0454 0495lowast
(0279) (0287)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0031 -0090(0170) (0175)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783nr2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
51
Appendix Table 12F Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0376(0231)
[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0059 -0122(0402) (0407)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0441lowast 0457lowast
(0240) (0243)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0068(0316)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0282 0288(0573) (0589)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0035 -0069(0340) (0350)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
52
Appendix Table 12G Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0131(0114)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male 0114 0175(0185) (0188)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0237lowastlowast -0261lowastlowast
(0118) (0121)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0009(0133)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0225 -0292(0249) (0254)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0152 0189(0141) (0145)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913r2 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
53
Appendix Table 13 Family Income 1992 excluding non-earners (ie fam inc = 0)
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992 wave (excluding those reporting 0)(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0095lowastlowastlowast
(0033)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0031 -0019(0053) (0053)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0101lowastlowastlowast -0100lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0034)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10918 10918 10918 10918r2 0050 0049 0050 0050
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0084lowast
(0050)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0019 -0007(0089) (0090)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0083 -0083(0053) (0054)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5654 5654 5654 5654r2 0026 0026 0026 0026
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102lowastlowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0051 -0040(0060) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0113lowastlowastlowast -0112lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0040)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5264 5264 5264 5264r2 0029 0028 0029 0029
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel B in Table 4 excluding those who report $0 for familyincome All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
54
Appendix Table 14 Net Worth 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable Std Net Worth 2011 Wave of WLS(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0032lowastlowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0023lowast -0021lowast
(0012) (0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0032lowastlowastlowast -0031lowastlowastlowast
(0010) (0010)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9435 9435 9435 9435r2 0002 0002 0002 0002
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0012lowast
(0006)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0009 -0008(0009) (0009)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0012lowastlowast -0011lowastlowast
(0006) (0006)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5026 5026 5026 5026r2 0007 0006 0007 0007
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0057lowastlowast
(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0040lowast -0036lowast
(0023) (0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0057lowastlowast -0056lowastlowast
(0023) (0022)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4409 4409 4409 4409r2 0001 0001 0001 0001
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel C in Table 4 replacing the net worth measure from the 2004wave with an identical measure from the 2011 wave of the WLS All estimation is performed with OLS with family clusteredstandard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 105 and 1 levels respectively
55
Appendix Table 15A Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 1992 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0243(0152)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0107 0039(0252) (0255)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0285lowast 0282lowast
(0158) (0160)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9849 9849 9849 9849
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0007(0091)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0210 -0216(0170) (0173)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0007 0024(0095) (0097)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9858 9858 9858 9858
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0255(0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0107 -0169(0328) (0338)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0237 0252(0193) (0198)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9845 9845 9845 9845
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
56
Appendix Table 15B Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2004 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0018(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0190 0207(0160) (0162)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0066 -0083(0102) (0104)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10672 10672 10672 10672
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0096 0108(0124) (0125)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0051 -0059(0076) (0077)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10619 10619 10619 10619
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0108(0110)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0064 0027(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0181 0179(0113) (0113)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10617 10617 10617 10617
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
57
Appendix Table 15C Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0099(0092)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0244 0242(0154) (0155)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0033 0016(0099) (0100)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0021(0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0095 0097(0138) (0139)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0004 -0011(0085) (0086)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0134(0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0203 0181(0175) (0176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0140 0127(0107) (0107)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8709 8709 8709 8709
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
58
- text 10818
- tables 10-8-18
-
14
estimations are performed in tables 4 and 5 Column (1) in both tables focus on an indicator for
either parent being born in 19181919 the primary regressor of column (2) is an indicator for
fatherrsquos (gen 1 males) in utero exposure to the 1918 flu column (3) considers motherrsquos (gen 1
females) exposure and column (4) includes separate indicators for both mother and fatherrsquos
exposure Controls included in all columns include fatherrsquos year of birth and its square motherrsquos
year of birth and its square an indicator for sex in the second generation a measure of birth
order in the second generation and second-generation year of birth and its square
Table 4 focuses on economic outcomes of the WLS graduates To reiterate our
hypothesis is that in utero exposure to the 1918 influenza pandemic has effects that persist for
multiple generations Table 2 shows the direct first generation effects while table 4 begins to
show the indirect effects that are transmitted to offspring Panel A regresses years of schooling in
the second generation on indicators of first generation exposure to the 1918 flu14 From column
(1) either parent being born in 19181919 is associated with a statistically significant decline of
021 years of schooling in the second generation This estimate is likely understated because the
sampling design of the WLS is a focus on high school seniors thus individuals with fewer than
twelve years of schooling are underrepresented in the data15 Columns (2)-(4) disambiguate this
effect into the maternal and paternal lines From which the effect of column (1) seems to be
driven by motherrsquos in utero exposure to the flu16
14 Appendix Table 6 includes a number of alternative measures for years of schooling in place of the
simple count used in Table 4 15 Table 3 includes selected siblings of the WLS graduates These siblings do not have to be high school
graduates 16 This finding differs from that of Richter and Robling (2013) who find maternal exposure tied to
daughter outcomes and paternal exposure tied to son outcomes
15
The findings of Panel A are extended into Panel B which replaces years of schooling as
the dependent variable with the natural log of family income for the 1992 wave a time when the
second generation respondents are 53 years of age on average and represents a time of peak
earning in the life course As with years of schooling a negative association is seen throughout
the specifications of Panel B Having either parent born in 19181919 is associated with a 22
percent decline in family income Once again this effect seems to be driven by motherrsquos not
fatherrsquos exposure Panel C replaces income with a measure of net worth for the 2004 wave This
measure of net worth is when the second generation respondents are on average 65 years of age
and is representative of earnings throughout the life course The dual indicator of column (1) is
negative but statistically insignificant at conventional levels (p=023) When looking at the effect
of mother exposure in column (3) however the effect becomes statistically significant at the
10 level (p=0069) implying those with mothers born during 19181919 have approximately
$36000 less in net worth by 2004
Following the broader health focus of the Barker hypothesis the economic effects of
table 4 are replaced with health measures in table 5 We consider three broad measures of
general health and well-being later in life self-reported health in later life (~53 years old)
height and BMI (again at ~53) The use of self-reported health is intended to capture general
well-being later in life (Fortin et al 2017) this is tested in Panel A of table 5 Mazumder et al
(2010) provide evidence that in utero exposure to the 1918 flu is associated with a reduction in
height and an increase cardiovascular disease so it is possible that these negative health
outcomes could be transmitted to offspring this is tested in Panel B of table 517 And given
17 Appendix Table 14 tests indicators for a number self-reported health conditions As shown a weak
positive association is shown between gen 1 female flu exposure and an indicator of cardiovascular
16
prior work linking early life exposure to the Dutch famine to BMI (Roseboom et al 2000) and
metabolic function (Lumey et al 2009) in adulthood as well as the fact that both the Dutch
famine and the 1918 flu impacted maternal stress and nutritional status18 we examine BMI as
another broad indicator of health for the second generation this is tested in Panel C of table 5 A
consistent pattern emerges across all panels Like SES outcomes in table 4 gen 1 female
exposure to the flu is shown to have negative statistically significant association with all health
outcomes in the second generation
From Panel A parentalmdashor gen 1mdashflu exposure reduces self-reported health by roughly
half a point (plt005) on a Likert scale from 1-5 1 being very poor health and 5 being excellent
health As shown and like prior estimates this effect is driven by gen 1 female exposure For
adult height gen 1 female exposure is associated with a reduction of about 02 inches (plt010)
which is larger than the direct effect documented by Mazumder et al of 005 inches however
Mazumder et alrsquos estimated effect falls within the 95 confidence interval of our estimated
coefficient Panel C considers the effect on second generation BMI From column (1) having
either parent being born in 19181919 is associated with a statistically significant increase in the
offspringrsquos BMI of 041 points As with the economic effects of table 4 this increase in BMI
appears to be driven by motherrsquos exposure This is seen in columns (2)-(4) which estimate a
statistically significant positive coefficient for motherrsquos exposure but a coefficient that is
statistically indistinguishable from zero for fatherrsquos exposure
disease during the 199293 wave of the WLS (Appendix Table 15A) This association however reduced
in magnitude and statistical significance for later-life waves of the WLS (Appendix Table 15B and 15C) 18 The Dutch famine influenced maternal nutritional status directly through caloric restriction and the
1918 flu through symptoms such as appetite loss vomiting andor diarrhea
17
A persistent effect of in utero exposure to the 1918 Flu is seen in tables 4 and 5 First
generation exposure consistently has a statistically significant and economically meaningful
effect on second generation health and economic outcomes And this effect appears to be driven
solely by motherrsquos exposure although due to marriage market associations we cannot
determine definitively that motherrsquos exposure produces this multigenerational effect through
biological mechanisms
Appendix Tables 10A-11G re-estimate Tables 4 and 5 splitting the sample by generation
2rsquos sex In short the negative effects of first generation exposure appear to be more prominent
in second generation males such that the harmful multi-generational effects are most prominent
in second generation men whose mothers were exposed to the 1918 flu19 Potential reasons for
this sex disparity could be tied to general trends in the differences between sons and daughters in
intergenerational mobility (Chadwick and Solon 2002) In other words sons are more likely to
inherit their families SES standing than daughters This implies that the negative gen 1 shock
from in utero exposure is more likely to affect sons through the proposed SES channel than
daughters resulting in a larger estimated effect for gen 2 males Furthermore there appears to
be a growing gap between in the intergenerational elastiticy between sons and daughters during
the time period in question (Olivetti and Paserman 2015) Another potential reason for the sex
difference could be the larger standard deviation in gen 2 male outcomes this is shown in
Appendix Table 9 Finally the findings of Appendix Tables 10A-11G differ from Richter and
Robling (2013) who show homogeneous sex effects from in utero flu exposure for education
19 When omitting those with no family income during the 1992 wave of the WLS negative effects from
gen 1 female flu exposure are primarily seen in second generation males This indicates however that
there is a greater frequency of no income amongst second generation females from gen 1 flu exposure
Additionally when looking at net worth in the 2011 wave of the WLS we see no difference by gen 2rsquos
sex
18
gen 1 female exposure led to reduction in gen 2 female education and gen 1 male exposure is
associated with gen 2 male education Given this disparity between the two studies our under-
representation for gen 1 male exposure and the mixed findings in Tables 10A-11G we view our
general finding of gen 1 female exposure working through gen 2 male outcomes as preliminary
and suggestive Indeed as we test in Appendix Tables 12A-12G the sex differences in gen 2 are
often not statistically significant
Third Generation
As mentioned previously the focus of the WLS data collection is high school graduates in 1957
but additional samples have been collected for a number of variables on the children of these
graduates Table 6 explores the effects of the WLS parents on the years of schooling for WLS
children estimating the effect of flu exposure across three generations20
Consistent with the second-generation estimations a persistent effect of the in utero flu
exposure is observed and this effect seems to be driven by grandmother exposure (gen 1
female) The joint indicator for either parent is negative and close to statistical significance at
the 10 percent level (p=0106) suggesting that exposure in the first generation is associated with
012 years of schooling less in the third generation The effect of grandfather exposure is
insignificantly different from zero while the coefficient of grandmother exposure is similar in
magnitude to the joint estimate of column (1) while being statistically significant at the 10
level (p=0066) Furthermore the decline in schooling seen in the third generation is similar but
slightly smaller in magnitude compared to the second generation effects seen in Panel A of table
20Analysis of the WLS gradsibling children (ie the third generation) restricts the sample to those
children that are biological children and that are 35 years of age and older by the 20032004 wave of the
WLS
19
421 This again indicates a persistent effect that may be attenuating over time Importantly while
the estimate for grandfather exposure is insignificant it is consistent with intergenerational
inheritance (Kuzawa and Eisenberg 2014) To say the same for grandmother exposure would
require effects to persist into the fourth generation (due to the differences in gametic
development) and this data is not available in the WLS
Conclusion
This paper presents novel evidence of multigenerational effects of in utero health insults We
use the sudden and unexpected influenza pandemic in 19181919 to trace out the effects of in
utero exposure to infectious disease on own outcomes for the first generation childrenrsquos
outcomes and grandchildrenrsquos outcomes We find that this exposure reduces educational
attainment and related economic outcomes across three generations For example individuals in
our second generation the WLS graduates and their siblings who have mothers who were
exposed to the 1918 flu in utero complete 15 fewer years of schooling (or 24 months less
schooling) The size of our estimated effect aligns well with those of Richter and Robling (2013)
who find that first generation in utero exposure to the 1918 flu results in 16 fewer years of
schooling (or 2 months to 25 months less schooling) for the maternal line We then extend
results to the third generation for the first time in the literature and find that individuals in the
third generation who have grandmothers who were exposed to the pandemic in utero complete
17 fewer years of schooling (or 17 months less schooling) than individuals without affected
grandmothers
21 For gen 1 female exposure in column (4) the p-value for a difference in coefficients between Panel A
of Table 4 and Table 6 is 0411 implying the effect in the third generation is statistically indistinguishable
from that in the second generation
20
There are at several potential mechanisms for the persistence of poor outcomes across
three generations we find in our data As previously outlined the intergenerational persistence in
poor outcomes due to early life health shocks could occur through socioeconomic channels
where a fetally insulted person with resulting low educational attainment raises a child in a low-
resource environment that reduces opportunities for high educational attainment of the child In
order to see multigenerational effects the reduced opportunities for high educational attainment
of the child must then reduce opportunities for their own children Alternatively
intergenerational transmission may occur through epigenetic inheritance through the germ line a
distinct possibility based on findings of the Oumlverkalix studies or phenotype-to-phenotype
transmission and cumulative intergenerational phenotypic change
Our analysis is unable to fully distinguish between these proposed intergenerational
channels the socioeconomic and biological but it is important to note that the channels are by no
means mutually exclusive Further analysis (appendix tables 3-5) that is intended to partially
account for the socioeconomic mechanism leads to mixed results in which the coefficient of first
generation flu exposure is attenuated to insignificance for some outcomes but not others This
provides evidence for a socioeconomic channel but does not eliminate the possibility of
epigenetic mechanisms or other biological channel through which socioeconomic status ldquogets
under the skinrdquo to influence outcomes of subsequent generations (eg the socioeconomic
circumstances of one generation may ldquoget under the skinrdquo of the next and subsequently be passed
via biology andor socioeconomics to other generations) Likewise the estimates of grandfather
effects on grandchildren are imprecise but consistent with transgenerational inheritance (Kuzawa
and Eisenberg 2014) Additionally while the WLS provides a unique framework to analyze
multiple generations the measurement of flu exposure is somewhat crude (from self-reported
21
parentsrsquo year of birth) and is in the right-tail of the distribution of parent birth years suggesting
the possibility of confounding from resource-poor younger mothers22 That is exposure to
influenza in the first generation is mechanically tied to motherrsquos ages of 20 and 21 because the
WLS sample is drawn based on having a child who was born in 1939 (and thus graduating high
school in 1957) While we cannot definitively separate these two effects our ability to compare
outcomes of slightly older mothers (ages 22 and 23 born in 1917 or 1916) provide evidence
more consistent with in utero exposure to influenza than impacts of having a mother who is
2021 years old
From a policy perspective our evidence may suggest a novel source of multigenerational
persistence in poverty through biosocial factors and suggest a need to consider evidence of
transgenerational social andor biological mechanisms We document the extent to which
harmful early life environments cascade through generations promoting a disadvantaged start for
those whose grandparents exposed to a hazardous early life environment
22 We specifically explore the confounding effects of younger mothers in appendix tables 7 and 8 These
tables show that younger mothers are indeed initially disadvantaged (ie less years of schooling)
however this young-mother disadvantage does not persist in subsequent generations Rather only those
mothers born in the 1918-1919 range have significant negative effects on later generations
22
References
Almond Doug 2006 Is the 1918 Influenza pandemic over Long‐term effects of in utero Influenza exposure in the post‐1940 US population Journal of Political Economy 114(4) 672-712
Almond Doug and Bhashkar Mazumder 2005 The 1918 Influenza Pandemic and Subsequent Health Outcomes An Analysis of SIPP Data American Economic Review 95(2) 258-262
Barker David James P 2007 The origins of the developmental origins theory Journal of Internal Medicine 261(5) 412-417
Benyshek Daniel C (2013) The ldquoearly liferdquo origins of obesity‐related health disorders New discoveries regarding the intergenerational transmission of developmentally programmed traits in the global cardiometabolic health crisis American Journal of Physical Anthropology 152(S57) 79-93
Brown Alan S and Elena J Derkits 2010 Prenatal infection and schizophrenia a review of epidemiologic and translational studies American Journal of Psychiatry 167(3) 261-280
Burg Steven 2000 Wisconsin and the Great Spanish Flu Epidemic of 1918rdquo Wisconsin Magazine of History 84(1) 36-56
Bygren LarsOlov Gunnar Kaati and Soumlren Edvinsson 2001 Longevity determined by paternal ancestors nutrition during their slow growth period Acta biotheoretica 49(1) 53-59
Canetta Sarah E and Alan S Brown 2012 Prenatal infection maternal immune activation and risk for schizophrenia Translational Neuroscience 3(4) 320-327
Chadwick L and Solon G (2002) Intergenerational income mobility among daughters American Economic Review 92(1) 335-344
Cohen Alan A John Tillinghast and Vladimir Canudas-Romo 2010 No consistent effects of prenatal or neonatal exposure to Spanish flu on late-life mortality in 24 developed countries Demographic Research 22(20) 579
Fatemi S Hossein Julie Earle Reena Kanodia David Kist Effat S Emamian Paul H Patterson Limin Shi and Robert Sidwell 2002 Prenatal viral infection leads to pyramidal cell atrophy and macrocephaly in adulthood implications for genesis of autism and schizophrenia Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology 22(1) 25-33
Fletcher Jason 2014 Examining the Long Term Mortality Effects of Early Health Shocks US Census Bureau Center for Economic Studies Paper No CES-WP-14-19
Kaati Gunnar Lars O Bygren and Soren Edvinsson 2002 Cardiovascular and diabetes mortality determined by nutrition during parents and grandparents slow growth period European Journal of Human Genetics EJHG 10(11) 682
Kash John C Terrence M Tumpey Sean C Proll Victoria Carter Olivia Perwitasari Matthew J Thomas Christopher F Basler et al 2006 Genomic analysis of increased host immune and cell death responses induced by 1918 influenza virus Nature 443(7111) 578-581
Kobasa Darwyn Steven M Jones Kyoko Shinya John C Kash John Copps Hideki Ebihara Yasuko Hatta et al 2007 Aberrant innate immune response in lethal infection of macaques with the 1918 influenza virus Nature 445 (7125) 319-323
Kuzawa Christopher W and Dan T Eisenberg 2014 The Long Reach of History Intergenerational and Transgenerational Pathwaysto Plasticity in Human Longevity Sociality Hierarchy Health Comparative Biodemography Papers from a Workshop National Academies Press
Li Wai-Yu Yi-Chun Chang L Jyuhn-Hsiarn Lee and Li-Jen Lee 2014 Prenatal infection affects the neuronal architecture and cognitive function in adult mice Developmental Neuroscience 36(5) 359-370
23
Lin Ming-Jen and Elaine M Liu 2014 Does in utero exposure to illness matter The 1918 influenza epidemic in Taiwan as a natural experiment Journal of Health Economics 37 152-163
Lindeboom Maarten France Portrait and Gerard J Van den Berg 2010 Long-run effects on longevity of a nutritional shock early in life the Dutch Potato famine of 1846ndash1847 Journal of Health Economics 29(5) 617-629
Mamelund SE (2018) 1918 pandemic mobidity The first wave hits the poor the second wave hits the rich Influenza and Other Respitory Viruses 12(3) 307-313
Mazumder Bhashkar Douglas Almond Kyung Park Eileen M Crimmins and Caleb E Finch 2010 Lingering prenatal effects of the 1918 influenza pandemic on cardiovascular disease Journal of developmental origins of health and disease 1(1) 26-34
Miller Veronica Y Zhu C Bucher W McGinnis L Ryan A Siegel and S Zalcman 2013 Gestational flu exposure induces changes in neurochemicals affiliative hormones and brainstem inflammation in addition to autism-like behaviors in mice Brain Behavior and Immunity 33 153-163
Myrskylauml Mikko Neil K Mehta and Virginia W Chang 2013 Early life exposure to the 1918 influenza pandemic and old-age mortality by cause of death American Journal of Public Health 103(7) e83-e90
Olivetti C and Paserman MD (2015) In the name of the son (and the daughter) Intergenerational mobility in the United States 1850-1940 American Economic Review 105(8) 2695-2724
Pembrey Marcus E Lars Olov Bygren Gunnar Kaati Soumlren Edvinsson Kate Northstone Michael Sjoumlstroumlm and Jean Golding 2006 Sex-specific male-line transgenerational responses in humans European Journal of Human Genetics 14(2) 159-166
Richter Andreacute and Per Olof Robling 2013 Multigenerational effects of the 1918-19 influenza pandemic in Sweden Swedish Institute for Social Research 5
Shors Teri and Susan H McFadden 2009 1918 Influenza A Winnebago County Wisconsin Perspective Clinical Medicine amp Research 7(4) 147-156
Sydenstricker E (1931) The incidence of influenza among persons of different economic status during the epidemic of 1918 Public Health Reports 46(4) 154-170
van den Berg Gerard J and Pia R Pinger 2013 A validation study of transgenerational effects of childhood conditions on the third generation offsprings economic and health outcomes potentially driven by epigenetic imprinting IZA Discussion Paper
Tables and Figures
Table 1 Summary Statistics
Variable N Mean Std Deviation
First GenerartionFlu Indicators
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 8368 0112 0315Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 8456 0030 0170Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 8487 0093 0290
ControlsFirst Generation Malersquos Year of Birth 8456 1907435 7021First Generation Femalersquos Year of Birth 8427 1911189 6164
Dependent VariablesFirst Generation Malersquos Years of Schooling 8456 9778 3392First Generation Femalersquos Years of Schooing 8487 10499 2804First Generation Malersquos Job Prestige 8385 330662 214361First Generation Femalersquos Job Prestige 6683 12814 19934Family SES 8487 16231 11143
Second GenerationControls
Female Indicator 12459 0530 0499Birth Year 12459 1939406 4289Birth Order 12459 2529 1828
Dependent VariablesYears of Schooling 12459 13678 2361Family Income 1992 (in $1000s) 12112 68027 177105Net Worth 2004 (in $1000s) 10498 913046 2558927Self-reported health 1992 9888 4149 0668Height (inches) 9783 67406 3851BMI 1992 9671 26742 4657
Third GenerationControls
Birth Year 19913 1963901 3636Female Indicator 19913 0497 0500Birth Order 19913 2196 1263
Dependent VariableYears of Schooling 19913 14294 2309
Summary amp Notes This table provides summary statistics for all variables used The samples above may not berepresentative for all estimations For example the inclusion of siblings in the second generation increase the sample of parentalyear of birth and the corresponding flu indicator This increase in sample does not significantly change the sample statisticsabove Similar sample changes occur for the second generation controls above For the third generation the sample is restrictedto biological children over 35 years of age
24
Tab
le2
Fir
stG
ener
atio
n
Eco
nom
icE
ffec
ts
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
am
ily
SE
SY
ears
of
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
am
ily
SE
S(1
)(2
)(3
)(4
)(5
)(6
)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale)
-01
39
-01
16lowast
-12
90lowast
lowast
(02
00)
(00
60)
(05
99)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emal
e)-0
133
-00
66
-13
61lowastlowast
lowast
(00
95)
(00
43)
(03
76)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
YY
YY
YY
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8456
8385
8456
8487
6683
8487
RS
qr
00
32
00
08
00
23
00
13
00
04
00
13
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
pro
vid
esd
irec
teff
ects
of
inu
tero
an
dea
rly
life
exp
osu
reto
the
1918
Flu
Ep
idem
ic
Bir
thye
ar
tim
etr
end
sin
lcu
de
yea
rof
bir
than
dit
ssq
uar
ean
din
clu
sion
inth
ees
tim
atio
nis
par
ent
spec
ific
All
esti
mati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
an
dard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
alsi
gnifi
can
ceis
den
oted
by
an
d
re
pre
senti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vel
y
25
Tab
le3
Fir
stG
ener
atio
n
Mar
riag
eM
arke
tE
ffec
ts
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Flu
Bir
thY
ear
Yea
rsof
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
luB
irth
Yea
rY
ears
of
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
e(1
)(2
)(3
)(4
)(5
)(6
)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale)
01
40lowast
lowastlowast-0
259
-00
39
(00
34)
(01
58)
(00
72)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emal
e)0
056lowast
lowastlowast-0
340lowast
lowastlowast-0
118lowastlowast
lowast
(00
14)
(01
17)
(00
36)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
YY
YY
YY
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8348
8487
8412
8348
8456
6660
RS
qr
00
90
00
11
00
08
01
20
00
21
00
01
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
pro
vid
esev
iden
ceof
marr
iage
mark
etse
lect
ion
inth
efi
rst
gen
erati
on
B
irth
year
tim
etr
end
sin
clu
de
year
of
bir
than
dit
ssq
uare
and
incl
usi
onin
the
esti
mat
ion
isp
aren
tsp
ecifi
cA
lles
tim
ati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
an
dard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
sign
ifica
nce
isd
enot
edby
an
d
re
pre
senti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vely
26
Table 4 Second Generation Economic Effects
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Years of Schooling
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0209lowastlowastlowast
(0073)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0084 -0059(0129) (0129)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0211lowastlowastlowast -0209lowastlowastlowast
(0075) (0075)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0085 0084 0085 0085
Panel B ln Family Income 1992
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0221lowastlowast
(0111)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0098 -0066(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0262lowastlowast -0259lowastlowast
(0116) (0116)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112R Sqr 0021 0021 0021 0021
Panel C Std Net Worth 2004
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0026(0022)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0033 0038(0047) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0038lowast -0040lowast
(0021) (0021)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498R Sqr 0007 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table provides evidence of signficant harmful effects of flu exposure in the first generation on secondgeneration economic outcomes First generation time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents(ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and itssquare and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
27
Table 5 Second Generation Health Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Self-reported health (Likert 1=very poor 5=excellent)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0054lowastlowast
(0027)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0005(0047) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0061lowastlowast -0061lowastlowast
(0028) (0028)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Panel B Height (inches)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0101)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0102 0127(0168) (0168)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0169lowast -0175lowast
(0103) (0103)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783r2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Panel C BMI
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0412lowastlowast
(0191)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0082 0023(0344) (0346)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0422lowastlowast 0421lowastlowast
(0193) (0194)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table provides evidence of harmful effects of flu exposure in the first generation on secondgeneration health outcomes First generation time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents (iegen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and itssquare and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
28
Table 6 Generation Three Effects of Generation One Flu Exposure Years of Schooling
Dependent Variable Years of Schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0125(0077)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Male) -0007 0010(0136) (0136)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Female) -0144lowast -0144lowast
(0078) (0078)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913R Sqr 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table shows that the generational effects of flu exposure extend into the third generation of theWLS First generation flu exposure is shown to have a negative association with third generation years of schooling Firstgeneration time trends are year of birth measures for each parent and their square Second generation controls inlcude anindicator for sex second generation year of birth and its square and birth order Third generation controls include a sexindicator year of birth and its square and birth order Given the focus on years of schooling the sample is restricted to thosethird generation individuals 35 years of age and older or born during or before 1970 (data were collected in 2005) Allestimation is performed with OLS with family (second generation) clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
29
(a)
Fat
her
(b)
Moth
er
Fig
ure
1F
irst
Gen
erat
ion
Dis
trib
uti
onof
Yea
rof
Bir
th
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
figu
rep
lots
the
dis
trib
uti
on
for
firs
tgen
erati
on
year
of
bir
th
Flu
exp
osu
reis
class
ified
as
bei
ng
born
inei
ther
1918
or
1919
30
Appendix Tables
Appendix Table 1 First Generation Flu Exposure Effect on Family Income
Dependent Variable Family Income ($100s) 1957
(1) (2)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -3366(2592)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -5363lowastlowast
(2390)
Birth Year Time Trends Y YObservations 7440 7456R Sqr 0013 0004
Summary amp Notes This table replaces the index of socioeconomic status with family income (in $100s) in 1957 Allestimation is performed with OLS with robust standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
31
App
endix
Tab
le2
Mar
riag
eM
arke
tE
ffec
ts
Con
trol
ling
for
Ow
nY
ear
ofB
irth
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
Job
Pre
stig
eY
ears
of
Sch
Job
Pre
stig
e
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale
)-0
052
-211
82
-01
98
-03
74
(02
03)
(131
30)
(01
61)
(14
38)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emale
)-0
346lowast
lowastlowast-2
44
97lowastlowast
lowast-0
103
-13
88
(01
16)
(76
88)
(00
94)
(08
54)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
(Male
an
dF
emale
)Y
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8348
8279
8348
6587
RS
qr
00
40
00
22
00
25
00
04
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
re-e
stim
ates
Tab
le3
wh
ile
contr
oll
ing
for
year
of
bir
than
dfl
uin
dic
ato
rsass
oci
ate
dw
ith
the
spou
sein
the
dep
end
ent
vari
ab
le
All
esti
mat
ion
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
and
ard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
sign
ifica
nce
isd
enote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
atth
e10
5
and
1le
vel
sre
spec
tive
ly
32
Appendix Table 3 2nd Gen Economic Effects Controlling for 1st Gen Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Years of Schooling
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0088(0070)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0005 0008(0119) (0119)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0116 -0117(0072) (0072)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0206 0206 0206 0206
Panel B ln Family Income 1992
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0193lowast
(0111)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0080 -0050(0184) (0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0240lowastlowast -0238lowastlowast
(0116) (0116)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112R Sqr 0024 0024 0024 0024
Panel C Std Normal Net Worth 2004
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0003(0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0047 0049(0046) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0019 -0021(0020) (0020)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498R Sqr 0033 0033 0033 0033
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 4 while controlling for generation one economic outcomes fatherrsquos years ofschooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 First generation time trends are given by year of birth and itssquare for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex secondgeneration year of birth and its square and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standarderrors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and1 levels respectively 33
Appendix Table 4 2nd Gen Health Effects Controlling for 1st Gen Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A BMI
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0352lowast
(0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0051 -0001(0342) (0344)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0372lowast 0372lowast
(0192) (0193)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671R Sqr 0035 0035 0035 0035
Panel B Count of Illnesses
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0122lowast
(0065)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0076 -0096(0102) (0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0139lowastlowast 0144lowastlowast
(0067) (0068)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9921 9921 9921 9921R Sqr 0046 0046 0046 0046
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 5 while controlling for generation one economic outcomes fatherrsquos years ofschooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 First generation time trends are given by year of birth and itssquare for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex secondgeneration year of birth and its square and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standarderrors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and1 levels respectively
34
Appendix Table 5 Generation threersquos years of schooling Controlling for previous generation economicwell-being
Dependent Variable Years of Schooling for Gen 3(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A First Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0069(0076)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0022 0034(0133) (0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0102 -0104(0077) (0078)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913R Sqr 0117 0117 0117 0117
Panel B Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0025(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0008 0013(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0038 -0039(0073) (0073)
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0190 0190 0190 0190
Panel C First and Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0008(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0016 0019(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0028 -0029(0073) (0073)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0196 0196 0196 0196
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 6 while controlling for generation one and tworsquos economic outcomes Forgeneration one these include fatherrsquos years of schooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 generation twocontrols include the WLS graduatesiblingrsquos years of schooling family income in 1992 and net worth in 2004 First generationtime trends are year of birth measures for each parent and their square Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sexsecond generation year of birth and its square and birth order Third generation controls include a sex indicator year of birthand its square and birth order Given the focus on years of schooling the sample is restricted to those third generationindividuals 35 years of age and older or born during or before 1970 (data were collected in 2005) All estimation is performedwith OLS with family (second generation) clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denotedby and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
35
Appendix Table 6 Alternative measures of schooling in the second generation
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Indicator for any college (years of schooling gt12)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0044lowastlowastlowast
(0017)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0011 -0006(0029) (0029)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0044lowastlowast -0043lowastlowast
(0017) (0017)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0071 0070 0071 0071
Panel B Indicator for incomplete college (years of schooling gt12 amp lt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0008(0013)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 -0001(0022) (0022)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0008 -0008(0013) (0013)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0005 0005 0005 0005
Panel C Indicator for college graduate (years of schooling = 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0022lowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0003 0006(0020) (0020)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0021lowast -0021lowastlowast
(0011) (0011)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0019 0019 0019 0019
Panel D Indicator for post-college education (years of schooling gt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0014(0010)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0011(0018) (0018)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0014 -0014(0010) (0010)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0039 0039 0039 0039
Summary amp Notes This table replaces our continuous measure of years of schooling with specified dummy variables Firstgeneration time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Secondgeneration controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and its square and birth order All estimationis performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
36
Appendix Table 7 Young mothers Direct effect on Gen 1 Females
Dependent Variable Years of Sch Job Prestige Family SES
(1) (2) (3)
Ind for First Gen Female Flu Exposure (1918-1919) -0325lowastlowast -0841 -1749lowastlowastlowast
(0137) (1015) (0584)
Ind for mother born during 1920-1921 -0567lowastlowastlowast 0745 -1157(0206) (1515) (0914)
Ind for mother born during 1922-1923 -0666lowastlowast 0098 -2113(0330) (2210) (1298)
Ind for mother born after 1924 -0392 5682 0384(0486) (3705) (2126)
Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y
Observations 8487 6683 8487R Sqr 0014 0005 0014
Summary amp Notes This table includes indicators for alternative years of birth Younger mothers are shown to have lessyears of schooling All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
37
App
endix
Tab
le8
You
ng
mot
her
sG
ener
atio
n2
and
3eff
ects
Gen
2
Gen
3
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
ln
Fam
In
c
1992
Std
N
W
2004
Sel
f-re
p
hea
lth
Hei
ght
BM
IY
ears
of
Sch
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
emal
eF
luE
xp
osu
re(1
918-
1919
)-0
201lowastlowast
-02
95lowastlowast
-00
45
-00
73lowastlowast
-00
90
02
07
-00
86(0
092)
(01
32)
(00
32)
(00
32)
(01
22)
(02
25)
(00
94)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
20-1
921
-00
22
-00
40
-00
10
-00
61
01
33
-04
10
01
13
(01
37)
(01
74)
(00
51)
(00
43)
(01
80)
(03
11)
(01
41)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
22-1
923
-00
96
-01
88
-00
57
00
20
04
61
-11
29lowastlowast
01
55(0
184)
(03
20)
(00
61)
(00
75)
(02
83)
(04
51)
(02
23)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
afte
r19
2404
58
-01
87
00
01
-00
27
03
12
-08
85
03
99
(03
06)
(03
94)
(00
87)
(01
27)
(04
94)
(10
70)
(03
21)
Bas
eC
ontr
ols
YY
YY
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
12459
12112
10498
9888
9783
9671
19913
RS
qr
00
85
00
21
00
08
00
09
05
86
00
29
00
79
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
incl
ud
esin
dic
ator
sfo
ralt
ernati
ve
years
of
bir
th
Bei
ng
born
toa
you
nger
moth
ergen
erall
yis
not
ass
oci
ate
dw
ith
gen
erati
on
2or
3rsquos
outc
omes
ofin
tere
st
inst
ead
n
egat
ive
effec
tsar
eon
lyob
serv
edfo
rth
ose
born
du
rin
gth
efl
u
All
esti
mati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hfa
mil
y(2
nd
gen
erat
ion
)cl
ust
ered
stan
dar
der
rors
rep
orte
din
par
enth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
signifi
can
ceis
den
ote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vel
y
38
Appendix Table 9 Summary Statistics by Gen 2 Sex
Variable N Mean Std Deviation
FemaleYears of Schooling 6607 13352 2088ln Family Income (1992 wave) 6411 9424 3577
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5654 10686 1010Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 5612 -0047 0539Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 5313 4164 0670Height (inches) 5231 646635 247936BMI 5124 26073 5114
Gen 3Years of Schooling 11947 14240 2291
MaleYears of Schooling 5852 14047 2587ln Family Income (1992 wave) 5701 10139 3030
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5264 10981 0836Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 4886 0059 1159Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 4575 4133 0665Height (inches) 4554 7055484 25596BMI 4547 27496 3948
Gen 3Years of Schooling 8046 14371 2332
Appendix Table 10A Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0090(0086)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0198 0214(0169) (0169)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104 -0114(0087) (0087)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6607 6607 6607 6607R Sqr 0075 0075 0075 0075
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
39
Appendix Table 10B Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0523lowastlowastlowast
(0170)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0483 -0410(0321) (0323)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0512lowastlowastlowast -0491lowastlowastlowast
(0179) (0180)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6411 6411 6411 6411R Sqr 0015 0013 0014 0015
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10C Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0007(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0078lowast 0078(0048) (0048)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0008 0005(0025) (0025)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5612 5612 5612 5612R Sqr 0007 0007 0007 0007
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
40
Appendix Table 10D Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0027(0036)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 -0001(0071) (0071)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0022 -0022(0037) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5313 5313 5313 5313r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10E Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -2382(13366)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 44280lowastlowast 46351lowastlowast
(22343) (22480)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -12253 -14428(13485) (13561)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5231 5231 5231 5231r2 0015 0016 0015 0016
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
41
Appendix Table 10F Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0353(0286)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0105 0060(0514) (0516)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0326 0323(0289) (0290)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5124 5124 5124 5124R Sqr 0010 0010 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0087(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0104 -0101(0190) (0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0042 -0039(0098) (0098)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 11906 11906 11906 11906R Sqr 0086 0086 0086 0086
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
42
Appendix Table 11A Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0322lowastlowastlowast
(0116)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0369lowastlowast -0338lowast
(0181) (0180)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0309lowastlowastlowast -0297lowastlowast
(0119) (0119)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5852 5852 5852 5852R Sqr 0060 0059 0060 0060
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11B RResults by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0116(0138)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0262 0261(0200) (0199)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0024 0014(0141) (0140)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5701 5701 5701 5701R Sqr 0009 0009 0008 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
43
Appendix Table 11C Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0038)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0001(0081) (0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0094lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0035)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4886 4886 4886 4886R Sqr 0004 0004 0004 0004
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
44
Appendix Table 11D Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0083lowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 0012(0062) (0062)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104lowastlowastlowast -0105lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0041)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4575 4575 4575 4575r2 0010 0009 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11E Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -15122(14275)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -22991 -20537(23287) (23176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -18595 -17540(14734) (14751)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4554 4554 4554 4554r2 0011 0011 0011 0011
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
45
Appendix Table 11F Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0465lowast
(0238)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0079 0006(0403) (0405)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0520lowastlowast 0520lowastlowast
(0245) (0246)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4547 4547 4547 4547R Sqr 0006 0005 0006 0006
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0177(0123)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0098 0144(0194) (0192)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0293lowastlowast -0302lowastlowast
(0125) (0126)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8007 8007 8007 8007R Sqr 0067 0067 0068 0068
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
46
Appendix Table 12A Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0253lowastlowast
(0107)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0252 -0226(0170) (0172)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0263lowastlowast -0242lowastlowast
(0113) (0115)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0084(0120)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0341 0339(0216) (0219)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0096 0056(0130) (0132)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459r2 0085 0085 0085 0085
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
47
Appendix Table 12B Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0128)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0196 0169(0190) (0189)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0081 -0104(0135) (0135)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0383lowastlowast
(0189)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0594lowast -0474(0349) (0355)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0339lowast -0283(0204) (0207)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112r2 0021 0021 0021 0021
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
48
Appendix Table 12C Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0034)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0019(0077) (0079)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0095lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0030) (0031)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0071lowast
(0038)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0072 0039(0087) (0089)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0104lowastlowastlowast 0100lowastlowastlowast
(0035) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498r2 0008 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
49
Appendix Table 12D Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0071lowast
(0036)[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0012 0031
(0058) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0093lowastlowast -0097lowastlowast
(0039) (0039)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0030(0045)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0031 -0051(0087) (0088)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0059 0065(0048) (0049)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
50
Appendix Table 12E Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0129 -0125(0223) (0224)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0152 -0129(0141) (0142)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0000(0158)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0454 0495lowast
(0279) (0287)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0031 -0090(0170) (0175)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783nr2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
51
Appendix Table 12F Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0376(0231)
[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0059 -0122(0402) (0407)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0441lowast 0457lowast
(0240) (0243)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0068(0316)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0282 0288(0573) (0589)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0035 -0069(0340) (0350)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
52
Appendix Table 12G Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0131(0114)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male 0114 0175(0185) (0188)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0237lowastlowast -0261lowastlowast
(0118) (0121)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0009(0133)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0225 -0292(0249) (0254)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0152 0189(0141) (0145)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913r2 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
53
Appendix Table 13 Family Income 1992 excluding non-earners (ie fam inc = 0)
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992 wave (excluding those reporting 0)(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0095lowastlowastlowast
(0033)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0031 -0019(0053) (0053)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0101lowastlowastlowast -0100lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0034)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10918 10918 10918 10918r2 0050 0049 0050 0050
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0084lowast
(0050)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0019 -0007(0089) (0090)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0083 -0083(0053) (0054)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5654 5654 5654 5654r2 0026 0026 0026 0026
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102lowastlowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0051 -0040(0060) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0113lowastlowastlowast -0112lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0040)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5264 5264 5264 5264r2 0029 0028 0029 0029
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel B in Table 4 excluding those who report $0 for familyincome All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
54
Appendix Table 14 Net Worth 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable Std Net Worth 2011 Wave of WLS(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0032lowastlowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0023lowast -0021lowast
(0012) (0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0032lowastlowastlowast -0031lowastlowastlowast
(0010) (0010)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9435 9435 9435 9435r2 0002 0002 0002 0002
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0012lowast
(0006)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0009 -0008(0009) (0009)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0012lowastlowast -0011lowastlowast
(0006) (0006)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5026 5026 5026 5026r2 0007 0006 0007 0007
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0057lowastlowast
(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0040lowast -0036lowast
(0023) (0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0057lowastlowast -0056lowastlowast
(0023) (0022)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4409 4409 4409 4409r2 0001 0001 0001 0001
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel C in Table 4 replacing the net worth measure from the 2004wave with an identical measure from the 2011 wave of the WLS All estimation is performed with OLS with family clusteredstandard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 105 and 1 levels respectively
55
Appendix Table 15A Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 1992 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0243(0152)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0107 0039(0252) (0255)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0285lowast 0282lowast
(0158) (0160)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9849 9849 9849 9849
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0007(0091)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0210 -0216(0170) (0173)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0007 0024(0095) (0097)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9858 9858 9858 9858
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0255(0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0107 -0169(0328) (0338)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0237 0252(0193) (0198)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9845 9845 9845 9845
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
56
Appendix Table 15B Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2004 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0018(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0190 0207(0160) (0162)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0066 -0083(0102) (0104)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10672 10672 10672 10672
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0096 0108(0124) (0125)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0051 -0059(0076) (0077)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10619 10619 10619 10619
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0108(0110)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0064 0027(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0181 0179(0113) (0113)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10617 10617 10617 10617
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
57
Appendix Table 15C Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0099(0092)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0244 0242(0154) (0155)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0033 0016(0099) (0100)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0021(0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0095 0097(0138) (0139)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0004 -0011(0085) (0086)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0134(0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0203 0181(0175) (0176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0140 0127(0107) (0107)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8709 8709 8709 8709
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
58
- text 10818
- tables 10-8-18
-
15
The findings of Panel A are extended into Panel B which replaces years of schooling as
the dependent variable with the natural log of family income for the 1992 wave a time when the
second generation respondents are 53 years of age on average and represents a time of peak
earning in the life course As with years of schooling a negative association is seen throughout
the specifications of Panel B Having either parent born in 19181919 is associated with a 22
percent decline in family income Once again this effect seems to be driven by motherrsquos not
fatherrsquos exposure Panel C replaces income with a measure of net worth for the 2004 wave This
measure of net worth is when the second generation respondents are on average 65 years of age
and is representative of earnings throughout the life course The dual indicator of column (1) is
negative but statistically insignificant at conventional levels (p=023) When looking at the effect
of mother exposure in column (3) however the effect becomes statistically significant at the
10 level (p=0069) implying those with mothers born during 19181919 have approximately
$36000 less in net worth by 2004
Following the broader health focus of the Barker hypothesis the economic effects of
table 4 are replaced with health measures in table 5 We consider three broad measures of
general health and well-being later in life self-reported health in later life (~53 years old)
height and BMI (again at ~53) The use of self-reported health is intended to capture general
well-being later in life (Fortin et al 2017) this is tested in Panel A of table 5 Mazumder et al
(2010) provide evidence that in utero exposure to the 1918 flu is associated with a reduction in
height and an increase cardiovascular disease so it is possible that these negative health
outcomes could be transmitted to offspring this is tested in Panel B of table 517 And given
17 Appendix Table 14 tests indicators for a number self-reported health conditions As shown a weak
positive association is shown between gen 1 female flu exposure and an indicator of cardiovascular
16
prior work linking early life exposure to the Dutch famine to BMI (Roseboom et al 2000) and
metabolic function (Lumey et al 2009) in adulthood as well as the fact that both the Dutch
famine and the 1918 flu impacted maternal stress and nutritional status18 we examine BMI as
another broad indicator of health for the second generation this is tested in Panel C of table 5 A
consistent pattern emerges across all panels Like SES outcomes in table 4 gen 1 female
exposure to the flu is shown to have negative statistically significant association with all health
outcomes in the second generation
From Panel A parentalmdashor gen 1mdashflu exposure reduces self-reported health by roughly
half a point (plt005) on a Likert scale from 1-5 1 being very poor health and 5 being excellent
health As shown and like prior estimates this effect is driven by gen 1 female exposure For
adult height gen 1 female exposure is associated with a reduction of about 02 inches (plt010)
which is larger than the direct effect documented by Mazumder et al of 005 inches however
Mazumder et alrsquos estimated effect falls within the 95 confidence interval of our estimated
coefficient Panel C considers the effect on second generation BMI From column (1) having
either parent being born in 19181919 is associated with a statistically significant increase in the
offspringrsquos BMI of 041 points As with the economic effects of table 4 this increase in BMI
appears to be driven by motherrsquos exposure This is seen in columns (2)-(4) which estimate a
statistically significant positive coefficient for motherrsquos exposure but a coefficient that is
statistically indistinguishable from zero for fatherrsquos exposure
disease during the 199293 wave of the WLS (Appendix Table 15A) This association however reduced
in magnitude and statistical significance for later-life waves of the WLS (Appendix Table 15B and 15C) 18 The Dutch famine influenced maternal nutritional status directly through caloric restriction and the
1918 flu through symptoms such as appetite loss vomiting andor diarrhea
17
A persistent effect of in utero exposure to the 1918 Flu is seen in tables 4 and 5 First
generation exposure consistently has a statistically significant and economically meaningful
effect on second generation health and economic outcomes And this effect appears to be driven
solely by motherrsquos exposure although due to marriage market associations we cannot
determine definitively that motherrsquos exposure produces this multigenerational effect through
biological mechanisms
Appendix Tables 10A-11G re-estimate Tables 4 and 5 splitting the sample by generation
2rsquos sex In short the negative effects of first generation exposure appear to be more prominent
in second generation males such that the harmful multi-generational effects are most prominent
in second generation men whose mothers were exposed to the 1918 flu19 Potential reasons for
this sex disparity could be tied to general trends in the differences between sons and daughters in
intergenerational mobility (Chadwick and Solon 2002) In other words sons are more likely to
inherit their families SES standing than daughters This implies that the negative gen 1 shock
from in utero exposure is more likely to affect sons through the proposed SES channel than
daughters resulting in a larger estimated effect for gen 2 males Furthermore there appears to
be a growing gap between in the intergenerational elastiticy between sons and daughters during
the time period in question (Olivetti and Paserman 2015) Another potential reason for the sex
difference could be the larger standard deviation in gen 2 male outcomes this is shown in
Appendix Table 9 Finally the findings of Appendix Tables 10A-11G differ from Richter and
Robling (2013) who show homogeneous sex effects from in utero flu exposure for education
19 When omitting those with no family income during the 1992 wave of the WLS negative effects from
gen 1 female flu exposure are primarily seen in second generation males This indicates however that
there is a greater frequency of no income amongst second generation females from gen 1 flu exposure
Additionally when looking at net worth in the 2011 wave of the WLS we see no difference by gen 2rsquos
sex
18
gen 1 female exposure led to reduction in gen 2 female education and gen 1 male exposure is
associated with gen 2 male education Given this disparity between the two studies our under-
representation for gen 1 male exposure and the mixed findings in Tables 10A-11G we view our
general finding of gen 1 female exposure working through gen 2 male outcomes as preliminary
and suggestive Indeed as we test in Appendix Tables 12A-12G the sex differences in gen 2 are
often not statistically significant
Third Generation
As mentioned previously the focus of the WLS data collection is high school graduates in 1957
but additional samples have been collected for a number of variables on the children of these
graduates Table 6 explores the effects of the WLS parents on the years of schooling for WLS
children estimating the effect of flu exposure across three generations20
Consistent with the second-generation estimations a persistent effect of the in utero flu
exposure is observed and this effect seems to be driven by grandmother exposure (gen 1
female) The joint indicator for either parent is negative and close to statistical significance at
the 10 percent level (p=0106) suggesting that exposure in the first generation is associated with
012 years of schooling less in the third generation The effect of grandfather exposure is
insignificantly different from zero while the coefficient of grandmother exposure is similar in
magnitude to the joint estimate of column (1) while being statistically significant at the 10
level (p=0066) Furthermore the decline in schooling seen in the third generation is similar but
slightly smaller in magnitude compared to the second generation effects seen in Panel A of table
20Analysis of the WLS gradsibling children (ie the third generation) restricts the sample to those
children that are biological children and that are 35 years of age and older by the 20032004 wave of the
WLS
19
421 This again indicates a persistent effect that may be attenuating over time Importantly while
the estimate for grandfather exposure is insignificant it is consistent with intergenerational
inheritance (Kuzawa and Eisenberg 2014) To say the same for grandmother exposure would
require effects to persist into the fourth generation (due to the differences in gametic
development) and this data is not available in the WLS
Conclusion
This paper presents novel evidence of multigenerational effects of in utero health insults We
use the sudden and unexpected influenza pandemic in 19181919 to trace out the effects of in
utero exposure to infectious disease on own outcomes for the first generation childrenrsquos
outcomes and grandchildrenrsquos outcomes We find that this exposure reduces educational
attainment and related economic outcomes across three generations For example individuals in
our second generation the WLS graduates and their siblings who have mothers who were
exposed to the 1918 flu in utero complete 15 fewer years of schooling (or 24 months less
schooling) The size of our estimated effect aligns well with those of Richter and Robling (2013)
who find that first generation in utero exposure to the 1918 flu results in 16 fewer years of
schooling (or 2 months to 25 months less schooling) for the maternal line We then extend
results to the third generation for the first time in the literature and find that individuals in the
third generation who have grandmothers who were exposed to the pandemic in utero complete
17 fewer years of schooling (or 17 months less schooling) than individuals without affected
grandmothers
21 For gen 1 female exposure in column (4) the p-value for a difference in coefficients between Panel A
of Table 4 and Table 6 is 0411 implying the effect in the third generation is statistically indistinguishable
from that in the second generation
20
There are at several potential mechanisms for the persistence of poor outcomes across
three generations we find in our data As previously outlined the intergenerational persistence in
poor outcomes due to early life health shocks could occur through socioeconomic channels
where a fetally insulted person with resulting low educational attainment raises a child in a low-
resource environment that reduces opportunities for high educational attainment of the child In
order to see multigenerational effects the reduced opportunities for high educational attainment
of the child must then reduce opportunities for their own children Alternatively
intergenerational transmission may occur through epigenetic inheritance through the germ line a
distinct possibility based on findings of the Oumlverkalix studies or phenotype-to-phenotype
transmission and cumulative intergenerational phenotypic change
Our analysis is unable to fully distinguish between these proposed intergenerational
channels the socioeconomic and biological but it is important to note that the channels are by no
means mutually exclusive Further analysis (appendix tables 3-5) that is intended to partially
account for the socioeconomic mechanism leads to mixed results in which the coefficient of first
generation flu exposure is attenuated to insignificance for some outcomes but not others This
provides evidence for a socioeconomic channel but does not eliminate the possibility of
epigenetic mechanisms or other biological channel through which socioeconomic status ldquogets
under the skinrdquo to influence outcomes of subsequent generations (eg the socioeconomic
circumstances of one generation may ldquoget under the skinrdquo of the next and subsequently be passed
via biology andor socioeconomics to other generations) Likewise the estimates of grandfather
effects on grandchildren are imprecise but consistent with transgenerational inheritance (Kuzawa
and Eisenberg 2014) Additionally while the WLS provides a unique framework to analyze
multiple generations the measurement of flu exposure is somewhat crude (from self-reported
21
parentsrsquo year of birth) and is in the right-tail of the distribution of parent birth years suggesting
the possibility of confounding from resource-poor younger mothers22 That is exposure to
influenza in the first generation is mechanically tied to motherrsquos ages of 20 and 21 because the
WLS sample is drawn based on having a child who was born in 1939 (and thus graduating high
school in 1957) While we cannot definitively separate these two effects our ability to compare
outcomes of slightly older mothers (ages 22 and 23 born in 1917 or 1916) provide evidence
more consistent with in utero exposure to influenza than impacts of having a mother who is
2021 years old
From a policy perspective our evidence may suggest a novel source of multigenerational
persistence in poverty through biosocial factors and suggest a need to consider evidence of
transgenerational social andor biological mechanisms We document the extent to which
harmful early life environments cascade through generations promoting a disadvantaged start for
those whose grandparents exposed to a hazardous early life environment
22 We specifically explore the confounding effects of younger mothers in appendix tables 7 and 8 These
tables show that younger mothers are indeed initially disadvantaged (ie less years of schooling)
however this young-mother disadvantage does not persist in subsequent generations Rather only those
mothers born in the 1918-1919 range have significant negative effects on later generations
22
References
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Almond Doug and Bhashkar Mazumder 2005 The 1918 Influenza Pandemic and Subsequent Health Outcomes An Analysis of SIPP Data American Economic Review 95(2) 258-262
Barker David James P 2007 The origins of the developmental origins theory Journal of Internal Medicine 261(5) 412-417
Benyshek Daniel C (2013) The ldquoearly liferdquo origins of obesity‐related health disorders New discoveries regarding the intergenerational transmission of developmentally programmed traits in the global cardiometabolic health crisis American Journal of Physical Anthropology 152(S57) 79-93
Brown Alan S and Elena J Derkits 2010 Prenatal infection and schizophrenia a review of epidemiologic and translational studies American Journal of Psychiatry 167(3) 261-280
Burg Steven 2000 Wisconsin and the Great Spanish Flu Epidemic of 1918rdquo Wisconsin Magazine of History 84(1) 36-56
Bygren LarsOlov Gunnar Kaati and Soumlren Edvinsson 2001 Longevity determined by paternal ancestors nutrition during their slow growth period Acta biotheoretica 49(1) 53-59
Canetta Sarah E and Alan S Brown 2012 Prenatal infection maternal immune activation and risk for schizophrenia Translational Neuroscience 3(4) 320-327
Chadwick L and Solon G (2002) Intergenerational income mobility among daughters American Economic Review 92(1) 335-344
Cohen Alan A John Tillinghast and Vladimir Canudas-Romo 2010 No consistent effects of prenatal or neonatal exposure to Spanish flu on late-life mortality in 24 developed countries Demographic Research 22(20) 579
Fatemi S Hossein Julie Earle Reena Kanodia David Kist Effat S Emamian Paul H Patterson Limin Shi and Robert Sidwell 2002 Prenatal viral infection leads to pyramidal cell atrophy and macrocephaly in adulthood implications for genesis of autism and schizophrenia Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology 22(1) 25-33
Fletcher Jason 2014 Examining the Long Term Mortality Effects of Early Health Shocks US Census Bureau Center for Economic Studies Paper No CES-WP-14-19
Kaati Gunnar Lars O Bygren and Soren Edvinsson 2002 Cardiovascular and diabetes mortality determined by nutrition during parents and grandparents slow growth period European Journal of Human Genetics EJHG 10(11) 682
Kash John C Terrence M Tumpey Sean C Proll Victoria Carter Olivia Perwitasari Matthew J Thomas Christopher F Basler et al 2006 Genomic analysis of increased host immune and cell death responses induced by 1918 influenza virus Nature 443(7111) 578-581
Kobasa Darwyn Steven M Jones Kyoko Shinya John C Kash John Copps Hideki Ebihara Yasuko Hatta et al 2007 Aberrant innate immune response in lethal infection of macaques with the 1918 influenza virus Nature 445 (7125) 319-323
Kuzawa Christopher W and Dan T Eisenberg 2014 The Long Reach of History Intergenerational and Transgenerational Pathwaysto Plasticity in Human Longevity Sociality Hierarchy Health Comparative Biodemography Papers from a Workshop National Academies Press
Li Wai-Yu Yi-Chun Chang L Jyuhn-Hsiarn Lee and Li-Jen Lee 2014 Prenatal infection affects the neuronal architecture and cognitive function in adult mice Developmental Neuroscience 36(5) 359-370
23
Lin Ming-Jen and Elaine M Liu 2014 Does in utero exposure to illness matter The 1918 influenza epidemic in Taiwan as a natural experiment Journal of Health Economics 37 152-163
Lindeboom Maarten France Portrait and Gerard J Van den Berg 2010 Long-run effects on longevity of a nutritional shock early in life the Dutch Potato famine of 1846ndash1847 Journal of Health Economics 29(5) 617-629
Mamelund SE (2018) 1918 pandemic mobidity The first wave hits the poor the second wave hits the rich Influenza and Other Respitory Viruses 12(3) 307-313
Mazumder Bhashkar Douglas Almond Kyung Park Eileen M Crimmins and Caleb E Finch 2010 Lingering prenatal effects of the 1918 influenza pandemic on cardiovascular disease Journal of developmental origins of health and disease 1(1) 26-34
Miller Veronica Y Zhu C Bucher W McGinnis L Ryan A Siegel and S Zalcman 2013 Gestational flu exposure induces changes in neurochemicals affiliative hormones and brainstem inflammation in addition to autism-like behaviors in mice Brain Behavior and Immunity 33 153-163
Myrskylauml Mikko Neil K Mehta and Virginia W Chang 2013 Early life exposure to the 1918 influenza pandemic and old-age mortality by cause of death American Journal of Public Health 103(7) e83-e90
Olivetti C and Paserman MD (2015) In the name of the son (and the daughter) Intergenerational mobility in the United States 1850-1940 American Economic Review 105(8) 2695-2724
Pembrey Marcus E Lars Olov Bygren Gunnar Kaati Soumlren Edvinsson Kate Northstone Michael Sjoumlstroumlm and Jean Golding 2006 Sex-specific male-line transgenerational responses in humans European Journal of Human Genetics 14(2) 159-166
Richter Andreacute and Per Olof Robling 2013 Multigenerational effects of the 1918-19 influenza pandemic in Sweden Swedish Institute for Social Research 5
Shors Teri and Susan H McFadden 2009 1918 Influenza A Winnebago County Wisconsin Perspective Clinical Medicine amp Research 7(4) 147-156
Sydenstricker E (1931) The incidence of influenza among persons of different economic status during the epidemic of 1918 Public Health Reports 46(4) 154-170
van den Berg Gerard J and Pia R Pinger 2013 A validation study of transgenerational effects of childhood conditions on the third generation offsprings economic and health outcomes potentially driven by epigenetic imprinting IZA Discussion Paper
Tables and Figures
Table 1 Summary Statistics
Variable N Mean Std Deviation
First GenerartionFlu Indicators
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 8368 0112 0315Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 8456 0030 0170Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 8487 0093 0290
ControlsFirst Generation Malersquos Year of Birth 8456 1907435 7021First Generation Femalersquos Year of Birth 8427 1911189 6164
Dependent VariablesFirst Generation Malersquos Years of Schooling 8456 9778 3392First Generation Femalersquos Years of Schooing 8487 10499 2804First Generation Malersquos Job Prestige 8385 330662 214361First Generation Femalersquos Job Prestige 6683 12814 19934Family SES 8487 16231 11143
Second GenerationControls
Female Indicator 12459 0530 0499Birth Year 12459 1939406 4289Birth Order 12459 2529 1828
Dependent VariablesYears of Schooling 12459 13678 2361Family Income 1992 (in $1000s) 12112 68027 177105Net Worth 2004 (in $1000s) 10498 913046 2558927Self-reported health 1992 9888 4149 0668Height (inches) 9783 67406 3851BMI 1992 9671 26742 4657
Third GenerationControls
Birth Year 19913 1963901 3636Female Indicator 19913 0497 0500Birth Order 19913 2196 1263
Dependent VariableYears of Schooling 19913 14294 2309
Summary amp Notes This table provides summary statistics for all variables used The samples above may not berepresentative for all estimations For example the inclusion of siblings in the second generation increase the sample of parentalyear of birth and the corresponding flu indicator This increase in sample does not significantly change the sample statisticsabove Similar sample changes occur for the second generation controls above For the third generation the sample is restrictedto biological children over 35 years of age
24
Tab
le2
Fir
stG
ener
atio
n
Eco
nom
icE
ffec
ts
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
am
ily
SE
SY
ears
of
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
am
ily
SE
S(1
)(2
)(3
)(4
)(5
)(6
)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale)
-01
39
-01
16lowast
-12
90lowast
lowast
(02
00)
(00
60)
(05
99)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emal
e)-0
133
-00
66
-13
61lowastlowast
lowast
(00
95)
(00
43)
(03
76)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
YY
YY
YY
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8456
8385
8456
8487
6683
8487
RS
qr
00
32
00
08
00
23
00
13
00
04
00
13
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
pro
vid
esd
irec
teff
ects
of
inu
tero
an
dea
rly
life
exp
osu
reto
the
1918
Flu
Ep
idem
ic
Bir
thye
ar
tim
etr
end
sin
lcu
de
yea
rof
bir
than
dit
ssq
uar
ean
din
clu
sion
inth
ees
tim
atio
nis
par
ent
spec
ific
All
esti
mati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
an
dard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
alsi
gnifi
can
ceis
den
oted
by
an
d
re
pre
senti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vel
y
25
Tab
le3
Fir
stG
ener
atio
n
Mar
riag
eM
arke
tE
ffec
ts
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Flu
Bir
thY
ear
Yea
rsof
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
luB
irth
Yea
rY
ears
of
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
e(1
)(2
)(3
)(4
)(5
)(6
)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale)
01
40lowast
lowastlowast-0
259
-00
39
(00
34)
(01
58)
(00
72)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emal
e)0
056lowast
lowastlowast-0
340lowast
lowastlowast-0
118lowastlowast
lowast
(00
14)
(01
17)
(00
36)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
YY
YY
YY
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8348
8487
8412
8348
8456
6660
RS
qr
00
90
00
11
00
08
01
20
00
21
00
01
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
pro
vid
esev
iden
ceof
marr
iage
mark
etse
lect
ion
inth
efi
rst
gen
erati
on
B
irth
year
tim
etr
end
sin
clu
de
year
of
bir
than
dit
ssq
uare
and
incl
usi
onin
the
esti
mat
ion
isp
aren
tsp
ecifi
cA
lles
tim
ati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
an
dard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
sign
ifica
nce
isd
enot
edby
an
d
re
pre
senti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vely
26
Table 4 Second Generation Economic Effects
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Years of Schooling
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0209lowastlowastlowast
(0073)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0084 -0059(0129) (0129)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0211lowastlowastlowast -0209lowastlowastlowast
(0075) (0075)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0085 0084 0085 0085
Panel B ln Family Income 1992
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0221lowastlowast
(0111)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0098 -0066(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0262lowastlowast -0259lowastlowast
(0116) (0116)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112R Sqr 0021 0021 0021 0021
Panel C Std Net Worth 2004
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0026(0022)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0033 0038(0047) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0038lowast -0040lowast
(0021) (0021)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498R Sqr 0007 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table provides evidence of signficant harmful effects of flu exposure in the first generation on secondgeneration economic outcomes First generation time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents(ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and itssquare and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
27
Table 5 Second Generation Health Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Self-reported health (Likert 1=very poor 5=excellent)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0054lowastlowast
(0027)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0005(0047) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0061lowastlowast -0061lowastlowast
(0028) (0028)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Panel B Height (inches)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0101)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0102 0127(0168) (0168)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0169lowast -0175lowast
(0103) (0103)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783r2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Panel C BMI
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0412lowastlowast
(0191)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0082 0023(0344) (0346)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0422lowastlowast 0421lowastlowast
(0193) (0194)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table provides evidence of harmful effects of flu exposure in the first generation on secondgeneration health outcomes First generation time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents (iegen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and itssquare and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
28
Table 6 Generation Three Effects of Generation One Flu Exposure Years of Schooling
Dependent Variable Years of Schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0125(0077)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Male) -0007 0010(0136) (0136)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Female) -0144lowast -0144lowast
(0078) (0078)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913R Sqr 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table shows that the generational effects of flu exposure extend into the third generation of theWLS First generation flu exposure is shown to have a negative association with third generation years of schooling Firstgeneration time trends are year of birth measures for each parent and their square Second generation controls inlcude anindicator for sex second generation year of birth and its square and birth order Third generation controls include a sexindicator year of birth and its square and birth order Given the focus on years of schooling the sample is restricted to thosethird generation individuals 35 years of age and older or born during or before 1970 (data were collected in 2005) Allestimation is performed with OLS with family (second generation) clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
29
(a)
Fat
her
(b)
Moth
er
Fig
ure
1F
irst
Gen
erat
ion
Dis
trib
uti
onof
Yea
rof
Bir
th
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
figu
rep
lots
the
dis
trib
uti
on
for
firs
tgen
erati
on
year
of
bir
th
Flu
exp
osu
reis
class
ified
as
bei
ng
born
inei
ther
1918
or
1919
30
Appendix Tables
Appendix Table 1 First Generation Flu Exposure Effect on Family Income
Dependent Variable Family Income ($100s) 1957
(1) (2)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -3366(2592)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -5363lowastlowast
(2390)
Birth Year Time Trends Y YObservations 7440 7456R Sqr 0013 0004
Summary amp Notes This table replaces the index of socioeconomic status with family income (in $100s) in 1957 Allestimation is performed with OLS with robust standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
31
App
endix
Tab
le2
Mar
riag
eM
arke
tE
ffec
ts
Con
trol
ling
for
Ow
nY
ear
ofB
irth
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
Job
Pre
stig
eY
ears
of
Sch
Job
Pre
stig
e
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale
)-0
052
-211
82
-01
98
-03
74
(02
03)
(131
30)
(01
61)
(14
38)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emale
)-0
346lowast
lowastlowast-2
44
97lowastlowast
lowast-0
103
-13
88
(01
16)
(76
88)
(00
94)
(08
54)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
(Male
an
dF
emale
)Y
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8348
8279
8348
6587
RS
qr
00
40
00
22
00
25
00
04
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
re-e
stim
ates
Tab
le3
wh
ile
contr
oll
ing
for
year
of
bir
than
dfl
uin
dic
ato
rsass
oci
ate
dw
ith
the
spou
sein
the
dep
end
ent
vari
ab
le
All
esti
mat
ion
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
and
ard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
sign
ifica
nce
isd
enote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
atth
e10
5
and
1le
vel
sre
spec
tive
ly
32
Appendix Table 3 2nd Gen Economic Effects Controlling for 1st Gen Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Years of Schooling
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0088(0070)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0005 0008(0119) (0119)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0116 -0117(0072) (0072)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0206 0206 0206 0206
Panel B ln Family Income 1992
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0193lowast
(0111)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0080 -0050(0184) (0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0240lowastlowast -0238lowastlowast
(0116) (0116)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112R Sqr 0024 0024 0024 0024
Panel C Std Normal Net Worth 2004
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0003(0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0047 0049(0046) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0019 -0021(0020) (0020)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498R Sqr 0033 0033 0033 0033
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 4 while controlling for generation one economic outcomes fatherrsquos years ofschooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 First generation time trends are given by year of birth and itssquare for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex secondgeneration year of birth and its square and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standarderrors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and1 levels respectively 33
Appendix Table 4 2nd Gen Health Effects Controlling for 1st Gen Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A BMI
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0352lowast
(0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0051 -0001(0342) (0344)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0372lowast 0372lowast
(0192) (0193)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671R Sqr 0035 0035 0035 0035
Panel B Count of Illnesses
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0122lowast
(0065)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0076 -0096(0102) (0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0139lowastlowast 0144lowastlowast
(0067) (0068)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9921 9921 9921 9921R Sqr 0046 0046 0046 0046
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 5 while controlling for generation one economic outcomes fatherrsquos years ofschooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 First generation time trends are given by year of birth and itssquare for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex secondgeneration year of birth and its square and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standarderrors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and1 levels respectively
34
Appendix Table 5 Generation threersquos years of schooling Controlling for previous generation economicwell-being
Dependent Variable Years of Schooling for Gen 3(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A First Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0069(0076)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0022 0034(0133) (0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0102 -0104(0077) (0078)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913R Sqr 0117 0117 0117 0117
Panel B Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0025(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0008 0013(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0038 -0039(0073) (0073)
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0190 0190 0190 0190
Panel C First and Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0008(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0016 0019(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0028 -0029(0073) (0073)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0196 0196 0196 0196
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 6 while controlling for generation one and tworsquos economic outcomes Forgeneration one these include fatherrsquos years of schooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 generation twocontrols include the WLS graduatesiblingrsquos years of schooling family income in 1992 and net worth in 2004 First generationtime trends are year of birth measures for each parent and their square Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sexsecond generation year of birth and its square and birth order Third generation controls include a sex indicator year of birthand its square and birth order Given the focus on years of schooling the sample is restricted to those third generationindividuals 35 years of age and older or born during or before 1970 (data were collected in 2005) All estimation is performedwith OLS with family (second generation) clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denotedby and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
35
Appendix Table 6 Alternative measures of schooling in the second generation
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Indicator for any college (years of schooling gt12)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0044lowastlowastlowast
(0017)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0011 -0006(0029) (0029)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0044lowastlowast -0043lowastlowast
(0017) (0017)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0071 0070 0071 0071
Panel B Indicator for incomplete college (years of schooling gt12 amp lt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0008(0013)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 -0001(0022) (0022)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0008 -0008(0013) (0013)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0005 0005 0005 0005
Panel C Indicator for college graduate (years of schooling = 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0022lowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0003 0006(0020) (0020)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0021lowast -0021lowastlowast
(0011) (0011)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0019 0019 0019 0019
Panel D Indicator for post-college education (years of schooling gt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0014(0010)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0011(0018) (0018)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0014 -0014(0010) (0010)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0039 0039 0039 0039
Summary amp Notes This table replaces our continuous measure of years of schooling with specified dummy variables Firstgeneration time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Secondgeneration controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and its square and birth order All estimationis performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
36
Appendix Table 7 Young mothers Direct effect on Gen 1 Females
Dependent Variable Years of Sch Job Prestige Family SES
(1) (2) (3)
Ind for First Gen Female Flu Exposure (1918-1919) -0325lowastlowast -0841 -1749lowastlowastlowast
(0137) (1015) (0584)
Ind for mother born during 1920-1921 -0567lowastlowastlowast 0745 -1157(0206) (1515) (0914)
Ind for mother born during 1922-1923 -0666lowastlowast 0098 -2113(0330) (2210) (1298)
Ind for mother born after 1924 -0392 5682 0384(0486) (3705) (2126)
Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y
Observations 8487 6683 8487R Sqr 0014 0005 0014
Summary amp Notes This table includes indicators for alternative years of birth Younger mothers are shown to have lessyears of schooling All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
37
App
endix
Tab
le8
You
ng
mot
her
sG
ener
atio
n2
and
3eff
ects
Gen
2
Gen
3
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
ln
Fam
In
c
1992
Std
N
W
2004
Sel
f-re
p
hea
lth
Hei
ght
BM
IY
ears
of
Sch
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
emal
eF
luE
xp
osu
re(1
918-
1919
)-0
201lowastlowast
-02
95lowastlowast
-00
45
-00
73lowastlowast
-00
90
02
07
-00
86(0
092)
(01
32)
(00
32)
(00
32)
(01
22)
(02
25)
(00
94)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
20-1
921
-00
22
-00
40
-00
10
-00
61
01
33
-04
10
01
13
(01
37)
(01
74)
(00
51)
(00
43)
(01
80)
(03
11)
(01
41)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
22-1
923
-00
96
-01
88
-00
57
00
20
04
61
-11
29lowastlowast
01
55(0
184)
(03
20)
(00
61)
(00
75)
(02
83)
(04
51)
(02
23)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
afte
r19
2404
58
-01
87
00
01
-00
27
03
12
-08
85
03
99
(03
06)
(03
94)
(00
87)
(01
27)
(04
94)
(10
70)
(03
21)
Bas
eC
ontr
ols
YY
YY
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
12459
12112
10498
9888
9783
9671
19913
RS
qr
00
85
00
21
00
08
00
09
05
86
00
29
00
79
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
incl
ud
esin
dic
ator
sfo
ralt
ernati
ve
years
of
bir
th
Bei
ng
born
toa
you
nger
moth
ergen
erall
yis
not
ass
oci
ate
dw
ith
gen
erati
on
2or
3rsquos
outc
omes
ofin
tere
st
inst
ead
n
egat
ive
effec
tsar
eon
lyob
serv
edfo
rth
ose
born
du
rin
gth
efl
u
All
esti
mati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hfa
mil
y(2
nd
gen
erat
ion
)cl
ust
ered
stan
dar
der
rors
rep
orte
din
par
enth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
signifi
can
ceis
den
ote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vel
y
38
Appendix Table 9 Summary Statistics by Gen 2 Sex
Variable N Mean Std Deviation
FemaleYears of Schooling 6607 13352 2088ln Family Income (1992 wave) 6411 9424 3577
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5654 10686 1010Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 5612 -0047 0539Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 5313 4164 0670Height (inches) 5231 646635 247936BMI 5124 26073 5114
Gen 3Years of Schooling 11947 14240 2291
MaleYears of Schooling 5852 14047 2587ln Family Income (1992 wave) 5701 10139 3030
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5264 10981 0836Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 4886 0059 1159Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 4575 4133 0665Height (inches) 4554 7055484 25596BMI 4547 27496 3948
Gen 3Years of Schooling 8046 14371 2332
Appendix Table 10A Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0090(0086)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0198 0214(0169) (0169)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104 -0114(0087) (0087)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6607 6607 6607 6607R Sqr 0075 0075 0075 0075
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
39
Appendix Table 10B Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0523lowastlowastlowast
(0170)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0483 -0410(0321) (0323)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0512lowastlowastlowast -0491lowastlowastlowast
(0179) (0180)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6411 6411 6411 6411R Sqr 0015 0013 0014 0015
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10C Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0007(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0078lowast 0078(0048) (0048)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0008 0005(0025) (0025)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5612 5612 5612 5612R Sqr 0007 0007 0007 0007
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
40
Appendix Table 10D Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0027(0036)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 -0001(0071) (0071)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0022 -0022(0037) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5313 5313 5313 5313r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10E Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -2382(13366)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 44280lowastlowast 46351lowastlowast
(22343) (22480)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -12253 -14428(13485) (13561)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5231 5231 5231 5231r2 0015 0016 0015 0016
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
41
Appendix Table 10F Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0353(0286)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0105 0060(0514) (0516)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0326 0323(0289) (0290)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5124 5124 5124 5124R Sqr 0010 0010 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0087(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0104 -0101(0190) (0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0042 -0039(0098) (0098)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 11906 11906 11906 11906R Sqr 0086 0086 0086 0086
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
42
Appendix Table 11A Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0322lowastlowastlowast
(0116)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0369lowastlowast -0338lowast
(0181) (0180)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0309lowastlowastlowast -0297lowastlowast
(0119) (0119)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5852 5852 5852 5852R Sqr 0060 0059 0060 0060
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11B RResults by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0116(0138)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0262 0261(0200) (0199)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0024 0014(0141) (0140)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5701 5701 5701 5701R Sqr 0009 0009 0008 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
43
Appendix Table 11C Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0038)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0001(0081) (0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0094lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0035)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4886 4886 4886 4886R Sqr 0004 0004 0004 0004
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
44
Appendix Table 11D Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0083lowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 0012(0062) (0062)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104lowastlowastlowast -0105lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0041)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4575 4575 4575 4575r2 0010 0009 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11E Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -15122(14275)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -22991 -20537(23287) (23176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -18595 -17540(14734) (14751)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4554 4554 4554 4554r2 0011 0011 0011 0011
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
45
Appendix Table 11F Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0465lowast
(0238)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0079 0006(0403) (0405)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0520lowastlowast 0520lowastlowast
(0245) (0246)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4547 4547 4547 4547R Sqr 0006 0005 0006 0006
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0177(0123)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0098 0144(0194) (0192)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0293lowastlowast -0302lowastlowast
(0125) (0126)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8007 8007 8007 8007R Sqr 0067 0067 0068 0068
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
46
Appendix Table 12A Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0253lowastlowast
(0107)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0252 -0226(0170) (0172)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0263lowastlowast -0242lowastlowast
(0113) (0115)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0084(0120)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0341 0339(0216) (0219)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0096 0056(0130) (0132)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459r2 0085 0085 0085 0085
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
47
Appendix Table 12B Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0128)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0196 0169(0190) (0189)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0081 -0104(0135) (0135)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0383lowastlowast
(0189)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0594lowast -0474(0349) (0355)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0339lowast -0283(0204) (0207)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112r2 0021 0021 0021 0021
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
48
Appendix Table 12C Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0034)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0019(0077) (0079)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0095lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0030) (0031)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0071lowast
(0038)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0072 0039(0087) (0089)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0104lowastlowastlowast 0100lowastlowastlowast
(0035) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498r2 0008 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
49
Appendix Table 12D Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0071lowast
(0036)[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0012 0031
(0058) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0093lowastlowast -0097lowastlowast
(0039) (0039)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0030(0045)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0031 -0051(0087) (0088)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0059 0065(0048) (0049)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
50
Appendix Table 12E Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0129 -0125(0223) (0224)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0152 -0129(0141) (0142)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0000(0158)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0454 0495lowast
(0279) (0287)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0031 -0090(0170) (0175)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783nr2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
51
Appendix Table 12F Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0376(0231)
[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0059 -0122(0402) (0407)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0441lowast 0457lowast
(0240) (0243)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0068(0316)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0282 0288(0573) (0589)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0035 -0069(0340) (0350)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
52
Appendix Table 12G Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0131(0114)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male 0114 0175(0185) (0188)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0237lowastlowast -0261lowastlowast
(0118) (0121)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0009(0133)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0225 -0292(0249) (0254)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0152 0189(0141) (0145)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913r2 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
53
Appendix Table 13 Family Income 1992 excluding non-earners (ie fam inc = 0)
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992 wave (excluding those reporting 0)(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0095lowastlowastlowast
(0033)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0031 -0019(0053) (0053)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0101lowastlowastlowast -0100lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0034)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10918 10918 10918 10918r2 0050 0049 0050 0050
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0084lowast
(0050)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0019 -0007(0089) (0090)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0083 -0083(0053) (0054)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5654 5654 5654 5654r2 0026 0026 0026 0026
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102lowastlowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0051 -0040(0060) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0113lowastlowastlowast -0112lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0040)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5264 5264 5264 5264r2 0029 0028 0029 0029
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel B in Table 4 excluding those who report $0 for familyincome All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
54
Appendix Table 14 Net Worth 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable Std Net Worth 2011 Wave of WLS(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0032lowastlowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0023lowast -0021lowast
(0012) (0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0032lowastlowastlowast -0031lowastlowastlowast
(0010) (0010)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9435 9435 9435 9435r2 0002 0002 0002 0002
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0012lowast
(0006)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0009 -0008(0009) (0009)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0012lowastlowast -0011lowastlowast
(0006) (0006)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5026 5026 5026 5026r2 0007 0006 0007 0007
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0057lowastlowast
(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0040lowast -0036lowast
(0023) (0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0057lowastlowast -0056lowastlowast
(0023) (0022)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4409 4409 4409 4409r2 0001 0001 0001 0001
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel C in Table 4 replacing the net worth measure from the 2004wave with an identical measure from the 2011 wave of the WLS All estimation is performed with OLS with family clusteredstandard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 105 and 1 levels respectively
55
Appendix Table 15A Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 1992 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0243(0152)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0107 0039(0252) (0255)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0285lowast 0282lowast
(0158) (0160)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9849 9849 9849 9849
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0007(0091)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0210 -0216(0170) (0173)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0007 0024(0095) (0097)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9858 9858 9858 9858
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0255(0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0107 -0169(0328) (0338)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0237 0252(0193) (0198)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9845 9845 9845 9845
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
56
Appendix Table 15B Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2004 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0018(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0190 0207(0160) (0162)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0066 -0083(0102) (0104)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10672 10672 10672 10672
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0096 0108(0124) (0125)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0051 -0059(0076) (0077)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10619 10619 10619 10619
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0108(0110)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0064 0027(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0181 0179(0113) (0113)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10617 10617 10617 10617
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
57
Appendix Table 15C Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0099(0092)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0244 0242(0154) (0155)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0033 0016(0099) (0100)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0021(0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0095 0097(0138) (0139)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0004 -0011(0085) (0086)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0134(0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0203 0181(0175) (0176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0140 0127(0107) (0107)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8709 8709 8709 8709
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
58
- text 10818
- tables 10-8-18
-
16
prior work linking early life exposure to the Dutch famine to BMI (Roseboom et al 2000) and
metabolic function (Lumey et al 2009) in adulthood as well as the fact that both the Dutch
famine and the 1918 flu impacted maternal stress and nutritional status18 we examine BMI as
another broad indicator of health for the second generation this is tested in Panel C of table 5 A
consistent pattern emerges across all panels Like SES outcomes in table 4 gen 1 female
exposure to the flu is shown to have negative statistically significant association with all health
outcomes in the second generation
From Panel A parentalmdashor gen 1mdashflu exposure reduces self-reported health by roughly
half a point (plt005) on a Likert scale from 1-5 1 being very poor health and 5 being excellent
health As shown and like prior estimates this effect is driven by gen 1 female exposure For
adult height gen 1 female exposure is associated with a reduction of about 02 inches (plt010)
which is larger than the direct effect documented by Mazumder et al of 005 inches however
Mazumder et alrsquos estimated effect falls within the 95 confidence interval of our estimated
coefficient Panel C considers the effect on second generation BMI From column (1) having
either parent being born in 19181919 is associated with a statistically significant increase in the
offspringrsquos BMI of 041 points As with the economic effects of table 4 this increase in BMI
appears to be driven by motherrsquos exposure This is seen in columns (2)-(4) which estimate a
statistically significant positive coefficient for motherrsquos exposure but a coefficient that is
statistically indistinguishable from zero for fatherrsquos exposure
disease during the 199293 wave of the WLS (Appendix Table 15A) This association however reduced
in magnitude and statistical significance for later-life waves of the WLS (Appendix Table 15B and 15C) 18 The Dutch famine influenced maternal nutritional status directly through caloric restriction and the
1918 flu through symptoms such as appetite loss vomiting andor diarrhea
17
A persistent effect of in utero exposure to the 1918 Flu is seen in tables 4 and 5 First
generation exposure consistently has a statistically significant and economically meaningful
effect on second generation health and economic outcomes And this effect appears to be driven
solely by motherrsquos exposure although due to marriage market associations we cannot
determine definitively that motherrsquos exposure produces this multigenerational effect through
biological mechanisms
Appendix Tables 10A-11G re-estimate Tables 4 and 5 splitting the sample by generation
2rsquos sex In short the negative effects of first generation exposure appear to be more prominent
in second generation males such that the harmful multi-generational effects are most prominent
in second generation men whose mothers were exposed to the 1918 flu19 Potential reasons for
this sex disparity could be tied to general trends in the differences between sons and daughters in
intergenerational mobility (Chadwick and Solon 2002) In other words sons are more likely to
inherit their families SES standing than daughters This implies that the negative gen 1 shock
from in utero exposure is more likely to affect sons through the proposed SES channel than
daughters resulting in a larger estimated effect for gen 2 males Furthermore there appears to
be a growing gap between in the intergenerational elastiticy between sons and daughters during
the time period in question (Olivetti and Paserman 2015) Another potential reason for the sex
difference could be the larger standard deviation in gen 2 male outcomes this is shown in
Appendix Table 9 Finally the findings of Appendix Tables 10A-11G differ from Richter and
Robling (2013) who show homogeneous sex effects from in utero flu exposure for education
19 When omitting those with no family income during the 1992 wave of the WLS negative effects from
gen 1 female flu exposure are primarily seen in second generation males This indicates however that
there is a greater frequency of no income amongst second generation females from gen 1 flu exposure
Additionally when looking at net worth in the 2011 wave of the WLS we see no difference by gen 2rsquos
sex
18
gen 1 female exposure led to reduction in gen 2 female education and gen 1 male exposure is
associated with gen 2 male education Given this disparity between the two studies our under-
representation for gen 1 male exposure and the mixed findings in Tables 10A-11G we view our
general finding of gen 1 female exposure working through gen 2 male outcomes as preliminary
and suggestive Indeed as we test in Appendix Tables 12A-12G the sex differences in gen 2 are
often not statistically significant
Third Generation
As mentioned previously the focus of the WLS data collection is high school graduates in 1957
but additional samples have been collected for a number of variables on the children of these
graduates Table 6 explores the effects of the WLS parents on the years of schooling for WLS
children estimating the effect of flu exposure across three generations20
Consistent with the second-generation estimations a persistent effect of the in utero flu
exposure is observed and this effect seems to be driven by grandmother exposure (gen 1
female) The joint indicator for either parent is negative and close to statistical significance at
the 10 percent level (p=0106) suggesting that exposure in the first generation is associated with
012 years of schooling less in the third generation The effect of grandfather exposure is
insignificantly different from zero while the coefficient of grandmother exposure is similar in
magnitude to the joint estimate of column (1) while being statistically significant at the 10
level (p=0066) Furthermore the decline in schooling seen in the third generation is similar but
slightly smaller in magnitude compared to the second generation effects seen in Panel A of table
20Analysis of the WLS gradsibling children (ie the third generation) restricts the sample to those
children that are biological children and that are 35 years of age and older by the 20032004 wave of the
WLS
19
421 This again indicates a persistent effect that may be attenuating over time Importantly while
the estimate for grandfather exposure is insignificant it is consistent with intergenerational
inheritance (Kuzawa and Eisenberg 2014) To say the same for grandmother exposure would
require effects to persist into the fourth generation (due to the differences in gametic
development) and this data is not available in the WLS
Conclusion
This paper presents novel evidence of multigenerational effects of in utero health insults We
use the sudden and unexpected influenza pandemic in 19181919 to trace out the effects of in
utero exposure to infectious disease on own outcomes for the first generation childrenrsquos
outcomes and grandchildrenrsquos outcomes We find that this exposure reduces educational
attainment and related economic outcomes across three generations For example individuals in
our second generation the WLS graduates and their siblings who have mothers who were
exposed to the 1918 flu in utero complete 15 fewer years of schooling (or 24 months less
schooling) The size of our estimated effect aligns well with those of Richter and Robling (2013)
who find that first generation in utero exposure to the 1918 flu results in 16 fewer years of
schooling (or 2 months to 25 months less schooling) for the maternal line We then extend
results to the third generation for the first time in the literature and find that individuals in the
third generation who have grandmothers who were exposed to the pandemic in utero complete
17 fewer years of schooling (or 17 months less schooling) than individuals without affected
grandmothers
21 For gen 1 female exposure in column (4) the p-value for a difference in coefficients between Panel A
of Table 4 and Table 6 is 0411 implying the effect in the third generation is statistically indistinguishable
from that in the second generation
20
There are at several potential mechanisms for the persistence of poor outcomes across
three generations we find in our data As previously outlined the intergenerational persistence in
poor outcomes due to early life health shocks could occur through socioeconomic channels
where a fetally insulted person with resulting low educational attainment raises a child in a low-
resource environment that reduces opportunities for high educational attainment of the child In
order to see multigenerational effects the reduced opportunities for high educational attainment
of the child must then reduce opportunities for their own children Alternatively
intergenerational transmission may occur through epigenetic inheritance through the germ line a
distinct possibility based on findings of the Oumlverkalix studies or phenotype-to-phenotype
transmission and cumulative intergenerational phenotypic change
Our analysis is unable to fully distinguish between these proposed intergenerational
channels the socioeconomic and biological but it is important to note that the channels are by no
means mutually exclusive Further analysis (appendix tables 3-5) that is intended to partially
account for the socioeconomic mechanism leads to mixed results in which the coefficient of first
generation flu exposure is attenuated to insignificance for some outcomes but not others This
provides evidence for a socioeconomic channel but does not eliminate the possibility of
epigenetic mechanisms or other biological channel through which socioeconomic status ldquogets
under the skinrdquo to influence outcomes of subsequent generations (eg the socioeconomic
circumstances of one generation may ldquoget under the skinrdquo of the next and subsequently be passed
via biology andor socioeconomics to other generations) Likewise the estimates of grandfather
effects on grandchildren are imprecise but consistent with transgenerational inheritance (Kuzawa
and Eisenberg 2014) Additionally while the WLS provides a unique framework to analyze
multiple generations the measurement of flu exposure is somewhat crude (from self-reported
21
parentsrsquo year of birth) and is in the right-tail of the distribution of parent birth years suggesting
the possibility of confounding from resource-poor younger mothers22 That is exposure to
influenza in the first generation is mechanically tied to motherrsquos ages of 20 and 21 because the
WLS sample is drawn based on having a child who was born in 1939 (and thus graduating high
school in 1957) While we cannot definitively separate these two effects our ability to compare
outcomes of slightly older mothers (ages 22 and 23 born in 1917 or 1916) provide evidence
more consistent with in utero exposure to influenza than impacts of having a mother who is
2021 years old
From a policy perspective our evidence may suggest a novel source of multigenerational
persistence in poverty through biosocial factors and suggest a need to consider evidence of
transgenerational social andor biological mechanisms We document the extent to which
harmful early life environments cascade through generations promoting a disadvantaged start for
those whose grandparents exposed to a hazardous early life environment
22 We specifically explore the confounding effects of younger mothers in appendix tables 7 and 8 These
tables show that younger mothers are indeed initially disadvantaged (ie less years of schooling)
however this young-mother disadvantage does not persist in subsequent generations Rather only those
mothers born in the 1918-1919 range have significant negative effects on later generations
22
References
Almond Doug 2006 Is the 1918 Influenza pandemic over Long‐term effects of in utero Influenza exposure in the post‐1940 US population Journal of Political Economy 114(4) 672-712
Almond Doug and Bhashkar Mazumder 2005 The 1918 Influenza Pandemic and Subsequent Health Outcomes An Analysis of SIPP Data American Economic Review 95(2) 258-262
Barker David James P 2007 The origins of the developmental origins theory Journal of Internal Medicine 261(5) 412-417
Benyshek Daniel C (2013) The ldquoearly liferdquo origins of obesity‐related health disorders New discoveries regarding the intergenerational transmission of developmentally programmed traits in the global cardiometabolic health crisis American Journal of Physical Anthropology 152(S57) 79-93
Brown Alan S and Elena J Derkits 2010 Prenatal infection and schizophrenia a review of epidemiologic and translational studies American Journal of Psychiatry 167(3) 261-280
Burg Steven 2000 Wisconsin and the Great Spanish Flu Epidemic of 1918rdquo Wisconsin Magazine of History 84(1) 36-56
Bygren LarsOlov Gunnar Kaati and Soumlren Edvinsson 2001 Longevity determined by paternal ancestors nutrition during their slow growth period Acta biotheoretica 49(1) 53-59
Canetta Sarah E and Alan S Brown 2012 Prenatal infection maternal immune activation and risk for schizophrenia Translational Neuroscience 3(4) 320-327
Chadwick L and Solon G (2002) Intergenerational income mobility among daughters American Economic Review 92(1) 335-344
Cohen Alan A John Tillinghast and Vladimir Canudas-Romo 2010 No consistent effects of prenatal or neonatal exposure to Spanish flu on late-life mortality in 24 developed countries Demographic Research 22(20) 579
Fatemi S Hossein Julie Earle Reena Kanodia David Kist Effat S Emamian Paul H Patterson Limin Shi and Robert Sidwell 2002 Prenatal viral infection leads to pyramidal cell atrophy and macrocephaly in adulthood implications for genesis of autism and schizophrenia Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology 22(1) 25-33
Fletcher Jason 2014 Examining the Long Term Mortality Effects of Early Health Shocks US Census Bureau Center for Economic Studies Paper No CES-WP-14-19
Kaati Gunnar Lars O Bygren and Soren Edvinsson 2002 Cardiovascular and diabetes mortality determined by nutrition during parents and grandparents slow growth period European Journal of Human Genetics EJHG 10(11) 682
Kash John C Terrence M Tumpey Sean C Proll Victoria Carter Olivia Perwitasari Matthew J Thomas Christopher F Basler et al 2006 Genomic analysis of increased host immune and cell death responses induced by 1918 influenza virus Nature 443(7111) 578-581
Kobasa Darwyn Steven M Jones Kyoko Shinya John C Kash John Copps Hideki Ebihara Yasuko Hatta et al 2007 Aberrant innate immune response in lethal infection of macaques with the 1918 influenza virus Nature 445 (7125) 319-323
Kuzawa Christopher W and Dan T Eisenberg 2014 The Long Reach of History Intergenerational and Transgenerational Pathwaysto Plasticity in Human Longevity Sociality Hierarchy Health Comparative Biodemography Papers from a Workshop National Academies Press
Li Wai-Yu Yi-Chun Chang L Jyuhn-Hsiarn Lee and Li-Jen Lee 2014 Prenatal infection affects the neuronal architecture and cognitive function in adult mice Developmental Neuroscience 36(5) 359-370
23
Lin Ming-Jen and Elaine M Liu 2014 Does in utero exposure to illness matter The 1918 influenza epidemic in Taiwan as a natural experiment Journal of Health Economics 37 152-163
Lindeboom Maarten France Portrait and Gerard J Van den Berg 2010 Long-run effects on longevity of a nutritional shock early in life the Dutch Potato famine of 1846ndash1847 Journal of Health Economics 29(5) 617-629
Mamelund SE (2018) 1918 pandemic mobidity The first wave hits the poor the second wave hits the rich Influenza and Other Respitory Viruses 12(3) 307-313
Mazumder Bhashkar Douglas Almond Kyung Park Eileen M Crimmins and Caleb E Finch 2010 Lingering prenatal effects of the 1918 influenza pandemic on cardiovascular disease Journal of developmental origins of health and disease 1(1) 26-34
Miller Veronica Y Zhu C Bucher W McGinnis L Ryan A Siegel and S Zalcman 2013 Gestational flu exposure induces changes in neurochemicals affiliative hormones and brainstem inflammation in addition to autism-like behaviors in mice Brain Behavior and Immunity 33 153-163
Myrskylauml Mikko Neil K Mehta and Virginia W Chang 2013 Early life exposure to the 1918 influenza pandemic and old-age mortality by cause of death American Journal of Public Health 103(7) e83-e90
Olivetti C and Paserman MD (2015) In the name of the son (and the daughter) Intergenerational mobility in the United States 1850-1940 American Economic Review 105(8) 2695-2724
Pembrey Marcus E Lars Olov Bygren Gunnar Kaati Soumlren Edvinsson Kate Northstone Michael Sjoumlstroumlm and Jean Golding 2006 Sex-specific male-line transgenerational responses in humans European Journal of Human Genetics 14(2) 159-166
Richter Andreacute and Per Olof Robling 2013 Multigenerational effects of the 1918-19 influenza pandemic in Sweden Swedish Institute for Social Research 5
Shors Teri and Susan H McFadden 2009 1918 Influenza A Winnebago County Wisconsin Perspective Clinical Medicine amp Research 7(4) 147-156
Sydenstricker E (1931) The incidence of influenza among persons of different economic status during the epidemic of 1918 Public Health Reports 46(4) 154-170
van den Berg Gerard J and Pia R Pinger 2013 A validation study of transgenerational effects of childhood conditions on the third generation offsprings economic and health outcomes potentially driven by epigenetic imprinting IZA Discussion Paper
Tables and Figures
Table 1 Summary Statistics
Variable N Mean Std Deviation
First GenerartionFlu Indicators
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 8368 0112 0315Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 8456 0030 0170Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 8487 0093 0290
ControlsFirst Generation Malersquos Year of Birth 8456 1907435 7021First Generation Femalersquos Year of Birth 8427 1911189 6164
Dependent VariablesFirst Generation Malersquos Years of Schooling 8456 9778 3392First Generation Femalersquos Years of Schooing 8487 10499 2804First Generation Malersquos Job Prestige 8385 330662 214361First Generation Femalersquos Job Prestige 6683 12814 19934Family SES 8487 16231 11143
Second GenerationControls
Female Indicator 12459 0530 0499Birth Year 12459 1939406 4289Birth Order 12459 2529 1828
Dependent VariablesYears of Schooling 12459 13678 2361Family Income 1992 (in $1000s) 12112 68027 177105Net Worth 2004 (in $1000s) 10498 913046 2558927Self-reported health 1992 9888 4149 0668Height (inches) 9783 67406 3851BMI 1992 9671 26742 4657
Third GenerationControls
Birth Year 19913 1963901 3636Female Indicator 19913 0497 0500Birth Order 19913 2196 1263
Dependent VariableYears of Schooling 19913 14294 2309
Summary amp Notes This table provides summary statistics for all variables used The samples above may not berepresentative for all estimations For example the inclusion of siblings in the second generation increase the sample of parentalyear of birth and the corresponding flu indicator This increase in sample does not significantly change the sample statisticsabove Similar sample changes occur for the second generation controls above For the third generation the sample is restrictedto biological children over 35 years of age
24
Tab
le2
Fir
stG
ener
atio
n
Eco
nom
icE
ffec
ts
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
am
ily
SE
SY
ears
of
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
am
ily
SE
S(1
)(2
)(3
)(4
)(5
)(6
)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale)
-01
39
-01
16lowast
-12
90lowast
lowast
(02
00)
(00
60)
(05
99)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emal
e)-0
133
-00
66
-13
61lowastlowast
lowast
(00
95)
(00
43)
(03
76)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
YY
YY
YY
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8456
8385
8456
8487
6683
8487
RS
qr
00
32
00
08
00
23
00
13
00
04
00
13
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
pro
vid
esd
irec
teff
ects
of
inu
tero
an
dea
rly
life
exp
osu
reto
the
1918
Flu
Ep
idem
ic
Bir
thye
ar
tim
etr
end
sin
lcu
de
yea
rof
bir
than
dit
ssq
uar
ean
din
clu
sion
inth
ees
tim
atio
nis
par
ent
spec
ific
All
esti
mati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
an
dard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
alsi
gnifi
can
ceis
den
oted
by
an
d
re
pre
senti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vel
y
25
Tab
le3
Fir
stG
ener
atio
n
Mar
riag
eM
arke
tE
ffec
ts
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Flu
Bir
thY
ear
Yea
rsof
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
luB
irth
Yea
rY
ears
of
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
e(1
)(2
)(3
)(4
)(5
)(6
)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale)
01
40lowast
lowastlowast-0
259
-00
39
(00
34)
(01
58)
(00
72)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emal
e)0
056lowast
lowastlowast-0
340lowast
lowastlowast-0
118lowastlowast
lowast
(00
14)
(01
17)
(00
36)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
YY
YY
YY
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8348
8487
8412
8348
8456
6660
RS
qr
00
90
00
11
00
08
01
20
00
21
00
01
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
pro
vid
esev
iden
ceof
marr
iage
mark
etse
lect
ion
inth
efi
rst
gen
erati
on
B
irth
year
tim
etr
end
sin
clu
de
year
of
bir
than
dit
ssq
uare
and
incl
usi
onin
the
esti
mat
ion
isp
aren
tsp
ecifi
cA
lles
tim
ati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
an
dard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
sign
ifica
nce
isd
enot
edby
an
d
re
pre
senti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vely
26
Table 4 Second Generation Economic Effects
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Years of Schooling
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0209lowastlowastlowast
(0073)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0084 -0059(0129) (0129)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0211lowastlowastlowast -0209lowastlowastlowast
(0075) (0075)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0085 0084 0085 0085
Panel B ln Family Income 1992
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0221lowastlowast
(0111)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0098 -0066(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0262lowastlowast -0259lowastlowast
(0116) (0116)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112R Sqr 0021 0021 0021 0021
Panel C Std Net Worth 2004
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0026(0022)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0033 0038(0047) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0038lowast -0040lowast
(0021) (0021)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498R Sqr 0007 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table provides evidence of signficant harmful effects of flu exposure in the first generation on secondgeneration economic outcomes First generation time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents(ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and itssquare and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
27
Table 5 Second Generation Health Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Self-reported health (Likert 1=very poor 5=excellent)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0054lowastlowast
(0027)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0005(0047) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0061lowastlowast -0061lowastlowast
(0028) (0028)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Panel B Height (inches)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0101)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0102 0127(0168) (0168)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0169lowast -0175lowast
(0103) (0103)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783r2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Panel C BMI
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0412lowastlowast
(0191)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0082 0023(0344) (0346)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0422lowastlowast 0421lowastlowast
(0193) (0194)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table provides evidence of harmful effects of flu exposure in the first generation on secondgeneration health outcomes First generation time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents (iegen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and itssquare and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
28
Table 6 Generation Three Effects of Generation One Flu Exposure Years of Schooling
Dependent Variable Years of Schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0125(0077)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Male) -0007 0010(0136) (0136)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Female) -0144lowast -0144lowast
(0078) (0078)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913R Sqr 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table shows that the generational effects of flu exposure extend into the third generation of theWLS First generation flu exposure is shown to have a negative association with third generation years of schooling Firstgeneration time trends are year of birth measures for each parent and their square Second generation controls inlcude anindicator for sex second generation year of birth and its square and birth order Third generation controls include a sexindicator year of birth and its square and birth order Given the focus on years of schooling the sample is restricted to thosethird generation individuals 35 years of age and older or born during or before 1970 (data were collected in 2005) Allestimation is performed with OLS with family (second generation) clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
29
(a)
Fat
her
(b)
Moth
er
Fig
ure
1F
irst
Gen
erat
ion
Dis
trib
uti
onof
Yea
rof
Bir
th
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
figu
rep
lots
the
dis
trib
uti
on
for
firs
tgen
erati
on
year
of
bir
th
Flu
exp
osu
reis
class
ified
as
bei
ng
born
inei
ther
1918
or
1919
30
Appendix Tables
Appendix Table 1 First Generation Flu Exposure Effect on Family Income
Dependent Variable Family Income ($100s) 1957
(1) (2)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -3366(2592)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -5363lowastlowast
(2390)
Birth Year Time Trends Y YObservations 7440 7456R Sqr 0013 0004
Summary amp Notes This table replaces the index of socioeconomic status with family income (in $100s) in 1957 Allestimation is performed with OLS with robust standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
31
App
endix
Tab
le2
Mar
riag
eM
arke
tE
ffec
ts
Con
trol
ling
for
Ow
nY
ear
ofB
irth
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
Job
Pre
stig
eY
ears
of
Sch
Job
Pre
stig
e
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale
)-0
052
-211
82
-01
98
-03
74
(02
03)
(131
30)
(01
61)
(14
38)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emale
)-0
346lowast
lowastlowast-2
44
97lowastlowast
lowast-0
103
-13
88
(01
16)
(76
88)
(00
94)
(08
54)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
(Male
an
dF
emale
)Y
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8348
8279
8348
6587
RS
qr
00
40
00
22
00
25
00
04
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
re-e
stim
ates
Tab
le3
wh
ile
contr
oll
ing
for
year
of
bir
than
dfl
uin
dic
ato
rsass
oci
ate
dw
ith
the
spou
sein
the
dep
end
ent
vari
ab
le
All
esti
mat
ion
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
and
ard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
sign
ifica
nce
isd
enote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
atth
e10
5
and
1le
vel
sre
spec
tive
ly
32
Appendix Table 3 2nd Gen Economic Effects Controlling for 1st Gen Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Years of Schooling
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0088(0070)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0005 0008(0119) (0119)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0116 -0117(0072) (0072)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0206 0206 0206 0206
Panel B ln Family Income 1992
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0193lowast
(0111)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0080 -0050(0184) (0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0240lowastlowast -0238lowastlowast
(0116) (0116)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112R Sqr 0024 0024 0024 0024
Panel C Std Normal Net Worth 2004
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0003(0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0047 0049(0046) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0019 -0021(0020) (0020)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498R Sqr 0033 0033 0033 0033
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 4 while controlling for generation one economic outcomes fatherrsquos years ofschooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 First generation time trends are given by year of birth and itssquare for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex secondgeneration year of birth and its square and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standarderrors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and1 levels respectively 33
Appendix Table 4 2nd Gen Health Effects Controlling for 1st Gen Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A BMI
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0352lowast
(0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0051 -0001(0342) (0344)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0372lowast 0372lowast
(0192) (0193)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671R Sqr 0035 0035 0035 0035
Panel B Count of Illnesses
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0122lowast
(0065)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0076 -0096(0102) (0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0139lowastlowast 0144lowastlowast
(0067) (0068)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9921 9921 9921 9921R Sqr 0046 0046 0046 0046
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 5 while controlling for generation one economic outcomes fatherrsquos years ofschooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 First generation time trends are given by year of birth and itssquare for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex secondgeneration year of birth and its square and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standarderrors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and1 levels respectively
34
Appendix Table 5 Generation threersquos years of schooling Controlling for previous generation economicwell-being
Dependent Variable Years of Schooling for Gen 3(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A First Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0069(0076)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0022 0034(0133) (0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0102 -0104(0077) (0078)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913R Sqr 0117 0117 0117 0117
Panel B Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0025(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0008 0013(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0038 -0039(0073) (0073)
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0190 0190 0190 0190
Panel C First and Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0008(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0016 0019(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0028 -0029(0073) (0073)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0196 0196 0196 0196
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 6 while controlling for generation one and tworsquos economic outcomes Forgeneration one these include fatherrsquos years of schooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 generation twocontrols include the WLS graduatesiblingrsquos years of schooling family income in 1992 and net worth in 2004 First generationtime trends are year of birth measures for each parent and their square Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sexsecond generation year of birth and its square and birth order Third generation controls include a sex indicator year of birthand its square and birth order Given the focus on years of schooling the sample is restricted to those third generationindividuals 35 years of age and older or born during or before 1970 (data were collected in 2005) All estimation is performedwith OLS with family (second generation) clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denotedby and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
35
Appendix Table 6 Alternative measures of schooling in the second generation
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Indicator for any college (years of schooling gt12)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0044lowastlowastlowast
(0017)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0011 -0006(0029) (0029)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0044lowastlowast -0043lowastlowast
(0017) (0017)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0071 0070 0071 0071
Panel B Indicator for incomplete college (years of schooling gt12 amp lt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0008(0013)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 -0001(0022) (0022)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0008 -0008(0013) (0013)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0005 0005 0005 0005
Panel C Indicator for college graduate (years of schooling = 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0022lowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0003 0006(0020) (0020)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0021lowast -0021lowastlowast
(0011) (0011)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0019 0019 0019 0019
Panel D Indicator for post-college education (years of schooling gt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0014(0010)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0011(0018) (0018)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0014 -0014(0010) (0010)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0039 0039 0039 0039
Summary amp Notes This table replaces our continuous measure of years of schooling with specified dummy variables Firstgeneration time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Secondgeneration controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and its square and birth order All estimationis performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
36
Appendix Table 7 Young mothers Direct effect on Gen 1 Females
Dependent Variable Years of Sch Job Prestige Family SES
(1) (2) (3)
Ind for First Gen Female Flu Exposure (1918-1919) -0325lowastlowast -0841 -1749lowastlowastlowast
(0137) (1015) (0584)
Ind for mother born during 1920-1921 -0567lowastlowastlowast 0745 -1157(0206) (1515) (0914)
Ind for mother born during 1922-1923 -0666lowastlowast 0098 -2113(0330) (2210) (1298)
Ind for mother born after 1924 -0392 5682 0384(0486) (3705) (2126)
Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y
Observations 8487 6683 8487R Sqr 0014 0005 0014
Summary amp Notes This table includes indicators for alternative years of birth Younger mothers are shown to have lessyears of schooling All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
37
App
endix
Tab
le8
You
ng
mot
her
sG
ener
atio
n2
and
3eff
ects
Gen
2
Gen
3
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
ln
Fam
In
c
1992
Std
N
W
2004
Sel
f-re
p
hea
lth
Hei
ght
BM
IY
ears
of
Sch
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
emal
eF
luE
xp
osu
re(1
918-
1919
)-0
201lowastlowast
-02
95lowastlowast
-00
45
-00
73lowastlowast
-00
90
02
07
-00
86(0
092)
(01
32)
(00
32)
(00
32)
(01
22)
(02
25)
(00
94)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
20-1
921
-00
22
-00
40
-00
10
-00
61
01
33
-04
10
01
13
(01
37)
(01
74)
(00
51)
(00
43)
(01
80)
(03
11)
(01
41)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
22-1
923
-00
96
-01
88
-00
57
00
20
04
61
-11
29lowastlowast
01
55(0
184)
(03
20)
(00
61)
(00
75)
(02
83)
(04
51)
(02
23)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
afte
r19
2404
58
-01
87
00
01
-00
27
03
12
-08
85
03
99
(03
06)
(03
94)
(00
87)
(01
27)
(04
94)
(10
70)
(03
21)
Bas
eC
ontr
ols
YY
YY
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
12459
12112
10498
9888
9783
9671
19913
RS
qr
00
85
00
21
00
08
00
09
05
86
00
29
00
79
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
incl
ud
esin
dic
ator
sfo
ralt
ernati
ve
years
of
bir
th
Bei
ng
born
toa
you
nger
moth
ergen
erall
yis
not
ass
oci
ate
dw
ith
gen
erati
on
2or
3rsquos
outc
omes
ofin
tere
st
inst
ead
n
egat
ive
effec
tsar
eon
lyob
serv
edfo
rth
ose
born
du
rin
gth
efl
u
All
esti
mati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hfa
mil
y(2
nd
gen
erat
ion
)cl
ust
ered
stan
dar
der
rors
rep
orte
din
par
enth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
signifi
can
ceis
den
ote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vel
y
38
Appendix Table 9 Summary Statistics by Gen 2 Sex
Variable N Mean Std Deviation
FemaleYears of Schooling 6607 13352 2088ln Family Income (1992 wave) 6411 9424 3577
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5654 10686 1010Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 5612 -0047 0539Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 5313 4164 0670Height (inches) 5231 646635 247936BMI 5124 26073 5114
Gen 3Years of Schooling 11947 14240 2291
MaleYears of Schooling 5852 14047 2587ln Family Income (1992 wave) 5701 10139 3030
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5264 10981 0836Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 4886 0059 1159Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 4575 4133 0665Height (inches) 4554 7055484 25596BMI 4547 27496 3948
Gen 3Years of Schooling 8046 14371 2332
Appendix Table 10A Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0090(0086)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0198 0214(0169) (0169)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104 -0114(0087) (0087)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6607 6607 6607 6607R Sqr 0075 0075 0075 0075
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
39
Appendix Table 10B Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0523lowastlowastlowast
(0170)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0483 -0410(0321) (0323)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0512lowastlowastlowast -0491lowastlowastlowast
(0179) (0180)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6411 6411 6411 6411R Sqr 0015 0013 0014 0015
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10C Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0007(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0078lowast 0078(0048) (0048)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0008 0005(0025) (0025)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5612 5612 5612 5612R Sqr 0007 0007 0007 0007
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
40
Appendix Table 10D Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0027(0036)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 -0001(0071) (0071)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0022 -0022(0037) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5313 5313 5313 5313r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10E Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -2382(13366)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 44280lowastlowast 46351lowastlowast
(22343) (22480)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -12253 -14428(13485) (13561)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5231 5231 5231 5231r2 0015 0016 0015 0016
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
41
Appendix Table 10F Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0353(0286)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0105 0060(0514) (0516)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0326 0323(0289) (0290)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5124 5124 5124 5124R Sqr 0010 0010 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0087(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0104 -0101(0190) (0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0042 -0039(0098) (0098)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 11906 11906 11906 11906R Sqr 0086 0086 0086 0086
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
42
Appendix Table 11A Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0322lowastlowastlowast
(0116)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0369lowastlowast -0338lowast
(0181) (0180)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0309lowastlowastlowast -0297lowastlowast
(0119) (0119)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5852 5852 5852 5852R Sqr 0060 0059 0060 0060
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11B RResults by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0116(0138)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0262 0261(0200) (0199)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0024 0014(0141) (0140)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5701 5701 5701 5701R Sqr 0009 0009 0008 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
43
Appendix Table 11C Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0038)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0001(0081) (0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0094lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0035)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4886 4886 4886 4886R Sqr 0004 0004 0004 0004
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
44
Appendix Table 11D Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0083lowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 0012(0062) (0062)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104lowastlowastlowast -0105lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0041)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4575 4575 4575 4575r2 0010 0009 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11E Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -15122(14275)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -22991 -20537(23287) (23176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -18595 -17540(14734) (14751)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4554 4554 4554 4554r2 0011 0011 0011 0011
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
45
Appendix Table 11F Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0465lowast
(0238)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0079 0006(0403) (0405)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0520lowastlowast 0520lowastlowast
(0245) (0246)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4547 4547 4547 4547R Sqr 0006 0005 0006 0006
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0177(0123)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0098 0144(0194) (0192)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0293lowastlowast -0302lowastlowast
(0125) (0126)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8007 8007 8007 8007R Sqr 0067 0067 0068 0068
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
46
Appendix Table 12A Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0253lowastlowast
(0107)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0252 -0226(0170) (0172)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0263lowastlowast -0242lowastlowast
(0113) (0115)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0084(0120)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0341 0339(0216) (0219)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0096 0056(0130) (0132)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459r2 0085 0085 0085 0085
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
47
Appendix Table 12B Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0128)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0196 0169(0190) (0189)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0081 -0104(0135) (0135)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0383lowastlowast
(0189)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0594lowast -0474(0349) (0355)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0339lowast -0283(0204) (0207)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112r2 0021 0021 0021 0021
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
48
Appendix Table 12C Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0034)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0019(0077) (0079)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0095lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0030) (0031)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0071lowast
(0038)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0072 0039(0087) (0089)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0104lowastlowastlowast 0100lowastlowastlowast
(0035) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498r2 0008 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
49
Appendix Table 12D Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0071lowast
(0036)[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0012 0031
(0058) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0093lowastlowast -0097lowastlowast
(0039) (0039)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0030(0045)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0031 -0051(0087) (0088)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0059 0065(0048) (0049)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
50
Appendix Table 12E Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0129 -0125(0223) (0224)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0152 -0129(0141) (0142)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0000(0158)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0454 0495lowast
(0279) (0287)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0031 -0090(0170) (0175)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783nr2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
51
Appendix Table 12F Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0376(0231)
[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0059 -0122(0402) (0407)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0441lowast 0457lowast
(0240) (0243)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0068(0316)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0282 0288(0573) (0589)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0035 -0069(0340) (0350)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
52
Appendix Table 12G Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0131(0114)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male 0114 0175(0185) (0188)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0237lowastlowast -0261lowastlowast
(0118) (0121)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0009(0133)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0225 -0292(0249) (0254)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0152 0189(0141) (0145)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913r2 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
53
Appendix Table 13 Family Income 1992 excluding non-earners (ie fam inc = 0)
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992 wave (excluding those reporting 0)(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0095lowastlowastlowast
(0033)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0031 -0019(0053) (0053)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0101lowastlowastlowast -0100lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0034)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10918 10918 10918 10918r2 0050 0049 0050 0050
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0084lowast
(0050)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0019 -0007(0089) (0090)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0083 -0083(0053) (0054)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5654 5654 5654 5654r2 0026 0026 0026 0026
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102lowastlowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0051 -0040(0060) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0113lowastlowastlowast -0112lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0040)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5264 5264 5264 5264r2 0029 0028 0029 0029
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel B in Table 4 excluding those who report $0 for familyincome All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
54
Appendix Table 14 Net Worth 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable Std Net Worth 2011 Wave of WLS(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0032lowastlowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0023lowast -0021lowast
(0012) (0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0032lowastlowastlowast -0031lowastlowastlowast
(0010) (0010)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9435 9435 9435 9435r2 0002 0002 0002 0002
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0012lowast
(0006)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0009 -0008(0009) (0009)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0012lowastlowast -0011lowastlowast
(0006) (0006)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5026 5026 5026 5026r2 0007 0006 0007 0007
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0057lowastlowast
(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0040lowast -0036lowast
(0023) (0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0057lowastlowast -0056lowastlowast
(0023) (0022)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4409 4409 4409 4409r2 0001 0001 0001 0001
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel C in Table 4 replacing the net worth measure from the 2004wave with an identical measure from the 2011 wave of the WLS All estimation is performed with OLS with family clusteredstandard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 105 and 1 levels respectively
55
Appendix Table 15A Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 1992 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0243(0152)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0107 0039(0252) (0255)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0285lowast 0282lowast
(0158) (0160)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9849 9849 9849 9849
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0007(0091)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0210 -0216(0170) (0173)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0007 0024(0095) (0097)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9858 9858 9858 9858
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0255(0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0107 -0169(0328) (0338)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0237 0252(0193) (0198)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9845 9845 9845 9845
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
56
Appendix Table 15B Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2004 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0018(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0190 0207(0160) (0162)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0066 -0083(0102) (0104)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10672 10672 10672 10672
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0096 0108(0124) (0125)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0051 -0059(0076) (0077)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10619 10619 10619 10619
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0108(0110)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0064 0027(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0181 0179(0113) (0113)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10617 10617 10617 10617
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
57
Appendix Table 15C Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0099(0092)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0244 0242(0154) (0155)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0033 0016(0099) (0100)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0021(0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0095 0097(0138) (0139)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0004 -0011(0085) (0086)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0134(0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0203 0181(0175) (0176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0140 0127(0107) (0107)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8709 8709 8709 8709
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
58
- text 10818
- tables 10-8-18
-
17
A persistent effect of in utero exposure to the 1918 Flu is seen in tables 4 and 5 First
generation exposure consistently has a statistically significant and economically meaningful
effect on second generation health and economic outcomes And this effect appears to be driven
solely by motherrsquos exposure although due to marriage market associations we cannot
determine definitively that motherrsquos exposure produces this multigenerational effect through
biological mechanisms
Appendix Tables 10A-11G re-estimate Tables 4 and 5 splitting the sample by generation
2rsquos sex In short the negative effects of first generation exposure appear to be more prominent
in second generation males such that the harmful multi-generational effects are most prominent
in second generation men whose mothers were exposed to the 1918 flu19 Potential reasons for
this sex disparity could be tied to general trends in the differences between sons and daughters in
intergenerational mobility (Chadwick and Solon 2002) In other words sons are more likely to
inherit their families SES standing than daughters This implies that the negative gen 1 shock
from in utero exposure is more likely to affect sons through the proposed SES channel than
daughters resulting in a larger estimated effect for gen 2 males Furthermore there appears to
be a growing gap between in the intergenerational elastiticy between sons and daughters during
the time period in question (Olivetti and Paserman 2015) Another potential reason for the sex
difference could be the larger standard deviation in gen 2 male outcomes this is shown in
Appendix Table 9 Finally the findings of Appendix Tables 10A-11G differ from Richter and
Robling (2013) who show homogeneous sex effects from in utero flu exposure for education
19 When omitting those with no family income during the 1992 wave of the WLS negative effects from
gen 1 female flu exposure are primarily seen in second generation males This indicates however that
there is a greater frequency of no income amongst second generation females from gen 1 flu exposure
Additionally when looking at net worth in the 2011 wave of the WLS we see no difference by gen 2rsquos
sex
18
gen 1 female exposure led to reduction in gen 2 female education and gen 1 male exposure is
associated with gen 2 male education Given this disparity between the two studies our under-
representation for gen 1 male exposure and the mixed findings in Tables 10A-11G we view our
general finding of gen 1 female exposure working through gen 2 male outcomes as preliminary
and suggestive Indeed as we test in Appendix Tables 12A-12G the sex differences in gen 2 are
often not statistically significant
Third Generation
As mentioned previously the focus of the WLS data collection is high school graduates in 1957
but additional samples have been collected for a number of variables on the children of these
graduates Table 6 explores the effects of the WLS parents on the years of schooling for WLS
children estimating the effect of flu exposure across three generations20
Consistent with the second-generation estimations a persistent effect of the in utero flu
exposure is observed and this effect seems to be driven by grandmother exposure (gen 1
female) The joint indicator for either parent is negative and close to statistical significance at
the 10 percent level (p=0106) suggesting that exposure in the first generation is associated with
012 years of schooling less in the third generation The effect of grandfather exposure is
insignificantly different from zero while the coefficient of grandmother exposure is similar in
magnitude to the joint estimate of column (1) while being statistically significant at the 10
level (p=0066) Furthermore the decline in schooling seen in the third generation is similar but
slightly smaller in magnitude compared to the second generation effects seen in Panel A of table
20Analysis of the WLS gradsibling children (ie the third generation) restricts the sample to those
children that are biological children and that are 35 years of age and older by the 20032004 wave of the
WLS
19
421 This again indicates a persistent effect that may be attenuating over time Importantly while
the estimate for grandfather exposure is insignificant it is consistent with intergenerational
inheritance (Kuzawa and Eisenberg 2014) To say the same for grandmother exposure would
require effects to persist into the fourth generation (due to the differences in gametic
development) and this data is not available in the WLS
Conclusion
This paper presents novel evidence of multigenerational effects of in utero health insults We
use the sudden and unexpected influenza pandemic in 19181919 to trace out the effects of in
utero exposure to infectious disease on own outcomes for the first generation childrenrsquos
outcomes and grandchildrenrsquos outcomes We find that this exposure reduces educational
attainment and related economic outcomes across three generations For example individuals in
our second generation the WLS graduates and their siblings who have mothers who were
exposed to the 1918 flu in utero complete 15 fewer years of schooling (or 24 months less
schooling) The size of our estimated effect aligns well with those of Richter and Robling (2013)
who find that first generation in utero exposure to the 1918 flu results in 16 fewer years of
schooling (or 2 months to 25 months less schooling) for the maternal line We then extend
results to the third generation for the first time in the literature and find that individuals in the
third generation who have grandmothers who were exposed to the pandemic in utero complete
17 fewer years of schooling (or 17 months less schooling) than individuals without affected
grandmothers
21 For gen 1 female exposure in column (4) the p-value for a difference in coefficients between Panel A
of Table 4 and Table 6 is 0411 implying the effect in the third generation is statistically indistinguishable
from that in the second generation
20
There are at several potential mechanisms for the persistence of poor outcomes across
three generations we find in our data As previously outlined the intergenerational persistence in
poor outcomes due to early life health shocks could occur through socioeconomic channels
where a fetally insulted person with resulting low educational attainment raises a child in a low-
resource environment that reduces opportunities for high educational attainment of the child In
order to see multigenerational effects the reduced opportunities for high educational attainment
of the child must then reduce opportunities for their own children Alternatively
intergenerational transmission may occur through epigenetic inheritance through the germ line a
distinct possibility based on findings of the Oumlverkalix studies or phenotype-to-phenotype
transmission and cumulative intergenerational phenotypic change
Our analysis is unable to fully distinguish between these proposed intergenerational
channels the socioeconomic and biological but it is important to note that the channels are by no
means mutually exclusive Further analysis (appendix tables 3-5) that is intended to partially
account for the socioeconomic mechanism leads to mixed results in which the coefficient of first
generation flu exposure is attenuated to insignificance for some outcomes but not others This
provides evidence for a socioeconomic channel but does not eliminate the possibility of
epigenetic mechanisms or other biological channel through which socioeconomic status ldquogets
under the skinrdquo to influence outcomes of subsequent generations (eg the socioeconomic
circumstances of one generation may ldquoget under the skinrdquo of the next and subsequently be passed
via biology andor socioeconomics to other generations) Likewise the estimates of grandfather
effects on grandchildren are imprecise but consistent with transgenerational inheritance (Kuzawa
and Eisenberg 2014) Additionally while the WLS provides a unique framework to analyze
multiple generations the measurement of flu exposure is somewhat crude (from self-reported
21
parentsrsquo year of birth) and is in the right-tail of the distribution of parent birth years suggesting
the possibility of confounding from resource-poor younger mothers22 That is exposure to
influenza in the first generation is mechanically tied to motherrsquos ages of 20 and 21 because the
WLS sample is drawn based on having a child who was born in 1939 (and thus graduating high
school in 1957) While we cannot definitively separate these two effects our ability to compare
outcomes of slightly older mothers (ages 22 and 23 born in 1917 or 1916) provide evidence
more consistent with in utero exposure to influenza than impacts of having a mother who is
2021 years old
From a policy perspective our evidence may suggest a novel source of multigenerational
persistence in poverty through biosocial factors and suggest a need to consider evidence of
transgenerational social andor biological mechanisms We document the extent to which
harmful early life environments cascade through generations promoting a disadvantaged start for
those whose grandparents exposed to a hazardous early life environment
22 We specifically explore the confounding effects of younger mothers in appendix tables 7 and 8 These
tables show that younger mothers are indeed initially disadvantaged (ie less years of schooling)
however this young-mother disadvantage does not persist in subsequent generations Rather only those
mothers born in the 1918-1919 range have significant negative effects on later generations
22
References
Almond Doug 2006 Is the 1918 Influenza pandemic over Long‐term effects of in utero Influenza exposure in the post‐1940 US population Journal of Political Economy 114(4) 672-712
Almond Doug and Bhashkar Mazumder 2005 The 1918 Influenza Pandemic and Subsequent Health Outcomes An Analysis of SIPP Data American Economic Review 95(2) 258-262
Barker David James P 2007 The origins of the developmental origins theory Journal of Internal Medicine 261(5) 412-417
Benyshek Daniel C (2013) The ldquoearly liferdquo origins of obesity‐related health disorders New discoveries regarding the intergenerational transmission of developmentally programmed traits in the global cardiometabolic health crisis American Journal of Physical Anthropology 152(S57) 79-93
Brown Alan S and Elena J Derkits 2010 Prenatal infection and schizophrenia a review of epidemiologic and translational studies American Journal of Psychiatry 167(3) 261-280
Burg Steven 2000 Wisconsin and the Great Spanish Flu Epidemic of 1918rdquo Wisconsin Magazine of History 84(1) 36-56
Bygren LarsOlov Gunnar Kaati and Soumlren Edvinsson 2001 Longevity determined by paternal ancestors nutrition during their slow growth period Acta biotheoretica 49(1) 53-59
Canetta Sarah E and Alan S Brown 2012 Prenatal infection maternal immune activation and risk for schizophrenia Translational Neuroscience 3(4) 320-327
Chadwick L and Solon G (2002) Intergenerational income mobility among daughters American Economic Review 92(1) 335-344
Cohen Alan A John Tillinghast and Vladimir Canudas-Romo 2010 No consistent effects of prenatal or neonatal exposure to Spanish flu on late-life mortality in 24 developed countries Demographic Research 22(20) 579
Fatemi S Hossein Julie Earle Reena Kanodia David Kist Effat S Emamian Paul H Patterson Limin Shi and Robert Sidwell 2002 Prenatal viral infection leads to pyramidal cell atrophy and macrocephaly in adulthood implications for genesis of autism and schizophrenia Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology 22(1) 25-33
Fletcher Jason 2014 Examining the Long Term Mortality Effects of Early Health Shocks US Census Bureau Center for Economic Studies Paper No CES-WP-14-19
Kaati Gunnar Lars O Bygren and Soren Edvinsson 2002 Cardiovascular and diabetes mortality determined by nutrition during parents and grandparents slow growth period European Journal of Human Genetics EJHG 10(11) 682
Kash John C Terrence M Tumpey Sean C Proll Victoria Carter Olivia Perwitasari Matthew J Thomas Christopher F Basler et al 2006 Genomic analysis of increased host immune and cell death responses induced by 1918 influenza virus Nature 443(7111) 578-581
Kobasa Darwyn Steven M Jones Kyoko Shinya John C Kash John Copps Hideki Ebihara Yasuko Hatta et al 2007 Aberrant innate immune response in lethal infection of macaques with the 1918 influenza virus Nature 445 (7125) 319-323
Kuzawa Christopher W and Dan T Eisenberg 2014 The Long Reach of History Intergenerational and Transgenerational Pathwaysto Plasticity in Human Longevity Sociality Hierarchy Health Comparative Biodemography Papers from a Workshop National Academies Press
Li Wai-Yu Yi-Chun Chang L Jyuhn-Hsiarn Lee and Li-Jen Lee 2014 Prenatal infection affects the neuronal architecture and cognitive function in adult mice Developmental Neuroscience 36(5) 359-370
23
Lin Ming-Jen and Elaine M Liu 2014 Does in utero exposure to illness matter The 1918 influenza epidemic in Taiwan as a natural experiment Journal of Health Economics 37 152-163
Lindeboom Maarten France Portrait and Gerard J Van den Berg 2010 Long-run effects on longevity of a nutritional shock early in life the Dutch Potato famine of 1846ndash1847 Journal of Health Economics 29(5) 617-629
Mamelund SE (2018) 1918 pandemic mobidity The first wave hits the poor the second wave hits the rich Influenza and Other Respitory Viruses 12(3) 307-313
Mazumder Bhashkar Douglas Almond Kyung Park Eileen M Crimmins and Caleb E Finch 2010 Lingering prenatal effects of the 1918 influenza pandemic on cardiovascular disease Journal of developmental origins of health and disease 1(1) 26-34
Miller Veronica Y Zhu C Bucher W McGinnis L Ryan A Siegel and S Zalcman 2013 Gestational flu exposure induces changes in neurochemicals affiliative hormones and brainstem inflammation in addition to autism-like behaviors in mice Brain Behavior and Immunity 33 153-163
Myrskylauml Mikko Neil K Mehta and Virginia W Chang 2013 Early life exposure to the 1918 influenza pandemic and old-age mortality by cause of death American Journal of Public Health 103(7) e83-e90
Olivetti C and Paserman MD (2015) In the name of the son (and the daughter) Intergenerational mobility in the United States 1850-1940 American Economic Review 105(8) 2695-2724
Pembrey Marcus E Lars Olov Bygren Gunnar Kaati Soumlren Edvinsson Kate Northstone Michael Sjoumlstroumlm and Jean Golding 2006 Sex-specific male-line transgenerational responses in humans European Journal of Human Genetics 14(2) 159-166
Richter Andreacute and Per Olof Robling 2013 Multigenerational effects of the 1918-19 influenza pandemic in Sweden Swedish Institute for Social Research 5
Shors Teri and Susan H McFadden 2009 1918 Influenza A Winnebago County Wisconsin Perspective Clinical Medicine amp Research 7(4) 147-156
Sydenstricker E (1931) The incidence of influenza among persons of different economic status during the epidemic of 1918 Public Health Reports 46(4) 154-170
van den Berg Gerard J and Pia R Pinger 2013 A validation study of transgenerational effects of childhood conditions on the third generation offsprings economic and health outcomes potentially driven by epigenetic imprinting IZA Discussion Paper
Tables and Figures
Table 1 Summary Statistics
Variable N Mean Std Deviation
First GenerartionFlu Indicators
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 8368 0112 0315Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 8456 0030 0170Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 8487 0093 0290
ControlsFirst Generation Malersquos Year of Birth 8456 1907435 7021First Generation Femalersquos Year of Birth 8427 1911189 6164
Dependent VariablesFirst Generation Malersquos Years of Schooling 8456 9778 3392First Generation Femalersquos Years of Schooing 8487 10499 2804First Generation Malersquos Job Prestige 8385 330662 214361First Generation Femalersquos Job Prestige 6683 12814 19934Family SES 8487 16231 11143
Second GenerationControls
Female Indicator 12459 0530 0499Birth Year 12459 1939406 4289Birth Order 12459 2529 1828
Dependent VariablesYears of Schooling 12459 13678 2361Family Income 1992 (in $1000s) 12112 68027 177105Net Worth 2004 (in $1000s) 10498 913046 2558927Self-reported health 1992 9888 4149 0668Height (inches) 9783 67406 3851BMI 1992 9671 26742 4657
Third GenerationControls
Birth Year 19913 1963901 3636Female Indicator 19913 0497 0500Birth Order 19913 2196 1263
Dependent VariableYears of Schooling 19913 14294 2309
Summary amp Notes This table provides summary statistics for all variables used The samples above may not berepresentative for all estimations For example the inclusion of siblings in the second generation increase the sample of parentalyear of birth and the corresponding flu indicator This increase in sample does not significantly change the sample statisticsabove Similar sample changes occur for the second generation controls above For the third generation the sample is restrictedto biological children over 35 years of age
24
Tab
le2
Fir
stG
ener
atio
n
Eco
nom
icE
ffec
ts
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
am
ily
SE
SY
ears
of
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
am
ily
SE
S(1
)(2
)(3
)(4
)(5
)(6
)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale)
-01
39
-01
16lowast
-12
90lowast
lowast
(02
00)
(00
60)
(05
99)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emal
e)-0
133
-00
66
-13
61lowastlowast
lowast
(00
95)
(00
43)
(03
76)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
YY
YY
YY
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8456
8385
8456
8487
6683
8487
RS
qr
00
32
00
08
00
23
00
13
00
04
00
13
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
pro
vid
esd
irec
teff
ects
of
inu
tero
an
dea
rly
life
exp
osu
reto
the
1918
Flu
Ep
idem
ic
Bir
thye
ar
tim
etr
end
sin
lcu
de
yea
rof
bir
than
dit
ssq
uar
ean
din
clu
sion
inth
ees
tim
atio
nis
par
ent
spec
ific
All
esti
mati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
an
dard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
alsi
gnifi
can
ceis
den
oted
by
an
d
re
pre
senti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vel
y
25
Tab
le3
Fir
stG
ener
atio
n
Mar
riag
eM
arke
tE
ffec
ts
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Flu
Bir
thY
ear
Yea
rsof
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
luB
irth
Yea
rY
ears
of
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
e(1
)(2
)(3
)(4
)(5
)(6
)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale)
01
40lowast
lowastlowast-0
259
-00
39
(00
34)
(01
58)
(00
72)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emal
e)0
056lowast
lowastlowast-0
340lowast
lowastlowast-0
118lowastlowast
lowast
(00
14)
(01
17)
(00
36)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
YY
YY
YY
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8348
8487
8412
8348
8456
6660
RS
qr
00
90
00
11
00
08
01
20
00
21
00
01
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
pro
vid
esev
iden
ceof
marr
iage
mark
etse
lect
ion
inth
efi
rst
gen
erati
on
B
irth
year
tim
etr
end
sin
clu
de
year
of
bir
than
dit
ssq
uare
and
incl
usi
onin
the
esti
mat
ion
isp
aren
tsp
ecifi
cA
lles
tim
ati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
an
dard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
sign
ifica
nce
isd
enot
edby
an
d
re
pre
senti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vely
26
Table 4 Second Generation Economic Effects
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Years of Schooling
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0209lowastlowastlowast
(0073)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0084 -0059(0129) (0129)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0211lowastlowastlowast -0209lowastlowastlowast
(0075) (0075)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0085 0084 0085 0085
Panel B ln Family Income 1992
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0221lowastlowast
(0111)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0098 -0066(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0262lowastlowast -0259lowastlowast
(0116) (0116)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112R Sqr 0021 0021 0021 0021
Panel C Std Net Worth 2004
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0026(0022)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0033 0038(0047) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0038lowast -0040lowast
(0021) (0021)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498R Sqr 0007 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table provides evidence of signficant harmful effects of flu exposure in the first generation on secondgeneration economic outcomes First generation time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents(ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and itssquare and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
27
Table 5 Second Generation Health Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Self-reported health (Likert 1=very poor 5=excellent)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0054lowastlowast
(0027)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0005(0047) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0061lowastlowast -0061lowastlowast
(0028) (0028)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Panel B Height (inches)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0101)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0102 0127(0168) (0168)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0169lowast -0175lowast
(0103) (0103)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783r2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Panel C BMI
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0412lowastlowast
(0191)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0082 0023(0344) (0346)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0422lowastlowast 0421lowastlowast
(0193) (0194)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table provides evidence of harmful effects of flu exposure in the first generation on secondgeneration health outcomes First generation time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents (iegen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and itssquare and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
28
Table 6 Generation Three Effects of Generation One Flu Exposure Years of Schooling
Dependent Variable Years of Schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0125(0077)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Male) -0007 0010(0136) (0136)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Female) -0144lowast -0144lowast
(0078) (0078)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913R Sqr 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table shows that the generational effects of flu exposure extend into the third generation of theWLS First generation flu exposure is shown to have a negative association with third generation years of schooling Firstgeneration time trends are year of birth measures for each parent and their square Second generation controls inlcude anindicator for sex second generation year of birth and its square and birth order Third generation controls include a sexindicator year of birth and its square and birth order Given the focus on years of schooling the sample is restricted to thosethird generation individuals 35 years of age and older or born during or before 1970 (data were collected in 2005) Allestimation is performed with OLS with family (second generation) clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
29
(a)
Fat
her
(b)
Moth
er
Fig
ure
1F
irst
Gen
erat
ion
Dis
trib
uti
onof
Yea
rof
Bir
th
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
figu
rep
lots
the
dis
trib
uti
on
for
firs
tgen
erati
on
year
of
bir
th
Flu
exp
osu
reis
class
ified
as
bei
ng
born
inei
ther
1918
or
1919
30
Appendix Tables
Appendix Table 1 First Generation Flu Exposure Effect on Family Income
Dependent Variable Family Income ($100s) 1957
(1) (2)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -3366(2592)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -5363lowastlowast
(2390)
Birth Year Time Trends Y YObservations 7440 7456R Sqr 0013 0004
Summary amp Notes This table replaces the index of socioeconomic status with family income (in $100s) in 1957 Allestimation is performed with OLS with robust standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
31
App
endix
Tab
le2
Mar
riag
eM
arke
tE
ffec
ts
Con
trol
ling
for
Ow
nY
ear
ofB
irth
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
Job
Pre
stig
eY
ears
of
Sch
Job
Pre
stig
e
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale
)-0
052
-211
82
-01
98
-03
74
(02
03)
(131
30)
(01
61)
(14
38)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emale
)-0
346lowast
lowastlowast-2
44
97lowastlowast
lowast-0
103
-13
88
(01
16)
(76
88)
(00
94)
(08
54)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
(Male
an
dF
emale
)Y
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8348
8279
8348
6587
RS
qr
00
40
00
22
00
25
00
04
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
re-e
stim
ates
Tab
le3
wh
ile
contr
oll
ing
for
year
of
bir
than
dfl
uin
dic
ato
rsass
oci
ate
dw
ith
the
spou
sein
the
dep
end
ent
vari
ab
le
All
esti
mat
ion
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
and
ard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
sign
ifica
nce
isd
enote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
atth
e10
5
and
1le
vel
sre
spec
tive
ly
32
Appendix Table 3 2nd Gen Economic Effects Controlling for 1st Gen Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Years of Schooling
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0088(0070)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0005 0008(0119) (0119)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0116 -0117(0072) (0072)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0206 0206 0206 0206
Panel B ln Family Income 1992
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0193lowast
(0111)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0080 -0050(0184) (0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0240lowastlowast -0238lowastlowast
(0116) (0116)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112R Sqr 0024 0024 0024 0024
Panel C Std Normal Net Worth 2004
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0003(0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0047 0049(0046) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0019 -0021(0020) (0020)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498R Sqr 0033 0033 0033 0033
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 4 while controlling for generation one economic outcomes fatherrsquos years ofschooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 First generation time trends are given by year of birth and itssquare for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex secondgeneration year of birth and its square and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standarderrors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and1 levels respectively 33
Appendix Table 4 2nd Gen Health Effects Controlling for 1st Gen Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A BMI
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0352lowast
(0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0051 -0001(0342) (0344)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0372lowast 0372lowast
(0192) (0193)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671R Sqr 0035 0035 0035 0035
Panel B Count of Illnesses
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0122lowast
(0065)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0076 -0096(0102) (0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0139lowastlowast 0144lowastlowast
(0067) (0068)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9921 9921 9921 9921R Sqr 0046 0046 0046 0046
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 5 while controlling for generation one economic outcomes fatherrsquos years ofschooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 First generation time trends are given by year of birth and itssquare for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex secondgeneration year of birth and its square and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standarderrors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and1 levels respectively
34
Appendix Table 5 Generation threersquos years of schooling Controlling for previous generation economicwell-being
Dependent Variable Years of Schooling for Gen 3(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A First Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0069(0076)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0022 0034(0133) (0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0102 -0104(0077) (0078)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913R Sqr 0117 0117 0117 0117
Panel B Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0025(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0008 0013(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0038 -0039(0073) (0073)
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0190 0190 0190 0190
Panel C First and Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0008(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0016 0019(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0028 -0029(0073) (0073)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0196 0196 0196 0196
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 6 while controlling for generation one and tworsquos economic outcomes Forgeneration one these include fatherrsquos years of schooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 generation twocontrols include the WLS graduatesiblingrsquos years of schooling family income in 1992 and net worth in 2004 First generationtime trends are year of birth measures for each parent and their square Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sexsecond generation year of birth and its square and birth order Third generation controls include a sex indicator year of birthand its square and birth order Given the focus on years of schooling the sample is restricted to those third generationindividuals 35 years of age and older or born during or before 1970 (data were collected in 2005) All estimation is performedwith OLS with family (second generation) clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denotedby and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
35
Appendix Table 6 Alternative measures of schooling in the second generation
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Indicator for any college (years of schooling gt12)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0044lowastlowastlowast
(0017)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0011 -0006(0029) (0029)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0044lowastlowast -0043lowastlowast
(0017) (0017)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0071 0070 0071 0071
Panel B Indicator for incomplete college (years of schooling gt12 amp lt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0008(0013)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 -0001(0022) (0022)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0008 -0008(0013) (0013)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0005 0005 0005 0005
Panel C Indicator for college graduate (years of schooling = 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0022lowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0003 0006(0020) (0020)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0021lowast -0021lowastlowast
(0011) (0011)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0019 0019 0019 0019
Panel D Indicator for post-college education (years of schooling gt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0014(0010)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0011(0018) (0018)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0014 -0014(0010) (0010)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0039 0039 0039 0039
Summary amp Notes This table replaces our continuous measure of years of schooling with specified dummy variables Firstgeneration time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Secondgeneration controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and its square and birth order All estimationis performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
36
Appendix Table 7 Young mothers Direct effect on Gen 1 Females
Dependent Variable Years of Sch Job Prestige Family SES
(1) (2) (3)
Ind for First Gen Female Flu Exposure (1918-1919) -0325lowastlowast -0841 -1749lowastlowastlowast
(0137) (1015) (0584)
Ind for mother born during 1920-1921 -0567lowastlowastlowast 0745 -1157(0206) (1515) (0914)
Ind for mother born during 1922-1923 -0666lowastlowast 0098 -2113(0330) (2210) (1298)
Ind for mother born after 1924 -0392 5682 0384(0486) (3705) (2126)
Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y
Observations 8487 6683 8487R Sqr 0014 0005 0014
Summary amp Notes This table includes indicators for alternative years of birth Younger mothers are shown to have lessyears of schooling All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
37
App
endix
Tab
le8
You
ng
mot
her
sG
ener
atio
n2
and
3eff
ects
Gen
2
Gen
3
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
ln
Fam
In
c
1992
Std
N
W
2004
Sel
f-re
p
hea
lth
Hei
ght
BM
IY
ears
of
Sch
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
emal
eF
luE
xp
osu
re(1
918-
1919
)-0
201lowastlowast
-02
95lowastlowast
-00
45
-00
73lowastlowast
-00
90
02
07
-00
86(0
092)
(01
32)
(00
32)
(00
32)
(01
22)
(02
25)
(00
94)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
20-1
921
-00
22
-00
40
-00
10
-00
61
01
33
-04
10
01
13
(01
37)
(01
74)
(00
51)
(00
43)
(01
80)
(03
11)
(01
41)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
22-1
923
-00
96
-01
88
-00
57
00
20
04
61
-11
29lowastlowast
01
55(0
184)
(03
20)
(00
61)
(00
75)
(02
83)
(04
51)
(02
23)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
afte
r19
2404
58
-01
87
00
01
-00
27
03
12
-08
85
03
99
(03
06)
(03
94)
(00
87)
(01
27)
(04
94)
(10
70)
(03
21)
Bas
eC
ontr
ols
YY
YY
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
12459
12112
10498
9888
9783
9671
19913
RS
qr
00
85
00
21
00
08
00
09
05
86
00
29
00
79
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
incl
ud
esin
dic
ator
sfo
ralt
ernati
ve
years
of
bir
th
Bei
ng
born
toa
you
nger
moth
ergen
erall
yis
not
ass
oci
ate
dw
ith
gen
erati
on
2or
3rsquos
outc
omes
ofin
tere
st
inst
ead
n
egat
ive
effec
tsar
eon
lyob
serv
edfo
rth
ose
born
du
rin
gth
efl
u
All
esti
mati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hfa
mil
y(2
nd
gen
erat
ion
)cl
ust
ered
stan
dar
der
rors
rep
orte
din
par
enth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
signifi
can
ceis
den
ote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vel
y
38
Appendix Table 9 Summary Statistics by Gen 2 Sex
Variable N Mean Std Deviation
FemaleYears of Schooling 6607 13352 2088ln Family Income (1992 wave) 6411 9424 3577
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5654 10686 1010Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 5612 -0047 0539Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 5313 4164 0670Height (inches) 5231 646635 247936BMI 5124 26073 5114
Gen 3Years of Schooling 11947 14240 2291
MaleYears of Schooling 5852 14047 2587ln Family Income (1992 wave) 5701 10139 3030
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5264 10981 0836Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 4886 0059 1159Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 4575 4133 0665Height (inches) 4554 7055484 25596BMI 4547 27496 3948
Gen 3Years of Schooling 8046 14371 2332
Appendix Table 10A Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0090(0086)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0198 0214(0169) (0169)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104 -0114(0087) (0087)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6607 6607 6607 6607R Sqr 0075 0075 0075 0075
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
39
Appendix Table 10B Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0523lowastlowastlowast
(0170)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0483 -0410(0321) (0323)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0512lowastlowastlowast -0491lowastlowastlowast
(0179) (0180)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6411 6411 6411 6411R Sqr 0015 0013 0014 0015
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10C Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0007(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0078lowast 0078(0048) (0048)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0008 0005(0025) (0025)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5612 5612 5612 5612R Sqr 0007 0007 0007 0007
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
40
Appendix Table 10D Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0027(0036)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 -0001(0071) (0071)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0022 -0022(0037) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5313 5313 5313 5313r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10E Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -2382(13366)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 44280lowastlowast 46351lowastlowast
(22343) (22480)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -12253 -14428(13485) (13561)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5231 5231 5231 5231r2 0015 0016 0015 0016
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
41
Appendix Table 10F Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0353(0286)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0105 0060(0514) (0516)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0326 0323(0289) (0290)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5124 5124 5124 5124R Sqr 0010 0010 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0087(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0104 -0101(0190) (0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0042 -0039(0098) (0098)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 11906 11906 11906 11906R Sqr 0086 0086 0086 0086
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
42
Appendix Table 11A Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0322lowastlowastlowast
(0116)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0369lowastlowast -0338lowast
(0181) (0180)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0309lowastlowastlowast -0297lowastlowast
(0119) (0119)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5852 5852 5852 5852R Sqr 0060 0059 0060 0060
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11B RResults by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0116(0138)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0262 0261(0200) (0199)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0024 0014(0141) (0140)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5701 5701 5701 5701R Sqr 0009 0009 0008 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
43
Appendix Table 11C Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0038)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0001(0081) (0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0094lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0035)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4886 4886 4886 4886R Sqr 0004 0004 0004 0004
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
44
Appendix Table 11D Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0083lowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 0012(0062) (0062)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104lowastlowastlowast -0105lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0041)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4575 4575 4575 4575r2 0010 0009 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11E Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -15122(14275)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -22991 -20537(23287) (23176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -18595 -17540(14734) (14751)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4554 4554 4554 4554r2 0011 0011 0011 0011
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
45
Appendix Table 11F Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0465lowast
(0238)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0079 0006(0403) (0405)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0520lowastlowast 0520lowastlowast
(0245) (0246)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4547 4547 4547 4547R Sqr 0006 0005 0006 0006
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0177(0123)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0098 0144(0194) (0192)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0293lowastlowast -0302lowastlowast
(0125) (0126)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8007 8007 8007 8007R Sqr 0067 0067 0068 0068
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
46
Appendix Table 12A Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0253lowastlowast
(0107)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0252 -0226(0170) (0172)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0263lowastlowast -0242lowastlowast
(0113) (0115)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0084(0120)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0341 0339(0216) (0219)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0096 0056(0130) (0132)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459r2 0085 0085 0085 0085
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
47
Appendix Table 12B Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0128)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0196 0169(0190) (0189)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0081 -0104(0135) (0135)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0383lowastlowast
(0189)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0594lowast -0474(0349) (0355)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0339lowast -0283(0204) (0207)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112r2 0021 0021 0021 0021
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
48
Appendix Table 12C Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0034)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0019(0077) (0079)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0095lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0030) (0031)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0071lowast
(0038)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0072 0039(0087) (0089)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0104lowastlowastlowast 0100lowastlowastlowast
(0035) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498r2 0008 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
49
Appendix Table 12D Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0071lowast
(0036)[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0012 0031
(0058) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0093lowastlowast -0097lowastlowast
(0039) (0039)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0030(0045)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0031 -0051(0087) (0088)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0059 0065(0048) (0049)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
50
Appendix Table 12E Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0129 -0125(0223) (0224)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0152 -0129(0141) (0142)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0000(0158)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0454 0495lowast
(0279) (0287)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0031 -0090(0170) (0175)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783nr2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
51
Appendix Table 12F Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0376(0231)
[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0059 -0122(0402) (0407)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0441lowast 0457lowast
(0240) (0243)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0068(0316)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0282 0288(0573) (0589)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0035 -0069(0340) (0350)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
52
Appendix Table 12G Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0131(0114)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male 0114 0175(0185) (0188)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0237lowastlowast -0261lowastlowast
(0118) (0121)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0009(0133)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0225 -0292(0249) (0254)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0152 0189(0141) (0145)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913r2 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
53
Appendix Table 13 Family Income 1992 excluding non-earners (ie fam inc = 0)
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992 wave (excluding those reporting 0)(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0095lowastlowastlowast
(0033)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0031 -0019(0053) (0053)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0101lowastlowastlowast -0100lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0034)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10918 10918 10918 10918r2 0050 0049 0050 0050
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0084lowast
(0050)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0019 -0007(0089) (0090)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0083 -0083(0053) (0054)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5654 5654 5654 5654r2 0026 0026 0026 0026
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102lowastlowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0051 -0040(0060) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0113lowastlowastlowast -0112lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0040)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5264 5264 5264 5264r2 0029 0028 0029 0029
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel B in Table 4 excluding those who report $0 for familyincome All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
54
Appendix Table 14 Net Worth 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable Std Net Worth 2011 Wave of WLS(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0032lowastlowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0023lowast -0021lowast
(0012) (0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0032lowastlowastlowast -0031lowastlowastlowast
(0010) (0010)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9435 9435 9435 9435r2 0002 0002 0002 0002
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0012lowast
(0006)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0009 -0008(0009) (0009)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0012lowastlowast -0011lowastlowast
(0006) (0006)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5026 5026 5026 5026r2 0007 0006 0007 0007
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0057lowastlowast
(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0040lowast -0036lowast
(0023) (0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0057lowastlowast -0056lowastlowast
(0023) (0022)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4409 4409 4409 4409r2 0001 0001 0001 0001
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel C in Table 4 replacing the net worth measure from the 2004wave with an identical measure from the 2011 wave of the WLS All estimation is performed with OLS with family clusteredstandard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 105 and 1 levels respectively
55
Appendix Table 15A Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 1992 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0243(0152)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0107 0039(0252) (0255)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0285lowast 0282lowast
(0158) (0160)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9849 9849 9849 9849
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0007(0091)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0210 -0216(0170) (0173)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0007 0024(0095) (0097)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9858 9858 9858 9858
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0255(0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0107 -0169(0328) (0338)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0237 0252(0193) (0198)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9845 9845 9845 9845
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
56
Appendix Table 15B Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2004 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0018(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0190 0207(0160) (0162)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0066 -0083(0102) (0104)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10672 10672 10672 10672
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0096 0108(0124) (0125)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0051 -0059(0076) (0077)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10619 10619 10619 10619
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0108(0110)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0064 0027(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0181 0179(0113) (0113)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10617 10617 10617 10617
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
57
Appendix Table 15C Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0099(0092)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0244 0242(0154) (0155)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0033 0016(0099) (0100)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0021(0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0095 0097(0138) (0139)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0004 -0011(0085) (0086)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0134(0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0203 0181(0175) (0176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0140 0127(0107) (0107)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8709 8709 8709 8709
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
58
- text 10818
- tables 10-8-18
-
18
gen 1 female exposure led to reduction in gen 2 female education and gen 1 male exposure is
associated with gen 2 male education Given this disparity between the two studies our under-
representation for gen 1 male exposure and the mixed findings in Tables 10A-11G we view our
general finding of gen 1 female exposure working through gen 2 male outcomes as preliminary
and suggestive Indeed as we test in Appendix Tables 12A-12G the sex differences in gen 2 are
often not statistically significant
Third Generation
As mentioned previously the focus of the WLS data collection is high school graduates in 1957
but additional samples have been collected for a number of variables on the children of these
graduates Table 6 explores the effects of the WLS parents on the years of schooling for WLS
children estimating the effect of flu exposure across three generations20
Consistent with the second-generation estimations a persistent effect of the in utero flu
exposure is observed and this effect seems to be driven by grandmother exposure (gen 1
female) The joint indicator for either parent is negative and close to statistical significance at
the 10 percent level (p=0106) suggesting that exposure in the first generation is associated with
012 years of schooling less in the third generation The effect of grandfather exposure is
insignificantly different from zero while the coefficient of grandmother exposure is similar in
magnitude to the joint estimate of column (1) while being statistically significant at the 10
level (p=0066) Furthermore the decline in schooling seen in the third generation is similar but
slightly smaller in magnitude compared to the second generation effects seen in Panel A of table
20Analysis of the WLS gradsibling children (ie the third generation) restricts the sample to those
children that are biological children and that are 35 years of age and older by the 20032004 wave of the
WLS
19
421 This again indicates a persistent effect that may be attenuating over time Importantly while
the estimate for grandfather exposure is insignificant it is consistent with intergenerational
inheritance (Kuzawa and Eisenberg 2014) To say the same for grandmother exposure would
require effects to persist into the fourth generation (due to the differences in gametic
development) and this data is not available in the WLS
Conclusion
This paper presents novel evidence of multigenerational effects of in utero health insults We
use the sudden and unexpected influenza pandemic in 19181919 to trace out the effects of in
utero exposure to infectious disease on own outcomes for the first generation childrenrsquos
outcomes and grandchildrenrsquos outcomes We find that this exposure reduces educational
attainment and related economic outcomes across three generations For example individuals in
our second generation the WLS graduates and their siblings who have mothers who were
exposed to the 1918 flu in utero complete 15 fewer years of schooling (or 24 months less
schooling) The size of our estimated effect aligns well with those of Richter and Robling (2013)
who find that first generation in utero exposure to the 1918 flu results in 16 fewer years of
schooling (or 2 months to 25 months less schooling) for the maternal line We then extend
results to the third generation for the first time in the literature and find that individuals in the
third generation who have grandmothers who were exposed to the pandemic in utero complete
17 fewer years of schooling (or 17 months less schooling) than individuals without affected
grandmothers
21 For gen 1 female exposure in column (4) the p-value for a difference in coefficients between Panel A
of Table 4 and Table 6 is 0411 implying the effect in the third generation is statistically indistinguishable
from that in the second generation
20
There are at several potential mechanisms for the persistence of poor outcomes across
three generations we find in our data As previously outlined the intergenerational persistence in
poor outcomes due to early life health shocks could occur through socioeconomic channels
where a fetally insulted person with resulting low educational attainment raises a child in a low-
resource environment that reduces opportunities for high educational attainment of the child In
order to see multigenerational effects the reduced opportunities for high educational attainment
of the child must then reduce opportunities for their own children Alternatively
intergenerational transmission may occur through epigenetic inheritance through the germ line a
distinct possibility based on findings of the Oumlverkalix studies or phenotype-to-phenotype
transmission and cumulative intergenerational phenotypic change
Our analysis is unable to fully distinguish between these proposed intergenerational
channels the socioeconomic and biological but it is important to note that the channels are by no
means mutually exclusive Further analysis (appendix tables 3-5) that is intended to partially
account for the socioeconomic mechanism leads to mixed results in which the coefficient of first
generation flu exposure is attenuated to insignificance for some outcomes but not others This
provides evidence for a socioeconomic channel but does not eliminate the possibility of
epigenetic mechanisms or other biological channel through which socioeconomic status ldquogets
under the skinrdquo to influence outcomes of subsequent generations (eg the socioeconomic
circumstances of one generation may ldquoget under the skinrdquo of the next and subsequently be passed
via biology andor socioeconomics to other generations) Likewise the estimates of grandfather
effects on grandchildren are imprecise but consistent with transgenerational inheritance (Kuzawa
and Eisenberg 2014) Additionally while the WLS provides a unique framework to analyze
multiple generations the measurement of flu exposure is somewhat crude (from self-reported
21
parentsrsquo year of birth) and is in the right-tail of the distribution of parent birth years suggesting
the possibility of confounding from resource-poor younger mothers22 That is exposure to
influenza in the first generation is mechanically tied to motherrsquos ages of 20 and 21 because the
WLS sample is drawn based on having a child who was born in 1939 (and thus graduating high
school in 1957) While we cannot definitively separate these two effects our ability to compare
outcomes of slightly older mothers (ages 22 and 23 born in 1917 or 1916) provide evidence
more consistent with in utero exposure to influenza than impacts of having a mother who is
2021 years old
From a policy perspective our evidence may suggest a novel source of multigenerational
persistence in poverty through biosocial factors and suggest a need to consider evidence of
transgenerational social andor biological mechanisms We document the extent to which
harmful early life environments cascade through generations promoting a disadvantaged start for
those whose grandparents exposed to a hazardous early life environment
22 We specifically explore the confounding effects of younger mothers in appendix tables 7 and 8 These
tables show that younger mothers are indeed initially disadvantaged (ie less years of schooling)
however this young-mother disadvantage does not persist in subsequent generations Rather only those
mothers born in the 1918-1919 range have significant negative effects on later generations
22
References
Almond Doug 2006 Is the 1918 Influenza pandemic over Long‐term effects of in utero Influenza exposure in the post‐1940 US population Journal of Political Economy 114(4) 672-712
Almond Doug and Bhashkar Mazumder 2005 The 1918 Influenza Pandemic and Subsequent Health Outcomes An Analysis of SIPP Data American Economic Review 95(2) 258-262
Barker David James P 2007 The origins of the developmental origins theory Journal of Internal Medicine 261(5) 412-417
Benyshek Daniel C (2013) The ldquoearly liferdquo origins of obesity‐related health disorders New discoveries regarding the intergenerational transmission of developmentally programmed traits in the global cardiometabolic health crisis American Journal of Physical Anthropology 152(S57) 79-93
Brown Alan S and Elena J Derkits 2010 Prenatal infection and schizophrenia a review of epidemiologic and translational studies American Journal of Psychiatry 167(3) 261-280
Burg Steven 2000 Wisconsin and the Great Spanish Flu Epidemic of 1918rdquo Wisconsin Magazine of History 84(1) 36-56
Bygren LarsOlov Gunnar Kaati and Soumlren Edvinsson 2001 Longevity determined by paternal ancestors nutrition during their slow growth period Acta biotheoretica 49(1) 53-59
Canetta Sarah E and Alan S Brown 2012 Prenatal infection maternal immune activation and risk for schizophrenia Translational Neuroscience 3(4) 320-327
Chadwick L and Solon G (2002) Intergenerational income mobility among daughters American Economic Review 92(1) 335-344
Cohen Alan A John Tillinghast and Vladimir Canudas-Romo 2010 No consistent effects of prenatal or neonatal exposure to Spanish flu on late-life mortality in 24 developed countries Demographic Research 22(20) 579
Fatemi S Hossein Julie Earle Reena Kanodia David Kist Effat S Emamian Paul H Patterson Limin Shi and Robert Sidwell 2002 Prenatal viral infection leads to pyramidal cell atrophy and macrocephaly in adulthood implications for genesis of autism and schizophrenia Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology 22(1) 25-33
Fletcher Jason 2014 Examining the Long Term Mortality Effects of Early Health Shocks US Census Bureau Center for Economic Studies Paper No CES-WP-14-19
Kaati Gunnar Lars O Bygren and Soren Edvinsson 2002 Cardiovascular and diabetes mortality determined by nutrition during parents and grandparents slow growth period European Journal of Human Genetics EJHG 10(11) 682
Kash John C Terrence M Tumpey Sean C Proll Victoria Carter Olivia Perwitasari Matthew J Thomas Christopher F Basler et al 2006 Genomic analysis of increased host immune and cell death responses induced by 1918 influenza virus Nature 443(7111) 578-581
Kobasa Darwyn Steven M Jones Kyoko Shinya John C Kash John Copps Hideki Ebihara Yasuko Hatta et al 2007 Aberrant innate immune response in lethal infection of macaques with the 1918 influenza virus Nature 445 (7125) 319-323
Kuzawa Christopher W and Dan T Eisenberg 2014 The Long Reach of History Intergenerational and Transgenerational Pathwaysto Plasticity in Human Longevity Sociality Hierarchy Health Comparative Biodemography Papers from a Workshop National Academies Press
Li Wai-Yu Yi-Chun Chang L Jyuhn-Hsiarn Lee and Li-Jen Lee 2014 Prenatal infection affects the neuronal architecture and cognitive function in adult mice Developmental Neuroscience 36(5) 359-370
23
Lin Ming-Jen and Elaine M Liu 2014 Does in utero exposure to illness matter The 1918 influenza epidemic in Taiwan as a natural experiment Journal of Health Economics 37 152-163
Lindeboom Maarten France Portrait and Gerard J Van den Berg 2010 Long-run effects on longevity of a nutritional shock early in life the Dutch Potato famine of 1846ndash1847 Journal of Health Economics 29(5) 617-629
Mamelund SE (2018) 1918 pandemic mobidity The first wave hits the poor the second wave hits the rich Influenza and Other Respitory Viruses 12(3) 307-313
Mazumder Bhashkar Douglas Almond Kyung Park Eileen M Crimmins and Caleb E Finch 2010 Lingering prenatal effects of the 1918 influenza pandemic on cardiovascular disease Journal of developmental origins of health and disease 1(1) 26-34
Miller Veronica Y Zhu C Bucher W McGinnis L Ryan A Siegel and S Zalcman 2013 Gestational flu exposure induces changes in neurochemicals affiliative hormones and brainstem inflammation in addition to autism-like behaviors in mice Brain Behavior and Immunity 33 153-163
Myrskylauml Mikko Neil K Mehta and Virginia W Chang 2013 Early life exposure to the 1918 influenza pandemic and old-age mortality by cause of death American Journal of Public Health 103(7) e83-e90
Olivetti C and Paserman MD (2015) In the name of the son (and the daughter) Intergenerational mobility in the United States 1850-1940 American Economic Review 105(8) 2695-2724
Pembrey Marcus E Lars Olov Bygren Gunnar Kaati Soumlren Edvinsson Kate Northstone Michael Sjoumlstroumlm and Jean Golding 2006 Sex-specific male-line transgenerational responses in humans European Journal of Human Genetics 14(2) 159-166
Richter Andreacute and Per Olof Robling 2013 Multigenerational effects of the 1918-19 influenza pandemic in Sweden Swedish Institute for Social Research 5
Shors Teri and Susan H McFadden 2009 1918 Influenza A Winnebago County Wisconsin Perspective Clinical Medicine amp Research 7(4) 147-156
Sydenstricker E (1931) The incidence of influenza among persons of different economic status during the epidemic of 1918 Public Health Reports 46(4) 154-170
van den Berg Gerard J and Pia R Pinger 2013 A validation study of transgenerational effects of childhood conditions on the third generation offsprings economic and health outcomes potentially driven by epigenetic imprinting IZA Discussion Paper
Tables and Figures
Table 1 Summary Statistics
Variable N Mean Std Deviation
First GenerartionFlu Indicators
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 8368 0112 0315Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 8456 0030 0170Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 8487 0093 0290
ControlsFirst Generation Malersquos Year of Birth 8456 1907435 7021First Generation Femalersquos Year of Birth 8427 1911189 6164
Dependent VariablesFirst Generation Malersquos Years of Schooling 8456 9778 3392First Generation Femalersquos Years of Schooing 8487 10499 2804First Generation Malersquos Job Prestige 8385 330662 214361First Generation Femalersquos Job Prestige 6683 12814 19934Family SES 8487 16231 11143
Second GenerationControls
Female Indicator 12459 0530 0499Birth Year 12459 1939406 4289Birth Order 12459 2529 1828
Dependent VariablesYears of Schooling 12459 13678 2361Family Income 1992 (in $1000s) 12112 68027 177105Net Worth 2004 (in $1000s) 10498 913046 2558927Self-reported health 1992 9888 4149 0668Height (inches) 9783 67406 3851BMI 1992 9671 26742 4657
Third GenerationControls
Birth Year 19913 1963901 3636Female Indicator 19913 0497 0500Birth Order 19913 2196 1263
Dependent VariableYears of Schooling 19913 14294 2309
Summary amp Notes This table provides summary statistics for all variables used The samples above may not berepresentative for all estimations For example the inclusion of siblings in the second generation increase the sample of parentalyear of birth and the corresponding flu indicator This increase in sample does not significantly change the sample statisticsabove Similar sample changes occur for the second generation controls above For the third generation the sample is restrictedto biological children over 35 years of age
24
Tab
le2
Fir
stG
ener
atio
n
Eco
nom
icE
ffec
ts
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
am
ily
SE
SY
ears
of
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
am
ily
SE
S(1
)(2
)(3
)(4
)(5
)(6
)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale)
-01
39
-01
16lowast
-12
90lowast
lowast
(02
00)
(00
60)
(05
99)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emal
e)-0
133
-00
66
-13
61lowastlowast
lowast
(00
95)
(00
43)
(03
76)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
YY
YY
YY
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8456
8385
8456
8487
6683
8487
RS
qr
00
32
00
08
00
23
00
13
00
04
00
13
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
pro
vid
esd
irec
teff
ects
of
inu
tero
an
dea
rly
life
exp
osu
reto
the
1918
Flu
Ep
idem
ic
Bir
thye
ar
tim
etr
end
sin
lcu
de
yea
rof
bir
than
dit
ssq
uar
ean
din
clu
sion
inth
ees
tim
atio
nis
par
ent
spec
ific
All
esti
mati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
an
dard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
alsi
gnifi
can
ceis
den
oted
by
an
d
re
pre
senti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vel
y
25
Tab
le3
Fir
stG
ener
atio
n
Mar
riag
eM
arke
tE
ffec
ts
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Flu
Bir
thY
ear
Yea
rsof
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
luB
irth
Yea
rY
ears
of
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
e(1
)(2
)(3
)(4
)(5
)(6
)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale)
01
40lowast
lowastlowast-0
259
-00
39
(00
34)
(01
58)
(00
72)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emal
e)0
056lowast
lowastlowast-0
340lowast
lowastlowast-0
118lowastlowast
lowast
(00
14)
(01
17)
(00
36)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
YY
YY
YY
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8348
8487
8412
8348
8456
6660
RS
qr
00
90
00
11
00
08
01
20
00
21
00
01
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
pro
vid
esev
iden
ceof
marr
iage
mark
etse
lect
ion
inth
efi
rst
gen
erati
on
B
irth
year
tim
etr
end
sin
clu
de
year
of
bir
than
dit
ssq
uare
and
incl
usi
onin
the
esti
mat
ion
isp
aren
tsp
ecifi
cA
lles
tim
ati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
an
dard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
sign
ifica
nce
isd
enot
edby
an
d
re
pre
senti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vely
26
Table 4 Second Generation Economic Effects
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Years of Schooling
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0209lowastlowastlowast
(0073)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0084 -0059(0129) (0129)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0211lowastlowastlowast -0209lowastlowastlowast
(0075) (0075)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0085 0084 0085 0085
Panel B ln Family Income 1992
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0221lowastlowast
(0111)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0098 -0066(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0262lowastlowast -0259lowastlowast
(0116) (0116)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112R Sqr 0021 0021 0021 0021
Panel C Std Net Worth 2004
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0026(0022)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0033 0038(0047) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0038lowast -0040lowast
(0021) (0021)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498R Sqr 0007 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table provides evidence of signficant harmful effects of flu exposure in the first generation on secondgeneration economic outcomes First generation time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents(ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and itssquare and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
27
Table 5 Second Generation Health Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Self-reported health (Likert 1=very poor 5=excellent)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0054lowastlowast
(0027)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0005(0047) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0061lowastlowast -0061lowastlowast
(0028) (0028)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Panel B Height (inches)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0101)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0102 0127(0168) (0168)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0169lowast -0175lowast
(0103) (0103)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783r2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Panel C BMI
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0412lowastlowast
(0191)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0082 0023(0344) (0346)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0422lowastlowast 0421lowastlowast
(0193) (0194)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table provides evidence of harmful effects of flu exposure in the first generation on secondgeneration health outcomes First generation time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents (iegen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and itssquare and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
28
Table 6 Generation Three Effects of Generation One Flu Exposure Years of Schooling
Dependent Variable Years of Schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0125(0077)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Male) -0007 0010(0136) (0136)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Female) -0144lowast -0144lowast
(0078) (0078)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913R Sqr 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table shows that the generational effects of flu exposure extend into the third generation of theWLS First generation flu exposure is shown to have a negative association with third generation years of schooling Firstgeneration time trends are year of birth measures for each parent and their square Second generation controls inlcude anindicator for sex second generation year of birth and its square and birth order Third generation controls include a sexindicator year of birth and its square and birth order Given the focus on years of schooling the sample is restricted to thosethird generation individuals 35 years of age and older or born during or before 1970 (data were collected in 2005) Allestimation is performed with OLS with family (second generation) clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
29
(a)
Fat
her
(b)
Moth
er
Fig
ure
1F
irst
Gen
erat
ion
Dis
trib
uti
onof
Yea
rof
Bir
th
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
figu
rep
lots
the
dis
trib
uti
on
for
firs
tgen
erati
on
year
of
bir
th
Flu
exp
osu
reis
class
ified
as
bei
ng
born
inei
ther
1918
or
1919
30
Appendix Tables
Appendix Table 1 First Generation Flu Exposure Effect on Family Income
Dependent Variable Family Income ($100s) 1957
(1) (2)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -3366(2592)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -5363lowastlowast
(2390)
Birth Year Time Trends Y YObservations 7440 7456R Sqr 0013 0004
Summary amp Notes This table replaces the index of socioeconomic status with family income (in $100s) in 1957 Allestimation is performed with OLS with robust standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
31
App
endix
Tab
le2
Mar
riag
eM
arke
tE
ffec
ts
Con
trol
ling
for
Ow
nY
ear
ofB
irth
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
Job
Pre
stig
eY
ears
of
Sch
Job
Pre
stig
e
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale
)-0
052
-211
82
-01
98
-03
74
(02
03)
(131
30)
(01
61)
(14
38)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emale
)-0
346lowast
lowastlowast-2
44
97lowastlowast
lowast-0
103
-13
88
(01
16)
(76
88)
(00
94)
(08
54)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
(Male
an
dF
emale
)Y
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8348
8279
8348
6587
RS
qr
00
40
00
22
00
25
00
04
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
re-e
stim
ates
Tab
le3
wh
ile
contr
oll
ing
for
year
of
bir
than
dfl
uin
dic
ato
rsass
oci
ate
dw
ith
the
spou
sein
the
dep
end
ent
vari
ab
le
All
esti
mat
ion
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
and
ard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
sign
ifica
nce
isd
enote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
atth
e10
5
and
1le
vel
sre
spec
tive
ly
32
Appendix Table 3 2nd Gen Economic Effects Controlling for 1st Gen Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Years of Schooling
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0088(0070)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0005 0008(0119) (0119)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0116 -0117(0072) (0072)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0206 0206 0206 0206
Panel B ln Family Income 1992
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0193lowast
(0111)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0080 -0050(0184) (0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0240lowastlowast -0238lowastlowast
(0116) (0116)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112R Sqr 0024 0024 0024 0024
Panel C Std Normal Net Worth 2004
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0003(0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0047 0049(0046) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0019 -0021(0020) (0020)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498R Sqr 0033 0033 0033 0033
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 4 while controlling for generation one economic outcomes fatherrsquos years ofschooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 First generation time trends are given by year of birth and itssquare for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex secondgeneration year of birth and its square and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standarderrors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and1 levels respectively 33
Appendix Table 4 2nd Gen Health Effects Controlling for 1st Gen Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A BMI
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0352lowast
(0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0051 -0001(0342) (0344)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0372lowast 0372lowast
(0192) (0193)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671R Sqr 0035 0035 0035 0035
Panel B Count of Illnesses
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0122lowast
(0065)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0076 -0096(0102) (0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0139lowastlowast 0144lowastlowast
(0067) (0068)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9921 9921 9921 9921R Sqr 0046 0046 0046 0046
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 5 while controlling for generation one economic outcomes fatherrsquos years ofschooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 First generation time trends are given by year of birth and itssquare for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex secondgeneration year of birth and its square and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standarderrors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and1 levels respectively
34
Appendix Table 5 Generation threersquos years of schooling Controlling for previous generation economicwell-being
Dependent Variable Years of Schooling for Gen 3(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A First Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0069(0076)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0022 0034(0133) (0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0102 -0104(0077) (0078)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913R Sqr 0117 0117 0117 0117
Panel B Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0025(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0008 0013(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0038 -0039(0073) (0073)
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0190 0190 0190 0190
Panel C First and Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0008(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0016 0019(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0028 -0029(0073) (0073)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0196 0196 0196 0196
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 6 while controlling for generation one and tworsquos economic outcomes Forgeneration one these include fatherrsquos years of schooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 generation twocontrols include the WLS graduatesiblingrsquos years of schooling family income in 1992 and net worth in 2004 First generationtime trends are year of birth measures for each parent and their square Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sexsecond generation year of birth and its square and birth order Third generation controls include a sex indicator year of birthand its square and birth order Given the focus on years of schooling the sample is restricted to those third generationindividuals 35 years of age and older or born during or before 1970 (data were collected in 2005) All estimation is performedwith OLS with family (second generation) clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denotedby and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
35
Appendix Table 6 Alternative measures of schooling in the second generation
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Indicator for any college (years of schooling gt12)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0044lowastlowastlowast
(0017)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0011 -0006(0029) (0029)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0044lowastlowast -0043lowastlowast
(0017) (0017)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0071 0070 0071 0071
Panel B Indicator for incomplete college (years of schooling gt12 amp lt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0008(0013)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 -0001(0022) (0022)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0008 -0008(0013) (0013)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0005 0005 0005 0005
Panel C Indicator for college graduate (years of schooling = 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0022lowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0003 0006(0020) (0020)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0021lowast -0021lowastlowast
(0011) (0011)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0019 0019 0019 0019
Panel D Indicator for post-college education (years of schooling gt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0014(0010)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0011(0018) (0018)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0014 -0014(0010) (0010)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0039 0039 0039 0039
Summary amp Notes This table replaces our continuous measure of years of schooling with specified dummy variables Firstgeneration time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Secondgeneration controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and its square and birth order All estimationis performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
36
Appendix Table 7 Young mothers Direct effect on Gen 1 Females
Dependent Variable Years of Sch Job Prestige Family SES
(1) (2) (3)
Ind for First Gen Female Flu Exposure (1918-1919) -0325lowastlowast -0841 -1749lowastlowastlowast
(0137) (1015) (0584)
Ind for mother born during 1920-1921 -0567lowastlowastlowast 0745 -1157(0206) (1515) (0914)
Ind for mother born during 1922-1923 -0666lowastlowast 0098 -2113(0330) (2210) (1298)
Ind for mother born after 1924 -0392 5682 0384(0486) (3705) (2126)
Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y
Observations 8487 6683 8487R Sqr 0014 0005 0014
Summary amp Notes This table includes indicators for alternative years of birth Younger mothers are shown to have lessyears of schooling All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
37
App
endix
Tab
le8
You
ng
mot
her
sG
ener
atio
n2
and
3eff
ects
Gen
2
Gen
3
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
ln
Fam
In
c
1992
Std
N
W
2004
Sel
f-re
p
hea
lth
Hei
ght
BM
IY
ears
of
Sch
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
emal
eF
luE
xp
osu
re(1
918-
1919
)-0
201lowastlowast
-02
95lowastlowast
-00
45
-00
73lowastlowast
-00
90
02
07
-00
86(0
092)
(01
32)
(00
32)
(00
32)
(01
22)
(02
25)
(00
94)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
20-1
921
-00
22
-00
40
-00
10
-00
61
01
33
-04
10
01
13
(01
37)
(01
74)
(00
51)
(00
43)
(01
80)
(03
11)
(01
41)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
22-1
923
-00
96
-01
88
-00
57
00
20
04
61
-11
29lowastlowast
01
55(0
184)
(03
20)
(00
61)
(00
75)
(02
83)
(04
51)
(02
23)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
afte
r19
2404
58
-01
87
00
01
-00
27
03
12
-08
85
03
99
(03
06)
(03
94)
(00
87)
(01
27)
(04
94)
(10
70)
(03
21)
Bas
eC
ontr
ols
YY
YY
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
12459
12112
10498
9888
9783
9671
19913
RS
qr
00
85
00
21
00
08
00
09
05
86
00
29
00
79
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
incl
ud
esin
dic
ator
sfo
ralt
ernati
ve
years
of
bir
th
Bei
ng
born
toa
you
nger
moth
ergen
erall
yis
not
ass
oci
ate
dw
ith
gen
erati
on
2or
3rsquos
outc
omes
ofin
tere
st
inst
ead
n
egat
ive
effec
tsar
eon
lyob
serv
edfo
rth
ose
born
du
rin
gth
efl
u
All
esti
mati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hfa
mil
y(2
nd
gen
erat
ion
)cl
ust
ered
stan
dar
der
rors
rep
orte
din
par
enth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
signifi
can
ceis
den
ote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vel
y
38
Appendix Table 9 Summary Statistics by Gen 2 Sex
Variable N Mean Std Deviation
FemaleYears of Schooling 6607 13352 2088ln Family Income (1992 wave) 6411 9424 3577
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5654 10686 1010Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 5612 -0047 0539Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 5313 4164 0670Height (inches) 5231 646635 247936BMI 5124 26073 5114
Gen 3Years of Schooling 11947 14240 2291
MaleYears of Schooling 5852 14047 2587ln Family Income (1992 wave) 5701 10139 3030
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5264 10981 0836Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 4886 0059 1159Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 4575 4133 0665Height (inches) 4554 7055484 25596BMI 4547 27496 3948
Gen 3Years of Schooling 8046 14371 2332
Appendix Table 10A Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0090(0086)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0198 0214(0169) (0169)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104 -0114(0087) (0087)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6607 6607 6607 6607R Sqr 0075 0075 0075 0075
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
39
Appendix Table 10B Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0523lowastlowastlowast
(0170)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0483 -0410(0321) (0323)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0512lowastlowastlowast -0491lowastlowastlowast
(0179) (0180)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6411 6411 6411 6411R Sqr 0015 0013 0014 0015
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10C Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0007(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0078lowast 0078(0048) (0048)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0008 0005(0025) (0025)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5612 5612 5612 5612R Sqr 0007 0007 0007 0007
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
40
Appendix Table 10D Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0027(0036)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 -0001(0071) (0071)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0022 -0022(0037) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5313 5313 5313 5313r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10E Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -2382(13366)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 44280lowastlowast 46351lowastlowast
(22343) (22480)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -12253 -14428(13485) (13561)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5231 5231 5231 5231r2 0015 0016 0015 0016
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
41
Appendix Table 10F Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0353(0286)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0105 0060(0514) (0516)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0326 0323(0289) (0290)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5124 5124 5124 5124R Sqr 0010 0010 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0087(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0104 -0101(0190) (0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0042 -0039(0098) (0098)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 11906 11906 11906 11906R Sqr 0086 0086 0086 0086
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
42
Appendix Table 11A Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0322lowastlowastlowast
(0116)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0369lowastlowast -0338lowast
(0181) (0180)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0309lowastlowastlowast -0297lowastlowast
(0119) (0119)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5852 5852 5852 5852R Sqr 0060 0059 0060 0060
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11B RResults by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0116(0138)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0262 0261(0200) (0199)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0024 0014(0141) (0140)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5701 5701 5701 5701R Sqr 0009 0009 0008 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
43
Appendix Table 11C Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0038)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0001(0081) (0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0094lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0035)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4886 4886 4886 4886R Sqr 0004 0004 0004 0004
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
44
Appendix Table 11D Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0083lowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 0012(0062) (0062)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104lowastlowastlowast -0105lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0041)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4575 4575 4575 4575r2 0010 0009 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11E Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -15122(14275)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -22991 -20537(23287) (23176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -18595 -17540(14734) (14751)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4554 4554 4554 4554r2 0011 0011 0011 0011
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
45
Appendix Table 11F Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0465lowast
(0238)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0079 0006(0403) (0405)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0520lowastlowast 0520lowastlowast
(0245) (0246)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4547 4547 4547 4547R Sqr 0006 0005 0006 0006
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0177(0123)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0098 0144(0194) (0192)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0293lowastlowast -0302lowastlowast
(0125) (0126)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8007 8007 8007 8007R Sqr 0067 0067 0068 0068
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
46
Appendix Table 12A Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0253lowastlowast
(0107)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0252 -0226(0170) (0172)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0263lowastlowast -0242lowastlowast
(0113) (0115)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0084(0120)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0341 0339(0216) (0219)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0096 0056(0130) (0132)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459r2 0085 0085 0085 0085
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
47
Appendix Table 12B Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0128)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0196 0169(0190) (0189)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0081 -0104(0135) (0135)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0383lowastlowast
(0189)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0594lowast -0474(0349) (0355)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0339lowast -0283(0204) (0207)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112r2 0021 0021 0021 0021
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
48
Appendix Table 12C Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0034)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0019(0077) (0079)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0095lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0030) (0031)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0071lowast
(0038)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0072 0039(0087) (0089)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0104lowastlowastlowast 0100lowastlowastlowast
(0035) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498r2 0008 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
49
Appendix Table 12D Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0071lowast
(0036)[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0012 0031
(0058) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0093lowastlowast -0097lowastlowast
(0039) (0039)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0030(0045)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0031 -0051(0087) (0088)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0059 0065(0048) (0049)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
50
Appendix Table 12E Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0129 -0125(0223) (0224)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0152 -0129(0141) (0142)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0000(0158)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0454 0495lowast
(0279) (0287)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0031 -0090(0170) (0175)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783nr2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
51
Appendix Table 12F Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0376(0231)
[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0059 -0122(0402) (0407)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0441lowast 0457lowast
(0240) (0243)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0068(0316)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0282 0288(0573) (0589)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0035 -0069(0340) (0350)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
52
Appendix Table 12G Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0131(0114)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male 0114 0175(0185) (0188)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0237lowastlowast -0261lowastlowast
(0118) (0121)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0009(0133)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0225 -0292(0249) (0254)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0152 0189(0141) (0145)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913r2 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
53
Appendix Table 13 Family Income 1992 excluding non-earners (ie fam inc = 0)
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992 wave (excluding those reporting 0)(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0095lowastlowastlowast
(0033)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0031 -0019(0053) (0053)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0101lowastlowastlowast -0100lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0034)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10918 10918 10918 10918r2 0050 0049 0050 0050
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0084lowast
(0050)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0019 -0007(0089) (0090)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0083 -0083(0053) (0054)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5654 5654 5654 5654r2 0026 0026 0026 0026
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102lowastlowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0051 -0040(0060) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0113lowastlowastlowast -0112lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0040)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5264 5264 5264 5264r2 0029 0028 0029 0029
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel B in Table 4 excluding those who report $0 for familyincome All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
54
Appendix Table 14 Net Worth 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable Std Net Worth 2011 Wave of WLS(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0032lowastlowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0023lowast -0021lowast
(0012) (0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0032lowastlowastlowast -0031lowastlowastlowast
(0010) (0010)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9435 9435 9435 9435r2 0002 0002 0002 0002
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0012lowast
(0006)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0009 -0008(0009) (0009)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0012lowastlowast -0011lowastlowast
(0006) (0006)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5026 5026 5026 5026r2 0007 0006 0007 0007
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0057lowastlowast
(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0040lowast -0036lowast
(0023) (0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0057lowastlowast -0056lowastlowast
(0023) (0022)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4409 4409 4409 4409r2 0001 0001 0001 0001
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel C in Table 4 replacing the net worth measure from the 2004wave with an identical measure from the 2011 wave of the WLS All estimation is performed with OLS with family clusteredstandard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 105 and 1 levels respectively
55
Appendix Table 15A Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 1992 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0243(0152)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0107 0039(0252) (0255)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0285lowast 0282lowast
(0158) (0160)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9849 9849 9849 9849
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0007(0091)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0210 -0216(0170) (0173)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0007 0024(0095) (0097)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9858 9858 9858 9858
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0255(0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0107 -0169(0328) (0338)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0237 0252(0193) (0198)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9845 9845 9845 9845
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
56
Appendix Table 15B Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2004 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0018(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0190 0207(0160) (0162)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0066 -0083(0102) (0104)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10672 10672 10672 10672
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0096 0108(0124) (0125)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0051 -0059(0076) (0077)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10619 10619 10619 10619
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0108(0110)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0064 0027(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0181 0179(0113) (0113)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10617 10617 10617 10617
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
57
Appendix Table 15C Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0099(0092)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0244 0242(0154) (0155)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0033 0016(0099) (0100)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0021(0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0095 0097(0138) (0139)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0004 -0011(0085) (0086)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0134(0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0203 0181(0175) (0176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0140 0127(0107) (0107)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8709 8709 8709 8709
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
58
- text 10818
- tables 10-8-18
-
19
421 This again indicates a persistent effect that may be attenuating over time Importantly while
the estimate for grandfather exposure is insignificant it is consistent with intergenerational
inheritance (Kuzawa and Eisenberg 2014) To say the same for grandmother exposure would
require effects to persist into the fourth generation (due to the differences in gametic
development) and this data is not available in the WLS
Conclusion
This paper presents novel evidence of multigenerational effects of in utero health insults We
use the sudden and unexpected influenza pandemic in 19181919 to trace out the effects of in
utero exposure to infectious disease on own outcomes for the first generation childrenrsquos
outcomes and grandchildrenrsquos outcomes We find that this exposure reduces educational
attainment and related economic outcomes across three generations For example individuals in
our second generation the WLS graduates and their siblings who have mothers who were
exposed to the 1918 flu in utero complete 15 fewer years of schooling (or 24 months less
schooling) The size of our estimated effect aligns well with those of Richter and Robling (2013)
who find that first generation in utero exposure to the 1918 flu results in 16 fewer years of
schooling (or 2 months to 25 months less schooling) for the maternal line We then extend
results to the third generation for the first time in the literature and find that individuals in the
third generation who have grandmothers who were exposed to the pandemic in utero complete
17 fewer years of schooling (or 17 months less schooling) than individuals without affected
grandmothers
21 For gen 1 female exposure in column (4) the p-value for a difference in coefficients between Panel A
of Table 4 and Table 6 is 0411 implying the effect in the third generation is statistically indistinguishable
from that in the second generation
20
There are at several potential mechanisms for the persistence of poor outcomes across
three generations we find in our data As previously outlined the intergenerational persistence in
poor outcomes due to early life health shocks could occur through socioeconomic channels
where a fetally insulted person with resulting low educational attainment raises a child in a low-
resource environment that reduces opportunities for high educational attainment of the child In
order to see multigenerational effects the reduced opportunities for high educational attainment
of the child must then reduce opportunities for their own children Alternatively
intergenerational transmission may occur through epigenetic inheritance through the germ line a
distinct possibility based on findings of the Oumlverkalix studies or phenotype-to-phenotype
transmission and cumulative intergenerational phenotypic change
Our analysis is unable to fully distinguish between these proposed intergenerational
channels the socioeconomic and biological but it is important to note that the channels are by no
means mutually exclusive Further analysis (appendix tables 3-5) that is intended to partially
account for the socioeconomic mechanism leads to mixed results in which the coefficient of first
generation flu exposure is attenuated to insignificance for some outcomes but not others This
provides evidence for a socioeconomic channel but does not eliminate the possibility of
epigenetic mechanisms or other biological channel through which socioeconomic status ldquogets
under the skinrdquo to influence outcomes of subsequent generations (eg the socioeconomic
circumstances of one generation may ldquoget under the skinrdquo of the next and subsequently be passed
via biology andor socioeconomics to other generations) Likewise the estimates of grandfather
effects on grandchildren are imprecise but consistent with transgenerational inheritance (Kuzawa
and Eisenberg 2014) Additionally while the WLS provides a unique framework to analyze
multiple generations the measurement of flu exposure is somewhat crude (from self-reported
21
parentsrsquo year of birth) and is in the right-tail of the distribution of parent birth years suggesting
the possibility of confounding from resource-poor younger mothers22 That is exposure to
influenza in the first generation is mechanically tied to motherrsquos ages of 20 and 21 because the
WLS sample is drawn based on having a child who was born in 1939 (and thus graduating high
school in 1957) While we cannot definitively separate these two effects our ability to compare
outcomes of slightly older mothers (ages 22 and 23 born in 1917 or 1916) provide evidence
more consistent with in utero exposure to influenza than impacts of having a mother who is
2021 years old
From a policy perspective our evidence may suggest a novel source of multigenerational
persistence in poverty through biosocial factors and suggest a need to consider evidence of
transgenerational social andor biological mechanisms We document the extent to which
harmful early life environments cascade through generations promoting a disadvantaged start for
those whose grandparents exposed to a hazardous early life environment
22 We specifically explore the confounding effects of younger mothers in appendix tables 7 and 8 These
tables show that younger mothers are indeed initially disadvantaged (ie less years of schooling)
however this young-mother disadvantage does not persist in subsequent generations Rather only those
mothers born in the 1918-1919 range have significant negative effects on later generations
22
References
Almond Doug 2006 Is the 1918 Influenza pandemic over Long‐term effects of in utero Influenza exposure in the post‐1940 US population Journal of Political Economy 114(4) 672-712
Almond Doug and Bhashkar Mazumder 2005 The 1918 Influenza Pandemic and Subsequent Health Outcomes An Analysis of SIPP Data American Economic Review 95(2) 258-262
Barker David James P 2007 The origins of the developmental origins theory Journal of Internal Medicine 261(5) 412-417
Benyshek Daniel C (2013) The ldquoearly liferdquo origins of obesity‐related health disorders New discoveries regarding the intergenerational transmission of developmentally programmed traits in the global cardiometabolic health crisis American Journal of Physical Anthropology 152(S57) 79-93
Brown Alan S and Elena J Derkits 2010 Prenatal infection and schizophrenia a review of epidemiologic and translational studies American Journal of Psychiatry 167(3) 261-280
Burg Steven 2000 Wisconsin and the Great Spanish Flu Epidemic of 1918rdquo Wisconsin Magazine of History 84(1) 36-56
Bygren LarsOlov Gunnar Kaati and Soumlren Edvinsson 2001 Longevity determined by paternal ancestors nutrition during their slow growth period Acta biotheoretica 49(1) 53-59
Canetta Sarah E and Alan S Brown 2012 Prenatal infection maternal immune activation and risk for schizophrenia Translational Neuroscience 3(4) 320-327
Chadwick L and Solon G (2002) Intergenerational income mobility among daughters American Economic Review 92(1) 335-344
Cohen Alan A John Tillinghast and Vladimir Canudas-Romo 2010 No consistent effects of prenatal or neonatal exposure to Spanish flu on late-life mortality in 24 developed countries Demographic Research 22(20) 579
Fatemi S Hossein Julie Earle Reena Kanodia David Kist Effat S Emamian Paul H Patterson Limin Shi and Robert Sidwell 2002 Prenatal viral infection leads to pyramidal cell atrophy and macrocephaly in adulthood implications for genesis of autism and schizophrenia Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology 22(1) 25-33
Fletcher Jason 2014 Examining the Long Term Mortality Effects of Early Health Shocks US Census Bureau Center for Economic Studies Paper No CES-WP-14-19
Kaati Gunnar Lars O Bygren and Soren Edvinsson 2002 Cardiovascular and diabetes mortality determined by nutrition during parents and grandparents slow growth period European Journal of Human Genetics EJHG 10(11) 682
Kash John C Terrence M Tumpey Sean C Proll Victoria Carter Olivia Perwitasari Matthew J Thomas Christopher F Basler et al 2006 Genomic analysis of increased host immune and cell death responses induced by 1918 influenza virus Nature 443(7111) 578-581
Kobasa Darwyn Steven M Jones Kyoko Shinya John C Kash John Copps Hideki Ebihara Yasuko Hatta et al 2007 Aberrant innate immune response in lethal infection of macaques with the 1918 influenza virus Nature 445 (7125) 319-323
Kuzawa Christopher W and Dan T Eisenberg 2014 The Long Reach of History Intergenerational and Transgenerational Pathwaysto Plasticity in Human Longevity Sociality Hierarchy Health Comparative Biodemography Papers from a Workshop National Academies Press
Li Wai-Yu Yi-Chun Chang L Jyuhn-Hsiarn Lee and Li-Jen Lee 2014 Prenatal infection affects the neuronal architecture and cognitive function in adult mice Developmental Neuroscience 36(5) 359-370
23
Lin Ming-Jen and Elaine M Liu 2014 Does in utero exposure to illness matter The 1918 influenza epidemic in Taiwan as a natural experiment Journal of Health Economics 37 152-163
Lindeboom Maarten France Portrait and Gerard J Van den Berg 2010 Long-run effects on longevity of a nutritional shock early in life the Dutch Potato famine of 1846ndash1847 Journal of Health Economics 29(5) 617-629
Mamelund SE (2018) 1918 pandemic mobidity The first wave hits the poor the second wave hits the rich Influenza and Other Respitory Viruses 12(3) 307-313
Mazumder Bhashkar Douglas Almond Kyung Park Eileen M Crimmins and Caleb E Finch 2010 Lingering prenatal effects of the 1918 influenza pandemic on cardiovascular disease Journal of developmental origins of health and disease 1(1) 26-34
Miller Veronica Y Zhu C Bucher W McGinnis L Ryan A Siegel and S Zalcman 2013 Gestational flu exposure induces changes in neurochemicals affiliative hormones and brainstem inflammation in addition to autism-like behaviors in mice Brain Behavior and Immunity 33 153-163
Myrskylauml Mikko Neil K Mehta and Virginia W Chang 2013 Early life exposure to the 1918 influenza pandemic and old-age mortality by cause of death American Journal of Public Health 103(7) e83-e90
Olivetti C and Paserman MD (2015) In the name of the son (and the daughter) Intergenerational mobility in the United States 1850-1940 American Economic Review 105(8) 2695-2724
Pembrey Marcus E Lars Olov Bygren Gunnar Kaati Soumlren Edvinsson Kate Northstone Michael Sjoumlstroumlm and Jean Golding 2006 Sex-specific male-line transgenerational responses in humans European Journal of Human Genetics 14(2) 159-166
Richter Andreacute and Per Olof Robling 2013 Multigenerational effects of the 1918-19 influenza pandemic in Sweden Swedish Institute for Social Research 5
Shors Teri and Susan H McFadden 2009 1918 Influenza A Winnebago County Wisconsin Perspective Clinical Medicine amp Research 7(4) 147-156
Sydenstricker E (1931) The incidence of influenza among persons of different economic status during the epidemic of 1918 Public Health Reports 46(4) 154-170
van den Berg Gerard J and Pia R Pinger 2013 A validation study of transgenerational effects of childhood conditions on the third generation offsprings economic and health outcomes potentially driven by epigenetic imprinting IZA Discussion Paper
Tables and Figures
Table 1 Summary Statistics
Variable N Mean Std Deviation
First GenerartionFlu Indicators
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 8368 0112 0315Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 8456 0030 0170Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 8487 0093 0290
ControlsFirst Generation Malersquos Year of Birth 8456 1907435 7021First Generation Femalersquos Year of Birth 8427 1911189 6164
Dependent VariablesFirst Generation Malersquos Years of Schooling 8456 9778 3392First Generation Femalersquos Years of Schooing 8487 10499 2804First Generation Malersquos Job Prestige 8385 330662 214361First Generation Femalersquos Job Prestige 6683 12814 19934Family SES 8487 16231 11143
Second GenerationControls
Female Indicator 12459 0530 0499Birth Year 12459 1939406 4289Birth Order 12459 2529 1828
Dependent VariablesYears of Schooling 12459 13678 2361Family Income 1992 (in $1000s) 12112 68027 177105Net Worth 2004 (in $1000s) 10498 913046 2558927Self-reported health 1992 9888 4149 0668Height (inches) 9783 67406 3851BMI 1992 9671 26742 4657
Third GenerationControls
Birth Year 19913 1963901 3636Female Indicator 19913 0497 0500Birth Order 19913 2196 1263
Dependent VariableYears of Schooling 19913 14294 2309
Summary amp Notes This table provides summary statistics for all variables used The samples above may not berepresentative for all estimations For example the inclusion of siblings in the second generation increase the sample of parentalyear of birth and the corresponding flu indicator This increase in sample does not significantly change the sample statisticsabove Similar sample changes occur for the second generation controls above For the third generation the sample is restrictedto biological children over 35 years of age
24
Tab
le2
Fir
stG
ener
atio
n
Eco
nom
icE
ffec
ts
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
am
ily
SE
SY
ears
of
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
am
ily
SE
S(1
)(2
)(3
)(4
)(5
)(6
)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale)
-01
39
-01
16lowast
-12
90lowast
lowast
(02
00)
(00
60)
(05
99)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emal
e)-0
133
-00
66
-13
61lowastlowast
lowast
(00
95)
(00
43)
(03
76)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
YY
YY
YY
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8456
8385
8456
8487
6683
8487
RS
qr
00
32
00
08
00
23
00
13
00
04
00
13
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
pro
vid
esd
irec
teff
ects
of
inu
tero
an
dea
rly
life
exp
osu
reto
the
1918
Flu
Ep
idem
ic
Bir
thye
ar
tim
etr
end
sin
lcu
de
yea
rof
bir
than
dit
ssq
uar
ean
din
clu
sion
inth
ees
tim
atio
nis
par
ent
spec
ific
All
esti
mati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
an
dard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
alsi
gnifi
can
ceis
den
oted
by
an
d
re
pre
senti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vel
y
25
Tab
le3
Fir
stG
ener
atio
n
Mar
riag
eM
arke
tE
ffec
ts
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Flu
Bir
thY
ear
Yea
rsof
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
luB
irth
Yea
rY
ears
of
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
e(1
)(2
)(3
)(4
)(5
)(6
)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale)
01
40lowast
lowastlowast-0
259
-00
39
(00
34)
(01
58)
(00
72)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emal
e)0
056lowast
lowastlowast-0
340lowast
lowastlowast-0
118lowastlowast
lowast
(00
14)
(01
17)
(00
36)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
YY
YY
YY
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8348
8487
8412
8348
8456
6660
RS
qr
00
90
00
11
00
08
01
20
00
21
00
01
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
pro
vid
esev
iden
ceof
marr
iage
mark
etse
lect
ion
inth
efi
rst
gen
erati
on
B
irth
year
tim
etr
end
sin
clu
de
year
of
bir
than
dit
ssq
uare
and
incl
usi
onin
the
esti
mat
ion
isp
aren
tsp
ecifi
cA
lles
tim
ati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
an
dard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
sign
ifica
nce
isd
enot
edby
an
d
re
pre
senti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vely
26
Table 4 Second Generation Economic Effects
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Years of Schooling
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0209lowastlowastlowast
(0073)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0084 -0059(0129) (0129)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0211lowastlowastlowast -0209lowastlowastlowast
(0075) (0075)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0085 0084 0085 0085
Panel B ln Family Income 1992
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0221lowastlowast
(0111)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0098 -0066(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0262lowastlowast -0259lowastlowast
(0116) (0116)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112R Sqr 0021 0021 0021 0021
Panel C Std Net Worth 2004
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0026(0022)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0033 0038(0047) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0038lowast -0040lowast
(0021) (0021)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498R Sqr 0007 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table provides evidence of signficant harmful effects of flu exposure in the first generation on secondgeneration economic outcomes First generation time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents(ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and itssquare and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
27
Table 5 Second Generation Health Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Self-reported health (Likert 1=very poor 5=excellent)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0054lowastlowast
(0027)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0005(0047) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0061lowastlowast -0061lowastlowast
(0028) (0028)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Panel B Height (inches)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0101)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0102 0127(0168) (0168)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0169lowast -0175lowast
(0103) (0103)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783r2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Panel C BMI
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0412lowastlowast
(0191)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0082 0023(0344) (0346)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0422lowastlowast 0421lowastlowast
(0193) (0194)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table provides evidence of harmful effects of flu exposure in the first generation on secondgeneration health outcomes First generation time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents (iegen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and itssquare and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
28
Table 6 Generation Three Effects of Generation One Flu Exposure Years of Schooling
Dependent Variable Years of Schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0125(0077)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Male) -0007 0010(0136) (0136)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Female) -0144lowast -0144lowast
(0078) (0078)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913R Sqr 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table shows that the generational effects of flu exposure extend into the third generation of theWLS First generation flu exposure is shown to have a negative association with third generation years of schooling Firstgeneration time trends are year of birth measures for each parent and their square Second generation controls inlcude anindicator for sex second generation year of birth and its square and birth order Third generation controls include a sexindicator year of birth and its square and birth order Given the focus on years of schooling the sample is restricted to thosethird generation individuals 35 years of age and older or born during or before 1970 (data were collected in 2005) Allestimation is performed with OLS with family (second generation) clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
29
(a)
Fat
her
(b)
Moth
er
Fig
ure
1F
irst
Gen
erat
ion
Dis
trib
uti
onof
Yea
rof
Bir
th
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
figu
rep
lots
the
dis
trib
uti
on
for
firs
tgen
erati
on
year
of
bir
th
Flu
exp
osu
reis
class
ified
as
bei
ng
born
inei
ther
1918
or
1919
30
Appendix Tables
Appendix Table 1 First Generation Flu Exposure Effect on Family Income
Dependent Variable Family Income ($100s) 1957
(1) (2)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -3366(2592)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -5363lowastlowast
(2390)
Birth Year Time Trends Y YObservations 7440 7456R Sqr 0013 0004
Summary amp Notes This table replaces the index of socioeconomic status with family income (in $100s) in 1957 Allestimation is performed with OLS with robust standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
31
App
endix
Tab
le2
Mar
riag
eM
arke
tE
ffec
ts
Con
trol
ling
for
Ow
nY
ear
ofB
irth
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
Job
Pre
stig
eY
ears
of
Sch
Job
Pre
stig
e
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale
)-0
052
-211
82
-01
98
-03
74
(02
03)
(131
30)
(01
61)
(14
38)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emale
)-0
346lowast
lowastlowast-2
44
97lowastlowast
lowast-0
103
-13
88
(01
16)
(76
88)
(00
94)
(08
54)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
(Male
an
dF
emale
)Y
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8348
8279
8348
6587
RS
qr
00
40
00
22
00
25
00
04
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
re-e
stim
ates
Tab
le3
wh
ile
contr
oll
ing
for
year
of
bir
than
dfl
uin
dic
ato
rsass
oci
ate
dw
ith
the
spou
sein
the
dep
end
ent
vari
ab
le
All
esti
mat
ion
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
and
ard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
sign
ifica
nce
isd
enote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
atth
e10
5
and
1le
vel
sre
spec
tive
ly
32
Appendix Table 3 2nd Gen Economic Effects Controlling for 1st Gen Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Years of Schooling
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0088(0070)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0005 0008(0119) (0119)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0116 -0117(0072) (0072)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0206 0206 0206 0206
Panel B ln Family Income 1992
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0193lowast
(0111)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0080 -0050(0184) (0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0240lowastlowast -0238lowastlowast
(0116) (0116)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112R Sqr 0024 0024 0024 0024
Panel C Std Normal Net Worth 2004
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0003(0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0047 0049(0046) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0019 -0021(0020) (0020)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498R Sqr 0033 0033 0033 0033
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 4 while controlling for generation one economic outcomes fatherrsquos years ofschooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 First generation time trends are given by year of birth and itssquare for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex secondgeneration year of birth and its square and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standarderrors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and1 levels respectively 33
Appendix Table 4 2nd Gen Health Effects Controlling for 1st Gen Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A BMI
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0352lowast
(0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0051 -0001(0342) (0344)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0372lowast 0372lowast
(0192) (0193)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671R Sqr 0035 0035 0035 0035
Panel B Count of Illnesses
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0122lowast
(0065)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0076 -0096(0102) (0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0139lowastlowast 0144lowastlowast
(0067) (0068)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9921 9921 9921 9921R Sqr 0046 0046 0046 0046
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 5 while controlling for generation one economic outcomes fatherrsquos years ofschooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 First generation time trends are given by year of birth and itssquare for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex secondgeneration year of birth and its square and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standarderrors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and1 levels respectively
34
Appendix Table 5 Generation threersquos years of schooling Controlling for previous generation economicwell-being
Dependent Variable Years of Schooling for Gen 3(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A First Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0069(0076)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0022 0034(0133) (0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0102 -0104(0077) (0078)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913R Sqr 0117 0117 0117 0117
Panel B Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0025(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0008 0013(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0038 -0039(0073) (0073)
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0190 0190 0190 0190
Panel C First and Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0008(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0016 0019(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0028 -0029(0073) (0073)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0196 0196 0196 0196
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 6 while controlling for generation one and tworsquos economic outcomes Forgeneration one these include fatherrsquos years of schooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 generation twocontrols include the WLS graduatesiblingrsquos years of schooling family income in 1992 and net worth in 2004 First generationtime trends are year of birth measures for each parent and their square Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sexsecond generation year of birth and its square and birth order Third generation controls include a sex indicator year of birthand its square and birth order Given the focus on years of schooling the sample is restricted to those third generationindividuals 35 years of age and older or born during or before 1970 (data were collected in 2005) All estimation is performedwith OLS with family (second generation) clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denotedby and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
35
Appendix Table 6 Alternative measures of schooling in the second generation
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Indicator for any college (years of schooling gt12)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0044lowastlowastlowast
(0017)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0011 -0006(0029) (0029)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0044lowastlowast -0043lowastlowast
(0017) (0017)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0071 0070 0071 0071
Panel B Indicator for incomplete college (years of schooling gt12 amp lt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0008(0013)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 -0001(0022) (0022)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0008 -0008(0013) (0013)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0005 0005 0005 0005
Panel C Indicator for college graduate (years of schooling = 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0022lowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0003 0006(0020) (0020)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0021lowast -0021lowastlowast
(0011) (0011)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0019 0019 0019 0019
Panel D Indicator for post-college education (years of schooling gt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0014(0010)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0011(0018) (0018)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0014 -0014(0010) (0010)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0039 0039 0039 0039
Summary amp Notes This table replaces our continuous measure of years of schooling with specified dummy variables Firstgeneration time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Secondgeneration controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and its square and birth order All estimationis performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
36
Appendix Table 7 Young mothers Direct effect on Gen 1 Females
Dependent Variable Years of Sch Job Prestige Family SES
(1) (2) (3)
Ind for First Gen Female Flu Exposure (1918-1919) -0325lowastlowast -0841 -1749lowastlowastlowast
(0137) (1015) (0584)
Ind for mother born during 1920-1921 -0567lowastlowastlowast 0745 -1157(0206) (1515) (0914)
Ind for mother born during 1922-1923 -0666lowastlowast 0098 -2113(0330) (2210) (1298)
Ind for mother born after 1924 -0392 5682 0384(0486) (3705) (2126)
Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y
Observations 8487 6683 8487R Sqr 0014 0005 0014
Summary amp Notes This table includes indicators for alternative years of birth Younger mothers are shown to have lessyears of schooling All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
37
App
endix
Tab
le8
You
ng
mot
her
sG
ener
atio
n2
and
3eff
ects
Gen
2
Gen
3
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
ln
Fam
In
c
1992
Std
N
W
2004
Sel
f-re
p
hea
lth
Hei
ght
BM
IY
ears
of
Sch
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
emal
eF
luE
xp
osu
re(1
918-
1919
)-0
201lowastlowast
-02
95lowastlowast
-00
45
-00
73lowastlowast
-00
90
02
07
-00
86(0
092)
(01
32)
(00
32)
(00
32)
(01
22)
(02
25)
(00
94)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
20-1
921
-00
22
-00
40
-00
10
-00
61
01
33
-04
10
01
13
(01
37)
(01
74)
(00
51)
(00
43)
(01
80)
(03
11)
(01
41)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
22-1
923
-00
96
-01
88
-00
57
00
20
04
61
-11
29lowastlowast
01
55(0
184)
(03
20)
(00
61)
(00
75)
(02
83)
(04
51)
(02
23)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
afte
r19
2404
58
-01
87
00
01
-00
27
03
12
-08
85
03
99
(03
06)
(03
94)
(00
87)
(01
27)
(04
94)
(10
70)
(03
21)
Bas
eC
ontr
ols
YY
YY
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
12459
12112
10498
9888
9783
9671
19913
RS
qr
00
85
00
21
00
08
00
09
05
86
00
29
00
79
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
incl
ud
esin
dic
ator
sfo
ralt
ernati
ve
years
of
bir
th
Bei
ng
born
toa
you
nger
moth
ergen
erall
yis
not
ass
oci
ate
dw
ith
gen
erati
on
2or
3rsquos
outc
omes
ofin
tere
st
inst
ead
n
egat
ive
effec
tsar
eon
lyob
serv
edfo
rth
ose
born
du
rin
gth
efl
u
All
esti
mati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hfa
mil
y(2
nd
gen
erat
ion
)cl
ust
ered
stan
dar
der
rors
rep
orte
din
par
enth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
signifi
can
ceis
den
ote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vel
y
38
Appendix Table 9 Summary Statistics by Gen 2 Sex
Variable N Mean Std Deviation
FemaleYears of Schooling 6607 13352 2088ln Family Income (1992 wave) 6411 9424 3577
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5654 10686 1010Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 5612 -0047 0539Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 5313 4164 0670Height (inches) 5231 646635 247936BMI 5124 26073 5114
Gen 3Years of Schooling 11947 14240 2291
MaleYears of Schooling 5852 14047 2587ln Family Income (1992 wave) 5701 10139 3030
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5264 10981 0836Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 4886 0059 1159Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 4575 4133 0665Height (inches) 4554 7055484 25596BMI 4547 27496 3948
Gen 3Years of Schooling 8046 14371 2332
Appendix Table 10A Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0090(0086)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0198 0214(0169) (0169)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104 -0114(0087) (0087)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6607 6607 6607 6607R Sqr 0075 0075 0075 0075
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
39
Appendix Table 10B Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0523lowastlowastlowast
(0170)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0483 -0410(0321) (0323)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0512lowastlowastlowast -0491lowastlowastlowast
(0179) (0180)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6411 6411 6411 6411R Sqr 0015 0013 0014 0015
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10C Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0007(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0078lowast 0078(0048) (0048)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0008 0005(0025) (0025)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5612 5612 5612 5612R Sqr 0007 0007 0007 0007
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
40
Appendix Table 10D Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0027(0036)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 -0001(0071) (0071)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0022 -0022(0037) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5313 5313 5313 5313r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10E Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -2382(13366)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 44280lowastlowast 46351lowastlowast
(22343) (22480)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -12253 -14428(13485) (13561)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5231 5231 5231 5231r2 0015 0016 0015 0016
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
41
Appendix Table 10F Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0353(0286)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0105 0060(0514) (0516)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0326 0323(0289) (0290)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5124 5124 5124 5124R Sqr 0010 0010 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0087(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0104 -0101(0190) (0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0042 -0039(0098) (0098)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 11906 11906 11906 11906R Sqr 0086 0086 0086 0086
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
42
Appendix Table 11A Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0322lowastlowastlowast
(0116)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0369lowastlowast -0338lowast
(0181) (0180)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0309lowastlowastlowast -0297lowastlowast
(0119) (0119)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5852 5852 5852 5852R Sqr 0060 0059 0060 0060
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11B RResults by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0116(0138)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0262 0261(0200) (0199)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0024 0014(0141) (0140)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5701 5701 5701 5701R Sqr 0009 0009 0008 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
43
Appendix Table 11C Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0038)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0001(0081) (0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0094lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0035)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4886 4886 4886 4886R Sqr 0004 0004 0004 0004
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
44
Appendix Table 11D Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0083lowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 0012(0062) (0062)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104lowastlowastlowast -0105lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0041)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4575 4575 4575 4575r2 0010 0009 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11E Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -15122(14275)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -22991 -20537(23287) (23176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -18595 -17540(14734) (14751)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4554 4554 4554 4554r2 0011 0011 0011 0011
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
45
Appendix Table 11F Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0465lowast
(0238)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0079 0006(0403) (0405)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0520lowastlowast 0520lowastlowast
(0245) (0246)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4547 4547 4547 4547R Sqr 0006 0005 0006 0006
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0177(0123)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0098 0144(0194) (0192)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0293lowastlowast -0302lowastlowast
(0125) (0126)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8007 8007 8007 8007R Sqr 0067 0067 0068 0068
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
46
Appendix Table 12A Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0253lowastlowast
(0107)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0252 -0226(0170) (0172)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0263lowastlowast -0242lowastlowast
(0113) (0115)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0084(0120)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0341 0339(0216) (0219)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0096 0056(0130) (0132)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459r2 0085 0085 0085 0085
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
47
Appendix Table 12B Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0128)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0196 0169(0190) (0189)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0081 -0104(0135) (0135)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0383lowastlowast
(0189)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0594lowast -0474(0349) (0355)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0339lowast -0283(0204) (0207)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112r2 0021 0021 0021 0021
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
48
Appendix Table 12C Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0034)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0019(0077) (0079)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0095lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0030) (0031)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0071lowast
(0038)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0072 0039(0087) (0089)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0104lowastlowastlowast 0100lowastlowastlowast
(0035) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498r2 0008 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
49
Appendix Table 12D Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0071lowast
(0036)[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0012 0031
(0058) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0093lowastlowast -0097lowastlowast
(0039) (0039)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0030(0045)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0031 -0051(0087) (0088)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0059 0065(0048) (0049)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
50
Appendix Table 12E Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0129 -0125(0223) (0224)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0152 -0129(0141) (0142)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0000(0158)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0454 0495lowast
(0279) (0287)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0031 -0090(0170) (0175)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783nr2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
51
Appendix Table 12F Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0376(0231)
[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0059 -0122(0402) (0407)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0441lowast 0457lowast
(0240) (0243)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0068(0316)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0282 0288(0573) (0589)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0035 -0069(0340) (0350)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
52
Appendix Table 12G Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0131(0114)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male 0114 0175(0185) (0188)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0237lowastlowast -0261lowastlowast
(0118) (0121)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0009(0133)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0225 -0292(0249) (0254)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0152 0189(0141) (0145)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913r2 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
53
Appendix Table 13 Family Income 1992 excluding non-earners (ie fam inc = 0)
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992 wave (excluding those reporting 0)(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0095lowastlowastlowast
(0033)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0031 -0019(0053) (0053)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0101lowastlowastlowast -0100lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0034)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10918 10918 10918 10918r2 0050 0049 0050 0050
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0084lowast
(0050)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0019 -0007(0089) (0090)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0083 -0083(0053) (0054)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5654 5654 5654 5654r2 0026 0026 0026 0026
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102lowastlowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0051 -0040(0060) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0113lowastlowastlowast -0112lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0040)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5264 5264 5264 5264r2 0029 0028 0029 0029
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel B in Table 4 excluding those who report $0 for familyincome All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
54
Appendix Table 14 Net Worth 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable Std Net Worth 2011 Wave of WLS(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0032lowastlowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0023lowast -0021lowast
(0012) (0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0032lowastlowastlowast -0031lowastlowastlowast
(0010) (0010)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9435 9435 9435 9435r2 0002 0002 0002 0002
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0012lowast
(0006)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0009 -0008(0009) (0009)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0012lowastlowast -0011lowastlowast
(0006) (0006)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5026 5026 5026 5026r2 0007 0006 0007 0007
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0057lowastlowast
(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0040lowast -0036lowast
(0023) (0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0057lowastlowast -0056lowastlowast
(0023) (0022)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4409 4409 4409 4409r2 0001 0001 0001 0001
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel C in Table 4 replacing the net worth measure from the 2004wave with an identical measure from the 2011 wave of the WLS All estimation is performed with OLS with family clusteredstandard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 105 and 1 levels respectively
55
Appendix Table 15A Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 1992 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0243(0152)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0107 0039(0252) (0255)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0285lowast 0282lowast
(0158) (0160)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9849 9849 9849 9849
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0007(0091)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0210 -0216(0170) (0173)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0007 0024(0095) (0097)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9858 9858 9858 9858
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0255(0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0107 -0169(0328) (0338)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0237 0252(0193) (0198)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9845 9845 9845 9845
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
56
Appendix Table 15B Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2004 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0018(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0190 0207(0160) (0162)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0066 -0083(0102) (0104)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10672 10672 10672 10672
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0096 0108(0124) (0125)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0051 -0059(0076) (0077)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10619 10619 10619 10619
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0108(0110)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0064 0027(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0181 0179(0113) (0113)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10617 10617 10617 10617
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
57
Appendix Table 15C Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0099(0092)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0244 0242(0154) (0155)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0033 0016(0099) (0100)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0021(0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0095 0097(0138) (0139)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0004 -0011(0085) (0086)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0134(0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0203 0181(0175) (0176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0140 0127(0107) (0107)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8709 8709 8709 8709
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
58
- text 10818
- tables 10-8-18
-
20
There are at several potential mechanisms for the persistence of poor outcomes across
three generations we find in our data As previously outlined the intergenerational persistence in
poor outcomes due to early life health shocks could occur through socioeconomic channels
where a fetally insulted person with resulting low educational attainment raises a child in a low-
resource environment that reduces opportunities for high educational attainment of the child In
order to see multigenerational effects the reduced opportunities for high educational attainment
of the child must then reduce opportunities for their own children Alternatively
intergenerational transmission may occur through epigenetic inheritance through the germ line a
distinct possibility based on findings of the Oumlverkalix studies or phenotype-to-phenotype
transmission and cumulative intergenerational phenotypic change
Our analysis is unable to fully distinguish between these proposed intergenerational
channels the socioeconomic and biological but it is important to note that the channels are by no
means mutually exclusive Further analysis (appendix tables 3-5) that is intended to partially
account for the socioeconomic mechanism leads to mixed results in which the coefficient of first
generation flu exposure is attenuated to insignificance for some outcomes but not others This
provides evidence for a socioeconomic channel but does not eliminate the possibility of
epigenetic mechanisms or other biological channel through which socioeconomic status ldquogets
under the skinrdquo to influence outcomes of subsequent generations (eg the socioeconomic
circumstances of one generation may ldquoget under the skinrdquo of the next and subsequently be passed
via biology andor socioeconomics to other generations) Likewise the estimates of grandfather
effects on grandchildren are imprecise but consistent with transgenerational inheritance (Kuzawa
and Eisenberg 2014) Additionally while the WLS provides a unique framework to analyze
multiple generations the measurement of flu exposure is somewhat crude (from self-reported
21
parentsrsquo year of birth) and is in the right-tail of the distribution of parent birth years suggesting
the possibility of confounding from resource-poor younger mothers22 That is exposure to
influenza in the first generation is mechanically tied to motherrsquos ages of 20 and 21 because the
WLS sample is drawn based on having a child who was born in 1939 (and thus graduating high
school in 1957) While we cannot definitively separate these two effects our ability to compare
outcomes of slightly older mothers (ages 22 and 23 born in 1917 or 1916) provide evidence
more consistent with in utero exposure to influenza than impacts of having a mother who is
2021 years old
From a policy perspective our evidence may suggest a novel source of multigenerational
persistence in poverty through biosocial factors and suggest a need to consider evidence of
transgenerational social andor biological mechanisms We document the extent to which
harmful early life environments cascade through generations promoting a disadvantaged start for
those whose grandparents exposed to a hazardous early life environment
22 We specifically explore the confounding effects of younger mothers in appendix tables 7 and 8 These
tables show that younger mothers are indeed initially disadvantaged (ie less years of schooling)
however this young-mother disadvantage does not persist in subsequent generations Rather only those
mothers born in the 1918-1919 range have significant negative effects on later generations
22
References
Almond Doug 2006 Is the 1918 Influenza pandemic over Long‐term effects of in utero Influenza exposure in the post‐1940 US population Journal of Political Economy 114(4) 672-712
Almond Doug and Bhashkar Mazumder 2005 The 1918 Influenza Pandemic and Subsequent Health Outcomes An Analysis of SIPP Data American Economic Review 95(2) 258-262
Barker David James P 2007 The origins of the developmental origins theory Journal of Internal Medicine 261(5) 412-417
Benyshek Daniel C (2013) The ldquoearly liferdquo origins of obesity‐related health disorders New discoveries regarding the intergenerational transmission of developmentally programmed traits in the global cardiometabolic health crisis American Journal of Physical Anthropology 152(S57) 79-93
Brown Alan S and Elena J Derkits 2010 Prenatal infection and schizophrenia a review of epidemiologic and translational studies American Journal of Psychiatry 167(3) 261-280
Burg Steven 2000 Wisconsin and the Great Spanish Flu Epidemic of 1918rdquo Wisconsin Magazine of History 84(1) 36-56
Bygren LarsOlov Gunnar Kaati and Soumlren Edvinsson 2001 Longevity determined by paternal ancestors nutrition during their slow growth period Acta biotheoretica 49(1) 53-59
Canetta Sarah E and Alan S Brown 2012 Prenatal infection maternal immune activation and risk for schizophrenia Translational Neuroscience 3(4) 320-327
Chadwick L and Solon G (2002) Intergenerational income mobility among daughters American Economic Review 92(1) 335-344
Cohen Alan A John Tillinghast and Vladimir Canudas-Romo 2010 No consistent effects of prenatal or neonatal exposure to Spanish flu on late-life mortality in 24 developed countries Demographic Research 22(20) 579
Fatemi S Hossein Julie Earle Reena Kanodia David Kist Effat S Emamian Paul H Patterson Limin Shi and Robert Sidwell 2002 Prenatal viral infection leads to pyramidal cell atrophy and macrocephaly in adulthood implications for genesis of autism and schizophrenia Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology 22(1) 25-33
Fletcher Jason 2014 Examining the Long Term Mortality Effects of Early Health Shocks US Census Bureau Center for Economic Studies Paper No CES-WP-14-19
Kaati Gunnar Lars O Bygren and Soren Edvinsson 2002 Cardiovascular and diabetes mortality determined by nutrition during parents and grandparents slow growth period European Journal of Human Genetics EJHG 10(11) 682
Kash John C Terrence M Tumpey Sean C Proll Victoria Carter Olivia Perwitasari Matthew J Thomas Christopher F Basler et al 2006 Genomic analysis of increased host immune and cell death responses induced by 1918 influenza virus Nature 443(7111) 578-581
Kobasa Darwyn Steven M Jones Kyoko Shinya John C Kash John Copps Hideki Ebihara Yasuko Hatta et al 2007 Aberrant innate immune response in lethal infection of macaques with the 1918 influenza virus Nature 445 (7125) 319-323
Kuzawa Christopher W and Dan T Eisenberg 2014 The Long Reach of History Intergenerational and Transgenerational Pathwaysto Plasticity in Human Longevity Sociality Hierarchy Health Comparative Biodemography Papers from a Workshop National Academies Press
Li Wai-Yu Yi-Chun Chang L Jyuhn-Hsiarn Lee and Li-Jen Lee 2014 Prenatal infection affects the neuronal architecture and cognitive function in adult mice Developmental Neuroscience 36(5) 359-370
23
Lin Ming-Jen and Elaine M Liu 2014 Does in utero exposure to illness matter The 1918 influenza epidemic in Taiwan as a natural experiment Journal of Health Economics 37 152-163
Lindeboom Maarten France Portrait and Gerard J Van den Berg 2010 Long-run effects on longevity of a nutritional shock early in life the Dutch Potato famine of 1846ndash1847 Journal of Health Economics 29(5) 617-629
Mamelund SE (2018) 1918 pandemic mobidity The first wave hits the poor the second wave hits the rich Influenza and Other Respitory Viruses 12(3) 307-313
Mazumder Bhashkar Douglas Almond Kyung Park Eileen M Crimmins and Caleb E Finch 2010 Lingering prenatal effects of the 1918 influenza pandemic on cardiovascular disease Journal of developmental origins of health and disease 1(1) 26-34
Miller Veronica Y Zhu C Bucher W McGinnis L Ryan A Siegel and S Zalcman 2013 Gestational flu exposure induces changes in neurochemicals affiliative hormones and brainstem inflammation in addition to autism-like behaviors in mice Brain Behavior and Immunity 33 153-163
Myrskylauml Mikko Neil K Mehta and Virginia W Chang 2013 Early life exposure to the 1918 influenza pandemic and old-age mortality by cause of death American Journal of Public Health 103(7) e83-e90
Olivetti C and Paserman MD (2015) In the name of the son (and the daughter) Intergenerational mobility in the United States 1850-1940 American Economic Review 105(8) 2695-2724
Pembrey Marcus E Lars Olov Bygren Gunnar Kaati Soumlren Edvinsson Kate Northstone Michael Sjoumlstroumlm and Jean Golding 2006 Sex-specific male-line transgenerational responses in humans European Journal of Human Genetics 14(2) 159-166
Richter Andreacute and Per Olof Robling 2013 Multigenerational effects of the 1918-19 influenza pandemic in Sweden Swedish Institute for Social Research 5
Shors Teri and Susan H McFadden 2009 1918 Influenza A Winnebago County Wisconsin Perspective Clinical Medicine amp Research 7(4) 147-156
Sydenstricker E (1931) The incidence of influenza among persons of different economic status during the epidemic of 1918 Public Health Reports 46(4) 154-170
van den Berg Gerard J and Pia R Pinger 2013 A validation study of transgenerational effects of childhood conditions on the third generation offsprings economic and health outcomes potentially driven by epigenetic imprinting IZA Discussion Paper
Tables and Figures
Table 1 Summary Statistics
Variable N Mean Std Deviation
First GenerartionFlu Indicators
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 8368 0112 0315Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 8456 0030 0170Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 8487 0093 0290
ControlsFirst Generation Malersquos Year of Birth 8456 1907435 7021First Generation Femalersquos Year of Birth 8427 1911189 6164
Dependent VariablesFirst Generation Malersquos Years of Schooling 8456 9778 3392First Generation Femalersquos Years of Schooing 8487 10499 2804First Generation Malersquos Job Prestige 8385 330662 214361First Generation Femalersquos Job Prestige 6683 12814 19934Family SES 8487 16231 11143
Second GenerationControls
Female Indicator 12459 0530 0499Birth Year 12459 1939406 4289Birth Order 12459 2529 1828
Dependent VariablesYears of Schooling 12459 13678 2361Family Income 1992 (in $1000s) 12112 68027 177105Net Worth 2004 (in $1000s) 10498 913046 2558927Self-reported health 1992 9888 4149 0668Height (inches) 9783 67406 3851BMI 1992 9671 26742 4657
Third GenerationControls
Birth Year 19913 1963901 3636Female Indicator 19913 0497 0500Birth Order 19913 2196 1263
Dependent VariableYears of Schooling 19913 14294 2309
Summary amp Notes This table provides summary statistics for all variables used The samples above may not berepresentative for all estimations For example the inclusion of siblings in the second generation increase the sample of parentalyear of birth and the corresponding flu indicator This increase in sample does not significantly change the sample statisticsabove Similar sample changes occur for the second generation controls above For the third generation the sample is restrictedto biological children over 35 years of age
24
Tab
le2
Fir
stG
ener
atio
n
Eco
nom
icE
ffec
ts
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
am
ily
SE
SY
ears
of
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
am
ily
SE
S(1
)(2
)(3
)(4
)(5
)(6
)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale)
-01
39
-01
16lowast
-12
90lowast
lowast
(02
00)
(00
60)
(05
99)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emal
e)-0
133
-00
66
-13
61lowastlowast
lowast
(00
95)
(00
43)
(03
76)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
YY
YY
YY
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8456
8385
8456
8487
6683
8487
RS
qr
00
32
00
08
00
23
00
13
00
04
00
13
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
pro
vid
esd
irec
teff
ects
of
inu
tero
an
dea
rly
life
exp
osu
reto
the
1918
Flu
Ep
idem
ic
Bir
thye
ar
tim
etr
end
sin
lcu
de
yea
rof
bir
than
dit
ssq
uar
ean
din
clu
sion
inth
ees
tim
atio
nis
par
ent
spec
ific
All
esti
mati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
an
dard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
alsi
gnifi
can
ceis
den
oted
by
an
d
re
pre
senti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vel
y
25
Tab
le3
Fir
stG
ener
atio
n
Mar
riag
eM
arke
tE
ffec
ts
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Flu
Bir
thY
ear
Yea
rsof
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
luB
irth
Yea
rY
ears
of
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
e(1
)(2
)(3
)(4
)(5
)(6
)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale)
01
40lowast
lowastlowast-0
259
-00
39
(00
34)
(01
58)
(00
72)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emal
e)0
056lowast
lowastlowast-0
340lowast
lowastlowast-0
118lowastlowast
lowast
(00
14)
(01
17)
(00
36)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
YY
YY
YY
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8348
8487
8412
8348
8456
6660
RS
qr
00
90
00
11
00
08
01
20
00
21
00
01
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
pro
vid
esev
iden
ceof
marr
iage
mark
etse
lect
ion
inth
efi
rst
gen
erati
on
B
irth
year
tim
etr
end
sin
clu
de
year
of
bir
than
dit
ssq
uare
and
incl
usi
onin
the
esti
mat
ion
isp
aren
tsp
ecifi
cA
lles
tim
ati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
an
dard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
sign
ifica
nce
isd
enot
edby
an
d
re
pre
senti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vely
26
Table 4 Second Generation Economic Effects
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Years of Schooling
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0209lowastlowastlowast
(0073)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0084 -0059(0129) (0129)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0211lowastlowastlowast -0209lowastlowastlowast
(0075) (0075)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0085 0084 0085 0085
Panel B ln Family Income 1992
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0221lowastlowast
(0111)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0098 -0066(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0262lowastlowast -0259lowastlowast
(0116) (0116)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112R Sqr 0021 0021 0021 0021
Panel C Std Net Worth 2004
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0026(0022)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0033 0038(0047) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0038lowast -0040lowast
(0021) (0021)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498R Sqr 0007 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table provides evidence of signficant harmful effects of flu exposure in the first generation on secondgeneration economic outcomes First generation time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents(ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and itssquare and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
27
Table 5 Second Generation Health Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Self-reported health (Likert 1=very poor 5=excellent)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0054lowastlowast
(0027)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0005(0047) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0061lowastlowast -0061lowastlowast
(0028) (0028)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Panel B Height (inches)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0101)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0102 0127(0168) (0168)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0169lowast -0175lowast
(0103) (0103)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783r2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Panel C BMI
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0412lowastlowast
(0191)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0082 0023(0344) (0346)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0422lowastlowast 0421lowastlowast
(0193) (0194)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table provides evidence of harmful effects of flu exposure in the first generation on secondgeneration health outcomes First generation time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents (iegen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and itssquare and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
28
Table 6 Generation Three Effects of Generation One Flu Exposure Years of Schooling
Dependent Variable Years of Schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0125(0077)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Male) -0007 0010(0136) (0136)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Female) -0144lowast -0144lowast
(0078) (0078)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913R Sqr 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table shows that the generational effects of flu exposure extend into the third generation of theWLS First generation flu exposure is shown to have a negative association with third generation years of schooling Firstgeneration time trends are year of birth measures for each parent and their square Second generation controls inlcude anindicator for sex second generation year of birth and its square and birth order Third generation controls include a sexindicator year of birth and its square and birth order Given the focus on years of schooling the sample is restricted to thosethird generation individuals 35 years of age and older or born during or before 1970 (data were collected in 2005) Allestimation is performed with OLS with family (second generation) clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
29
(a)
Fat
her
(b)
Moth
er
Fig
ure
1F
irst
Gen
erat
ion
Dis
trib
uti
onof
Yea
rof
Bir
th
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
figu
rep
lots
the
dis
trib
uti
on
for
firs
tgen
erati
on
year
of
bir
th
Flu
exp
osu
reis
class
ified
as
bei
ng
born
inei
ther
1918
or
1919
30
Appendix Tables
Appendix Table 1 First Generation Flu Exposure Effect on Family Income
Dependent Variable Family Income ($100s) 1957
(1) (2)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -3366(2592)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -5363lowastlowast
(2390)
Birth Year Time Trends Y YObservations 7440 7456R Sqr 0013 0004
Summary amp Notes This table replaces the index of socioeconomic status with family income (in $100s) in 1957 Allestimation is performed with OLS with robust standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
31
App
endix
Tab
le2
Mar
riag
eM
arke
tE
ffec
ts
Con
trol
ling
for
Ow
nY
ear
ofB
irth
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
Job
Pre
stig
eY
ears
of
Sch
Job
Pre
stig
e
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale
)-0
052
-211
82
-01
98
-03
74
(02
03)
(131
30)
(01
61)
(14
38)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emale
)-0
346lowast
lowastlowast-2
44
97lowastlowast
lowast-0
103
-13
88
(01
16)
(76
88)
(00
94)
(08
54)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
(Male
an
dF
emale
)Y
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8348
8279
8348
6587
RS
qr
00
40
00
22
00
25
00
04
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
re-e
stim
ates
Tab
le3
wh
ile
contr
oll
ing
for
year
of
bir
than
dfl
uin
dic
ato
rsass
oci
ate
dw
ith
the
spou
sein
the
dep
end
ent
vari
ab
le
All
esti
mat
ion
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
and
ard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
sign
ifica
nce
isd
enote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
atth
e10
5
and
1le
vel
sre
spec
tive
ly
32
Appendix Table 3 2nd Gen Economic Effects Controlling for 1st Gen Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Years of Schooling
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0088(0070)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0005 0008(0119) (0119)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0116 -0117(0072) (0072)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0206 0206 0206 0206
Panel B ln Family Income 1992
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0193lowast
(0111)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0080 -0050(0184) (0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0240lowastlowast -0238lowastlowast
(0116) (0116)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112R Sqr 0024 0024 0024 0024
Panel C Std Normal Net Worth 2004
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0003(0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0047 0049(0046) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0019 -0021(0020) (0020)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498R Sqr 0033 0033 0033 0033
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 4 while controlling for generation one economic outcomes fatherrsquos years ofschooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 First generation time trends are given by year of birth and itssquare for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex secondgeneration year of birth and its square and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standarderrors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and1 levels respectively 33
Appendix Table 4 2nd Gen Health Effects Controlling for 1st Gen Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A BMI
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0352lowast
(0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0051 -0001(0342) (0344)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0372lowast 0372lowast
(0192) (0193)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671R Sqr 0035 0035 0035 0035
Panel B Count of Illnesses
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0122lowast
(0065)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0076 -0096(0102) (0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0139lowastlowast 0144lowastlowast
(0067) (0068)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9921 9921 9921 9921R Sqr 0046 0046 0046 0046
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 5 while controlling for generation one economic outcomes fatherrsquos years ofschooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 First generation time trends are given by year of birth and itssquare for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex secondgeneration year of birth and its square and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standarderrors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and1 levels respectively
34
Appendix Table 5 Generation threersquos years of schooling Controlling for previous generation economicwell-being
Dependent Variable Years of Schooling for Gen 3(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A First Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0069(0076)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0022 0034(0133) (0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0102 -0104(0077) (0078)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913R Sqr 0117 0117 0117 0117
Panel B Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0025(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0008 0013(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0038 -0039(0073) (0073)
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0190 0190 0190 0190
Panel C First and Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0008(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0016 0019(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0028 -0029(0073) (0073)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0196 0196 0196 0196
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 6 while controlling for generation one and tworsquos economic outcomes Forgeneration one these include fatherrsquos years of schooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 generation twocontrols include the WLS graduatesiblingrsquos years of schooling family income in 1992 and net worth in 2004 First generationtime trends are year of birth measures for each parent and their square Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sexsecond generation year of birth and its square and birth order Third generation controls include a sex indicator year of birthand its square and birth order Given the focus on years of schooling the sample is restricted to those third generationindividuals 35 years of age and older or born during or before 1970 (data were collected in 2005) All estimation is performedwith OLS with family (second generation) clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denotedby and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
35
Appendix Table 6 Alternative measures of schooling in the second generation
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Indicator for any college (years of schooling gt12)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0044lowastlowastlowast
(0017)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0011 -0006(0029) (0029)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0044lowastlowast -0043lowastlowast
(0017) (0017)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0071 0070 0071 0071
Panel B Indicator for incomplete college (years of schooling gt12 amp lt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0008(0013)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 -0001(0022) (0022)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0008 -0008(0013) (0013)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0005 0005 0005 0005
Panel C Indicator for college graduate (years of schooling = 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0022lowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0003 0006(0020) (0020)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0021lowast -0021lowastlowast
(0011) (0011)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0019 0019 0019 0019
Panel D Indicator for post-college education (years of schooling gt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0014(0010)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0011(0018) (0018)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0014 -0014(0010) (0010)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0039 0039 0039 0039
Summary amp Notes This table replaces our continuous measure of years of schooling with specified dummy variables Firstgeneration time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Secondgeneration controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and its square and birth order All estimationis performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
36
Appendix Table 7 Young mothers Direct effect on Gen 1 Females
Dependent Variable Years of Sch Job Prestige Family SES
(1) (2) (3)
Ind for First Gen Female Flu Exposure (1918-1919) -0325lowastlowast -0841 -1749lowastlowastlowast
(0137) (1015) (0584)
Ind for mother born during 1920-1921 -0567lowastlowastlowast 0745 -1157(0206) (1515) (0914)
Ind for mother born during 1922-1923 -0666lowastlowast 0098 -2113(0330) (2210) (1298)
Ind for mother born after 1924 -0392 5682 0384(0486) (3705) (2126)
Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y
Observations 8487 6683 8487R Sqr 0014 0005 0014
Summary amp Notes This table includes indicators for alternative years of birth Younger mothers are shown to have lessyears of schooling All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
37
App
endix
Tab
le8
You
ng
mot
her
sG
ener
atio
n2
and
3eff
ects
Gen
2
Gen
3
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
ln
Fam
In
c
1992
Std
N
W
2004
Sel
f-re
p
hea
lth
Hei
ght
BM
IY
ears
of
Sch
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
emal
eF
luE
xp
osu
re(1
918-
1919
)-0
201lowastlowast
-02
95lowastlowast
-00
45
-00
73lowastlowast
-00
90
02
07
-00
86(0
092)
(01
32)
(00
32)
(00
32)
(01
22)
(02
25)
(00
94)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
20-1
921
-00
22
-00
40
-00
10
-00
61
01
33
-04
10
01
13
(01
37)
(01
74)
(00
51)
(00
43)
(01
80)
(03
11)
(01
41)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
22-1
923
-00
96
-01
88
-00
57
00
20
04
61
-11
29lowastlowast
01
55(0
184)
(03
20)
(00
61)
(00
75)
(02
83)
(04
51)
(02
23)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
afte
r19
2404
58
-01
87
00
01
-00
27
03
12
-08
85
03
99
(03
06)
(03
94)
(00
87)
(01
27)
(04
94)
(10
70)
(03
21)
Bas
eC
ontr
ols
YY
YY
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
12459
12112
10498
9888
9783
9671
19913
RS
qr
00
85
00
21
00
08
00
09
05
86
00
29
00
79
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
incl
ud
esin
dic
ator
sfo
ralt
ernati
ve
years
of
bir
th
Bei
ng
born
toa
you
nger
moth
ergen
erall
yis
not
ass
oci
ate
dw
ith
gen
erati
on
2or
3rsquos
outc
omes
ofin
tere
st
inst
ead
n
egat
ive
effec
tsar
eon
lyob
serv
edfo
rth
ose
born
du
rin
gth
efl
u
All
esti
mati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hfa
mil
y(2
nd
gen
erat
ion
)cl
ust
ered
stan
dar
der
rors
rep
orte
din
par
enth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
signifi
can
ceis
den
ote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vel
y
38
Appendix Table 9 Summary Statistics by Gen 2 Sex
Variable N Mean Std Deviation
FemaleYears of Schooling 6607 13352 2088ln Family Income (1992 wave) 6411 9424 3577
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5654 10686 1010Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 5612 -0047 0539Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 5313 4164 0670Height (inches) 5231 646635 247936BMI 5124 26073 5114
Gen 3Years of Schooling 11947 14240 2291
MaleYears of Schooling 5852 14047 2587ln Family Income (1992 wave) 5701 10139 3030
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5264 10981 0836Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 4886 0059 1159Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 4575 4133 0665Height (inches) 4554 7055484 25596BMI 4547 27496 3948
Gen 3Years of Schooling 8046 14371 2332
Appendix Table 10A Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0090(0086)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0198 0214(0169) (0169)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104 -0114(0087) (0087)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6607 6607 6607 6607R Sqr 0075 0075 0075 0075
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
39
Appendix Table 10B Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0523lowastlowastlowast
(0170)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0483 -0410(0321) (0323)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0512lowastlowastlowast -0491lowastlowastlowast
(0179) (0180)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6411 6411 6411 6411R Sqr 0015 0013 0014 0015
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10C Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0007(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0078lowast 0078(0048) (0048)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0008 0005(0025) (0025)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5612 5612 5612 5612R Sqr 0007 0007 0007 0007
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
40
Appendix Table 10D Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0027(0036)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 -0001(0071) (0071)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0022 -0022(0037) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5313 5313 5313 5313r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10E Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -2382(13366)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 44280lowastlowast 46351lowastlowast
(22343) (22480)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -12253 -14428(13485) (13561)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5231 5231 5231 5231r2 0015 0016 0015 0016
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
41
Appendix Table 10F Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0353(0286)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0105 0060(0514) (0516)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0326 0323(0289) (0290)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5124 5124 5124 5124R Sqr 0010 0010 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0087(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0104 -0101(0190) (0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0042 -0039(0098) (0098)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 11906 11906 11906 11906R Sqr 0086 0086 0086 0086
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
42
Appendix Table 11A Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0322lowastlowastlowast
(0116)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0369lowastlowast -0338lowast
(0181) (0180)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0309lowastlowastlowast -0297lowastlowast
(0119) (0119)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5852 5852 5852 5852R Sqr 0060 0059 0060 0060
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11B RResults by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0116(0138)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0262 0261(0200) (0199)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0024 0014(0141) (0140)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5701 5701 5701 5701R Sqr 0009 0009 0008 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
43
Appendix Table 11C Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0038)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0001(0081) (0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0094lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0035)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4886 4886 4886 4886R Sqr 0004 0004 0004 0004
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
44
Appendix Table 11D Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0083lowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 0012(0062) (0062)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104lowastlowastlowast -0105lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0041)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4575 4575 4575 4575r2 0010 0009 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11E Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -15122(14275)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -22991 -20537(23287) (23176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -18595 -17540(14734) (14751)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4554 4554 4554 4554r2 0011 0011 0011 0011
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
45
Appendix Table 11F Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0465lowast
(0238)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0079 0006(0403) (0405)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0520lowastlowast 0520lowastlowast
(0245) (0246)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4547 4547 4547 4547R Sqr 0006 0005 0006 0006
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0177(0123)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0098 0144(0194) (0192)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0293lowastlowast -0302lowastlowast
(0125) (0126)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8007 8007 8007 8007R Sqr 0067 0067 0068 0068
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
46
Appendix Table 12A Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0253lowastlowast
(0107)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0252 -0226(0170) (0172)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0263lowastlowast -0242lowastlowast
(0113) (0115)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0084(0120)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0341 0339(0216) (0219)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0096 0056(0130) (0132)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459r2 0085 0085 0085 0085
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
47
Appendix Table 12B Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0128)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0196 0169(0190) (0189)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0081 -0104(0135) (0135)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0383lowastlowast
(0189)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0594lowast -0474(0349) (0355)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0339lowast -0283(0204) (0207)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112r2 0021 0021 0021 0021
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
48
Appendix Table 12C Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0034)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0019(0077) (0079)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0095lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0030) (0031)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0071lowast
(0038)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0072 0039(0087) (0089)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0104lowastlowastlowast 0100lowastlowastlowast
(0035) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498r2 0008 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
49
Appendix Table 12D Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0071lowast
(0036)[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0012 0031
(0058) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0093lowastlowast -0097lowastlowast
(0039) (0039)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0030(0045)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0031 -0051(0087) (0088)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0059 0065(0048) (0049)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
50
Appendix Table 12E Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0129 -0125(0223) (0224)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0152 -0129(0141) (0142)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0000(0158)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0454 0495lowast
(0279) (0287)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0031 -0090(0170) (0175)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783nr2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
51
Appendix Table 12F Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0376(0231)
[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0059 -0122(0402) (0407)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0441lowast 0457lowast
(0240) (0243)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0068(0316)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0282 0288(0573) (0589)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0035 -0069(0340) (0350)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
52
Appendix Table 12G Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0131(0114)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male 0114 0175(0185) (0188)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0237lowastlowast -0261lowastlowast
(0118) (0121)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0009(0133)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0225 -0292(0249) (0254)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0152 0189(0141) (0145)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913r2 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
53
Appendix Table 13 Family Income 1992 excluding non-earners (ie fam inc = 0)
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992 wave (excluding those reporting 0)(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0095lowastlowastlowast
(0033)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0031 -0019(0053) (0053)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0101lowastlowastlowast -0100lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0034)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10918 10918 10918 10918r2 0050 0049 0050 0050
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0084lowast
(0050)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0019 -0007(0089) (0090)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0083 -0083(0053) (0054)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5654 5654 5654 5654r2 0026 0026 0026 0026
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102lowastlowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0051 -0040(0060) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0113lowastlowastlowast -0112lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0040)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5264 5264 5264 5264r2 0029 0028 0029 0029
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel B in Table 4 excluding those who report $0 for familyincome All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
54
Appendix Table 14 Net Worth 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable Std Net Worth 2011 Wave of WLS(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0032lowastlowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0023lowast -0021lowast
(0012) (0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0032lowastlowastlowast -0031lowastlowastlowast
(0010) (0010)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9435 9435 9435 9435r2 0002 0002 0002 0002
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0012lowast
(0006)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0009 -0008(0009) (0009)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0012lowastlowast -0011lowastlowast
(0006) (0006)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5026 5026 5026 5026r2 0007 0006 0007 0007
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0057lowastlowast
(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0040lowast -0036lowast
(0023) (0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0057lowastlowast -0056lowastlowast
(0023) (0022)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4409 4409 4409 4409r2 0001 0001 0001 0001
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel C in Table 4 replacing the net worth measure from the 2004wave with an identical measure from the 2011 wave of the WLS All estimation is performed with OLS with family clusteredstandard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 105 and 1 levels respectively
55
Appendix Table 15A Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 1992 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0243(0152)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0107 0039(0252) (0255)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0285lowast 0282lowast
(0158) (0160)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9849 9849 9849 9849
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0007(0091)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0210 -0216(0170) (0173)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0007 0024(0095) (0097)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9858 9858 9858 9858
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0255(0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0107 -0169(0328) (0338)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0237 0252(0193) (0198)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9845 9845 9845 9845
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
56
Appendix Table 15B Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2004 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0018(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0190 0207(0160) (0162)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0066 -0083(0102) (0104)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10672 10672 10672 10672
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0096 0108(0124) (0125)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0051 -0059(0076) (0077)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10619 10619 10619 10619
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0108(0110)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0064 0027(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0181 0179(0113) (0113)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10617 10617 10617 10617
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
57
Appendix Table 15C Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0099(0092)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0244 0242(0154) (0155)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0033 0016(0099) (0100)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0021(0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0095 0097(0138) (0139)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0004 -0011(0085) (0086)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0134(0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0203 0181(0175) (0176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0140 0127(0107) (0107)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8709 8709 8709 8709
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
58
- text 10818
- tables 10-8-18
-
21
parentsrsquo year of birth) and is in the right-tail of the distribution of parent birth years suggesting
the possibility of confounding from resource-poor younger mothers22 That is exposure to
influenza in the first generation is mechanically tied to motherrsquos ages of 20 and 21 because the
WLS sample is drawn based on having a child who was born in 1939 (and thus graduating high
school in 1957) While we cannot definitively separate these two effects our ability to compare
outcomes of slightly older mothers (ages 22 and 23 born in 1917 or 1916) provide evidence
more consistent with in utero exposure to influenza than impacts of having a mother who is
2021 years old
From a policy perspective our evidence may suggest a novel source of multigenerational
persistence in poverty through biosocial factors and suggest a need to consider evidence of
transgenerational social andor biological mechanisms We document the extent to which
harmful early life environments cascade through generations promoting a disadvantaged start for
those whose grandparents exposed to a hazardous early life environment
22 We specifically explore the confounding effects of younger mothers in appendix tables 7 and 8 These
tables show that younger mothers are indeed initially disadvantaged (ie less years of schooling)
however this young-mother disadvantage does not persist in subsequent generations Rather only those
mothers born in the 1918-1919 range have significant negative effects on later generations
22
References
Almond Doug 2006 Is the 1918 Influenza pandemic over Long‐term effects of in utero Influenza exposure in the post‐1940 US population Journal of Political Economy 114(4) 672-712
Almond Doug and Bhashkar Mazumder 2005 The 1918 Influenza Pandemic and Subsequent Health Outcomes An Analysis of SIPP Data American Economic Review 95(2) 258-262
Barker David James P 2007 The origins of the developmental origins theory Journal of Internal Medicine 261(5) 412-417
Benyshek Daniel C (2013) The ldquoearly liferdquo origins of obesity‐related health disorders New discoveries regarding the intergenerational transmission of developmentally programmed traits in the global cardiometabolic health crisis American Journal of Physical Anthropology 152(S57) 79-93
Brown Alan S and Elena J Derkits 2010 Prenatal infection and schizophrenia a review of epidemiologic and translational studies American Journal of Psychiatry 167(3) 261-280
Burg Steven 2000 Wisconsin and the Great Spanish Flu Epidemic of 1918rdquo Wisconsin Magazine of History 84(1) 36-56
Bygren LarsOlov Gunnar Kaati and Soumlren Edvinsson 2001 Longevity determined by paternal ancestors nutrition during their slow growth period Acta biotheoretica 49(1) 53-59
Canetta Sarah E and Alan S Brown 2012 Prenatal infection maternal immune activation and risk for schizophrenia Translational Neuroscience 3(4) 320-327
Chadwick L and Solon G (2002) Intergenerational income mobility among daughters American Economic Review 92(1) 335-344
Cohen Alan A John Tillinghast and Vladimir Canudas-Romo 2010 No consistent effects of prenatal or neonatal exposure to Spanish flu on late-life mortality in 24 developed countries Demographic Research 22(20) 579
Fatemi S Hossein Julie Earle Reena Kanodia David Kist Effat S Emamian Paul H Patterson Limin Shi and Robert Sidwell 2002 Prenatal viral infection leads to pyramidal cell atrophy and macrocephaly in adulthood implications for genesis of autism and schizophrenia Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology 22(1) 25-33
Fletcher Jason 2014 Examining the Long Term Mortality Effects of Early Health Shocks US Census Bureau Center for Economic Studies Paper No CES-WP-14-19
Kaati Gunnar Lars O Bygren and Soren Edvinsson 2002 Cardiovascular and diabetes mortality determined by nutrition during parents and grandparents slow growth period European Journal of Human Genetics EJHG 10(11) 682
Kash John C Terrence M Tumpey Sean C Proll Victoria Carter Olivia Perwitasari Matthew J Thomas Christopher F Basler et al 2006 Genomic analysis of increased host immune and cell death responses induced by 1918 influenza virus Nature 443(7111) 578-581
Kobasa Darwyn Steven M Jones Kyoko Shinya John C Kash John Copps Hideki Ebihara Yasuko Hatta et al 2007 Aberrant innate immune response in lethal infection of macaques with the 1918 influenza virus Nature 445 (7125) 319-323
Kuzawa Christopher W and Dan T Eisenberg 2014 The Long Reach of History Intergenerational and Transgenerational Pathwaysto Plasticity in Human Longevity Sociality Hierarchy Health Comparative Biodemography Papers from a Workshop National Academies Press
Li Wai-Yu Yi-Chun Chang L Jyuhn-Hsiarn Lee and Li-Jen Lee 2014 Prenatal infection affects the neuronal architecture and cognitive function in adult mice Developmental Neuroscience 36(5) 359-370
23
Lin Ming-Jen and Elaine M Liu 2014 Does in utero exposure to illness matter The 1918 influenza epidemic in Taiwan as a natural experiment Journal of Health Economics 37 152-163
Lindeboom Maarten France Portrait and Gerard J Van den Berg 2010 Long-run effects on longevity of a nutritional shock early in life the Dutch Potato famine of 1846ndash1847 Journal of Health Economics 29(5) 617-629
Mamelund SE (2018) 1918 pandemic mobidity The first wave hits the poor the second wave hits the rich Influenza and Other Respitory Viruses 12(3) 307-313
Mazumder Bhashkar Douglas Almond Kyung Park Eileen M Crimmins and Caleb E Finch 2010 Lingering prenatal effects of the 1918 influenza pandemic on cardiovascular disease Journal of developmental origins of health and disease 1(1) 26-34
Miller Veronica Y Zhu C Bucher W McGinnis L Ryan A Siegel and S Zalcman 2013 Gestational flu exposure induces changes in neurochemicals affiliative hormones and brainstem inflammation in addition to autism-like behaviors in mice Brain Behavior and Immunity 33 153-163
Myrskylauml Mikko Neil K Mehta and Virginia W Chang 2013 Early life exposure to the 1918 influenza pandemic and old-age mortality by cause of death American Journal of Public Health 103(7) e83-e90
Olivetti C and Paserman MD (2015) In the name of the son (and the daughter) Intergenerational mobility in the United States 1850-1940 American Economic Review 105(8) 2695-2724
Pembrey Marcus E Lars Olov Bygren Gunnar Kaati Soumlren Edvinsson Kate Northstone Michael Sjoumlstroumlm and Jean Golding 2006 Sex-specific male-line transgenerational responses in humans European Journal of Human Genetics 14(2) 159-166
Richter Andreacute and Per Olof Robling 2013 Multigenerational effects of the 1918-19 influenza pandemic in Sweden Swedish Institute for Social Research 5
Shors Teri and Susan H McFadden 2009 1918 Influenza A Winnebago County Wisconsin Perspective Clinical Medicine amp Research 7(4) 147-156
Sydenstricker E (1931) The incidence of influenza among persons of different economic status during the epidemic of 1918 Public Health Reports 46(4) 154-170
van den Berg Gerard J and Pia R Pinger 2013 A validation study of transgenerational effects of childhood conditions on the third generation offsprings economic and health outcomes potentially driven by epigenetic imprinting IZA Discussion Paper
Tables and Figures
Table 1 Summary Statistics
Variable N Mean Std Deviation
First GenerartionFlu Indicators
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 8368 0112 0315Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 8456 0030 0170Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 8487 0093 0290
ControlsFirst Generation Malersquos Year of Birth 8456 1907435 7021First Generation Femalersquos Year of Birth 8427 1911189 6164
Dependent VariablesFirst Generation Malersquos Years of Schooling 8456 9778 3392First Generation Femalersquos Years of Schooing 8487 10499 2804First Generation Malersquos Job Prestige 8385 330662 214361First Generation Femalersquos Job Prestige 6683 12814 19934Family SES 8487 16231 11143
Second GenerationControls
Female Indicator 12459 0530 0499Birth Year 12459 1939406 4289Birth Order 12459 2529 1828
Dependent VariablesYears of Schooling 12459 13678 2361Family Income 1992 (in $1000s) 12112 68027 177105Net Worth 2004 (in $1000s) 10498 913046 2558927Self-reported health 1992 9888 4149 0668Height (inches) 9783 67406 3851BMI 1992 9671 26742 4657
Third GenerationControls
Birth Year 19913 1963901 3636Female Indicator 19913 0497 0500Birth Order 19913 2196 1263
Dependent VariableYears of Schooling 19913 14294 2309
Summary amp Notes This table provides summary statistics for all variables used The samples above may not berepresentative for all estimations For example the inclusion of siblings in the second generation increase the sample of parentalyear of birth and the corresponding flu indicator This increase in sample does not significantly change the sample statisticsabove Similar sample changes occur for the second generation controls above For the third generation the sample is restrictedto biological children over 35 years of age
24
Tab
le2
Fir
stG
ener
atio
n
Eco
nom
icE
ffec
ts
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
am
ily
SE
SY
ears
of
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
am
ily
SE
S(1
)(2
)(3
)(4
)(5
)(6
)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale)
-01
39
-01
16lowast
-12
90lowast
lowast
(02
00)
(00
60)
(05
99)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emal
e)-0
133
-00
66
-13
61lowastlowast
lowast
(00
95)
(00
43)
(03
76)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
YY
YY
YY
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8456
8385
8456
8487
6683
8487
RS
qr
00
32
00
08
00
23
00
13
00
04
00
13
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
pro
vid
esd
irec
teff
ects
of
inu
tero
an
dea
rly
life
exp
osu
reto
the
1918
Flu
Ep
idem
ic
Bir
thye
ar
tim
etr
end
sin
lcu
de
yea
rof
bir
than
dit
ssq
uar
ean
din
clu
sion
inth
ees
tim
atio
nis
par
ent
spec
ific
All
esti
mati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
an
dard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
alsi
gnifi
can
ceis
den
oted
by
an
d
re
pre
senti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vel
y
25
Tab
le3
Fir
stG
ener
atio
n
Mar
riag
eM
arke
tE
ffec
ts
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Flu
Bir
thY
ear
Yea
rsof
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
luB
irth
Yea
rY
ears
of
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
e(1
)(2
)(3
)(4
)(5
)(6
)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale)
01
40lowast
lowastlowast-0
259
-00
39
(00
34)
(01
58)
(00
72)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emal
e)0
056lowast
lowastlowast-0
340lowast
lowastlowast-0
118lowastlowast
lowast
(00
14)
(01
17)
(00
36)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
YY
YY
YY
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8348
8487
8412
8348
8456
6660
RS
qr
00
90
00
11
00
08
01
20
00
21
00
01
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
pro
vid
esev
iden
ceof
marr
iage
mark
etse
lect
ion
inth
efi
rst
gen
erati
on
B
irth
year
tim
etr
end
sin
clu
de
year
of
bir
than
dit
ssq
uare
and
incl
usi
onin
the
esti
mat
ion
isp
aren
tsp
ecifi
cA
lles
tim
ati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
an
dard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
sign
ifica
nce
isd
enot
edby
an
d
re
pre
senti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vely
26
Table 4 Second Generation Economic Effects
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Years of Schooling
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0209lowastlowastlowast
(0073)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0084 -0059(0129) (0129)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0211lowastlowastlowast -0209lowastlowastlowast
(0075) (0075)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0085 0084 0085 0085
Panel B ln Family Income 1992
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0221lowastlowast
(0111)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0098 -0066(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0262lowastlowast -0259lowastlowast
(0116) (0116)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112R Sqr 0021 0021 0021 0021
Panel C Std Net Worth 2004
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0026(0022)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0033 0038(0047) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0038lowast -0040lowast
(0021) (0021)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498R Sqr 0007 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table provides evidence of signficant harmful effects of flu exposure in the first generation on secondgeneration economic outcomes First generation time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents(ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and itssquare and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
27
Table 5 Second Generation Health Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Self-reported health (Likert 1=very poor 5=excellent)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0054lowastlowast
(0027)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0005(0047) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0061lowastlowast -0061lowastlowast
(0028) (0028)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Panel B Height (inches)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0101)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0102 0127(0168) (0168)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0169lowast -0175lowast
(0103) (0103)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783r2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Panel C BMI
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0412lowastlowast
(0191)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0082 0023(0344) (0346)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0422lowastlowast 0421lowastlowast
(0193) (0194)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table provides evidence of harmful effects of flu exposure in the first generation on secondgeneration health outcomes First generation time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents (iegen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and itssquare and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
28
Table 6 Generation Three Effects of Generation One Flu Exposure Years of Schooling
Dependent Variable Years of Schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0125(0077)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Male) -0007 0010(0136) (0136)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Female) -0144lowast -0144lowast
(0078) (0078)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913R Sqr 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table shows that the generational effects of flu exposure extend into the third generation of theWLS First generation flu exposure is shown to have a negative association with third generation years of schooling Firstgeneration time trends are year of birth measures for each parent and their square Second generation controls inlcude anindicator for sex second generation year of birth and its square and birth order Third generation controls include a sexindicator year of birth and its square and birth order Given the focus on years of schooling the sample is restricted to thosethird generation individuals 35 years of age and older or born during or before 1970 (data were collected in 2005) Allestimation is performed with OLS with family (second generation) clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
29
(a)
Fat
her
(b)
Moth
er
Fig
ure
1F
irst
Gen
erat
ion
Dis
trib
uti
onof
Yea
rof
Bir
th
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
figu
rep
lots
the
dis
trib
uti
on
for
firs
tgen
erati
on
year
of
bir
th
Flu
exp
osu
reis
class
ified
as
bei
ng
born
inei
ther
1918
or
1919
30
Appendix Tables
Appendix Table 1 First Generation Flu Exposure Effect on Family Income
Dependent Variable Family Income ($100s) 1957
(1) (2)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -3366(2592)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -5363lowastlowast
(2390)
Birth Year Time Trends Y YObservations 7440 7456R Sqr 0013 0004
Summary amp Notes This table replaces the index of socioeconomic status with family income (in $100s) in 1957 Allestimation is performed with OLS with robust standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
31
App
endix
Tab
le2
Mar
riag
eM
arke
tE
ffec
ts
Con
trol
ling
for
Ow
nY
ear
ofB
irth
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
Job
Pre
stig
eY
ears
of
Sch
Job
Pre
stig
e
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale
)-0
052
-211
82
-01
98
-03
74
(02
03)
(131
30)
(01
61)
(14
38)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emale
)-0
346lowast
lowastlowast-2
44
97lowastlowast
lowast-0
103
-13
88
(01
16)
(76
88)
(00
94)
(08
54)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
(Male
an
dF
emale
)Y
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8348
8279
8348
6587
RS
qr
00
40
00
22
00
25
00
04
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
re-e
stim
ates
Tab
le3
wh
ile
contr
oll
ing
for
year
of
bir
than
dfl
uin
dic
ato
rsass
oci
ate
dw
ith
the
spou
sein
the
dep
end
ent
vari
ab
le
All
esti
mat
ion
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
and
ard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
sign
ifica
nce
isd
enote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
atth
e10
5
and
1le
vel
sre
spec
tive
ly
32
Appendix Table 3 2nd Gen Economic Effects Controlling for 1st Gen Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Years of Schooling
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0088(0070)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0005 0008(0119) (0119)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0116 -0117(0072) (0072)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0206 0206 0206 0206
Panel B ln Family Income 1992
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0193lowast
(0111)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0080 -0050(0184) (0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0240lowastlowast -0238lowastlowast
(0116) (0116)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112R Sqr 0024 0024 0024 0024
Panel C Std Normal Net Worth 2004
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0003(0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0047 0049(0046) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0019 -0021(0020) (0020)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498R Sqr 0033 0033 0033 0033
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 4 while controlling for generation one economic outcomes fatherrsquos years ofschooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 First generation time trends are given by year of birth and itssquare for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex secondgeneration year of birth and its square and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standarderrors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and1 levels respectively 33
Appendix Table 4 2nd Gen Health Effects Controlling for 1st Gen Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A BMI
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0352lowast
(0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0051 -0001(0342) (0344)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0372lowast 0372lowast
(0192) (0193)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671R Sqr 0035 0035 0035 0035
Panel B Count of Illnesses
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0122lowast
(0065)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0076 -0096(0102) (0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0139lowastlowast 0144lowastlowast
(0067) (0068)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9921 9921 9921 9921R Sqr 0046 0046 0046 0046
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 5 while controlling for generation one economic outcomes fatherrsquos years ofschooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 First generation time trends are given by year of birth and itssquare for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex secondgeneration year of birth and its square and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standarderrors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and1 levels respectively
34
Appendix Table 5 Generation threersquos years of schooling Controlling for previous generation economicwell-being
Dependent Variable Years of Schooling for Gen 3(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A First Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0069(0076)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0022 0034(0133) (0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0102 -0104(0077) (0078)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913R Sqr 0117 0117 0117 0117
Panel B Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0025(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0008 0013(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0038 -0039(0073) (0073)
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0190 0190 0190 0190
Panel C First and Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0008(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0016 0019(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0028 -0029(0073) (0073)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0196 0196 0196 0196
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 6 while controlling for generation one and tworsquos economic outcomes Forgeneration one these include fatherrsquos years of schooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 generation twocontrols include the WLS graduatesiblingrsquos years of schooling family income in 1992 and net worth in 2004 First generationtime trends are year of birth measures for each parent and their square Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sexsecond generation year of birth and its square and birth order Third generation controls include a sex indicator year of birthand its square and birth order Given the focus on years of schooling the sample is restricted to those third generationindividuals 35 years of age and older or born during or before 1970 (data were collected in 2005) All estimation is performedwith OLS with family (second generation) clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denotedby and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
35
Appendix Table 6 Alternative measures of schooling in the second generation
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Indicator for any college (years of schooling gt12)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0044lowastlowastlowast
(0017)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0011 -0006(0029) (0029)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0044lowastlowast -0043lowastlowast
(0017) (0017)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0071 0070 0071 0071
Panel B Indicator for incomplete college (years of schooling gt12 amp lt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0008(0013)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 -0001(0022) (0022)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0008 -0008(0013) (0013)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0005 0005 0005 0005
Panel C Indicator for college graduate (years of schooling = 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0022lowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0003 0006(0020) (0020)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0021lowast -0021lowastlowast
(0011) (0011)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0019 0019 0019 0019
Panel D Indicator for post-college education (years of schooling gt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0014(0010)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0011(0018) (0018)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0014 -0014(0010) (0010)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0039 0039 0039 0039
Summary amp Notes This table replaces our continuous measure of years of schooling with specified dummy variables Firstgeneration time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Secondgeneration controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and its square and birth order All estimationis performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
36
Appendix Table 7 Young mothers Direct effect on Gen 1 Females
Dependent Variable Years of Sch Job Prestige Family SES
(1) (2) (3)
Ind for First Gen Female Flu Exposure (1918-1919) -0325lowastlowast -0841 -1749lowastlowastlowast
(0137) (1015) (0584)
Ind for mother born during 1920-1921 -0567lowastlowastlowast 0745 -1157(0206) (1515) (0914)
Ind for mother born during 1922-1923 -0666lowastlowast 0098 -2113(0330) (2210) (1298)
Ind for mother born after 1924 -0392 5682 0384(0486) (3705) (2126)
Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y
Observations 8487 6683 8487R Sqr 0014 0005 0014
Summary amp Notes This table includes indicators for alternative years of birth Younger mothers are shown to have lessyears of schooling All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
37
App
endix
Tab
le8
You
ng
mot
her
sG
ener
atio
n2
and
3eff
ects
Gen
2
Gen
3
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
ln
Fam
In
c
1992
Std
N
W
2004
Sel
f-re
p
hea
lth
Hei
ght
BM
IY
ears
of
Sch
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
emal
eF
luE
xp
osu
re(1
918-
1919
)-0
201lowastlowast
-02
95lowastlowast
-00
45
-00
73lowastlowast
-00
90
02
07
-00
86(0
092)
(01
32)
(00
32)
(00
32)
(01
22)
(02
25)
(00
94)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
20-1
921
-00
22
-00
40
-00
10
-00
61
01
33
-04
10
01
13
(01
37)
(01
74)
(00
51)
(00
43)
(01
80)
(03
11)
(01
41)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
22-1
923
-00
96
-01
88
-00
57
00
20
04
61
-11
29lowastlowast
01
55(0
184)
(03
20)
(00
61)
(00
75)
(02
83)
(04
51)
(02
23)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
afte
r19
2404
58
-01
87
00
01
-00
27
03
12
-08
85
03
99
(03
06)
(03
94)
(00
87)
(01
27)
(04
94)
(10
70)
(03
21)
Bas
eC
ontr
ols
YY
YY
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
12459
12112
10498
9888
9783
9671
19913
RS
qr
00
85
00
21
00
08
00
09
05
86
00
29
00
79
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
incl
ud
esin
dic
ator
sfo
ralt
ernati
ve
years
of
bir
th
Bei
ng
born
toa
you
nger
moth
ergen
erall
yis
not
ass
oci
ate
dw
ith
gen
erati
on
2or
3rsquos
outc
omes
ofin
tere
st
inst
ead
n
egat
ive
effec
tsar
eon
lyob
serv
edfo
rth
ose
born
du
rin
gth
efl
u
All
esti
mati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hfa
mil
y(2
nd
gen
erat
ion
)cl
ust
ered
stan
dar
der
rors
rep
orte
din
par
enth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
signifi
can
ceis
den
ote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vel
y
38
Appendix Table 9 Summary Statistics by Gen 2 Sex
Variable N Mean Std Deviation
FemaleYears of Schooling 6607 13352 2088ln Family Income (1992 wave) 6411 9424 3577
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5654 10686 1010Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 5612 -0047 0539Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 5313 4164 0670Height (inches) 5231 646635 247936BMI 5124 26073 5114
Gen 3Years of Schooling 11947 14240 2291
MaleYears of Schooling 5852 14047 2587ln Family Income (1992 wave) 5701 10139 3030
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5264 10981 0836Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 4886 0059 1159Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 4575 4133 0665Height (inches) 4554 7055484 25596BMI 4547 27496 3948
Gen 3Years of Schooling 8046 14371 2332
Appendix Table 10A Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0090(0086)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0198 0214(0169) (0169)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104 -0114(0087) (0087)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6607 6607 6607 6607R Sqr 0075 0075 0075 0075
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
39
Appendix Table 10B Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0523lowastlowastlowast
(0170)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0483 -0410(0321) (0323)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0512lowastlowastlowast -0491lowastlowastlowast
(0179) (0180)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6411 6411 6411 6411R Sqr 0015 0013 0014 0015
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10C Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0007(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0078lowast 0078(0048) (0048)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0008 0005(0025) (0025)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5612 5612 5612 5612R Sqr 0007 0007 0007 0007
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
40
Appendix Table 10D Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0027(0036)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 -0001(0071) (0071)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0022 -0022(0037) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5313 5313 5313 5313r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10E Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -2382(13366)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 44280lowastlowast 46351lowastlowast
(22343) (22480)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -12253 -14428(13485) (13561)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5231 5231 5231 5231r2 0015 0016 0015 0016
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
41
Appendix Table 10F Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0353(0286)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0105 0060(0514) (0516)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0326 0323(0289) (0290)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5124 5124 5124 5124R Sqr 0010 0010 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0087(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0104 -0101(0190) (0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0042 -0039(0098) (0098)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 11906 11906 11906 11906R Sqr 0086 0086 0086 0086
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
42
Appendix Table 11A Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0322lowastlowastlowast
(0116)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0369lowastlowast -0338lowast
(0181) (0180)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0309lowastlowastlowast -0297lowastlowast
(0119) (0119)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5852 5852 5852 5852R Sqr 0060 0059 0060 0060
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11B RResults by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0116(0138)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0262 0261(0200) (0199)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0024 0014(0141) (0140)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5701 5701 5701 5701R Sqr 0009 0009 0008 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
43
Appendix Table 11C Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0038)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0001(0081) (0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0094lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0035)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4886 4886 4886 4886R Sqr 0004 0004 0004 0004
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
44
Appendix Table 11D Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0083lowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 0012(0062) (0062)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104lowastlowastlowast -0105lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0041)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4575 4575 4575 4575r2 0010 0009 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11E Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -15122(14275)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -22991 -20537(23287) (23176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -18595 -17540(14734) (14751)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4554 4554 4554 4554r2 0011 0011 0011 0011
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
45
Appendix Table 11F Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0465lowast
(0238)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0079 0006(0403) (0405)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0520lowastlowast 0520lowastlowast
(0245) (0246)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4547 4547 4547 4547R Sqr 0006 0005 0006 0006
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0177(0123)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0098 0144(0194) (0192)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0293lowastlowast -0302lowastlowast
(0125) (0126)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8007 8007 8007 8007R Sqr 0067 0067 0068 0068
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
46
Appendix Table 12A Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0253lowastlowast
(0107)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0252 -0226(0170) (0172)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0263lowastlowast -0242lowastlowast
(0113) (0115)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0084(0120)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0341 0339(0216) (0219)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0096 0056(0130) (0132)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459r2 0085 0085 0085 0085
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
47
Appendix Table 12B Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0128)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0196 0169(0190) (0189)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0081 -0104(0135) (0135)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0383lowastlowast
(0189)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0594lowast -0474(0349) (0355)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0339lowast -0283(0204) (0207)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112r2 0021 0021 0021 0021
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
48
Appendix Table 12C Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0034)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0019(0077) (0079)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0095lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0030) (0031)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0071lowast
(0038)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0072 0039(0087) (0089)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0104lowastlowastlowast 0100lowastlowastlowast
(0035) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498r2 0008 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
49
Appendix Table 12D Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0071lowast
(0036)[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0012 0031
(0058) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0093lowastlowast -0097lowastlowast
(0039) (0039)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0030(0045)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0031 -0051(0087) (0088)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0059 0065(0048) (0049)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
50
Appendix Table 12E Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0129 -0125(0223) (0224)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0152 -0129(0141) (0142)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0000(0158)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0454 0495lowast
(0279) (0287)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0031 -0090(0170) (0175)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783nr2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
51
Appendix Table 12F Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0376(0231)
[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0059 -0122(0402) (0407)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0441lowast 0457lowast
(0240) (0243)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0068(0316)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0282 0288(0573) (0589)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0035 -0069(0340) (0350)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
52
Appendix Table 12G Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0131(0114)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male 0114 0175(0185) (0188)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0237lowastlowast -0261lowastlowast
(0118) (0121)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0009(0133)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0225 -0292(0249) (0254)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0152 0189(0141) (0145)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913r2 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
53
Appendix Table 13 Family Income 1992 excluding non-earners (ie fam inc = 0)
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992 wave (excluding those reporting 0)(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0095lowastlowastlowast
(0033)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0031 -0019(0053) (0053)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0101lowastlowastlowast -0100lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0034)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10918 10918 10918 10918r2 0050 0049 0050 0050
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0084lowast
(0050)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0019 -0007(0089) (0090)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0083 -0083(0053) (0054)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5654 5654 5654 5654r2 0026 0026 0026 0026
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102lowastlowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0051 -0040(0060) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0113lowastlowastlowast -0112lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0040)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5264 5264 5264 5264r2 0029 0028 0029 0029
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel B in Table 4 excluding those who report $0 for familyincome All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
54
Appendix Table 14 Net Worth 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable Std Net Worth 2011 Wave of WLS(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0032lowastlowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0023lowast -0021lowast
(0012) (0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0032lowastlowastlowast -0031lowastlowastlowast
(0010) (0010)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9435 9435 9435 9435r2 0002 0002 0002 0002
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0012lowast
(0006)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0009 -0008(0009) (0009)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0012lowastlowast -0011lowastlowast
(0006) (0006)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5026 5026 5026 5026r2 0007 0006 0007 0007
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0057lowastlowast
(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0040lowast -0036lowast
(0023) (0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0057lowastlowast -0056lowastlowast
(0023) (0022)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4409 4409 4409 4409r2 0001 0001 0001 0001
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel C in Table 4 replacing the net worth measure from the 2004wave with an identical measure from the 2011 wave of the WLS All estimation is performed with OLS with family clusteredstandard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 105 and 1 levels respectively
55
Appendix Table 15A Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 1992 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0243(0152)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0107 0039(0252) (0255)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0285lowast 0282lowast
(0158) (0160)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9849 9849 9849 9849
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0007(0091)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0210 -0216(0170) (0173)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0007 0024(0095) (0097)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9858 9858 9858 9858
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0255(0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0107 -0169(0328) (0338)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0237 0252(0193) (0198)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9845 9845 9845 9845
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
56
Appendix Table 15B Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2004 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0018(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0190 0207(0160) (0162)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0066 -0083(0102) (0104)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10672 10672 10672 10672
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0096 0108(0124) (0125)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0051 -0059(0076) (0077)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10619 10619 10619 10619
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0108(0110)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0064 0027(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0181 0179(0113) (0113)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10617 10617 10617 10617
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
57
Appendix Table 15C Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0099(0092)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0244 0242(0154) (0155)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0033 0016(0099) (0100)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0021(0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0095 0097(0138) (0139)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0004 -0011(0085) (0086)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0134(0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0203 0181(0175) (0176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0140 0127(0107) (0107)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8709 8709 8709 8709
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
58
- text 10818
- tables 10-8-18
-
22
References
Almond Doug 2006 Is the 1918 Influenza pandemic over Long‐term effects of in utero Influenza exposure in the post‐1940 US population Journal of Political Economy 114(4) 672-712
Almond Doug and Bhashkar Mazumder 2005 The 1918 Influenza Pandemic and Subsequent Health Outcomes An Analysis of SIPP Data American Economic Review 95(2) 258-262
Barker David James P 2007 The origins of the developmental origins theory Journal of Internal Medicine 261(5) 412-417
Benyshek Daniel C (2013) The ldquoearly liferdquo origins of obesity‐related health disorders New discoveries regarding the intergenerational transmission of developmentally programmed traits in the global cardiometabolic health crisis American Journal of Physical Anthropology 152(S57) 79-93
Brown Alan S and Elena J Derkits 2010 Prenatal infection and schizophrenia a review of epidemiologic and translational studies American Journal of Psychiatry 167(3) 261-280
Burg Steven 2000 Wisconsin and the Great Spanish Flu Epidemic of 1918rdquo Wisconsin Magazine of History 84(1) 36-56
Bygren LarsOlov Gunnar Kaati and Soumlren Edvinsson 2001 Longevity determined by paternal ancestors nutrition during their slow growth period Acta biotheoretica 49(1) 53-59
Canetta Sarah E and Alan S Brown 2012 Prenatal infection maternal immune activation and risk for schizophrenia Translational Neuroscience 3(4) 320-327
Chadwick L and Solon G (2002) Intergenerational income mobility among daughters American Economic Review 92(1) 335-344
Cohen Alan A John Tillinghast and Vladimir Canudas-Romo 2010 No consistent effects of prenatal or neonatal exposure to Spanish flu on late-life mortality in 24 developed countries Demographic Research 22(20) 579
Fatemi S Hossein Julie Earle Reena Kanodia David Kist Effat S Emamian Paul H Patterson Limin Shi and Robert Sidwell 2002 Prenatal viral infection leads to pyramidal cell atrophy and macrocephaly in adulthood implications for genesis of autism and schizophrenia Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology 22(1) 25-33
Fletcher Jason 2014 Examining the Long Term Mortality Effects of Early Health Shocks US Census Bureau Center for Economic Studies Paper No CES-WP-14-19
Kaati Gunnar Lars O Bygren and Soren Edvinsson 2002 Cardiovascular and diabetes mortality determined by nutrition during parents and grandparents slow growth period European Journal of Human Genetics EJHG 10(11) 682
Kash John C Terrence M Tumpey Sean C Proll Victoria Carter Olivia Perwitasari Matthew J Thomas Christopher F Basler et al 2006 Genomic analysis of increased host immune and cell death responses induced by 1918 influenza virus Nature 443(7111) 578-581
Kobasa Darwyn Steven M Jones Kyoko Shinya John C Kash John Copps Hideki Ebihara Yasuko Hatta et al 2007 Aberrant innate immune response in lethal infection of macaques with the 1918 influenza virus Nature 445 (7125) 319-323
Kuzawa Christopher W and Dan T Eisenberg 2014 The Long Reach of History Intergenerational and Transgenerational Pathwaysto Plasticity in Human Longevity Sociality Hierarchy Health Comparative Biodemography Papers from a Workshop National Academies Press
Li Wai-Yu Yi-Chun Chang L Jyuhn-Hsiarn Lee and Li-Jen Lee 2014 Prenatal infection affects the neuronal architecture and cognitive function in adult mice Developmental Neuroscience 36(5) 359-370
23
Lin Ming-Jen and Elaine M Liu 2014 Does in utero exposure to illness matter The 1918 influenza epidemic in Taiwan as a natural experiment Journal of Health Economics 37 152-163
Lindeboom Maarten France Portrait and Gerard J Van den Berg 2010 Long-run effects on longevity of a nutritional shock early in life the Dutch Potato famine of 1846ndash1847 Journal of Health Economics 29(5) 617-629
Mamelund SE (2018) 1918 pandemic mobidity The first wave hits the poor the second wave hits the rich Influenza and Other Respitory Viruses 12(3) 307-313
Mazumder Bhashkar Douglas Almond Kyung Park Eileen M Crimmins and Caleb E Finch 2010 Lingering prenatal effects of the 1918 influenza pandemic on cardiovascular disease Journal of developmental origins of health and disease 1(1) 26-34
Miller Veronica Y Zhu C Bucher W McGinnis L Ryan A Siegel and S Zalcman 2013 Gestational flu exposure induces changes in neurochemicals affiliative hormones and brainstem inflammation in addition to autism-like behaviors in mice Brain Behavior and Immunity 33 153-163
Myrskylauml Mikko Neil K Mehta and Virginia W Chang 2013 Early life exposure to the 1918 influenza pandemic and old-age mortality by cause of death American Journal of Public Health 103(7) e83-e90
Olivetti C and Paserman MD (2015) In the name of the son (and the daughter) Intergenerational mobility in the United States 1850-1940 American Economic Review 105(8) 2695-2724
Pembrey Marcus E Lars Olov Bygren Gunnar Kaati Soumlren Edvinsson Kate Northstone Michael Sjoumlstroumlm and Jean Golding 2006 Sex-specific male-line transgenerational responses in humans European Journal of Human Genetics 14(2) 159-166
Richter Andreacute and Per Olof Robling 2013 Multigenerational effects of the 1918-19 influenza pandemic in Sweden Swedish Institute for Social Research 5
Shors Teri and Susan H McFadden 2009 1918 Influenza A Winnebago County Wisconsin Perspective Clinical Medicine amp Research 7(4) 147-156
Sydenstricker E (1931) The incidence of influenza among persons of different economic status during the epidemic of 1918 Public Health Reports 46(4) 154-170
van den Berg Gerard J and Pia R Pinger 2013 A validation study of transgenerational effects of childhood conditions on the third generation offsprings economic and health outcomes potentially driven by epigenetic imprinting IZA Discussion Paper
Tables and Figures
Table 1 Summary Statistics
Variable N Mean Std Deviation
First GenerartionFlu Indicators
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 8368 0112 0315Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 8456 0030 0170Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 8487 0093 0290
ControlsFirst Generation Malersquos Year of Birth 8456 1907435 7021First Generation Femalersquos Year of Birth 8427 1911189 6164
Dependent VariablesFirst Generation Malersquos Years of Schooling 8456 9778 3392First Generation Femalersquos Years of Schooing 8487 10499 2804First Generation Malersquos Job Prestige 8385 330662 214361First Generation Femalersquos Job Prestige 6683 12814 19934Family SES 8487 16231 11143
Second GenerationControls
Female Indicator 12459 0530 0499Birth Year 12459 1939406 4289Birth Order 12459 2529 1828
Dependent VariablesYears of Schooling 12459 13678 2361Family Income 1992 (in $1000s) 12112 68027 177105Net Worth 2004 (in $1000s) 10498 913046 2558927Self-reported health 1992 9888 4149 0668Height (inches) 9783 67406 3851BMI 1992 9671 26742 4657
Third GenerationControls
Birth Year 19913 1963901 3636Female Indicator 19913 0497 0500Birth Order 19913 2196 1263
Dependent VariableYears of Schooling 19913 14294 2309
Summary amp Notes This table provides summary statistics for all variables used The samples above may not berepresentative for all estimations For example the inclusion of siblings in the second generation increase the sample of parentalyear of birth and the corresponding flu indicator This increase in sample does not significantly change the sample statisticsabove Similar sample changes occur for the second generation controls above For the third generation the sample is restrictedto biological children over 35 years of age
24
Tab
le2
Fir
stG
ener
atio
n
Eco
nom
icE
ffec
ts
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
am
ily
SE
SY
ears
of
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
am
ily
SE
S(1
)(2
)(3
)(4
)(5
)(6
)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale)
-01
39
-01
16lowast
-12
90lowast
lowast
(02
00)
(00
60)
(05
99)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emal
e)-0
133
-00
66
-13
61lowastlowast
lowast
(00
95)
(00
43)
(03
76)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
YY
YY
YY
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8456
8385
8456
8487
6683
8487
RS
qr
00
32
00
08
00
23
00
13
00
04
00
13
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
pro
vid
esd
irec
teff
ects
of
inu
tero
an
dea
rly
life
exp
osu
reto
the
1918
Flu
Ep
idem
ic
Bir
thye
ar
tim
etr
end
sin
lcu
de
yea
rof
bir
than
dit
ssq
uar
ean
din
clu
sion
inth
ees
tim
atio
nis
par
ent
spec
ific
All
esti
mati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
an
dard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
alsi
gnifi
can
ceis
den
oted
by
an
d
re
pre
senti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vel
y
25
Tab
le3
Fir
stG
ener
atio
n
Mar
riag
eM
arke
tE
ffec
ts
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Flu
Bir
thY
ear
Yea
rsof
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
luB
irth
Yea
rY
ears
of
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
e(1
)(2
)(3
)(4
)(5
)(6
)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale)
01
40lowast
lowastlowast-0
259
-00
39
(00
34)
(01
58)
(00
72)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emal
e)0
056lowast
lowastlowast-0
340lowast
lowastlowast-0
118lowastlowast
lowast
(00
14)
(01
17)
(00
36)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
YY
YY
YY
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8348
8487
8412
8348
8456
6660
RS
qr
00
90
00
11
00
08
01
20
00
21
00
01
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
pro
vid
esev
iden
ceof
marr
iage
mark
etse
lect
ion
inth
efi
rst
gen
erati
on
B
irth
year
tim
etr
end
sin
clu
de
year
of
bir
than
dit
ssq
uare
and
incl
usi
onin
the
esti
mat
ion
isp
aren
tsp
ecifi
cA
lles
tim
ati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
an
dard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
sign
ifica
nce
isd
enot
edby
an
d
re
pre
senti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vely
26
Table 4 Second Generation Economic Effects
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Years of Schooling
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0209lowastlowastlowast
(0073)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0084 -0059(0129) (0129)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0211lowastlowastlowast -0209lowastlowastlowast
(0075) (0075)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0085 0084 0085 0085
Panel B ln Family Income 1992
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0221lowastlowast
(0111)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0098 -0066(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0262lowastlowast -0259lowastlowast
(0116) (0116)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112R Sqr 0021 0021 0021 0021
Panel C Std Net Worth 2004
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0026(0022)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0033 0038(0047) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0038lowast -0040lowast
(0021) (0021)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498R Sqr 0007 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table provides evidence of signficant harmful effects of flu exposure in the first generation on secondgeneration economic outcomes First generation time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents(ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and itssquare and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
27
Table 5 Second Generation Health Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Self-reported health (Likert 1=very poor 5=excellent)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0054lowastlowast
(0027)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0005(0047) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0061lowastlowast -0061lowastlowast
(0028) (0028)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Panel B Height (inches)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0101)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0102 0127(0168) (0168)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0169lowast -0175lowast
(0103) (0103)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783r2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Panel C BMI
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0412lowastlowast
(0191)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0082 0023(0344) (0346)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0422lowastlowast 0421lowastlowast
(0193) (0194)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table provides evidence of harmful effects of flu exposure in the first generation on secondgeneration health outcomes First generation time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents (iegen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and itssquare and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
28
Table 6 Generation Three Effects of Generation One Flu Exposure Years of Schooling
Dependent Variable Years of Schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0125(0077)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Male) -0007 0010(0136) (0136)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Female) -0144lowast -0144lowast
(0078) (0078)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913R Sqr 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table shows that the generational effects of flu exposure extend into the third generation of theWLS First generation flu exposure is shown to have a negative association with third generation years of schooling Firstgeneration time trends are year of birth measures for each parent and their square Second generation controls inlcude anindicator for sex second generation year of birth and its square and birth order Third generation controls include a sexindicator year of birth and its square and birth order Given the focus on years of schooling the sample is restricted to thosethird generation individuals 35 years of age and older or born during or before 1970 (data were collected in 2005) Allestimation is performed with OLS with family (second generation) clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
29
(a)
Fat
her
(b)
Moth
er
Fig
ure
1F
irst
Gen
erat
ion
Dis
trib
uti
onof
Yea
rof
Bir
th
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
figu
rep
lots
the
dis
trib
uti
on
for
firs
tgen
erati
on
year
of
bir
th
Flu
exp
osu
reis
class
ified
as
bei
ng
born
inei
ther
1918
or
1919
30
Appendix Tables
Appendix Table 1 First Generation Flu Exposure Effect on Family Income
Dependent Variable Family Income ($100s) 1957
(1) (2)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -3366(2592)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -5363lowastlowast
(2390)
Birth Year Time Trends Y YObservations 7440 7456R Sqr 0013 0004
Summary amp Notes This table replaces the index of socioeconomic status with family income (in $100s) in 1957 Allestimation is performed with OLS with robust standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
31
App
endix
Tab
le2
Mar
riag
eM
arke
tE
ffec
ts
Con
trol
ling
for
Ow
nY
ear
ofB
irth
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
Job
Pre
stig
eY
ears
of
Sch
Job
Pre
stig
e
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale
)-0
052
-211
82
-01
98
-03
74
(02
03)
(131
30)
(01
61)
(14
38)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emale
)-0
346lowast
lowastlowast-2
44
97lowastlowast
lowast-0
103
-13
88
(01
16)
(76
88)
(00
94)
(08
54)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
(Male
an
dF
emale
)Y
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8348
8279
8348
6587
RS
qr
00
40
00
22
00
25
00
04
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
re-e
stim
ates
Tab
le3
wh
ile
contr
oll
ing
for
year
of
bir
than
dfl
uin
dic
ato
rsass
oci
ate
dw
ith
the
spou
sein
the
dep
end
ent
vari
ab
le
All
esti
mat
ion
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
and
ard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
sign
ifica
nce
isd
enote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
atth
e10
5
and
1le
vel
sre
spec
tive
ly
32
Appendix Table 3 2nd Gen Economic Effects Controlling for 1st Gen Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Years of Schooling
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0088(0070)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0005 0008(0119) (0119)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0116 -0117(0072) (0072)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0206 0206 0206 0206
Panel B ln Family Income 1992
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0193lowast
(0111)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0080 -0050(0184) (0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0240lowastlowast -0238lowastlowast
(0116) (0116)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112R Sqr 0024 0024 0024 0024
Panel C Std Normal Net Worth 2004
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0003(0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0047 0049(0046) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0019 -0021(0020) (0020)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498R Sqr 0033 0033 0033 0033
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 4 while controlling for generation one economic outcomes fatherrsquos years ofschooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 First generation time trends are given by year of birth and itssquare for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex secondgeneration year of birth and its square and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standarderrors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and1 levels respectively 33
Appendix Table 4 2nd Gen Health Effects Controlling for 1st Gen Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A BMI
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0352lowast
(0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0051 -0001(0342) (0344)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0372lowast 0372lowast
(0192) (0193)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671R Sqr 0035 0035 0035 0035
Panel B Count of Illnesses
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0122lowast
(0065)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0076 -0096(0102) (0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0139lowastlowast 0144lowastlowast
(0067) (0068)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9921 9921 9921 9921R Sqr 0046 0046 0046 0046
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 5 while controlling for generation one economic outcomes fatherrsquos years ofschooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 First generation time trends are given by year of birth and itssquare for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex secondgeneration year of birth and its square and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standarderrors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and1 levels respectively
34
Appendix Table 5 Generation threersquos years of schooling Controlling for previous generation economicwell-being
Dependent Variable Years of Schooling for Gen 3(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A First Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0069(0076)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0022 0034(0133) (0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0102 -0104(0077) (0078)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913R Sqr 0117 0117 0117 0117
Panel B Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0025(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0008 0013(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0038 -0039(0073) (0073)
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0190 0190 0190 0190
Panel C First and Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0008(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0016 0019(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0028 -0029(0073) (0073)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0196 0196 0196 0196
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 6 while controlling for generation one and tworsquos economic outcomes Forgeneration one these include fatherrsquos years of schooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 generation twocontrols include the WLS graduatesiblingrsquos years of schooling family income in 1992 and net worth in 2004 First generationtime trends are year of birth measures for each parent and their square Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sexsecond generation year of birth and its square and birth order Third generation controls include a sex indicator year of birthand its square and birth order Given the focus on years of schooling the sample is restricted to those third generationindividuals 35 years of age and older or born during or before 1970 (data were collected in 2005) All estimation is performedwith OLS with family (second generation) clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denotedby and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
35
Appendix Table 6 Alternative measures of schooling in the second generation
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Indicator for any college (years of schooling gt12)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0044lowastlowastlowast
(0017)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0011 -0006(0029) (0029)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0044lowastlowast -0043lowastlowast
(0017) (0017)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0071 0070 0071 0071
Panel B Indicator for incomplete college (years of schooling gt12 amp lt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0008(0013)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 -0001(0022) (0022)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0008 -0008(0013) (0013)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0005 0005 0005 0005
Panel C Indicator for college graduate (years of schooling = 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0022lowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0003 0006(0020) (0020)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0021lowast -0021lowastlowast
(0011) (0011)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0019 0019 0019 0019
Panel D Indicator for post-college education (years of schooling gt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0014(0010)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0011(0018) (0018)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0014 -0014(0010) (0010)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0039 0039 0039 0039
Summary amp Notes This table replaces our continuous measure of years of schooling with specified dummy variables Firstgeneration time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Secondgeneration controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and its square and birth order All estimationis performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
36
Appendix Table 7 Young mothers Direct effect on Gen 1 Females
Dependent Variable Years of Sch Job Prestige Family SES
(1) (2) (3)
Ind for First Gen Female Flu Exposure (1918-1919) -0325lowastlowast -0841 -1749lowastlowastlowast
(0137) (1015) (0584)
Ind for mother born during 1920-1921 -0567lowastlowastlowast 0745 -1157(0206) (1515) (0914)
Ind for mother born during 1922-1923 -0666lowastlowast 0098 -2113(0330) (2210) (1298)
Ind for mother born after 1924 -0392 5682 0384(0486) (3705) (2126)
Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y
Observations 8487 6683 8487R Sqr 0014 0005 0014
Summary amp Notes This table includes indicators for alternative years of birth Younger mothers are shown to have lessyears of schooling All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
37
App
endix
Tab
le8
You
ng
mot
her
sG
ener
atio
n2
and
3eff
ects
Gen
2
Gen
3
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
ln
Fam
In
c
1992
Std
N
W
2004
Sel
f-re
p
hea
lth
Hei
ght
BM
IY
ears
of
Sch
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
emal
eF
luE
xp
osu
re(1
918-
1919
)-0
201lowastlowast
-02
95lowastlowast
-00
45
-00
73lowastlowast
-00
90
02
07
-00
86(0
092)
(01
32)
(00
32)
(00
32)
(01
22)
(02
25)
(00
94)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
20-1
921
-00
22
-00
40
-00
10
-00
61
01
33
-04
10
01
13
(01
37)
(01
74)
(00
51)
(00
43)
(01
80)
(03
11)
(01
41)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
22-1
923
-00
96
-01
88
-00
57
00
20
04
61
-11
29lowastlowast
01
55(0
184)
(03
20)
(00
61)
(00
75)
(02
83)
(04
51)
(02
23)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
afte
r19
2404
58
-01
87
00
01
-00
27
03
12
-08
85
03
99
(03
06)
(03
94)
(00
87)
(01
27)
(04
94)
(10
70)
(03
21)
Bas
eC
ontr
ols
YY
YY
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
12459
12112
10498
9888
9783
9671
19913
RS
qr
00
85
00
21
00
08
00
09
05
86
00
29
00
79
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
incl
ud
esin
dic
ator
sfo
ralt
ernati
ve
years
of
bir
th
Bei
ng
born
toa
you
nger
moth
ergen
erall
yis
not
ass
oci
ate
dw
ith
gen
erati
on
2or
3rsquos
outc
omes
ofin
tere
st
inst
ead
n
egat
ive
effec
tsar
eon
lyob
serv
edfo
rth
ose
born
du
rin
gth
efl
u
All
esti
mati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hfa
mil
y(2
nd
gen
erat
ion
)cl
ust
ered
stan
dar
der
rors
rep
orte
din
par
enth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
signifi
can
ceis
den
ote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vel
y
38
Appendix Table 9 Summary Statistics by Gen 2 Sex
Variable N Mean Std Deviation
FemaleYears of Schooling 6607 13352 2088ln Family Income (1992 wave) 6411 9424 3577
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5654 10686 1010Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 5612 -0047 0539Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 5313 4164 0670Height (inches) 5231 646635 247936BMI 5124 26073 5114
Gen 3Years of Schooling 11947 14240 2291
MaleYears of Schooling 5852 14047 2587ln Family Income (1992 wave) 5701 10139 3030
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5264 10981 0836Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 4886 0059 1159Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 4575 4133 0665Height (inches) 4554 7055484 25596BMI 4547 27496 3948
Gen 3Years of Schooling 8046 14371 2332
Appendix Table 10A Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0090(0086)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0198 0214(0169) (0169)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104 -0114(0087) (0087)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6607 6607 6607 6607R Sqr 0075 0075 0075 0075
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
39
Appendix Table 10B Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0523lowastlowastlowast
(0170)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0483 -0410(0321) (0323)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0512lowastlowastlowast -0491lowastlowastlowast
(0179) (0180)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6411 6411 6411 6411R Sqr 0015 0013 0014 0015
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10C Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0007(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0078lowast 0078(0048) (0048)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0008 0005(0025) (0025)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5612 5612 5612 5612R Sqr 0007 0007 0007 0007
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
40
Appendix Table 10D Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0027(0036)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 -0001(0071) (0071)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0022 -0022(0037) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5313 5313 5313 5313r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10E Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -2382(13366)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 44280lowastlowast 46351lowastlowast
(22343) (22480)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -12253 -14428(13485) (13561)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5231 5231 5231 5231r2 0015 0016 0015 0016
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
41
Appendix Table 10F Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0353(0286)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0105 0060(0514) (0516)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0326 0323(0289) (0290)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5124 5124 5124 5124R Sqr 0010 0010 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0087(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0104 -0101(0190) (0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0042 -0039(0098) (0098)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 11906 11906 11906 11906R Sqr 0086 0086 0086 0086
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
42
Appendix Table 11A Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0322lowastlowastlowast
(0116)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0369lowastlowast -0338lowast
(0181) (0180)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0309lowastlowastlowast -0297lowastlowast
(0119) (0119)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5852 5852 5852 5852R Sqr 0060 0059 0060 0060
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11B RResults by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0116(0138)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0262 0261(0200) (0199)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0024 0014(0141) (0140)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5701 5701 5701 5701R Sqr 0009 0009 0008 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
43
Appendix Table 11C Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0038)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0001(0081) (0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0094lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0035)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4886 4886 4886 4886R Sqr 0004 0004 0004 0004
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
44
Appendix Table 11D Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0083lowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 0012(0062) (0062)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104lowastlowastlowast -0105lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0041)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4575 4575 4575 4575r2 0010 0009 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11E Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -15122(14275)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -22991 -20537(23287) (23176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -18595 -17540(14734) (14751)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4554 4554 4554 4554r2 0011 0011 0011 0011
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
45
Appendix Table 11F Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0465lowast
(0238)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0079 0006(0403) (0405)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0520lowastlowast 0520lowastlowast
(0245) (0246)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4547 4547 4547 4547R Sqr 0006 0005 0006 0006
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0177(0123)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0098 0144(0194) (0192)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0293lowastlowast -0302lowastlowast
(0125) (0126)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8007 8007 8007 8007R Sqr 0067 0067 0068 0068
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
46
Appendix Table 12A Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0253lowastlowast
(0107)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0252 -0226(0170) (0172)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0263lowastlowast -0242lowastlowast
(0113) (0115)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0084(0120)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0341 0339(0216) (0219)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0096 0056(0130) (0132)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459r2 0085 0085 0085 0085
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
47
Appendix Table 12B Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0128)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0196 0169(0190) (0189)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0081 -0104(0135) (0135)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0383lowastlowast
(0189)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0594lowast -0474(0349) (0355)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0339lowast -0283(0204) (0207)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112r2 0021 0021 0021 0021
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
48
Appendix Table 12C Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0034)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0019(0077) (0079)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0095lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0030) (0031)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0071lowast
(0038)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0072 0039(0087) (0089)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0104lowastlowastlowast 0100lowastlowastlowast
(0035) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498r2 0008 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
49
Appendix Table 12D Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0071lowast
(0036)[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0012 0031
(0058) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0093lowastlowast -0097lowastlowast
(0039) (0039)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0030(0045)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0031 -0051(0087) (0088)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0059 0065(0048) (0049)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
50
Appendix Table 12E Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0129 -0125(0223) (0224)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0152 -0129(0141) (0142)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0000(0158)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0454 0495lowast
(0279) (0287)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0031 -0090(0170) (0175)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783nr2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
51
Appendix Table 12F Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0376(0231)
[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0059 -0122(0402) (0407)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0441lowast 0457lowast
(0240) (0243)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0068(0316)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0282 0288(0573) (0589)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0035 -0069(0340) (0350)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
52
Appendix Table 12G Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0131(0114)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male 0114 0175(0185) (0188)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0237lowastlowast -0261lowastlowast
(0118) (0121)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0009(0133)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0225 -0292(0249) (0254)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0152 0189(0141) (0145)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913r2 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
53
Appendix Table 13 Family Income 1992 excluding non-earners (ie fam inc = 0)
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992 wave (excluding those reporting 0)(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0095lowastlowastlowast
(0033)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0031 -0019(0053) (0053)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0101lowastlowastlowast -0100lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0034)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10918 10918 10918 10918r2 0050 0049 0050 0050
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0084lowast
(0050)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0019 -0007(0089) (0090)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0083 -0083(0053) (0054)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5654 5654 5654 5654r2 0026 0026 0026 0026
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102lowastlowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0051 -0040(0060) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0113lowastlowastlowast -0112lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0040)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5264 5264 5264 5264r2 0029 0028 0029 0029
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel B in Table 4 excluding those who report $0 for familyincome All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
54
Appendix Table 14 Net Worth 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable Std Net Worth 2011 Wave of WLS(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0032lowastlowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0023lowast -0021lowast
(0012) (0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0032lowastlowastlowast -0031lowastlowastlowast
(0010) (0010)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9435 9435 9435 9435r2 0002 0002 0002 0002
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0012lowast
(0006)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0009 -0008(0009) (0009)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0012lowastlowast -0011lowastlowast
(0006) (0006)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5026 5026 5026 5026r2 0007 0006 0007 0007
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0057lowastlowast
(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0040lowast -0036lowast
(0023) (0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0057lowastlowast -0056lowastlowast
(0023) (0022)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4409 4409 4409 4409r2 0001 0001 0001 0001
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel C in Table 4 replacing the net worth measure from the 2004wave with an identical measure from the 2011 wave of the WLS All estimation is performed with OLS with family clusteredstandard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 105 and 1 levels respectively
55
Appendix Table 15A Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 1992 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0243(0152)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0107 0039(0252) (0255)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0285lowast 0282lowast
(0158) (0160)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9849 9849 9849 9849
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0007(0091)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0210 -0216(0170) (0173)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0007 0024(0095) (0097)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9858 9858 9858 9858
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0255(0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0107 -0169(0328) (0338)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0237 0252(0193) (0198)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9845 9845 9845 9845
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
56
Appendix Table 15B Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2004 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0018(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0190 0207(0160) (0162)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0066 -0083(0102) (0104)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10672 10672 10672 10672
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0096 0108(0124) (0125)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0051 -0059(0076) (0077)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10619 10619 10619 10619
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0108(0110)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0064 0027(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0181 0179(0113) (0113)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10617 10617 10617 10617
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
57
Appendix Table 15C Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0099(0092)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0244 0242(0154) (0155)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0033 0016(0099) (0100)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0021(0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0095 0097(0138) (0139)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0004 -0011(0085) (0086)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0134(0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0203 0181(0175) (0176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0140 0127(0107) (0107)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8709 8709 8709 8709
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
58
- text 10818
- tables 10-8-18
-
23
Lin Ming-Jen and Elaine M Liu 2014 Does in utero exposure to illness matter The 1918 influenza epidemic in Taiwan as a natural experiment Journal of Health Economics 37 152-163
Lindeboom Maarten France Portrait and Gerard J Van den Berg 2010 Long-run effects on longevity of a nutritional shock early in life the Dutch Potato famine of 1846ndash1847 Journal of Health Economics 29(5) 617-629
Mamelund SE (2018) 1918 pandemic mobidity The first wave hits the poor the second wave hits the rich Influenza and Other Respitory Viruses 12(3) 307-313
Mazumder Bhashkar Douglas Almond Kyung Park Eileen M Crimmins and Caleb E Finch 2010 Lingering prenatal effects of the 1918 influenza pandemic on cardiovascular disease Journal of developmental origins of health and disease 1(1) 26-34
Miller Veronica Y Zhu C Bucher W McGinnis L Ryan A Siegel and S Zalcman 2013 Gestational flu exposure induces changes in neurochemicals affiliative hormones and brainstem inflammation in addition to autism-like behaviors in mice Brain Behavior and Immunity 33 153-163
Myrskylauml Mikko Neil K Mehta and Virginia W Chang 2013 Early life exposure to the 1918 influenza pandemic and old-age mortality by cause of death American Journal of Public Health 103(7) e83-e90
Olivetti C and Paserman MD (2015) In the name of the son (and the daughter) Intergenerational mobility in the United States 1850-1940 American Economic Review 105(8) 2695-2724
Pembrey Marcus E Lars Olov Bygren Gunnar Kaati Soumlren Edvinsson Kate Northstone Michael Sjoumlstroumlm and Jean Golding 2006 Sex-specific male-line transgenerational responses in humans European Journal of Human Genetics 14(2) 159-166
Richter Andreacute and Per Olof Robling 2013 Multigenerational effects of the 1918-19 influenza pandemic in Sweden Swedish Institute for Social Research 5
Shors Teri and Susan H McFadden 2009 1918 Influenza A Winnebago County Wisconsin Perspective Clinical Medicine amp Research 7(4) 147-156
Sydenstricker E (1931) The incidence of influenza among persons of different economic status during the epidemic of 1918 Public Health Reports 46(4) 154-170
van den Berg Gerard J and Pia R Pinger 2013 A validation study of transgenerational effects of childhood conditions on the third generation offsprings economic and health outcomes potentially driven by epigenetic imprinting IZA Discussion Paper
Tables and Figures
Table 1 Summary Statistics
Variable N Mean Std Deviation
First GenerartionFlu Indicators
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 8368 0112 0315Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 8456 0030 0170Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 8487 0093 0290
ControlsFirst Generation Malersquos Year of Birth 8456 1907435 7021First Generation Femalersquos Year of Birth 8427 1911189 6164
Dependent VariablesFirst Generation Malersquos Years of Schooling 8456 9778 3392First Generation Femalersquos Years of Schooing 8487 10499 2804First Generation Malersquos Job Prestige 8385 330662 214361First Generation Femalersquos Job Prestige 6683 12814 19934Family SES 8487 16231 11143
Second GenerationControls
Female Indicator 12459 0530 0499Birth Year 12459 1939406 4289Birth Order 12459 2529 1828
Dependent VariablesYears of Schooling 12459 13678 2361Family Income 1992 (in $1000s) 12112 68027 177105Net Worth 2004 (in $1000s) 10498 913046 2558927Self-reported health 1992 9888 4149 0668Height (inches) 9783 67406 3851BMI 1992 9671 26742 4657
Third GenerationControls
Birth Year 19913 1963901 3636Female Indicator 19913 0497 0500Birth Order 19913 2196 1263
Dependent VariableYears of Schooling 19913 14294 2309
Summary amp Notes This table provides summary statistics for all variables used The samples above may not berepresentative for all estimations For example the inclusion of siblings in the second generation increase the sample of parentalyear of birth and the corresponding flu indicator This increase in sample does not significantly change the sample statisticsabove Similar sample changes occur for the second generation controls above For the third generation the sample is restrictedto biological children over 35 years of age
24
Tab
le2
Fir
stG
ener
atio
n
Eco
nom
icE
ffec
ts
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
am
ily
SE
SY
ears
of
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
am
ily
SE
S(1
)(2
)(3
)(4
)(5
)(6
)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale)
-01
39
-01
16lowast
-12
90lowast
lowast
(02
00)
(00
60)
(05
99)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emal
e)-0
133
-00
66
-13
61lowastlowast
lowast
(00
95)
(00
43)
(03
76)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
YY
YY
YY
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8456
8385
8456
8487
6683
8487
RS
qr
00
32
00
08
00
23
00
13
00
04
00
13
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
pro
vid
esd
irec
teff
ects
of
inu
tero
an
dea
rly
life
exp
osu
reto
the
1918
Flu
Ep
idem
ic
Bir
thye
ar
tim
etr
end
sin
lcu
de
yea
rof
bir
than
dit
ssq
uar
ean
din
clu
sion
inth
ees
tim
atio
nis
par
ent
spec
ific
All
esti
mati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
an
dard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
alsi
gnifi
can
ceis
den
oted
by
an
d
re
pre
senti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vel
y
25
Tab
le3
Fir
stG
ener
atio
n
Mar
riag
eM
arke
tE
ffec
ts
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Flu
Bir
thY
ear
Yea
rsof
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
luB
irth
Yea
rY
ears
of
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
e(1
)(2
)(3
)(4
)(5
)(6
)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale)
01
40lowast
lowastlowast-0
259
-00
39
(00
34)
(01
58)
(00
72)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emal
e)0
056lowast
lowastlowast-0
340lowast
lowastlowast-0
118lowastlowast
lowast
(00
14)
(01
17)
(00
36)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
YY
YY
YY
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8348
8487
8412
8348
8456
6660
RS
qr
00
90
00
11
00
08
01
20
00
21
00
01
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
pro
vid
esev
iden
ceof
marr
iage
mark
etse
lect
ion
inth
efi
rst
gen
erati
on
B
irth
year
tim
etr
end
sin
clu
de
year
of
bir
than
dit
ssq
uare
and
incl
usi
onin
the
esti
mat
ion
isp
aren
tsp
ecifi
cA
lles
tim
ati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
an
dard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
sign
ifica
nce
isd
enot
edby
an
d
re
pre
senti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vely
26
Table 4 Second Generation Economic Effects
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Years of Schooling
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0209lowastlowastlowast
(0073)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0084 -0059(0129) (0129)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0211lowastlowastlowast -0209lowastlowastlowast
(0075) (0075)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0085 0084 0085 0085
Panel B ln Family Income 1992
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0221lowastlowast
(0111)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0098 -0066(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0262lowastlowast -0259lowastlowast
(0116) (0116)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112R Sqr 0021 0021 0021 0021
Panel C Std Net Worth 2004
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0026(0022)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0033 0038(0047) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0038lowast -0040lowast
(0021) (0021)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498R Sqr 0007 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table provides evidence of signficant harmful effects of flu exposure in the first generation on secondgeneration economic outcomes First generation time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents(ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and itssquare and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
27
Table 5 Second Generation Health Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Self-reported health (Likert 1=very poor 5=excellent)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0054lowastlowast
(0027)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0005(0047) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0061lowastlowast -0061lowastlowast
(0028) (0028)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Panel B Height (inches)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0101)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0102 0127(0168) (0168)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0169lowast -0175lowast
(0103) (0103)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783r2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Panel C BMI
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0412lowastlowast
(0191)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0082 0023(0344) (0346)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0422lowastlowast 0421lowastlowast
(0193) (0194)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table provides evidence of harmful effects of flu exposure in the first generation on secondgeneration health outcomes First generation time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents (iegen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and itssquare and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
28
Table 6 Generation Three Effects of Generation One Flu Exposure Years of Schooling
Dependent Variable Years of Schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0125(0077)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Male) -0007 0010(0136) (0136)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Female) -0144lowast -0144lowast
(0078) (0078)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913R Sqr 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table shows that the generational effects of flu exposure extend into the third generation of theWLS First generation flu exposure is shown to have a negative association with third generation years of schooling Firstgeneration time trends are year of birth measures for each parent and their square Second generation controls inlcude anindicator for sex second generation year of birth and its square and birth order Third generation controls include a sexindicator year of birth and its square and birth order Given the focus on years of schooling the sample is restricted to thosethird generation individuals 35 years of age and older or born during or before 1970 (data were collected in 2005) Allestimation is performed with OLS with family (second generation) clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
29
(a)
Fat
her
(b)
Moth
er
Fig
ure
1F
irst
Gen
erat
ion
Dis
trib
uti
onof
Yea
rof
Bir
th
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
figu
rep
lots
the
dis
trib
uti
on
for
firs
tgen
erati
on
year
of
bir
th
Flu
exp
osu
reis
class
ified
as
bei
ng
born
inei
ther
1918
or
1919
30
Appendix Tables
Appendix Table 1 First Generation Flu Exposure Effect on Family Income
Dependent Variable Family Income ($100s) 1957
(1) (2)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -3366(2592)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -5363lowastlowast
(2390)
Birth Year Time Trends Y YObservations 7440 7456R Sqr 0013 0004
Summary amp Notes This table replaces the index of socioeconomic status with family income (in $100s) in 1957 Allestimation is performed with OLS with robust standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
31
App
endix
Tab
le2
Mar
riag
eM
arke
tE
ffec
ts
Con
trol
ling
for
Ow
nY
ear
ofB
irth
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
Job
Pre
stig
eY
ears
of
Sch
Job
Pre
stig
e
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale
)-0
052
-211
82
-01
98
-03
74
(02
03)
(131
30)
(01
61)
(14
38)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emale
)-0
346lowast
lowastlowast-2
44
97lowastlowast
lowast-0
103
-13
88
(01
16)
(76
88)
(00
94)
(08
54)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
(Male
an
dF
emale
)Y
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8348
8279
8348
6587
RS
qr
00
40
00
22
00
25
00
04
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
re-e
stim
ates
Tab
le3
wh
ile
contr
oll
ing
for
year
of
bir
than
dfl
uin
dic
ato
rsass
oci
ate
dw
ith
the
spou
sein
the
dep
end
ent
vari
ab
le
All
esti
mat
ion
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
and
ard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
sign
ifica
nce
isd
enote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
atth
e10
5
and
1le
vel
sre
spec
tive
ly
32
Appendix Table 3 2nd Gen Economic Effects Controlling for 1st Gen Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Years of Schooling
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0088(0070)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0005 0008(0119) (0119)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0116 -0117(0072) (0072)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0206 0206 0206 0206
Panel B ln Family Income 1992
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0193lowast
(0111)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0080 -0050(0184) (0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0240lowastlowast -0238lowastlowast
(0116) (0116)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112R Sqr 0024 0024 0024 0024
Panel C Std Normal Net Worth 2004
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0003(0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0047 0049(0046) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0019 -0021(0020) (0020)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498R Sqr 0033 0033 0033 0033
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 4 while controlling for generation one economic outcomes fatherrsquos years ofschooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 First generation time trends are given by year of birth and itssquare for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex secondgeneration year of birth and its square and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standarderrors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and1 levels respectively 33
Appendix Table 4 2nd Gen Health Effects Controlling for 1st Gen Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A BMI
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0352lowast
(0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0051 -0001(0342) (0344)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0372lowast 0372lowast
(0192) (0193)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671R Sqr 0035 0035 0035 0035
Panel B Count of Illnesses
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0122lowast
(0065)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0076 -0096(0102) (0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0139lowastlowast 0144lowastlowast
(0067) (0068)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9921 9921 9921 9921R Sqr 0046 0046 0046 0046
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 5 while controlling for generation one economic outcomes fatherrsquos years ofschooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 First generation time trends are given by year of birth and itssquare for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex secondgeneration year of birth and its square and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standarderrors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and1 levels respectively
34
Appendix Table 5 Generation threersquos years of schooling Controlling for previous generation economicwell-being
Dependent Variable Years of Schooling for Gen 3(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A First Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0069(0076)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0022 0034(0133) (0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0102 -0104(0077) (0078)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913R Sqr 0117 0117 0117 0117
Panel B Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0025(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0008 0013(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0038 -0039(0073) (0073)
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0190 0190 0190 0190
Panel C First and Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0008(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0016 0019(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0028 -0029(0073) (0073)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0196 0196 0196 0196
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 6 while controlling for generation one and tworsquos economic outcomes Forgeneration one these include fatherrsquos years of schooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 generation twocontrols include the WLS graduatesiblingrsquos years of schooling family income in 1992 and net worth in 2004 First generationtime trends are year of birth measures for each parent and their square Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sexsecond generation year of birth and its square and birth order Third generation controls include a sex indicator year of birthand its square and birth order Given the focus on years of schooling the sample is restricted to those third generationindividuals 35 years of age and older or born during or before 1970 (data were collected in 2005) All estimation is performedwith OLS with family (second generation) clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denotedby and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
35
Appendix Table 6 Alternative measures of schooling in the second generation
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Indicator for any college (years of schooling gt12)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0044lowastlowastlowast
(0017)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0011 -0006(0029) (0029)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0044lowastlowast -0043lowastlowast
(0017) (0017)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0071 0070 0071 0071
Panel B Indicator for incomplete college (years of schooling gt12 amp lt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0008(0013)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 -0001(0022) (0022)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0008 -0008(0013) (0013)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0005 0005 0005 0005
Panel C Indicator for college graduate (years of schooling = 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0022lowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0003 0006(0020) (0020)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0021lowast -0021lowastlowast
(0011) (0011)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0019 0019 0019 0019
Panel D Indicator for post-college education (years of schooling gt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0014(0010)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0011(0018) (0018)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0014 -0014(0010) (0010)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0039 0039 0039 0039
Summary amp Notes This table replaces our continuous measure of years of schooling with specified dummy variables Firstgeneration time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Secondgeneration controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and its square and birth order All estimationis performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
36
Appendix Table 7 Young mothers Direct effect on Gen 1 Females
Dependent Variable Years of Sch Job Prestige Family SES
(1) (2) (3)
Ind for First Gen Female Flu Exposure (1918-1919) -0325lowastlowast -0841 -1749lowastlowastlowast
(0137) (1015) (0584)
Ind for mother born during 1920-1921 -0567lowastlowastlowast 0745 -1157(0206) (1515) (0914)
Ind for mother born during 1922-1923 -0666lowastlowast 0098 -2113(0330) (2210) (1298)
Ind for mother born after 1924 -0392 5682 0384(0486) (3705) (2126)
Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y
Observations 8487 6683 8487R Sqr 0014 0005 0014
Summary amp Notes This table includes indicators for alternative years of birth Younger mothers are shown to have lessyears of schooling All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
37
App
endix
Tab
le8
You
ng
mot
her
sG
ener
atio
n2
and
3eff
ects
Gen
2
Gen
3
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
ln
Fam
In
c
1992
Std
N
W
2004
Sel
f-re
p
hea
lth
Hei
ght
BM
IY
ears
of
Sch
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
emal
eF
luE
xp
osu
re(1
918-
1919
)-0
201lowastlowast
-02
95lowastlowast
-00
45
-00
73lowastlowast
-00
90
02
07
-00
86(0
092)
(01
32)
(00
32)
(00
32)
(01
22)
(02
25)
(00
94)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
20-1
921
-00
22
-00
40
-00
10
-00
61
01
33
-04
10
01
13
(01
37)
(01
74)
(00
51)
(00
43)
(01
80)
(03
11)
(01
41)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
22-1
923
-00
96
-01
88
-00
57
00
20
04
61
-11
29lowastlowast
01
55(0
184)
(03
20)
(00
61)
(00
75)
(02
83)
(04
51)
(02
23)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
afte
r19
2404
58
-01
87
00
01
-00
27
03
12
-08
85
03
99
(03
06)
(03
94)
(00
87)
(01
27)
(04
94)
(10
70)
(03
21)
Bas
eC
ontr
ols
YY
YY
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
12459
12112
10498
9888
9783
9671
19913
RS
qr
00
85
00
21
00
08
00
09
05
86
00
29
00
79
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
incl
ud
esin
dic
ator
sfo
ralt
ernati
ve
years
of
bir
th
Bei
ng
born
toa
you
nger
moth
ergen
erall
yis
not
ass
oci
ate
dw
ith
gen
erati
on
2or
3rsquos
outc
omes
ofin
tere
st
inst
ead
n
egat
ive
effec
tsar
eon
lyob
serv
edfo
rth
ose
born
du
rin
gth
efl
u
All
esti
mati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hfa
mil
y(2
nd
gen
erat
ion
)cl
ust
ered
stan
dar
der
rors
rep
orte
din
par
enth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
signifi
can
ceis
den
ote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vel
y
38
Appendix Table 9 Summary Statistics by Gen 2 Sex
Variable N Mean Std Deviation
FemaleYears of Schooling 6607 13352 2088ln Family Income (1992 wave) 6411 9424 3577
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5654 10686 1010Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 5612 -0047 0539Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 5313 4164 0670Height (inches) 5231 646635 247936BMI 5124 26073 5114
Gen 3Years of Schooling 11947 14240 2291
MaleYears of Schooling 5852 14047 2587ln Family Income (1992 wave) 5701 10139 3030
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5264 10981 0836Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 4886 0059 1159Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 4575 4133 0665Height (inches) 4554 7055484 25596BMI 4547 27496 3948
Gen 3Years of Schooling 8046 14371 2332
Appendix Table 10A Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0090(0086)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0198 0214(0169) (0169)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104 -0114(0087) (0087)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6607 6607 6607 6607R Sqr 0075 0075 0075 0075
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
39
Appendix Table 10B Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0523lowastlowastlowast
(0170)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0483 -0410(0321) (0323)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0512lowastlowastlowast -0491lowastlowastlowast
(0179) (0180)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6411 6411 6411 6411R Sqr 0015 0013 0014 0015
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10C Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0007(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0078lowast 0078(0048) (0048)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0008 0005(0025) (0025)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5612 5612 5612 5612R Sqr 0007 0007 0007 0007
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
40
Appendix Table 10D Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0027(0036)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 -0001(0071) (0071)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0022 -0022(0037) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5313 5313 5313 5313r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10E Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -2382(13366)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 44280lowastlowast 46351lowastlowast
(22343) (22480)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -12253 -14428(13485) (13561)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5231 5231 5231 5231r2 0015 0016 0015 0016
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
41
Appendix Table 10F Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0353(0286)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0105 0060(0514) (0516)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0326 0323(0289) (0290)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5124 5124 5124 5124R Sqr 0010 0010 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0087(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0104 -0101(0190) (0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0042 -0039(0098) (0098)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 11906 11906 11906 11906R Sqr 0086 0086 0086 0086
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
42
Appendix Table 11A Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0322lowastlowastlowast
(0116)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0369lowastlowast -0338lowast
(0181) (0180)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0309lowastlowastlowast -0297lowastlowast
(0119) (0119)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5852 5852 5852 5852R Sqr 0060 0059 0060 0060
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11B RResults by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0116(0138)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0262 0261(0200) (0199)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0024 0014(0141) (0140)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5701 5701 5701 5701R Sqr 0009 0009 0008 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
43
Appendix Table 11C Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0038)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0001(0081) (0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0094lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0035)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4886 4886 4886 4886R Sqr 0004 0004 0004 0004
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
44
Appendix Table 11D Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0083lowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 0012(0062) (0062)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104lowastlowastlowast -0105lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0041)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4575 4575 4575 4575r2 0010 0009 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11E Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -15122(14275)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -22991 -20537(23287) (23176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -18595 -17540(14734) (14751)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4554 4554 4554 4554r2 0011 0011 0011 0011
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
45
Appendix Table 11F Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0465lowast
(0238)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0079 0006(0403) (0405)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0520lowastlowast 0520lowastlowast
(0245) (0246)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4547 4547 4547 4547R Sqr 0006 0005 0006 0006
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0177(0123)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0098 0144(0194) (0192)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0293lowastlowast -0302lowastlowast
(0125) (0126)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8007 8007 8007 8007R Sqr 0067 0067 0068 0068
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
46
Appendix Table 12A Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0253lowastlowast
(0107)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0252 -0226(0170) (0172)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0263lowastlowast -0242lowastlowast
(0113) (0115)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0084(0120)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0341 0339(0216) (0219)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0096 0056(0130) (0132)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459r2 0085 0085 0085 0085
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
47
Appendix Table 12B Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0128)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0196 0169(0190) (0189)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0081 -0104(0135) (0135)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0383lowastlowast
(0189)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0594lowast -0474(0349) (0355)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0339lowast -0283(0204) (0207)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112r2 0021 0021 0021 0021
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
48
Appendix Table 12C Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0034)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0019(0077) (0079)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0095lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0030) (0031)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0071lowast
(0038)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0072 0039(0087) (0089)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0104lowastlowastlowast 0100lowastlowastlowast
(0035) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498r2 0008 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
49
Appendix Table 12D Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0071lowast
(0036)[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0012 0031
(0058) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0093lowastlowast -0097lowastlowast
(0039) (0039)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0030(0045)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0031 -0051(0087) (0088)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0059 0065(0048) (0049)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
50
Appendix Table 12E Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0129 -0125(0223) (0224)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0152 -0129(0141) (0142)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0000(0158)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0454 0495lowast
(0279) (0287)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0031 -0090(0170) (0175)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783nr2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
51
Appendix Table 12F Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0376(0231)
[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0059 -0122(0402) (0407)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0441lowast 0457lowast
(0240) (0243)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0068(0316)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0282 0288(0573) (0589)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0035 -0069(0340) (0350)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
52
Appendix Table 12G Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0131(0114)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male 0114 0175(0185) (0188)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0237lowastlowast -0261lowastlowast
(0118) (0121)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0009(0133)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0225 -0292(0249) (0254)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0152 0189(0141) (0145)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913r2 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
53
Appendix Table 13 Family Income 1992 excluding non-earners (ie fam inc = 0)
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992 wave (excluding those reporting 0)(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0095lowastlowastlowast
(0033)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0031 -0019(0053) (0053)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0101lowastlowastlowast -0100lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0034)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10918 10918 10918 10918r2 0050 0049 0050 0050
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0084lowast
(0050)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0019 -0007(0089) (0090)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0083 -0083(0053) (0054)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5654 5654 5654 5654r2 0026 0026 0026 0026
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102lowastlowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0051 -0040(0060) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0113lowastlowastlowast -0112lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0040)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5264 5264 5264 5264r2 0029 0028 0029 0029
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel B in Table 4 excluding those who report $0 for familyincome All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
54
Appendix Table 14 Net Worth 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable Std Net Worth 2011 Wave of WLS(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0032lowastlowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0023lowast -0021lowast
(0012) (0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0032lowastlowastlowast -0031lowastlowastlowast
(0010) (0010)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9435 9435 9435 9435r2 0002 0002 0002 0002
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0012lowast
(0006)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0009 -0008(0009) (0009)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0012lowastlowast -0011lowastlowast
(0006) (0006)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5026 5026 5026 5026r2 0007 0006 0007 0007
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0057lowastlowast
(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0040lowast -0036lowast
(0023) (0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0057lowastlowast -0056lowastlowast
(0023) (0022)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4409 4409 4409 4409r2 0001 0001 0001 0001
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel C in Table 4 replacing the net worth measure from the 2004wave with an identical measure from the 2011 wave of the WLS All estimation is performed with OLS with family clusteredstandard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 105 and 1 levels respectively
55
Appendix Table 15A Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 1992 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0243(0152)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0107 0039(0252) (0255)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0285lowast 0282lowast
(0158) (0160)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9849 9849 9849 9849
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0007(0091)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0210 -0216(0170) (0173)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0007 0024(0095) (0097)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9858 9858 9858 9858
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0255(0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0107 -0169(0328) (0338)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0237 0252(0193) (0198)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9845 9845 9845 9845
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
56
Appendix Table 15B Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2004 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0018(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0190 0207(0160) (0162)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0066 -0083(0102) (0104)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10672 10672 10672 10672
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0096 0108(0124) (0125)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0051 -0059(0076) (0077)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10619 10619 10619 10619
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0108(0110)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0064 0027(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0181 0179(0113) (0113)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10617 10617 10617 10617
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
57
Appendix Table 15C Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0099(0092)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0244 0242(0154) (0155)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0033 0016(0099) (0100)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0021(0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0095 0097(0138) (0139)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0004 -0011(0085) (0086)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0134(0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0203 0181(0175) (0176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0140 0127(0107) (0107)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8709 8709 8709 8709
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
58
- text 10818
- tables 10-8-18
-
Tables and Figures
Table 1 Summary Statistics
Variable N Mean Std Deviation
First GenerartionFlu Indicators
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 8368 0112 0315Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 8456 0030 0170Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 8487 0093 0290
ControlsFirst Generation Malersquos Year of Birth 8456 1907435 7021First Generation Femalersquos Year of Birth 8427 1911189 6164
Dependent VariablesFirst Generation Malersquos Years of Schooling 8456 9778 3392First Generation Femalersquos Years of Schooing 8487 10499 2804First Generation Malersquos Job Prestige 8385 330662 214361First Generation Femalersquos Job Prestige 6683 12814 19934Family SES 8487 16231 11143
Second GenerationControls
Female Indicator 12459 0530 0499Birth Year 12459 1939406 4289Birth Order 12459 2529 1828
Dependent VariablesYears of Schooling 12459 13678 2361Family Income 1992 (in $1000s) 12112 68027 177105Net Worth 2004 (in $1000s) 10498 913046 2558927Self-reported health 1992 9888 4149 0668Height (inches) 9783 67406 3851BMI 1992 9671 26742 4657
Third GenerationControls
Birth Year 19913 1963901 3636Female Indicator 19913 0497 0500Birth Order 19913 2196 1263
Dependent VariableYears of Schooling 19913 14294 2309
Summary amp Notes This table provides summary statistics for all variables used The samples above may not berepresentative for all estimations For example the inclusion of siblings in the second generation increase the sample of parentalyear of birth and the corresponding flu indicator This increase in sample does not significantly change the sample statisticsabove Similar sample changes occur for the second generation controls above For the third generation the sample is restrictedto biological children over 35 years of age
24
Tab
le2
Fir
stG
ener
atio
n
Eco
nom
icE
ffec
ts
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
am
ily
SE
SY
ears
of
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
am
ily
SE
S(1
)(2
)(3
)(4
)(5
)(6
)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale)
-01
39
-01
16lowast
-12
90lowast
lowast
(02
00)
(00
60)
(05
99)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emal
e)-0
133
-00
66
-13
61lowastlowast
lowast
(00
95)
(00
43)
(03
76)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
YY
YY
YY
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8456
8385
8456
8487
6683
8487
RS
qr
00
32
00
08
00
23
00
13
00
04
00
13
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
pro
vid
esd
irec
teff
ects
of
inu
tero
an
dea
rly
life
exp
osu
reto
the
1918
Flu
Ep
idem
ic
Bir
thye
ar
tim
etr
end
sin
lcu
de
yea
rof
bir
than
dit
ssq
uar
ean
din
clu
sion
inth
ees
tim
atio
nis
par
ent
spec
ific
All
esti
mati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
an
dard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
alsi
gnifi
can
ceis
den
oted
by
an
d
re
pre
senti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vel
y
25
Tab
le3
Fir
stG
ener
atio
n
Mar
riag
eM
arke
tE
ffec
ts
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Flu
Bir
thY
ear
Yea
rsof
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
luB
irth
Yea
rY
ears
of
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
e(1
)(2
)(3
)(4
)(5
)(6
)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale)
01
40lowast
lowastlowast-0
259
-00
39
(00
34)
(01
58)
(00
72)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emal
e)0
056lowast
lowastlowast-0
340lowast
lowastlowast-0
118lowastlowast
lowast
(00
14)
(01
17)
(00
36)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
YY
YY
YY
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8348
8487
8412
8348
8456
6660
RS
qr
00
90
00
11
00
08
01
20
00
21
00
01
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
pro
vid
esev
iden
ceof
marr
iage
mark
etse
lect
ion
inth
efi
rst
gen
erati
on
B
irth
year
tim
etr
end
sin
clu
de
year
of
bir
than
dit
ssq
uare
and
incl
usi
onin
the
esti
mat
ion
isp
aren
tsp
ecifi
cA
lles
tim
ati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
an
dard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
sign
ifica
nce
isd
enot
edby
an
d
re
pre
senti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vely
26
Table 4 Second Generation Economic Effects
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Years of Schooling
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0209lowastlowastlowast
(0073)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0084 -0059(0129) (0129)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0211lowastlowastlowast -0209lowastlowastlowast
(0075) (0075)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0085 0084 0085 0085
Panel B ln Family Income 1992
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0221lowastlowast
(0111)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0098 -0066(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0262lowastlowast -0259lowastlowast
(0116) (0116)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112R Sqr 0021 0021 0021 0021
Panel C Std Net Worth 2004
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0026(0022)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0033 0038(0047) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0038lowast -0040lowast
(0021) (0021)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498R Sqr 0007 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table provides evidence of signficant harmful effects of flu exposure in the first generation on secondgeneration economic outcomes First generation time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents(ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and itssquare and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
27
Table 5 Second Generation Health Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Self-reported health (Likert 1=very poor 5=excellent)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0054lowastlowast
(0027)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0005(0047) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0061lowastlowast -0061lowastlowast
(0028) (0028)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Panel B Height (inches)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0101)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0102 0127(0168) (0168)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0169lowast -0175lowast
(0103) (0103)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783r2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Panel C BMI
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0412lowastlowast
(0191)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0082 0023(0344) (0346)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0422lowastlowast 0421lowastlowast
(0193) (0194)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table provides evidence of harmful effects of flu exposure in the first generation on secondgeneration health outcomes First generation time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents (iegen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and itssquare and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
28
Table 6 Generation Three Effects of Generation One Flu Exposure Years of Schooling
Dependent Variable Years of Schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0125(0077)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Male) -0007 0010(0136) (0136)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Female) -0144lowast -0144lowast
(0078) (0078)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913R Sqr 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table shows that the generational effects of flu exposure extend into the third generation of theWLS First generation flu exposure is shown to have a negative association with third generation years of schooling Firstgeneration time trends are year of birth measures for each parent and their square Second generation controls inlcude anindicator for sex second generation year of birth and its square and birth order Third generation controls include a sexindicator year of birth and its square and birth order Given the focus on years of schooling the sample is restricted to thosethird generation individuals 35 years of age and older or born during or before 1970 (data were collected in 2005) Allestimation is performed with OLS with family (second generation) clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
29
(a)
Fat
her
(b)
Moth
er
Fig
ure
1F
irst
Gen
erat
ion
Dis
trib
uti
onof
Yea
rof
Bir
th
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
figu
rep
lots
the
dis
trib
uti
on
for
firs
tgen
erati
on
year
of
bir
th
Flu
exp
osu
reis
class
ified
as
bei
ng
born
inei
ther
1918
or
1919
30
Appendix Tables
Appendix Table 1 First Generation Flu Exposure Effect on Family Income
Dependent Variable Family Income ($100s) 1957
(1) (2)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -3366(2592)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -5363lowastlowast
(2390)
Birth Year Time Trends Y YObservations 7440 7456R Sqr 0013 0004
Summary amp Notes This table replaces the index of socioeconomic status with family income (in $100s) in 1957 Allestimation is performed with OLS with robust standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
31
App
endix
Tab
le2
Mar
riag
eM
arke
tE
ffec
ts
Con
trol
ling
for
Ow
nY
ear
ofB
irth
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
Job
Pre
stig
eY
ears
of
Sch
Job
Pre
stig
e
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale
)-0
052
-211
82
-01
98
-03
74
(02
03)
(131
30)
(01
61)
(14
38)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emale
)-0
346lowast
lowastlowast-2
44
97lowastlowast
lowast-0
103
-13
88
(01
16)
(76
88)
(00
94)
(08
54)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
(Male
an
dF
emale
)Y
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8348
8279
8348
6587
RS
qr
00
40
00
22
00
25
00
04
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
re-e
stim
ates
Tab
le3
wh
ile
contr
oll
ing
for
year
of
bir
than
dfl
uin
dic
ato
rsass
oci
ate
dw
ith
the
spou
sein
the
dep
end
ent
vari
ab
le
All
esti
mat
ion
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
and
ard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
sign
ifica
nce
isd
enote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
atth
e10
5
and
1le
vel
sre
spec
tive
ly
32
Appendix Table 3 2nd Gen Economic Effects Controlling for 1st Gen Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Years of Schooling
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0088(0070)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0005 0008(0119) (0119)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0116 -0117(0072) (0072)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0206 0206 0206 0206
Panel B ln Family Income 1992
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0193lowast
(0111)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0080 -0050(0184) (0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0240lowastlowast -0238lowastlowast
(0116) (0116)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112R Sqr 0024 0024 0024 0024
Panel C Std Normal Net Worth 2004
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0003(0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0047 0049(0046) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0019 -0021(0020) (0020)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498R Sqr 0033 0033 0033 0033
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 4 while controlling for generation one economic outcomes fatherrsquos years ofschooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 First generation time trends are given by year of birth and itssquare for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex secondgeneration year of birth and its square and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standarderrors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and1 levels respectively 33
Appendix Table 4 2nd Gen Health Effects Controlling for 1st Gen Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A BMI
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0352lowast
(0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0051 -0001(0342) (0344)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0372lowast 0372lowast
(0192) (0193)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671R Sqr 0035 0035 0035 0035
Panel B Count of Illnesses
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0122lowast
(0065)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0076 -0096(0102) (0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0139lowastlowast 0144lowastlowast
(0067) (0068)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9921 9921 9921 9921R Sqr 0046 0046 0046 0046
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 5 while controlling for generation one economic outcomes fatherrsquos years ofschooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 First generation time trends are given by year of birth and itssquare for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex secondgeneration year of birth and its square and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standarderrors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and1 levels respectively
34
Appendix Table 5 Generation threersquos years of schooling Controlling for previous generation economicwell-being
Dependent Variable Years of Schooling for Gen 3(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A First Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0069(0076)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0022 0034(0133) (0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0102 -0104(0077) (0078)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913R Sqr 0117 0117 0117 0117
Panel B Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0025(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0008 0013(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0038 -0039(0073) (0073)
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0190 0190 0190 0190
Panel C First and Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0008(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0016 0019(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0028 -0029(0073) (0073)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0196 0196 0196 0196
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 6 while controlling for generation one and tworsquos economic outcomes Forgeneration one these include fatherrsquos years of schooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 generation twocontrols include the WLS graduatesiblingrsquos years of schooling family income in 1992 and net worth in 2004 First generationtime trends are year of birth measures for each parent and their square Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sexsecond generation year of birth and its square and birth order Third generation controls include a sex indicator year of birthand its square and birth order Given the focus on years of schooling the sample is restricted to those third generationindividuals 35 years of age and older or born during or before 1970 (data were collected in 2005) All estimation is performedwith OLS with family (second generation) clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denotedby and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
35
Appendix Table 6 Alternative measures of schooling in the second generation
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Indicator for any college (years of schooling gt12)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0044lowastlowastlowast
(0017)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0011 -0006(0029) (0029)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0044lowastlowast -0043lowastlowast
(0017) (0017)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0071 0070 0071 0071
Panel B Indicator for incomplete college (years of schooling gt12 amp lt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0008(0013)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 -0001(0022) (0022)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0008 -0008(0013) (0013)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0005 0005 0005 0005
Panel C Indicator for college graduate (years of schooling = 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0022lowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0003 0006(0020) (0020)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0021lowast -0021lowastlowast
(0011) (0011)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0019 0019 0019 0019
Panel D Indicator for post-college education (years of schooling gt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0014(0010)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0011(0018) (0018)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0014 -0014(0010) (0010)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0039 0039 0039 0039
Summary amp Notes This table replaces our continuous measure of years of schooling with specified dummy variables Firstgeneration time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Secondgeneration controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and its square and birth order All estimationis performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
36
Appendix Table 7 Young mothers Direct effect on Gen 1 Females
Dependent Variable Years of Sch Job Prestige Family SES
(1) (2) (3)
Ind for First Gen Female Flu Exposure (1918-1919) -0325lowastlowast -0841 -1749lowastlowastlowast
(0137) (1015) (0584)
Ind for mother born during 1920-1921 -0567lowastlowastlowast 0745 -1157(0206) (1515) (0914)
Ind for mother born during 1922-1923 -0666lowastlowast 0098 -2113(0330) (2210) (1298)
Ind for mother born after 1924 -0392 5682 0384(0486) (3705) (2126)
Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y
Observations 8487 6683 8487R Sqr 0014 0005 0014
Summary amp Notes This table includes indicators for alternative years of birth Younger mothers are shown to have lessyears of schooling All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
37
App
endix
Tab
le8
You
ng
mot
her
sG
ener
atio
n2
and
3eff
ects
Gen
2
Gen
3
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
ln
Fam
In
c
1992
Std
N
W
2004
Sel
f-re
p
hea
lth
Hei
ght
BM
IY
ears
of
Sch
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
emal
eF
luE
xp
osu
re(1
918-
1919
)-0
201lowastlowast
-02
95lowastlowast
-00
45
-00
73lowastlowast
-00
90
02
07
-00
86(0
092)
(01
32)
(00
32)
(00
32)
(01
22)
(02
25)
(00
94)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
20-1
921
-00
22
-00
40
-00
10
-00
61
01
33
-04
10
01
13
(01
37)
(01
74)
(00
51)
(00
43)
(01
80)
(03
11)
(01
41)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
22-1
923
-00
96
-01
88
-00
57
00
20
04
61
-11
29lowastlowast
01
55(0
184)
(03
20)
(00
61)
(00
75)
(02
83)
(04
51)
(02
23)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
afte
r19
2404
58
-01
87
00
01
-00
27
03
12
-08
85
03
99
(03
06)
(03
94)
(00
87)
(01
27)
(04
94)
(10
70)
(03
21)
Bas
eC
ontr
ols
YY
YY
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
12459
12112
10498
9888
9783
9671
19913
RS
qr
00
85
00
21
00
08
00
09
05
86
00
29
00
79
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
incl
ud
esin
dic
ator
sfo
ralt
ernati
ve
years
of
bir
th
Bei
ng
born
toa
you
nger
moth
ergen
erall
yis
not
ass
oci
ate
dw
ith
gen
erati
on
2or
3rsquos
outc
omes
ofin
tere
st
inst
ead
n
egat
ive
effec
tsar
eon
lyob
serv
edfo
rth
ose
born
du
rin
gth
efl
u
All
esti
mati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hfa
mil
y(2
nd
gen
erat
ion
)cl
ust
ered
stan
dar
der
rors
rep
orte
din
par
enth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
signifi
can
ceis
den
ote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vel
y
38
Appendix Table 9 Summary Statistics by Gen 2 Sex
Variable N Mean Std Deviation
FemaleYears of Schooling 6607 13352 2088ln Family Income (1992 wave) 6411 9424 3577
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5654 10686 1010Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 5612 -0047 0539Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 5313 4164 0670Height (inches) 5231 646635 247936BMI 5124 26073 5114
Gen 3Years of Schooling 11947 14240 2291
MaleYears of Schooling 5852 14047 2587ln Family Income (1992 wave) 5701 10139 3030
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5264 10981 0836Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 4886 0059 1159Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 4575 4133 0665Height (inches) 4554 7055484 25596BMI 4547 27496 3948
Gen 3Years of Schooling 8046 14371 2332
Appendix Table 10A Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0090(0086)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0198 0214(0169) (0169)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104 -0114(0087) (0087)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6607 6607 6607 6607R Sqr 0075 0075 0075 0075
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
39
Appendix Table 10B Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0523lowastlowastlowast
(0170)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0483 -0410(0321) (0323)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0512lowastlowastlowast -0491lowastlowastlowast
(0179) (0180)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6411 6411 6411 6411R Sqr 0015 0013 0014 0015
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10C Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0007(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0078lowast 0078(0048) (0048)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0008 0005(0025) (0025)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5612 5612 5612 5612R Sqr 0007 0007 0007 0007
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
40
Appendix Table 10D Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0027(0036)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 -0001(0071) (0071)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0022 -0022(0037) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5313 5313 5313 5313r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10E Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -2382(13366)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 44280lowastlowast 46351lowastlowast
(22343) (22480)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -12253 -14428(13485) (13561)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5231 5231 5231 5231r2 0015 0016 0015 0016
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
41
Appendix Table 10F Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0353(0286)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0105 0060(0514) (0516)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0326 0323(0289) (0290)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5124 5124 5124 5124R Sqr 0010 0010 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0087(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0104 -0101(0190) (0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0042 -0039(0098) (0098)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 11906 11906 11906 11906R Sqr 0086 0086 0086 0086
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
42
Appendix Table 11A Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0322lowastlowastlowast
(0116)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0369lowastlowast -0338lowast
(0181) (0180)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0309lowastlowastlowast -0297lowastlowast
(0119) (0119)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5852 5852 5852 5852R Sqr 0060 0059 0060 0060
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11B RResults by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0116(0138)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0262 0261(0200) (0199)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0024 0014(0141) (0140)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5701 5701 5701 5701R Sqr 0009 0009 0008 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
43
Appendix Table 11C Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0038)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0001(0081) (0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0094lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0035)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4886 4886 4886 4886R Sqr 0004 0004 0004 0004
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
44
Appendix Table 11D Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0083lowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 0012(0062) (0062)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104lowastlowastlowast -0105lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0041)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4575 4575 4575 4575r2 0010 0009 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11E Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -15122(14275)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -22991 -20537(23287) (23176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -18595 -17540(14734) (14751)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4554 4554 4554 4554r2 0011 0011 0011 0011
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
45
Appendix Table 11F Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0465lowast
(0238)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0079 0006(0403) (0405)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0520lowastlowast 0520lowastlowast
(0245) (0246)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4547 4547 4547 4547R Sqr 0006 0005 0006 0006
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0177(0123)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0098 0144(0194) (0192)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0293lowastlowast -0302lowastlowast
(0125) (0126)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8007 8007 8007 8007R Sqr 0067 0067 0068 0068
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
46
Appendix Table 12A Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0253lowastlowast
(0107)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0252 -0226(0170) (0172)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0263lowastlowast -0242lowastlowast
(0113) (0115)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0084(0120)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0341 0339(0216) (0219)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0096 0056(0130) (0132)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459r2 0085 0085 0085 0085
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
47
Appendix Table 12B Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0128)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0196 0169(0190) (0189)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0081 -0104(0135) (0135)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0383lowastlowast
(0189)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0594lowast -0474(0349) (0355)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0339lowast -0283(0204) (0207)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112r2 0021 0021 0021 0021
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
48
Appendix Table 12C Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0034)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0019(0077) (0079)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0095lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0030) (0031)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0071lowast
(0038)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0072 0039(0087) (0089)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0104lowastlowastlowast 0100lowastlowastlowast
(0035) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498r2 0008 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
49
Appendix Table 12D Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0071lowast
(0036)[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0012 0031
(0058) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0093lowastlowast -0097lowastlowast
(0039) (0039)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0030(0045)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0031 -0051(0087) (0088)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0059 0065(0048) (0049)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
50
Appendix Table 12E Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0129 -0125(0223) (0224)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0152 -0129(0141) (0142)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0000(0158)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0454 0495lowast
(0279) (0287)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0031 -0090(0170) (0175)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783nr2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
51
Appendix Table 12F Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0376(0231)
[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0059 -0122(0402) (0407)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0441lowast 0457lowast
(0240) (0243)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0068(0316)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0282 0288(0573) (0589)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0035 -0069(0340) (0350)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
52
Appendix Table 12G Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0131(0114)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male 0114 0175(0185) (0188)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0237lowastlowast -0261lowastlowast
(0118) (0121)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0009(0133)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0225 -0292(0249) (0254)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0152 0189(0141) (0145)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913r2 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
53
Appendix Table 13 Family Income 1992 excluding non-earners (ie fam inc = 0)
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992 wave (excluding those reporting 0)(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0095lowastlowastlowast
(0033)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0031 -0019(0053) (0053)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0101lowastlowastlowast -0100lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0034)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10918 10918 10918 10918r2 0050 0049 0050 0050
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0084lowast
(0050)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0019 -0007(0089) (0090)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0083 -0083(0053) (0054)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5654 5654 5654 5654r2 0026 0026 0026 0026
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102lowastlowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0051 -0040(0060) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0113lowastlowastlowast -0112lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0040)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5264 5264 5264 5264r2 0029 0028 0029 0029
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel B in Table 4 excluding those who report $0 for familyincome All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
54
Appendix Table 14 Net Worth 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable Std Net Worth 2011 Wave of WLS(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0032lowastlowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0023lowast -0021lowast
(0012) (0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0032lowastlowastlowast -0031lowastlowastlowast
(0010) (0010)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9435 9435 9435 9435r2 0002 0002 0002 0002
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0012lowast
(0006)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0009 -0008(0009) (0009)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0012lowastlowast -0011lowastlowast
(0006) (0006)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5026 5026 5026 5026r2 0007 0006 0007 0007
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0057lowastlowast
(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0040lowast -0036lowast
(0023) (0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0057lowastlowast -0056lowastlowast
(0023) (0022)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4409 4409 4409 4409r2 0001 0001 0001 0001
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel C in Table 4 replacing the net worth measure from the 2004wave with an identical measure from the 2011 wave of the WLS All estimation is performed with OLS with family clusteredstandard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 105 and 1 levels respectively
55
Appendix Table 15A Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 1992 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0243(0152)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0107 0039(0252) (0255)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0285lowast 0282lowast
(0158) (0160)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9849 9849 9849 9849
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0007(0091)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0210 -0216(0170) (0173)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0007 0024(0095) (0097)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9858 9858 9858 9858
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0255(0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0107 -0169(0328) (0338)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0237 0252(0193) (0198)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9845 9845 9845 9845
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
56
Appendix Table 15B Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2004 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0018(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0190 0207(0160) (0162)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0066 -0083(0102) (0104)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10672 10672 10672 10672
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0096 0108(0124) (0125)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0051 -0059(0076) (0077)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10619 10619 10619 10619
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0108(0110)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0064 0027(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0181 0179(0113) (0113)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10617 10617 10617 10617
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
57
Appendix Table 15C Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0099(0092)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0244 0242(0154) (0155)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0033 0016(0099) (0100)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0021(0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0095 0097(0138) (0139)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0004 -0011(0085) (0086)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0134(0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0203 0181(0175) (0176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0140 0127(0107) (0107)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8709 8709 8709 8709
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
58
- text 10818
- tables 10-8-18
-
Tab
le2
Fir
stG
ener
atio
n
Eco
nom
icE
ffec
ts
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
am
ily
SE
SY
ears
of
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
am
ily
SE
S(1
)(2
)(3
)(4
)(5
)(6
)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale)
-01
39
-01
16lowast
-12
90lowast
lowast
(02
00)
(00
60)
(05
99)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emal
e)-0
133
-00
66
-13
61lowastlowast
lowast
(00
95)
(00
43)
(03
76)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
YY
YY
YY
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8456
8385
8456
8487
6683
8487
RS
qr
00
32
00
08
00
23
00
13
00
04
00
13
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
pro
vid
esd
irec
teff
ects
of
inu
tero
an
dea
rly
life
exp
osu
reto
the
1918
Flu
Ep
idem
ic
Bir
thye
ar
tim
etr
end
sin
lcu
de
yea
rof
bir
than
dit
ssq
uar
ean
din
clu
sion
inth
ees
tim
atio
nis
par
ent
spec
ific
All
esti
mati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
an
dard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
alsi
gnifi
can
ceis
den
oted
by
an
d
re
pre
senti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vel
y
25
Tab
le3
Fir
stG
ener
atio
n
Mar
riag
eM
arke
tE
ffec
ts
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Flu
Bir
thY
ear
Yea
rsof
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
luB
irth
Yea
rY
ears
of
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
e(1
)(2
)(3
)(4
)(5
)(6
)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale)
01
40lowast
lowastlowast-0
259
-00
39
(00
34)
(01
58)
(00
72)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emal
e)0
056lowast
lowastlowast-0
340lowast
lowastlowast-0
118lowastlowast
lowast
(00
14)
(01
17)
(00
36)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
YY
YY
YY
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8348
8487
8412
8348
8456
6660
RS
qr
00
90
00
11
00
08
01
20
00
21
00
01
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
pro
vid
esev
iden
ceof
marr
iage
mark
etse
lect
ion
inth
efi
rst
gen
erati
on
B
irth
year
tim
etr
end
sin
clu
de
year
of
bir
than
dit
ssq
uare
and
incl
usi
onin
the
esti
mat
ion
isp
aren
tsp
ecifi
cA
lles
tim
ati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
an
dard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
sign
ifica
nce
isd
enot
edby
an
d
re
pre
senti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vely
26
Table 4 Second Generation Economic Effects
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Years of Schooling
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0209lowastlowastlowast
(0073)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0084 -0059(0129) (0129)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0211lowastlowastlowast -0209lowastlowastlowast
(0075) (0075)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0085 0084 0085 0085
Panel B ln Family Income 1992
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0221lowastlowast
(0111)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0098 -0066(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0262lowastlowast -0259lowastlowast
(0116) (0116)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112R Sqr 0021 0021 0021 0021
Panel C Std Net Worth 2004
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0026(0022)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0033 0038(0047) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0038lowast -0040lowast
(0021) (0021)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498R Sqr 0007 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table provides evidence of signficant harmful effects of flu exposure in the first generation on secondgeneration economic outcomes First generation time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents(ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and itssquare and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
27
Table 5 Second Generation Health Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Self-reported health (Likert 1=very poor 5=excellent)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0054lowastlowast
(0027)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0005(0047) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0061lowastlowast -0061lowastlowast
(0028) (0028)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Panel B Height (inches)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0101)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0102 0127(0168) (0168)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0169lowast -0175lowast
(0103) (0103)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783r2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Panel C BMI
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0412lowastlowast
(0191)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0082 0023(0344) (0346)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0422lowastlowast 0421lowastlowast
(0193) (0194)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table provides evidence of harmful effects of flu exposure in the first generation on secondgeneration health outcomes First generation time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents (iegen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and itssquare and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
28
Table 6 Generation Three Effects of Generation One Flu Exposure Years of Schooling
Dependent Variable Years of Schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0125(0077)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Male) -0007 0010(0136) (0136)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Female) -0144lowast -0144lowast
(0078) (0078)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913R Sqr 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table shows that the generational effects of flu exposure extend into the third generation of theWLS First generation flu exposure is shown to have a negative association with third generation years of schooling Firstgeneration time trends are year of birth measures for each parent and their square Second generation controls inlcude anindicator for sex second generation year of birth and its square and birth order Third generation controls include a sexindicator year of birth and its square and birth order Given the focus on years of schooling the sample is restricted to thosethird generation individuals 35 years of age and older or born during or before 1970 (data were collected in 2005) Allestimation is performed with OLS with family (second generation) clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
29
(a)
Fat
her
(b)
Moth
er
Fig
ure
1F
irst
Gen
erat
ion
Dis
trib
uti
onof
Yea
rof
Bir
th
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
figu
rep
lots
the
dis
trib
uti
on
for
firs
tgen
erati
on
year
of
bir
th
Flu
exp
osu
reis
class
ified
as
bei
ng
born
inei
ther
1918
or
1919
30
Appendix Tables
Appendix Table 1 First Generation Flu Exposure Effect on Family Income
Dependent Variable Family Income ($100s) 1957
(1) (2)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -3366(2592)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -5363lowastlowast
(2390)
Birth Year Time Trends Y YObservations 7440 7456R Sqr 0013 0004
Summary amp Notes This table replaces the index of socioeconomic status with family income (in $100s) in 1957 Allestimation is performed with OLS with robust standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
31
App
endix
Tab
le2
Mar
riag
eM
arke
tE
ffec
ts
Con
trol
ling
for
Ow
nY
ear
ofB
irth
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
Job
Pre
stig
eY
ears
of
Sch
Job
Pre
stig
e
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale
)-0
052
-211
82
-01
98
-03
74
(02
03)
(131
30)
(01
61)
(14
38)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emale
)-0
346lowast
lowastlowast-2
44
97lowastlowast
lowast-0
103
-13
88
(01
16)
(76
88)
(00
94)
(08
54)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
(Male
an
dF
emale
)Y
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8348
8279
8348
6587
RS
qr
00
40
00
22
00
25
00
04
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
re-e
stim
ates
Tab
le3
wh
ile
contr
oll
ing
for
year
of
bir
than
dfl
uin
dic
ato
rsass
oci
ate
dw
ith
the
spou
sein
the
dep
end
ent
vari
ab
le
All
esti
mat
ion
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
and
ard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
sign
ifica
nce
isd
enote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
atth
e10
5
and
1le
vel
sre
spec
tive
ly
32
Appendix Table 3 2nd Gen Economic Effects Controlling for 1st Gen Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Years of Schooling
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0088(0070)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0005 0008(0119) (0119)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0116 -0117(0072) (0072)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0206 0206 0206 0206
Panel B ln Family Income 1992
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0193lowast
(0111)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0080 -0050(0184) (0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0240lowastlowast -0238lowastlowast
(0116) (0116)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112R Sqr 0024 0024 0024 0024
Panel C Std Normal Net Worth 2004
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0003(0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0047 0049(0046) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0019 -0021(0020) (0020)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498R Sqr 0033 0033 0033 0033
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 4 while controlling for generation one economic outcomes fatherrsquos years ofschooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 First generation time trends are given by year of birth and itssquare for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex secondgeneration year of birth and its square and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standarderrors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and1 levels respectively 33
Appendix Table 4 2nd Gen Health Effects Controlling for 1st Gen Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A BMI
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0352lowast
(0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0051 -0001(0342) (0344)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0372lowast 0372lowast
(0192) (0193)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671R Sqr 0035 0035 0035 0035
Panel B Count of Illnesses
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0122lowast
(0065)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0076 -0096(0102) (0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0139lowastlowast 0144lowastlowast
(0067) (0068)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9921 9921 9921 9921R Sqr 0046 0046 0046 0046
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 5 while controlling for generation one economic outcomes fatherrsquos years ofschooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 First generation time trends are given by year of birth and itssquare for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex secondgeneration year of birth and its square and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standarderrors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and1 levels respectively
34
Appendix Table 5 Generation threersquos years of schooling Controlling for previous generation economicwell-being
Dependent Variable Years of Schooling for Gen 3(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A First Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0069(0076)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0022 0034(0133) (0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0102 -0104(0077) (0078)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913R Sqr 0117 0117 0117 0117
Panel B Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0025(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0008 0013(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0038 -0039(0073) (0073)
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0190 0190 0190 0190
Panel C First and Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0008(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0016 0019(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0028 -0029(0073) (0073)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0196 0196 0196 0196
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 6 while controlling for generation one and tworsquos economic outcomes Forgeneration one these include fatherrsquos years of schooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 generation twocontrols include the WLS graduatesiblingrsquos years of schooling family income in 1992 and net worth in 2004 First generationtime trends are year of birth measures for each parent and their square Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sexsecond generation year of birth and its square and birth order Third generation controls include a sex indicator year of birthand its square and birth order Given the focus on years of schooling the sample is restricted to those third generationindividuals 35 years of age and older or born during or before 1970 (data were collected in 2005) All estimation is performedwith OLS with family (second generation) clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denotedby and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
35
Appendix Table 6 Alternative measures of schooling in the second generation
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Indicator for any college (years of schooling gt12)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0044lowastlowastlowast
(0017)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0011 -0006(0029) (0029)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0044lowastlowast -0043lowastlowast
(0017) (0017)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0071 0070 0071 0071
Panel B Indicator for incomplete college (years of schooling gt12 amp lt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0008(0013)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 -0001(0022) (0022)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0008 -0008(0013) (0013)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0005 0005 0005 0005
Panel C Indicator for college graduate (years of schooling = 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0022lowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0003 0006(0020) (0020)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0021lowast -0021lowastlowast
(0011) (0011)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0019 0019 0019 0019
Panel D Indicator for post-college education (years of schooling gt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0014(0010)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0011(0018) (0018)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0014 -0014(0010) (0010)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0039 0039 0039 0039
Summary amp Notes This table replaces our continuous measure of years of schooling with specified dummy variables Firstgeneration time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Secondgeneration controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and its square and birth order All estimationis performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
36
Appendix Table 7 Young mothers Direct effect on Gen 1 Females
Dependent Variable Years of Sch Job Prestige Family SES
(1) (2) (3)
Ind for First Gen Female Flu Exposure (1918-1919) -0325lowastlowast -0841 -1749lowastlowastlowast
(0137) (1015) (0584)
Ind for mother born during 1920-1921 -0567lowastlowastlowast 0745 -1157(0206) (1515) (0914)
Ind for mother born during 1922-1923 -0666lowastlowast 0098 -2113(0330) (2210) (1298)
Ind for mother born after 1924 -0392 5682 0384(0486) (3705) (2126)
Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y
Observations 8487 6683 8487R Sqr 0014 0005 0014
Summary amp Notes This table includes indicators for alternative years of birth Younger mothers are shown to have lessyears of schooling All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
37
App
endix
Tab
le8
You
ng
mot
her
sG
ener
atio
n2
and
3eff
ects
Gen
2
Gen
3
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
ln
Fam
In
c
1992
Std
N
W
2004
Sel
f-re
p
hea
lth
Hei
ght
BM
IY
ears
of
Sch
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
emal
eF
luE
xp
osu
re(1
918-
1919
)-0
201lowastlowast
-02
95lowastlowast
-00
45
-00
73lowastlowast
-00
90
02
07
-00
86(0
092)
(01
32)
(00
32)
(00
32)
(01
22)
(02
25)
(00
94)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
20-1
921
-00
22
-00
40
-00
10
-00
61
01
33
-04
10
01
13
(01
37)
(01
74)
(00
51)
(00
43)
(01
80)
(03
11)
(01
41)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
22-1
923
-00
96
-01
88
-00
57
00
20
04
61
-11
29lowastlowast
01
55(0
184)
(03
20)
(00
61)
(00
75)
(02
83)
(04
51)
(02
23)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
afte
r19
2404
58
-01
87
00
01
-00
27
03
12
-08
85
03
99
(03
06)
(03
94)
(00
87)
(01
27)
(04
94)
(10
70)
(03
21)
Bas
eC
ontr
ols
YY
YY
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
12459
12112
10498
9888
9783
9671
19913
RS
qr
00
85
00
21
00
08
00
09
05
86
00
29
00
79
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
incl
ud
esin
dic
ator
sfo
ralt
ernati
ve
years
of
bir
th
Bei
ng
born
toa
you
nger
moth
ergen
erall
yis
not
ass
oci
ate
dw
ith
gen
erati
on
2or
3rsquos
outc
omes
ofin
tere
st
inst
ead
n
egat
ive
effec
tsar
eon
lyob
serv
edfo
rth
ose
born
du
rin
gth
efl
u
All
esti
mati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hfa
mil
y(2
nd
gen
erat
ion
)cl
ust
ered
stan
dar
der
rors
rep
orte
din
par
enth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
signifi
can
ceis
den
ote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vel
y
38
Appendix Table 9 Summary Statistics by Gen 2 Sex
Variable N Mean Std Deviation
FemaleYears of Schooling 6607 13352 2088ln Family Income (1992 wave) 6411 9424 3577
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5654 10686 1010Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 5612 -0047 0539Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 5313 4164 0670Height (inches) 5231 646635 247936BMI 5124 26073 5114
Gen 3Years of Schooling 11947 14240 2291
MaleYears of Schooling 5852 14047 2587ln Family Income (1992 wave) 5701 10139 3030
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5264 10981 0836Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 4886 0059 1159Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 4575 4133 0665Height (inches) 4554 7055484 25596BMI 4547 27496 3948
Gen 3Years of Schooling 8046 14371 2332
Appendix Table 10A Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0090(0086)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0198 0214(0169) (0169)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104 -0114(0087) (0087)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6607 6607 6607 6607R Sqr 0075 0075 0075 0075
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
39
Appendix Table 10B Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0523lowastlowastlowast
(0170)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0483 -0410(0321) (0323)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0512lowastlowastlowast -0491lowastlowastlowast
(0179) (0180)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6411 6411 6411 6411R Sqr 0015 0013 0014 0015
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10C Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0007(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0078lowast 0078(0048) (0048)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0008 0005(0025) (0025)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5612 5612 5612 5612R Sqr 0007 0007 0007 0007
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
40
Appendix Table 10D Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0027(0036)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 -0001(0071) (0071)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0022 -0022(0037) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5313 5313 5313 5313r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10E Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -2382(13366)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 44280lowastlowast 46351lowastlowast
(22343) (22480)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -12253 -14428(13485) (13561)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5231 5231 5231 5231r2 0015 0016 0015 0016
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
41
Appendix Table 10F Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0353(0286)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0105 0060(0514) (0516)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0326 0323(0289) (0290)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5124 5124 5124 5124R Sqr 0010 0010 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0087(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0104 -0101(0190) (0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0042 -0039(0098) (0098)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 11906 11906 11906 11906R Sqr 0086 0086 0086 0086
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
42
Appendix Table 11A Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0322lowastlowastlowast
(0116)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0369lowastlowast -0338lowast
(0181) (0180)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0309lowastlowastlowast -0297lowastlowast
(0119) (0119)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5852 5852 5852 5852R Sqr 0060 0059 0060 0060
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11B RResults by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0116(0138)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0262 0261(0200) (0199)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0024 0014(0141) (0140)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5701 5701 5701 5701R Sqr 0009 0009 0008 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
43
Appendix Table 11C Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0038)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0001(0081) (0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0094lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0035)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4886 4886 4886 4886R Sqr 0004 0004 0004 0004
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
44
Appendix Table 11D Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0083lowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 0012(0062) (0062)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104lowastlowastlowast -0105lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0041)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4575 4575 4575 4575r2 0010 0009 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11E Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -15122(14275)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -22991 -20537(23287) (23176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -18595 -17540(14734) (14751)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4554 4554 4554 4554r2 0011 0011 0011 0011
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
45
Appendix Table 11F Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0465lowast
(0238)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0079 0006(0403) (0405)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0520lowastlowast 0520lowastlowast
(0245) (0246)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4547 4547 4547 4547R Sqr 0006 0005 0006 0006
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0177(0123)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0098 0144(0194) (0192)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0293lowastlowast -0302lowastlowast
(0125) (0126)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8007 8007 8007 8007R Sqr 0067 0067 0068 0068
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
46
Appendix Table 12A Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0253lowastlowast
(0107)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0252 -0226(0170) (0172)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0263lowastlowast -0242lowastlowast
(0113) (0115)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0084(0120)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0341 0339(0216) (0219)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0096 0056(0130) (0132)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459r2 0085 0085 0085 0085
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
47
Appendix Table 12B Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0128)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0196 0169(0190) (0189)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0081 -0104(0135) (0135)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0383lowastlowast
(0189)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0594lowast -0474(0349) (0355)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0339lowast -0283(0204) (0207)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112r2 0021 0021 0021 0021
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
48
Appendix Table 12C Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0034)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0019(0077) (0079)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0095lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0030) (0031)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0071lowast
(0038)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0072 0039(0087) (0089)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0104lowastlowastlowast 0100lowastlowastlowast
(0035) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498r2 0008 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
49
Appendix Table 12D Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0071lowast
(0036)[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0012 0031
(0058) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0093lowastlowast -0097lowastlowast
(0039) (0039)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0030(0045)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0031 -0051(0087) (0088)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0059 0065(0048) (0049)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
50
Appendix Table 12E Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0129 -0125(0223) (0224)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0152 -0129(0141) (0142)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0000(0158)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0454 0495lowast
(0279) (0287)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0031 -0090(0170) (0175)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783nr2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
51
Appendix Table 12F Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0376(0231)
[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0059 -0122(0402) (0407)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0441lowast 0457lowast
(0240) (0243)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0068(0316)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0282 0288(0573) (0589)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0035 -0069(0340) (0350)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
52
Appendix Table 12G Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0131(0114)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male 0114 0175(0185) (0188)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0237lowastlowast -0261lowastlowast
(0118) (0121)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0009(0133)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0225 -0292(0249) (0254)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0152 0189(0141) (0145)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913r2 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
53
Appendix Table 13 Family Income 1992 excluding non-earners (ie fam inc = 0)
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992 wave (excluding those reporting 0)(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0095lowastlowastlowast
(0033)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0031 -0019(0053) (0053)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0101lowastlowastlowast -0100lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0034)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10918 10918 10918 10918r2 0050 0049 0050 0050
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0084lowast
(0050)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0019 -0007(0089) (0090)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0083 -0083(0053) (0054)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5654 5654 5654 5654r2 0026 0026 0026 0026
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102lowastlowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0051 -0040(0060) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0113lowastlowastlowast -0112lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0040)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5264 5264 5264 5264r2 0029 0028 0029 0029
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel B in Table 4 excluding those who report $0 for familyincome All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
54
Appendix Table 14 Net Worth 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable Std Net Worth 2011 Wave of WLS(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0032lowastlowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0023lowast -0021lowast
(0012) (0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0032lowastlowastlowast -0031lowastlowastlowast
(0010) (0010)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9435 9435 9435 9435r2 0002 0002 0002 0002
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0012lowast
(0006)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0009 -0008(0009) (0009)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0012lowastlowast -0011lowastlowast
(0006) (0006)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5026 5026 5026 5026r2 0007 0006 0007 0007
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0057lowastlowast
(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0040lowast -0036lowast
(0023) (0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0057lowastlowast -0056lowastlowast
(0023) (0022)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4409 4409 4409 4409r2 0001 0001 0001 0001
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel C in Table 4 replacing the net worth measure from the 2004wave with an identical measure from the 2011 wave of the WLS All estimation is performed with OLS with family clusteredstandard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 105 and 1 levels respectively
55
Appendix Table 15A Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 1992 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0243(0152)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0107 0039(0252) (0255)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0285lowast 0282lowast
(0158) (0160)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9849 9849 9849 9849
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0007(0091)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0210 -0216(0170) (0173)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0007 0024(0095) (0097)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9858 9858 9858 9858
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0255(0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0107 -0169(0328) (0338)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0237 0252(0193) (0198)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9845 9845 9845 9845
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
56
Appendix Table 15B Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2004 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0018(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0190 0207(0160) (0162)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0066 -0083(0102) (0104)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10672 10672 10672 10672
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0096 0108(0124) (0125)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0051 -0059(0076) (0077)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10619 10619 10619 10619
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0108(0110)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0064 0027(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0181 0179(0113) (0113)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10617 10617 10617 10617
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
57
Appendix Table 15C Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0099(0092)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0244 0242(0154) (0155)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0033 0016(0099) (0100)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0021(0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0095 0097(0138) (0139)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0004 -0011(0085) (0086)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0134(0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0203 0181(0175) (0176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0140 0127(0107) (0107)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8709 8709 8709 8709
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
58
- text 10818
- tables 10-8-18
-
Tab
le3
Fir
stG
ener
atio
n
Mar
riag
eM
arke
tE
ffec
ts
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Flu
Bir
thY
ear
Yea
rsof
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
eF
luB
irth
Yea
rY
ears
of
Sch
S
td
Job
Pre
stig
e(1
)(2
)(3
)(4
)(5
)(6
)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale)
01
40lowast
lowastlowast-0
259
-00
39
(00
34)
(01
58)
(00
72)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emal
e)0
056lowast
lowastlowast-0
340lowast
lowastlowast-0
118lowastlowast
lowast
(00
14)
(01
17)
(00
36)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
YY
YY
YY
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8348
8487
8412
8348
8456
6660
RS
qr
00
90
00
11
00
08
01
20
00
21
00
01
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
pro
vid
esev
iden
ceof
marr
iage
mark
etse
lect
ion
inth
efi
rst
gen
erati
on
B
irth
year
tim
etr
end
sin
clu
de
year
of
bir
than
dit
ssq
uare
and
incl
usi
onin
the
esti
mat
ion
isp
aren
tsp
ecifi
cA
lles
tim
ati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
an
dard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
sign
ifica
nce
isd
enot
edby
an
d
re
pre
senti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vely
26
Table 4 Second Generation Economic Effects
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Years of Schooling
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0209lowastlowastlowast
(0073)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0084 -0059(0129) (0129)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0211lowastlowastlowast -0209lowastlowastlowast
(0075) (0075)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0085 0084 0085 0085
Panel B ln Family Income 1992
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0221lowastlowast
(0111)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0098 -0066(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0262lowastlowast -0259lowastlowast
(0116) (0116)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112R Sqr 0021 0021 0021 0021
Panel C Std Net Worth 2004
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0026(0022)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0033 0038(0047) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0038lowast -0040lowast
(0021) (0021)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498R Sqr 0007 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table provides evidence of signficant harmful effects of flu exposure in the first generation on secondgeneration economic outcomes First generation time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents(ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and itssquare and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
27
Table 5 Second Generation Health Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Self-reported health (Likert 1=very poor 5=excellent)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0054lowastlowast
(0027)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0005(0047) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0061lowastlowast -0061lowastlowast
(0028) (0028)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Panel B Height (inches)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0101)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0102 0127(0168) (0168)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0169lowast -0175lowast
(0103) (0103)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783r2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Panel C BMI
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0412lowastlowast
(0191)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0082 0023(0344) (0346)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0422lowastlowast 0421lowastlowast
(0193) (0194)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table provides evidence of harmful effects of flu exposure in the first generation on secondgeneration health outcomes First generation time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents (iegen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and itssquare and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
28
Table 6 Generation Three Effects of Generation One Flu Exposure Years of Schooling
Dependent Variable Years of Schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0125(0077)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Male) -0007 0010(0136) (0136)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Female) -0144lowast -0144lowast
(0078) (0078)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913R Sqr 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table shows that the generational effects of flu exposure extend into the third generation of theWLS First generation flu exposure is shown to have a negative association with third generation years of schooling Firstgeneration time trends are year of birth measures for each parent and their square Second generation controls inlcude anindicator for sex second generation year of birth and its square and birth order Third generation controls include a sexindicator year of birth and its square and birth order Given the focus on years of schooling the sample is restricted to thosethird generation individuals 35 years of age and older or born during or before 1970 (data were collected in 2005) Allestimation is performed with OLS with family (second generation) clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
29
(a)
Fat
her
(b)
Moth
er
Fig
ure
1F
irst
Gen
erat
ion
Dis
trib
uti
onof
Yea
rof
Bir
th
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
figu
rep
lots
the
dis
trib
uti
on
for
firs
tgen
erati
on
year
of
bir
th
Flu
exp
osu
reis
class
ified
as
bei
ng
born
inei
ther
1918
or
1919
30
Appendix Tables
Appendix Table 1 First Generation Flu Exposure Effect on Family Income
Dependent Variable Family Income ($100s) 1957
(1) (2)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -3366(2592)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -5363lowastlowast
(2390)
Birth Year Time Trends Y YObservations 7440 7456R Sqr 0013 0004
Summary amp Notes This table replaces the index of socioeconomic status with family income (in $100s) in 1957 Allestimation is performed with OLS with robust standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
31
App
endix
Tab
le2
Mar
riag
eM
arke
tE
ffec
ts
Con
trol
ling
for
Ow
nY
ear
ofB
irth
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
Job
Pre
stig
eY
ears
of
Sch
Job
Pre
stig
e
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale
)-0
052
-211
82
-01
98
-03
74
(02
03)
(131
30)
(01
61)
(14
38)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emale
)-0
346lowast
lowastlowast-2
44
97lowastlowast
lowast-0
103
-13
88
(01
16)
(76
88)
(00
94)
(08
54)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
(Male
an
dF
emale
)Y
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8348
8279
8348
6587
RS
qr
00
40
00
22
00
25
00
04
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
re-e
stim
ates
Tab
le3
wh
ile
contr
oll
ing
for
year
of
bir
than
dfl
uin
dic
ato
rsass
oci
ate
dw
ith
the
spou
sein
the
dep
end
ent
vari
ab
le
All
esti
mat
ion
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
and
ard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
sign
ifica
nce
isd
enote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
atth
e10
5
and
1le
vel
sre
spec
tive
ly
32
Appendix Table 3 2nd Gen Economic Effects Controlling for 1st Gen Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Years of Schooling
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0088(0070)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0005 0008(0119) (0119)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0116 -0117(0072) (0072)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0206 0206 0206 0206
Panel B ln Family Income 1992
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0193lowast
(0111)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0080 -0050(0184) (0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0240lowastlowast -0238lowastlowast
(0116) (0116)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112R Sqr 0024 0024 0024 0024
Panel C Std Normal Net Worth 2004
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0003(0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0047 0049(0046) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0019 -0021(0020) (0020)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498R Sqr 0033 0033 0033 0033
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 4 while controlling for generation one economic outcomes fatherrsquos years ofschooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 First generation time trends are given by year of birth and itssquare for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex secondgeneration year of birth and its square and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standarderrors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and1 levels respectively 33
Appendix Table 4 2nd Gen Health Effects Controlling for 1st Gen Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A BMI
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0352lowast
(0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0051 -0001(0342) (0344)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0372lowast 0372lowast
(0192) (0193)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671R Sqr 0035 0035 0035 0035
Panel B Count of Illnesses
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0122lowast
(0065)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0076 -0096(0102) (0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0139lowastlowast 0144lowastlowast
(0067) (0068)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9921 9921 9921 9921R Sqr 0046 0046 0046 0046
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 5 while controlling for generation one economic outcomes fatherrsquos years ofschooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 First generation time trends are given by year of birth and itssquare for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex secondgeneration year of birth and its square and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standarderrors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and1 levels respectively
34
Appendix Table 5 Generation threersquos years of schooling Controlling for previous generation economicwell-being
Dependent Variable Years of Schooling for Gen 3(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A First Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0069(0076)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0022 0034(0133) (0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0102 -0104(0077) (0078)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913R Sqr 0117 0117 0117 0117
Panel B Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0025(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0008 0013(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0038 -0039(0073) (0073)
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0190 0190 0190 0190
Panel C First and Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0008(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0016 0019(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0028 -0029(0073) (0073)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0196 0196 0196 0196
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 6 while controlling for generation one and tworsquos economic outcomes Forgeneration one these include fatherrsquos years of schooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 generation twocontrols include the WLS graduatesiblingrsquos years of schooling family income in 1992 and net worth in 2004 First generationtime trends are year of birth measures for each parent and their square Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sexsecond generation year of birth and its square and birth order Third generation controls include a sex indicator year of birthand its square and birth order Given the focus on years of schooling the sample is restricted to those third generationindividuals 35 years of age and older or born during or before 1970 (data were collected in 2005) All estimation is performedwith OLS with family (second generation) clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denotedby and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
35
Appendix Table 6 Alternative measures of schooling in the second generation
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Indicator for any college (years of schooling gt12)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0044lowastlowastlowast
(0017)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0011 -0006(0029) (0029)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0044lowastlowast -0043lowastlowast
(0017) (0017)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0071 0070 0071 0071
Panel B Indicator for incomplete college (years of schooling gt12 amp lt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0008(0013)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 -0001(0022) (0022)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0008 -0008(0013) (0013)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0005 0005 0005 0005
Panel C Indicator for college graduate (years of schooling = 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0022lowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0003 0006(0020) (0020)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0021lowast -0021lowastlowast
(0011) (0011)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0019 0019 0019 0019
Panel D Indicator for post-college education (years of schooling gt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0014(0010)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0011(0018) (0018)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0014 -0014(0010) (0010)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0039 0039 0039 0039
Summary amp Notes This table replaces our continuous measure of years of schooling with specified dummy variables Firstgeneration time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Secondgeneration controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and its square and birth order All estimationis performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
36
Appendix Table 7 Young mothers Direct effect on Gen 1 Females
Dependent Variable Years of Sch Job Prestige Family SES
(1) (2) (3)
Ind for First Gen Female Flu Exposure (1918-1919) -0325lowastlowast -0841 -1749lowastlowastlowast
(0137) (1015) (0584)
Ind for mother born during 1920-1921 -0567lowastlowastlowast 0745 -1157(0206) (1515) (0914)
Ind for mother born during 1922-1923 -0666lowastlowast 0098 -2113(0330) (2210) (1298)
Ind for mother born after 1924 -0392 5682 0384(0486) (3705) (2126)
Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y
Observations 8487 6683 8487R Sqr 0014 0005 0014
Summary amp Notes This table includes indicators for alternative years of birth Younger mothers are shown to have lessyears of schooling All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
37
App
endix
Tab
le8
You
ng
mot
her
sG
ener
atio
n2
and
3eff
ects
Gen
2
Gen
3
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
ln
Fam
In
c
1992
Std
N
W
2004
Sel
f-re
p
hea
lth
Hei
ght
BM
IY
ears
of
Sch
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
emal
eF
luE
xp
osu
re(1
918-
1919
)-0
201lowastlowast
-02
95lowastlowast
-00
45
-00
73lowastlowast
-00
90
02
07
-00
86(0
092)
(01
32)
(00
32)
(00
32)
(01
22)
(02
25)
(00
94)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
20-1
921
-00
22
-00
40
-00
10
-00
61
01
33
-04
10
01
13
(01
37)
(01
74)
(00
51)
(00
43)
(01
80)
(03
11)
(01
41)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
22-1
923
-00
96
-01
88
-00
57
00
20
04
61
-11
29lowastlowast
01
55(0
184)
(03
20)
(00
61)
(00
75)
(02
83)
(04
51)
(02
23)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
afte
r19
2404
58
-01
87
00
01
-00
27
03
12
-08
85
03
99
(03
06)
(03
94)
(00
87)
(01
27)
(04
94)
(10
70)
(03
21)
Bas
eC
ontr
ols
YY
YY
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
12459
12112
10498
9888
9783
9671
19913
RS
qr
00
85
00
21
00
08
00
09
05
86
00
29
00
79
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
incl
ud
esin
dic
ator
sfo
ralt
ernati
ve
years
of
bir
th
Bei
ng
born
toa
you
nger
moth
ergen
erall
yis
not
ass
oci
ate
dw
ith
gen
erati
on
2or
3rsquos
outc
omes
ofin
tere
st
inst
ead
n
egat
ive
effec
tsar
eon
lyob
serv
edfo
rth
ose
born
du
rin
gth
efl
u
All
esti
mati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hfa
mil
y(2
nd
gen
erat
ion
)cl
ust
ered
stan
dar
der
rors
rep
orte
din
par
enth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
signifi
can
ceis
den
ote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vel
y
38
Appendix Table 9 Summary Statistics by Gen 2 Sex
Variable N Mean Std Deviation
FemaleYears of Schooling 6607 13352 2088ln Family Income (1992 wave) 6411 9424 3577
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5654 10686 1010Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 5612 -0047 0539Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 5313 4164 0670Height (inches) 5231 646635 247936BMI 5124 26073 5114
Gen 3Years of Schooling 11947 14240 2291
MaleYears of Schooling 5852 14047 2587ln Family Income (1992 wave) 5701 10139 3030
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5264 10981 0836Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 4886 0059 1159Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 4575 4133 0665Height (inches) 4554 7055484 25596BMI 4547 27496 3948
Gen 3Years of Schooling 8046 14371 2332
Appendix Table 10A Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0090(0086)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0198 0214(0169) (0169)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104 -0114(0087) (0087)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6607 6607 6607 6607R Sqr 0075 0075 0075 0075
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
39
Appendix Table 10B Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0523lowastlowastlowast
(0170)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0483 -0410(0321) (0323)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0512lowastlowastlowast -0491lowastlowastlowast
(0179) (0180)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6411 6411 6411 6411R Sqr 0015 0013 0014 0015
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10C Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0007(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0078lowast 0078(0048) (0048)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0008 0005(0025) (0025)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5612 5612 5612 5612R Sqr 0007 0007 0007 0007
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
40
Appendix Table 10D Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0027(0036)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 -0001(0071) (0071)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0022 -0022(0037) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5313 5313 5313 5313r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10E Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -2382(13366)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 44280lowastlowast 46351lowastlowast
(22343) (22480)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -12253 -14428(13485) (13561)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5231 5231 5231 5231r2 0015 0016 0015 0016
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
41
Appendix Table 10F Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0353(0286)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0105 0060(0514) (0516)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0326 0323(0289) (0290)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5124 5124 5124 5124R Sqr 0010 0010 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0087(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0104 -0101(0190) (0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0042 -0039(0098) (0098)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 11906 11906 11906 11906R Sqr 0086 0086 0086 0086
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
42
Appendix Table 11A Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0322lowastlowastlowast
(0116)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0369lowastlowast -0338lowast
(0181) (0180)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0309lowastlowastlowast -0297lowastlowast
(0119) (0119)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5852 5852 5852 5852R Sqr 0060 0059 0060 0060
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11B RResults by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0116(0138)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0262 0261(0200) (0199)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0024 0014(0141) (0140)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5701 5701 5701 5701R Sqr 0009 0009 0008 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
43
Appendix Table 11C Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0038)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0001(0081) (0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0094lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0035)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4886 4886 4886 4886R Sqr 0004 0004 0004 0004
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
44
Appendix Table 11D Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0083lowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 0012(0062) (0062)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104lowastlowastlowast -0105lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0041)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4575 4575 4575 4575r2 0010 0009 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11E Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -15122(14275)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -22991 -20537(23287) (23176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -18595 -17540(14734) (14751)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4554 4554 4554 4554r2 0011 0011 0011 0011
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
45
Appendix Table 11F Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0465lowast
(0238)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0079 0006(0403) (0405)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0520lowastlowast 0520lowastlowast
(0245) (0246)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4547 4547 4547 4547R Sqr 0006 0005 0006 0006
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0177(0123)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0098 0144(0194) (0192)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0293lowastlowast -0302lowastlowast
(0125) (0126)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8007 8007 8007 8007R Sqr 0067 0067 0068 0068
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
46
Appendix Table 12A Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0253lowastlowast
(0107)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0252 -0226(0170) (0172)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0263lowastlowast -0242lowastlowast
(0113) (0115)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0084(0120)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0341 0339(0216) (0219)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0096 0056(0130) (0132)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459r2 0085 0085 0085 0085
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
47
Appendix Table 12B Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0128)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0196 0169(0190) (0189)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0081 -0104(0135) (0135)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0383lowastlowast
(0189)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0594lowast -0474(0349) (0355)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0339lowast -0283(0204) (0207)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112r2 0021 0021 0021 0021
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
48
Appendix Table 12C Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0034)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0019(0077) (0079)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0095lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0030) (0031)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0071lowast
(0038)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0072 0039(0087) (0089)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0104lowastlowastlowast 0100lowastlowastlowast
(0035) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498r2 0008 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
49
Appendix Table 12D Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0071lowast
(0036)[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0012 0031
(0058) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0093lowastlowast -0097lowastlowast
(0039) (0039)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0030(0045)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0031 -0051(0087) (0088)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0059 0065(0048) (0049)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
50
Appendix Table 12E Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0129 -0125(0223) (0224)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0152 -0129(0141) (0142)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0000(0158)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0454 0495lowast
(0279) (0287)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0031 -0090(0170) (0175)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783nr2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
51
Appendix Table 12F Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0376(0231)
[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0059 -0122(0402) (0407)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0441lowast 0457lowast
(0240) (0243)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0068(0316)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0282 0288(0573) (0589)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0035 -0069(0340) (0350)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
52
Appendix Table 12G Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0131(0114)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male 0114 0175(0185) (0188)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0237lowastlowast -0261lowastlowast
(0118) (0121)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0009(0133)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0225 -0292(0249) (0254)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0152 0189(0141) (0145)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913r2 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
53
Appendix Table 13 Family Income 1992 excluding non-earners (ie fam inc = 0)
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992 wave (excluding those reporting 0)(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0095lowastlowastlowast
(0033)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0031 -0019(0053) (0053)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0101lowastlowastlowast -0100lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0034)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10918 10918 10918 10918r2 0050 0049 0050 0050
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0084lowast
(0050)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0019 -0007(0089) (0090)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0083 -0083(0053) (0054)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5654 5654 5654 5654r2 0026 0026 0026 0026
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102lowastlowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0051 -0040(0060) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0113lowastlowastlowast -0112lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0040)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5264 5264 5264 5264r2 0029 0028 0029 0029
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel B in Table 4 excluding those who report $0 for familyincome All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
54
Appendix Table 14 Net Worth 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable Std Net Worth 2011 Wave of WLS(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0032lowastlowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0023lowast -0021lowast
(0012) (0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0032lowastlowastlowast -0031lowastlowastlowast
(0010) (0010)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9435 9435 9435 9435r2 0002 0002 0002 0002
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0012lowast
(0006)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0009 -0008(0009) (0009)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0012lowastlowast -0011lowastlowast
(0006) (0006)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5026 5026 5026 5026r2 0007 0006 0007 0007
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0057lowastlowast
(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0040lowast -0036lowast
(0023) (0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0057lowastlowast -0056lowastlowast
(0023) (0022)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4409 4409 4409 4409r2 0001 0001 0001 0001
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel C in Table 4 replacing the net worth measure from the 2004wave with an identical measure from the 2011 wave of the WLS All estimation is performed with OLS with family clusteredstandard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 105 and 1 levels respectively
55
Appendix Table 15A Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 1992 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0243(0152)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0107 0039(0252) (0255)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0285lowast 0282lowast
(0158) (0160)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9849 9849 9849 9849
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0007(0091)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0210 -0216(0170) (0173)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0007 0024(0095) (0097)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9858 9858 9858 9858
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0255(0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0107 -0169(0328) (0338)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0237 0252(0193) (0198)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9845 9845 9845 9845
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
56
Appendix Table 15B Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2004 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0018(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0190 0207(0160) (0162)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0066 -0083(0102) (0104)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10672 10672 10672 10672
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0096 0108(0124) (0125)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0051 -0059(0076) (0077)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10619 10619 10619 10619
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0108(0110)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0064 0027(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0181 0179(0113) (0113)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10617 10617 10617 10617
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
57
Appendix Table 15C Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0099(0092)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0244 0242(0154) (0155)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0033 0016(0099) (0100)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0021(0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0095 0097(0138) (0139)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0004 -0011(0085) (0086)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0134(0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0203 0181(0175) (0176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0140 0127(0107) (0107)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8709 8709 8709 8709
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
58
- text 10818
- tables 10-8-18
-
Table 4 Second Generation Economic Effects
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Years of Schooling
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0209lowastlowastlowast
(0073)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0084 -0059(0129) (0129)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0211lowastlowastlowast -0209lowastlowastlowast
(0075) (0075)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0085 0084 0085 0085
Panel B ln Family Income 1992
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0221lowastlowast
(0111)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0098 -0066(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0262lowastlowast -0259lowastlowast
(0116) (0116)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112R Sqr 0021 0021 0021 0021
Panel C Std Net Worth 2004
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0026(0022)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0033 0038(0047) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0038lowast -0040lowast
(0021) (0021)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498R Sqr 0007 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table provides evidence of signficant harmful effects of flu exposure in the first generation on secondgeneration economic outcomes First generation time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents(ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and itssquare and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
27
Table 5 Second Generation Health Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Self-reported health (Likert 1=very poor 5=excellent)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0054lowastlowast
(0027)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0005(0047) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0061lowastlowast -0061lowastlowast
(0028) (0028)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Panel B Height (inches)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0101)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0102 0127(0168) (0168)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0169lowast -0175lowast
(0103) (0103)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783r2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Panel C BMI
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0412lowastlowast
(0191)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0082 0023(0344) (0346)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0422lowastlowast 0421lowastlowast
(0193) (0194)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table provides evidence of harmful effects of flu exposure in the first generation on secondgeneration health outcomes First generation time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents (iegen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and itssquare and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
28
Table 6 Generation Three Effects of Generation One Flu Exposure Years of Schooling
Dependent Variable Years of Schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0125(0077)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Male) -0007 0010(0136) (0136)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Female) -0144lowast -0144lowast
(0078) (0078)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913R Sqr 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table shows that the generational effects of flu exposure extend into the third generation of theWLS First generation flu exposure is shown to have a negative association with third generation years of schooling Firstgeneration time trends are year of birth measures for each parent and their square Second generation controls inlcude anindicator for sex second generation year of birth and its square and birth order Third generation controls include a sexindicator year of birth and its square and birth order Given the focus on years of schooling the sample is restricted to thosethird generation individuals 35 years of age and older or born during or before 1970 (data were collected in 2005) Allestimation is performed with OLS with family (second generation) clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
29
(a)
Fat
her
(b)
Moth
er
Fig
ure
1F
irst
Gen
erat
ion
Dis
trib
uti
onof
Yea
rof
Bir
th
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
figu
rep
lots
the
dis
trib
uti
on
for
firs
tgen
erati
on
year
of
bir
th
Flu
exp
osu
reis
class
ified
as
bei
ng
born
inei
ther
1918
or
1919
30
Appendix Tables
Appendix Table 1 First Generation Flu Exposure Effect on Family Income
Dependent Variable Family Income ($100s) 1957
(1) (2)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -3366(2592)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -5363lowastlowast
(2390)
Birth Year Time Trends Y YObservations 7440 7456R Sqr 0013 0004
Summary amp Notes This table replaces the index of socioeconomic status with family income (in $100s) in 1957 Allestimation is performed with OLS with robust standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
31
App
endix
Tab
le2
Mar
riag
eM
arke
tE
ffec
ts
Con
trol
ling
for
Ow
nY
ear
ofB
irth
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
Job
Pre
stig
eY
ears
of
Sch
Job
Pre
stig
e
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale
)-0
052
-211
82
-01
98
-03
74
(02
03)
(131
30)
(01
61)
(14
38)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emale
)-0
346lowast
lowastlowast-2
44
97lowastlowast
lowast-0
103
-13
88
(01
16)
(76
88)
(00
94)
(08
54)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
(Male
an
dF
emale
)Y
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8348
8279
8348
6587
RS
qr
00
40
00
22
00
25
00
04
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
re-e
stim
ates
Tab
le3
wh
ile
contr
oll
ing
for
year
of
bir
than
dfl
uin
dic
ato
rsass
oci
ate
dw
ith
the
spou
sein
the
dep
end
ent
vari
ab
le
All
esti
mat
ion
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
and
ard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
sign
ifica
nce
isd
enote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
atth
e10
5
and
1le
vel
sre
spec
tive
ly
32
Appendix Table 3 2nd Gen Economic Effects Controlling for 1st Gen Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Years of Schooling
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0088(0070)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0005 0008(0119) (0119)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0116 -0117(0072) (0072)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0206 0206 0206 0206
Panel B ln Family Income 1992
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0193lowast
(0111)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0080 -0050(0184) (0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0240lowastlowast -0238lowastlowast
(0116) (0116)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112R Sqr 0024 0024 0024 0024
Panel C Std Normal Net Worth 2004
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0003(0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0047 0049(0046) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0019 -0021(0020) (0020)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498R Sqr 0033 0033 0033 0033
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 4 while controlling for generation one economic outcomes fatherrsquos years ofschooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 First generation time trends are given by year of birth and itssquare for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex secondgeneration year of birth and its square and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standarderrors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and1 levels respectively 33
Appendix Table 4 2nd Gen Health Effects Controlling for 1st Gen Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A BMI
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0352lowast
(0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0051 -0001(0342) (0344)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0372lowast 0372lowast
(0192) (0193)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671R Sqr 0035 0035 0035 0035
Panel B Count of Illnesses
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0122lowast
(0065)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0076 -0096(0102) (0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0139lowastlowast 0144lowastlowast
(0067) (0068)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9921 9921 9921 9921R Sqr 0046 0046 0046 0046
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 5 while controlling for generation one economic outcomes fatherrsquos years ofschooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 First generation time trends are given by year of birth and itssquare for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex secondgeneration year of birth and its square and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standarderrors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and1 levels respectively
34
Appendix Table 5 Generation threersquos years of schooling Controlling for previous generation economicwell-being
Dependent Variable Years of Schooling for Gen 3(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A First Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0069(0076)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0022 0034(0133) (0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0102 -0104(0077) (0078)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913R Sqr 0117 0117 0117 0117
Panel B Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0025(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0008 0013(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0038 -0039(0073) (0073)
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0190 0190 0190 0190
Panel C First and Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0008(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0016 0019(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0028 -0029(0073) (0073)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0196 0196 0196 0196
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 6 while controlling for generation one and tworsquos economic outcomes Forgeneration one these include fatherrsquos years of schooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 generation twocontrols include the WLS graduatesiblingrsquos years of schooling family income in 1992 and net worth in 2004 First generationtime trends are year of birth measures for each parent and their square Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sexsecond generation year of birth and its square and birth order Third generation controls include a sex indicator year of birthand its square and birth order Given the focus on years of schooling the sample is restricted to those third generationindividuals 35 years of age and older or born during or before 1970 (data were collected in 2005) All estimation is performedwith OLS with family (second generation) clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denotedby and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
35
Appendix Table 6 Alternative measures of schooling in the second generation
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Indicator for any college (years of schooling gt12)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0044lowastlowastlowast
(0017)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0011 -0006(0029) (0029)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0044lowastlowast -0043lowastlowast
(0017) (0017)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0071 0070 0071 0071
Panel B Indicator for incomplete college (years of schooling gt12 amp lt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0008(0013)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 -0001(0022) (0022)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0008 -0008(0013) (0013)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0005 0005 0005 0005
Panel C Indicator for college graduate (years of schooling = 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0022lowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0003 0006(0020) (0020)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0021lowast -0021lowastlowast
(0011) (0011)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0019 0019 0019 0019
Panel D Indicator for post-college education (years of schooling gt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0014(0010)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0011(0018) (0018)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0014 -0014(0010) (0010)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0039 0039 0039 0039
Summary amp Notes This table replaces our continuous measure of years of schooling with specified dummy variables Firstgeneration time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Secondgeneration controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and its square and birth order All estimationis performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
36
Appendix Table 7 Young mothers Direct effect on Gen 1 Females
Dependent Variable Years of Sch Job Prestige Family SES
(1) (2) (3)
Ind for First Gen Female Flu Exposure (1918-1919) -0325lowastlowast -0841 -1749lowastlowastlowast
(0137) (1015) (0584)
Ind for mother born during 1920-1921 -0567lowastlowastlowast 0745 -1157(0206) (1515) (0914)
Ind for mother born during 1922-1923 -0666lowastlowast 0098 -2113(0330) (2210) (1298)
Ind for mother born after 1924 -0392 5682 0384(0486) (3705) (2126)
Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y
Observations 8487 6683 8487R Sqr 0014 0005 0014
Summary amp Notes This table includes indicators for alternative years of birth Younger mothers are shown to have lessyears of schooling All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
37
App
endix
Tab
le8
You
ng
mot
her
sG
ener
atio
n2
and
3eff
ects
Gen
2
Gen
3
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
ln
Fam
In
c
1992
Std
N
W
2004
Sel
f-re
p
hea
lth
Hei
ght
BM
IY
ears
of
Sch
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
emal
eF
luE
xp
osu
re(1
918-
1919
)-0
201lowastlowast
-02
95lowastlowast
-00
45
-00
73lowastlowast
-00
90
02
07
-00
86(0
092)
(01
32)
(00
32)
(00
32)
(01
22)
(02
25)
(00
94)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
20-1
921
-00
22
-00
40
-00
10
-00
61
01
33
-04
10
01
13
(01
37)
(01
74)
(00
51)
(00
43)
(01
80)
(03
11)
(01
41)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
22-1
923
-00
96
-01
88
-00
57
00
20
04
61
-11
29lowastlowast
01
55(0
184)
(03
20)
(00
61)
(00
75)
(02
83)
(04
51)
(02
23)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
afte
r19
2404
58
-01
87
00
01
-00
27
03
12
-08
85
03
99
(03
06)
(03
94)
(00
87)
(01
27)
(04
94)
(10
70)
(03
21)
Bas
eC
ontr
ols
YY
YY
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
12459
12112
10498
9888
9783
9671
19913
RS
qr
00
85
00
21
00
08
00
09
05
86
00
29
00
79
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
incl
ud
esin
dic
ator
sfo
ralt
ernati
ve
years
of
bir
th
Bei
ng
born
toa
you
nger
moth
ergen
erall
yis
not
ass
oci
ate
dw
ith
gen
erati
on
2or
3rsquos
outc
omes
ofin
tere
st
inst
ead
n
egat
ive
effec
tsar
eon
lyob
serv
edfo
rth
ose
born
du
rin
gth
efl
u
All
esti
mati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hfa
mil
y(2
nd
gen
erat
ion
)cl
ust
ered
stan
dar
der
rors
rep
orte
din
par
enth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
signifi
can
ceis
den
ote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vel
y
38
Appendix Table 9 Summary Statistics by Gen 2 Sex
Variable N Mean Std Deviation
FemaleYears of Schooling 6607 13352 2088ln Family Income (1992 wave) 6411 9424 3577
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5654 10686 1010Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 5612 -0047 0539Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 5313 4164 0670Height (inches) 5231 646635 247936BMI 5124 26073 5114
Gen 3Years of Schooling 11947 14240 2291
MaleYears of Schooling 5852 14047 2587ln Family Income (1992 wave) 5701 10139 3030
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5264 10981 0836Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 4886 0059 1159Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 4575 4133 0665Height (inches) 4554 7055484 25596BMI 4547 27496 3948
Gen 3Years of Schooling 8046 14371 2332
Appendix Table 10A Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0090(0086)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0198 0214(0169) (0169)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104 -0114(0087) (0087)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6607 6607 6607 6607R Sqr 0075 0075 0075 0075
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
39
Appendix Table 10B Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0523lowastlowastlowast
(0170)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0483 -0410(0321) (0323)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0512lowastlowastlowast -0491lowastlowastlowast
(0179) (0180)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6411 6411 6411 6411R Sqr 0015 0013 0014 0015
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10C Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0007(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0078lowast 0078(0048) (0048)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0008 0005(0025) (0025)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5612 5612 5612 5612R Sqr 0007 0007 0007 0007
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
40
Appendix Table 10D Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0027(0036)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 -0001(0071) (0071)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0022 -0022(0037) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5313 5313 5313 5313r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10E Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -2382(13366)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 44280lowastlowast 46351lowastlowast
(22343) (22480)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -12253 -14428(13485) (13561)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5231 5231 5231 5231r2 0015 0016 0015 0016
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
41
Appendix Table 10F Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0353(0286)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0105 0060(0514) (0516)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0326 0323(0289) (0290)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5124 5124 5124 5124R Sqr 0010 0010 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0087(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0104 -0101(0190) (0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0042 -0039(0098) (0098)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 11906 11906 11906 11906R Sqr 0086 0086 0086 0086
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
42
Appendix Table 11A Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0322lowastlowastlowast
(0116)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0369lowastlowast -0338lowast
(0181) (0180)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0309lowastlowastlowast -0297lowastlowast
(0119) (0119)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5852 5852 5852 5852R Sqr 0060 0059 0060 0060
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11B RResults by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0116(0138)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0262 0261(0200) (0199)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0024 0014(0141) (0140)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5701 5701 5701 5701R Sqr 0009 0009 0008 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
43
Appendix Table 11C Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0038)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0001(0081) (0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0094lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0035)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4886 4886 4886 4886R Sqr 0004 0004 0004 0004
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
44
Appendix Table 11D Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0083lowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 0012(0062) (0062)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104lowastlowastlowast -0105lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0041)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4575 4575 4575 4575r2 0010 0009 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11E Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -15122(14275)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -22991 -20537(23287) (23176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -18595 -17540(14734) (14751)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4554 4554 4554 4554r2 0011 0011 0011 0011
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
45
Appendix Table 11F Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0465lowast
(0238)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0079 0006(0403) (0405)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0520lowastlowast 0520lowastlowast
(0245) (0246)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4547 4547 4547 4547R Sqr 0006 0005 0006 0006
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0177(0123)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0098 0144(0194) (0192)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0293lowastlowast -0302lowastlowast
(0125) (0126)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8007 8007 8007 8007R Sqr 0067 0067 0068 0068
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
46
Appendix Table 12A Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0253lowastlowast
(0107)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0252 -0226(0170) (0172)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0263lowastlowast -0242lowastlowast
(0113) (0115)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0084(0120)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0341 0339(0216) (0219)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0096 0056(0130) (0132)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459r2 0085 0085 0085 0085
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
47
Appendix Table 12B Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0128)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0196 0169(0190) (0189)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0081 -0104(0135) (0135)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0383lowastlowast
(0189)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0594lowast -0474(0349) (0355)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0339lowast -0283(0204) (0207)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112r2 0021 0021 0021 0021
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
48
Appendix Table 12C Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0034)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0019(0077) (0079)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0095lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0030) (0031)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0071lowast
(0038)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0072 0039(0087) (0089)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0104lowastlowastlowast 0100lowastlowastlowast
(0035) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498r2 0008 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
49
Appendix Table 12D Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0071lowast
(0036)[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0012 0031
(0058) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0093lowastlowast -0097lowastlowast
(0039) (0039)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0030(0045)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0031 -0051(0087) (0088)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0059 0065(0048) (0049)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
50
Appendix Table 12E Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0129 -0125(0223) (0224)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0152 -0129(0141) (0142)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0000(0158)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0454 0495lowast
(0279) (0287)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0031 -0090(0170) (0175)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783nr2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
51
Appendix Table 12F Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0376(0231)
[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0059 -0122(0402) (0407)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0441lowast 0457lowast
(0240) (0243)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0068(0316)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0282 0288(0573) (0589)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0035 -0069(0340) (0350)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
52
Appendix Table 12G Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0131(0114)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male 0114 0175(0185) (0188)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0237lowastlowast -0261lowastlowast
(0118) (0121)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0009(0133)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0225 -0292(0249) (0254)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0152 0189(0141) (0145)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913r2 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
53
Appendix Table 13 Family Income 1992 excluding non-earners (ie fam inc = 0)
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992 wave (excluding those reporting 0)(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0095lowastlowastlowast
(0033)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0031 -0019(0053) (0053)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0101lowastlowastlowast -0100lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0034)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10918 10918 10918 10918r2 0050 0049 0050 0050
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0084lowast
(0050)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0019 -0007(0089) (0090)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0083 -0083(0053) (0054)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5654 5654 5654 5654r2 0026 0026 0026 0026
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102lowastlowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0051 -0040(0060) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0113lowastlowastlowast -0112lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0040)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5264 5264 5264 5264r2 0029 0028 0029 0029
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel B in Table 4 excluding those who report $0 for familyincome All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
54
Appendix Table 14 Net Worth 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable Std Net Worth 2011 Wave of WLS(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0032lowastlowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0023lowast -0021lowast
(0012) (0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0032lowastlowastlowast -0031lowastlowastlowast
(0010) (0010)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9435 9435 9435 9435r2 0002 0002 0002 0002
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0012lowast
(0006)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0009 -0008(0009) (0009)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0012lowastlowast -0011lowastlowast
(0006) (0006)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5026 5026 5026 5026r2 0007 0006 0007 0007
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0057lowastlowast
(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0040lowast -0036lowast
(0023) (0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0057lowastlowast -0056lowastlowast
(0023) (0022)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4409 4409 4409 4409r2 0001 0001 0001 0001
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel C in Table 4 replacing the net worth measure from the 2004wave with an identical measure from the 2011 wave of the WLS All estimation is performed with OLS with family clusteredstandard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 105 and 1 levels respectively
55
Appendix Table 15A Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 1992 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0243(0152)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0107 0039(0252) (0255)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0285lowast 0282lowast
(0158) (0160)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9849 9849 9849 9849
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0007(0091)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0210 -0216(0170) (0173)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0007 0024(0095) (0097)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9858 9858 9858 9858
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0255(0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0107 -0169(0328) (0338)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0237 0252(0193) (0198)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9845 9845 9845 9845
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
56
Appendix Table 15B Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2004 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0018(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0190 0207(0160) (0162)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0066 -0083(0102) (0104)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10672 10672 10672 10672
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0096 0108(0124) (0125)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0051 -0059(0076) (0077)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10619 10619 10619 10619
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0108(0110)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0064 0027(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0181 0179(0113) (0113)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10617 10617 10617 10617
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
57
Appendix Table 15C Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0099(0092)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0244 0242(0154) (0155)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0033 0016(0099) (0100)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0021(0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0095 0097(0138) (0139)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0004 -0011(0085) (0086)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0134(0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0203 0181(0175) (0176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0140 0127(0107) (0107)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8709 8709 8709 8709
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
58
- text 10818
- tables 10-8-18
-
Table 5 Second Generation Health Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Self-reported health (Likert 1=very poor 5=excellent)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0054lowastlowast
(0027)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0005(0047) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0061lowastlowast -0061lowastlowast
(0028) (0028)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Panel B Height (inches)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0101)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0102 0127(0168) (0168)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0169lowast -0175lowast
(0103) (0103)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783r2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Panel C BMI
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0412lowastlowast
(0191)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0082 0023(0344) (0346)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0422lowastlowast 0421lowastlowast
(0193) (0194)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table provides evidence of harmful effects of flu exposure in the first generation on secondgeneration health outcomes First generation time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents (iegen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and itssquare and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
28
Table 6 Generation Three Effects of Generation One Flu Exposure Years of Schooling
Dependent Variable Years of Schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0125(0077)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Male) -0007 0010(0136) (0136)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Female) -0144lowast -0144lowast
(0078) (0078)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913R Sqr 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table shows that the generational effects of flu exposure extend into the third generation of theWLS First generation flu exposure is shown to have a negative association with third generation years of schooling Firstgeneration time trends are year of birth measures for each parent and their square Second generation controls inlcude anindicator for sex second generation year of birth and its square and birth order Third generation controls include a sexindicator year of birth and its square and birth order Given the focus on years of schooling the sample is restricted to thosethird generation individuals 35 years of age and older or born during or before 1970 (data were collected in 2005) Allestimation is performed with OLS with family (second generation) clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
29
(a)
Fat
her
(b)
Moth
er
Fig
ure
1F
irst
Gen
erat
ion
Dis
trib
uti
onof
Yea
rof
Bir
th
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
figu
rep
lots
the
dis
trib
uti
on
for
firs
tgen
erati
on
year
of
bir
th
Flu
exp
osu
reis
class
ified
as
bei
ng
born
inei
ther
1918
or
1919
30
Appendix Tables
Appendix Table 1 First Generation Flu Exposure Effect on Family Income
Dependent Variable Family Income ($100s) 1957
(1) (2)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -3366(2592)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -5363lowastlowast
(2390)
Birth Year Time Trends Y YObservations 7440 7456R Sqr 0013 0004
Summary amp Notes This table replaces the index of socioeconomic status with family income (in $100s) in 1957 Allestimation is performed with OLS with robust standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
31
App
endix
Tab
le2
Mar
riag
eM
arke
tE
ffec
ts
Con
trol
ling
for
Ow
nY
ear
ofB
irth
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
Job
Pre
stig
eY
ears
of
Sch
Job
Pre
stig
e
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale
)-0
052
-211
82
-01
98
-03
74
(02
03)
(131
30)
(01
61)
(14
38)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emale
)-0
346lowast
lowastlowast-2
44
97lowastlowast
lowast-0
103
-13
88
(01
16)
(76
88)
(00
94)
(08
54)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
(Male
an
dF
emale
)Y
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8348
8279
8348
6587
RS
qr
00
40
00
22
00
25
00
04
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
re-e
stim
ates
Tab
le3
wh
ile
contr
oll
ing
for
year
of
bir
than
dfl
uin
dic
ato
rsass
oci
ate
dw
ith
the
spou
sein
the
dep
end
ent
vari
ab
le
All
esti
mat
ion
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
and
ard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
sign
ifica
nce
isd
enote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
atth
e10
5
and
1le
vel
sre
spec
tive
ly
32
Appendix Table 3 2nd Gen Economic Effects Controlling for 1st Gen Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Years of Schooling
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0088(0070)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0005 0008(0119) (0119)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0116 -0117(0072) (0072)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0206 0206 0206 0206
Panel B ln Family Income 1992
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0193lowast
(0111)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0080 -0050(0184) (0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0240lowastlowast -0238lowastlowast
(0116) (0116)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112R Sqr 0024 0024 0024 0024
Panel C Std Normal Net Worth 2004
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0003(0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0047 0049(0046) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0019 -0021(0020) (0020)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498R Sqr 0033 0033 0033 0033
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 4 while controlling for generation one economic outcomes fatherrsquos years ofschooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 First generation time trends are given by year of birth and itssquare for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex secondgeneration year of birth and its square and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standarderrors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and1 levels respectively 33
Appendix Table 4 2nd Gen Health Effects Controlling for 1st Gen Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A BMI
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0352lowast
(0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0051 -0001(0342) (0344)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0372lowast 0372lowast
(0192) (0193)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671R Sqr 0035 0035 0035 0035
Panel B Count of Illnesses
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0122lowast
(0065)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0076 -0096(0102) (0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0139lowastlowast 0144lowastlowast
(0067) (0068)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9921 9921 9921 9921R Sqr 0046 0046 0046 0046
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 5 while controlling for generation one economic outcomes fatherrsquos years ofschooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 First generation time trends are given by year of birth and itssquare for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex secondgeneration year of birth and its square and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standarderrors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and1 levels respectively
34
Appendix Table 5 Generation threersquos years of schooling Controlling for previous generation economicwell-being
Dependent Variable Years of Schooling for Gen 3(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A First Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0069(0076)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0022 0034(0133) (0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0102 -0104(0077) (0078)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913R Sqr 0117 0117 0117 0117
Panel B Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0025(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0008 0013(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0038 -0039(0073) (0073)
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0190 0190 0190 0190
Panel C First and Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0008(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0016 0019(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0028 -0029(0073) (0073)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0196 0196 0196 0196
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 6 while controlling for generation one and tworsquos economic outcomes Forgeneration one these include fatherrsquos years of schooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 generation twocontrols include the WLS graduatesiblingrsquos years of schooling family income in 1992 and net worth in 2004 First generationtime trends are year of birth measures for each parent and their square Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sexsecond generation year of birth and its square and birth order Third generation controls include a sex indicator year of birthand its square and birth order Given the focus on years of schooling the sample is restricted to those third generationindividuals 35 years of age and older or born during or before 1970 (data were collected in 2005) All estimation is performedwith OLS with family (second generation) clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denotedby and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
35
Appendix Table 6 Alternative measures of schooling in the second generation
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Indicator for any college (years of schooling gt12)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0044lowastlowastlowast
(0017)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0011 -0006(0029) (0029)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0044lowastlowast -0043lowastlowast
(0017) (0017)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0071 0070 0071 0071
Panel B Indicator for incomplete college (years of schooling gt12 amp lt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0008(0013)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 -0001(0022) (0022)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0008 -0008(0013) (0013)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0005 0005 0005 0005
Panel C Indicator for college graduate (years of schooling = 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0022lowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0003 0006(0020) (0020)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0021lowast -0021lowastlowast
(0011) (0011)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0019 0019 0019 0019
Panel D Indicator for post-college education (years of schooling gt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0014(0010)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0011(0018) (0018)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0014 -0014(0010) (0010)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0039 0039 0039 0039
Summary amp Notes This table replaces our continuous measure of years of schooling with specified dummy variables Firstgeneration time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Secondgeneration controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and its square and birth order All estimationis performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
36
Appendix Table 7 Young mothers Direct effect on Gen 1 Females
Dependent Variable Years of Sch Job Prestige Family SES
(1) (2) (3)
Ind for First Gen Female Flu Exposure (1918-1919) -0325lowastlowast -0841 -1749lowastlowastlowast
(0137) (1015) (0584)
Ind for mother born during 1920-1921 -0567lowastlowastlowast 0745 -1157(0206) (1515) (0914)
Ind for mother born during 1922-1923 -0666lowastlowast 0098 -2113(0330) (2210) (1298)
Ind for mother born after 1924 -0392 5682 0384(0486) (3705) (2126)
Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y
Observations 8487 6683 8487R Sqr 0014 0005 0014
Summary amp Notes This table includes indicators for alternative years of birth Younger mothers are shown to have lessyears of schooling All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
37
App
endix
Tab
le8
You
ng
mot
her
sG
ener
atio
n2
and
3eff
ects
Gen
2
Gen
3
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
ln
Fam
In
c
1992
Std
N
W
2004
Sel
f-re
p
hea
lth
Hei
ght
BM
IY
ears
of
Sch
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
emal
eF
luE
xp
osu
re(1
918-
1919
)-0
201lowastlowast
-02
95lowastlowast
-00
45
-00
73lowastlowast
-00
90
02
07
-00
86(0
092)
(01
32)
(00
32)
(00
32)
(01
22)
(02
25)
(00
94)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
20-1
921
-00
22
-00
40
-00
10
-00
61
01
33
-04
10
01
13
(01
37)
(01
74)
(00
51)
(00
43)
(01
80)
(03
11)
(01
41)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
22-1
923
-00
96
-01
88
-00
57
00
20
04
61
-11
29lowastlowast
01
55(0
184)
(03
20)
(00
61)
(00
75)
(02
83)
(04
51)
(02
23)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
afte
r19
2404
58
-01
87
00
01
-00
27
03
12
-08
85
03
99
(03
06)
(03
94)
(00
87)
(01
27)
(04
94)
(10
70)
(03
21)
Bas
eC
ontr
ols
YY
YY
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
12459
12112
10498
9888
9783
9671
19913
RS
qr
00
85
00
21
00
08
00
09
05
86
00
29
00
79
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
incl
ud
esin
dic
ator
sfo
ralt
ernati
ve
years
of
bir
th
Bei
ng
born
toa
you
nger
moth
ergen
erall
yis
not
ass
oci
ate
dw
ith
gen
erati
on
2or
3rsquos
outc
omes
ofin
tere
st
inst
ead
n
egat
ive
effec
tsar
eon
lyob
serv
edfo
rth
ose
born
du
rin
gth
efl
u
All
esti
mati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hfa
mil
y(2
nd
gen
erat
ion
)cl
ust
ered
stan
dar
der
rors
rep
orte
din
par
enth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
signifi
can
ceis
den
ote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vel
y
38
Appendix Table 9 Summary Statistics by Gen 2 Sex
Variable N Mean Std Deviation
FemaleYears of Schooling 6607 13352 2088ln Family Income (1992 wave) 6411 9424 3577
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5654 10686 1010Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 5612 -0047 0539Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 5313 4164 0670Height (inches) 5231 646635 247936BMI 5124 26073 5114
Gen 3Years of Schooling 11947 14240 2291
MaleYears of Schooling 5852 14047 2587ln Family Income (1992 wave) 5701 10139 3030
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5264 10981 0836Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 4886 0059 1159Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 4575 4133 0665Height (inches) 4554 7055484 25596BMI 4547 27496 3948
Gen 3Years of Schooling 8046 14371 2332
Appendix Table 10A Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0090(0086)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0198 0214(0169) (0169)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104 -0114(0087) (0087)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6607 6607 6607 6607R Sqr 0075 0075 0075 0075
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
39
Appendix Table 10B Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0523lowastlowastlowast
(0170)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0483 -0410(0321) (0323)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0512lowastlowastlowast -0491lowastlowastlowast
(0179) (0180)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6411 6411 6411 6411R Sqr 0015 0013 0014 0015
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10C Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0007(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0078lowast 0078(0048) (0048)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0008 0005(0025) (0025)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5612 5612 5612 5612R Sqr 0007 0007 0007 0007
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
40
Appendix Table 10D Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0027(0036)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 -0001(0071) (0071)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0022 -0022(0037) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5313 5313 5313 5313r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10E Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -2382(13366)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 44280lowastlowast 46351lowastlowast
(22343) (22480)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -12253 -14428(13485) (13561)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5231 5231 5231 5231r2 0015 0016 0015 0016
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
41
Appendix Table 10F Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0353(0286)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0105 0060(0514) (0516)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0326 0323(0289) (0290)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5124 5124 5124 5124R Sqr 0010 0010 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0087(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0104 -0101(0190) (0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0042 -0039(0098) (0098)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 11906 11906 11906 11906R Sqr 0086 0086 0086 0086
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
42
Appendix Table 11A Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0322lowastlowastlowast
(0116)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0369lowastlowast -0338lowast
(0181) (0180)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0309lowastlowastlowast -0297lowastlowast
(0119) (0119)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5852 5852 5852 5852R Sqr 0060 0059 0060 0060
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11B RResults by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0116(0138)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0262 0261(0200) (0199)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0024 0014(0141) (0140)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5701 5701 5701 5701R Sqr 0009 0009 0008 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
43
Appendix Table 11C Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0038)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0001(0081) (0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0094lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0035)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4886 4886 4886 4886R Sqr 0004 0004 0004 0004
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
44
Appendix Table 11D Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0083lowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 0012(0062) (0062)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104lowastlowastlowast -0105lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0041)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4575 4575 4575 4575r2 0010 0009 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11E Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -15122(14275)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -22991 -20537(23287) (23176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -18595 -17540(14734) (14751)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4554 4554 4554 4554r2 0011 0011 0011 0011
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
45
Appendix Table 11F Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0465lowast
(0238)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0079 0006(0403) (0405)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0520lowastlowast 0520lowastlowast
(0245) (0246)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4547 4547 4547 4547R Sqr 0006 0005 0006 0006
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0177(0123)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0098 0144(0194) (0192)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0293lowastlowast -0302lowastlowast
(0125) (0126)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8007 8007 8007 8007R Sqr 0067 0067 0068 0068
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
46
Appendix Table 12A Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0253lowastlowast
(0107)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0252 -0226(0170) (0172)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0263lowastlowast -0242lowastlowast
(0113) (0115)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0084(0120)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0341 0339(0216) (0219)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0096 0056(0130) (0132)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459r2 0085 0085 0085 0085
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
47
Appendix Table 12B Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0128)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0196 0169(0190) (0189)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0081 -0104(0135) (0135)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0383lowastlowast
(0189)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0594lowast -0474(0349) (0355)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0339lowast -0283(0204) (0207)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112r2 0021 0021 0021 0021
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
48
Appendix Table 12C Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0034)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0019(0077) (0079)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0095lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0030) (0031)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0071lowast
(0038)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0072 0039(0087) (0089)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0104lowastlowastlowast 0100lowastlowastlowast
(0035) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498r2 0008 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
49
Appendix Table 12D Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0071lowast
(0036)[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0012 0031
(0058) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0093lowastlowast -0097lowastlowast
(0039) (0039)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0030(0045)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0031 -0051(0087) (0088)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0059 0065(0048) (0049)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
50
Appendix Table 12E Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0129 -0125(0223) (0224)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0152 -0129(0141) (0142)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0000(0158)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0454 0495lowast
(0279) (0287)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0031 -0090(0170) (0175)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783nr2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
51
Appendix Table 12F Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0376(0231)
[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0059 -0122(0402) (0407)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0441lowast 0457lowast
(0240) (0243)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0068(0316)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0282 0288(0573) (0589)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0035 -0069(0340) (0350)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
52
Appendix Table 12G Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0131(0114)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male 0114 0175(0185) (0188)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0237lowastlowast -0261lowastlowast
(0118) (0121)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0009(0133)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0225 -0292(0249) (0254)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0152 0189(0141) (0145)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913r2 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
53
Appendix Table 13 Family Income 1992 excluding non-earners (ie fam inc = 0)
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992 wave (excluding those reporting 0)(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0095lowastlowastlowast
(0033)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0031 -0019(0053) (0053)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0101lowastlowastlowast -0100lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0034)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10918 10918 10918 10918r2 0050 0049 0050 0050
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0084lowast
(0050)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0019 -0007(0089) (0090)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0083 -0083(0053) (0054)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5654 5654 5654 5654r2 0026 0026 0026 0026
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102lowastlowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0051 -0040(0060) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0113lowastlowastlowast -0112lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0040)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5264 5264 5264 5264r2 0029 0028 0029 0029
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel B in Table 4 excluding those who report $0 for familyincome All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
54
Appendix Table 14 Net Worth 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable Std Net Worth 2011 Wave of WLS(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0032lowastlowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0023lowast -0021lowast
(0012) (0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0032lowastlowastlowast -0031lowastlowastlowast
(0010) (0010)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9435 9435 9435 9435r2 0002 0002 0002 0002
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0012lowast
(0006)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0009 -0008(0009) (0009)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0012lowastlowast -0011lowastlowast
(0006) (0006)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5026 5026 5026 5026r2 0007 0006 0007 0007
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0057lowastlowast
(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0040lowast -0036lowast
(0023) (0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0057lowastlowast -0056lowastlowast
(0023) (0022)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4409 4409 4409 4409r2 0001 0001 0001 0001
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel C in Table 4 replacing the net worth measure from the 2004wave with an identical measure from the 2011 wave of the WLS All estimation is performed with OLS with family clusteredstandard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 105 and 1 levels respectively
55
Appendix Table 15A Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 1992 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0243(0152)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0107 0039(0252) (0255)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0285lowast 0282lowast
(0158) (0160)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9849 9849 9849 9849
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0007(0091)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0210 -0216(0170) (0173)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0007 0024(0095) (0097)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9858 9858 9858 9858
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0255(0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0107 -0169(0328) (0338)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0237 0252(0193) (0198)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9845 9845 9845 9845
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
56
Appendix Table 15B Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2004 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0018(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0190 0207(0160) (0162)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0066 -0083(0102) (0104)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10672 10672 10672 10672
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0096 0108(0124) (0125)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0051 -0059(0076) (0077)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10619 10619 10619 10619
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0108(0110)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0064 0027(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0181 0179(0113) (0113)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10617 10617 10617 10617
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
57
Appendix Table 15C Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0099(0092)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0244 0242(0154) (0155)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0033 0016(0099) (0100)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0021(0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0095 0097(0138) (0139)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0004 -0011(0085) (0086)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0134(0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0203 0181(0175) (0176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0140 0127(0107) (0107)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8709 8709 8709 8709
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
58
- text 10818
- tables 10-8-18
-
Table 6 Generation Three Effects of Generation One Flu Exposure Years of Schooling
Dependent Variable Years of Schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0125(0077)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Male) -0007 0010(0136) (0136)
Ind for First Generation Flu Exposure (Female) -0144lowast -0144lowast
(0078) (0078)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913R Sqr 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table shows that the generational effects of flu exposure extend into the third generation of theWLS First generation flu exposure is shown to have a negative association with third generation years of schooling Firstgeneration time trends are year of birth measures for each parent and their square Second generation controls inlcude anindicator for sex second generation year of birth and its square and birth order Third generation controls include a sexindicator year of birth and its square and birth order Given the focus on years of schooling the sample is restricted to thosethird generation individuals 35 years of age and older or born during or before 1970 (data were collected in 2005) Allestimation is performed with OLS with family (second generation) clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
29
(a)
Fat
her
(b)
Moth
er
Fig
ure
1F
irst
Gen
erat
ion
Dis
trib
uti
onof
Yea
rof
Bir
th
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
figu
rep
lots
the
dis
trib
uti
on
for
firs
tgen
erati
on
year
of
bir
th
Flu
exp
osu
reis
class
ified
as
bei
ng
born
inei
ther
1918
or
1919
30
Appendix Tables
Appendix Table 1 First Generation Flu Exposure Effect on Family Income
Dependent Variable Family Income ($100s) 1957
(1) (2)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -3366(2592)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -5363lowastlowast
(2390)
Birth Year Time Trends Y YObservations 7440 7456R Sqr 0013 0004
Summary amp Notes This table replaces the index of socioeconomic status with family income (in $100s) in 1957 Allestimation is performed with OLS with robust standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
31
App
endix
Tab
le2
Mar
riag
eM
arke
tE
ffec
ts
Con
trol
ling
for
Ow
nY
ear
ofB
irth
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
Job
Pre
stig
eY
ears
of
Sch
Job
Pre
stig
e
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale
)-0
052
-211
82
-01
98
-03
74
(02
03)
(131
30)
(01
61)
(14
38)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emale
)-0
346lowast
lowastlowast-2
44
97lowastlowast
lowast-0
103
-13
88
(01
16)
(76
88)
(00
94)
(08
54)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
(Male
an
dF
emale
)Y
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8348
8279
8348
6587
RS
qr
00
40
00
22
00
25
00
04
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
re-e
stim
ates
Tab
le3
wh
ile
contr
oll
ing
for
year
of
bir
than
dfl
uin
dic
ato
rsass
oci
ate
dw
ith
the
spou
sein
the
dep
end
ent
vari
ab
le
All
esti
mat
ion
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
and
ard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
sign
ifica
nce
isd
enote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
atth
e10
5
and
1le
vel
sre
spec
tive
ly
32
Appendix Table 3 2nd Gen Economic Effects Controlling for 1st Gen Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Years of Schooling
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0088(0070)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0005 0008(0119) (0119)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0116 -0117(0072) (0072)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0206 0206 0206 0206
Panel B ln Family Income 1992
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0193lowast
(0111)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0080 -0050(0184) (0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0240lowastlowast -0238lowastlowast
(0116) (0116)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112R Sqr 0024 0024 0024 0024
Panel C Std Normal Net Worth 2004
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0003(0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0047 0049(0046) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0019 -0021(0020) (0020)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498R Sqr 0033 0033 0033 0033
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 4 while controlling for generation one economic outcomes fatherrsquos years ofschooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 First generation time trends are given by year of birth and itssquare for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex secondgeneration year of birth and its square and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standarderrors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and1 levels respectively 33
Appendix Table 4 2nd Gen Health Effects Controlling for 1st Gen Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A BMI
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0352lowast
(0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0051 -0001(0342) (0344)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0372lowast 0372lowast
(0192) (0193)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671R Sqr 0035 0035 0035 0035
Panel B Count of Illnesses
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0122lowast
(0065)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0076 -0096(0102) (0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0139lowastlowast 0144lowastlowast
(0067) (0068)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9921 9921 9921 9921R Sqr 0046 0046 0046 0046
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 5 while controlling for generation one economic outcomes fatherrsquos years ofschooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 First generation time trends are given by year of birth and itssquare for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex secondgeneration year of birth and its square and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standarderrors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and1 levels respectively
34
Appendix Table 5 Generation threersquos years of schooling Controlling for previous generation economicwell-being
Dependent Variable Years of Schooling for Gen 3(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A First Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0069(0076)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0022 0034(0133) (0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0102 -0104(0077) (0078)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913R Sqr 0117 0117 0117 0117
Panel B Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0025(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0008 0013(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0038 -0039(0073) (0073)
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0190 0190 0190 0190
Panel C First and Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0008(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0016 0019(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0028 -0029(0073) (0073)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0196 0196 0196 0196
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 6 while controlling for generation one and tworsquos economic outcomes Forgeneration one these include fatherrsquos years of schooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 generation twocontrols include the WLS graduatesiblingrsquos years of schooling family income in 1992 and net worth in 2004 First generationtime trends are year of birth measures for each parent and their square Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sexsecond generation year of birth and its square and birth order Third generation controls include a sex indicator year of birthand its square and birth order Given the focus on years of schooling the sample is restricted to those third generationindividuals 35 years of age and older or born during or before 1970 (data were collected in 2005) All estimation is performedwith OLS with family (second generation) clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denotedby and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
35
Appendix Table 6 Alternative measures of schooling in the second generation
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Indicator for any college (years of schooling gt12)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0044lowastlowastlowast
(0017)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0011 -0006(0029) (0029)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0044lowastlowast -0043lowastlowast
(0017) (0017)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0071 0070 0071 0071
Panel B Indicator for incomplete college (years of schooling gt12 amp lt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0008(0013)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 -0001(0022) (0022)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0008 -0008(0013) (0013)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0005 0005 0005 0005
Panel C Indicator for college graduate (years of schooling = 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0022lowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0003 0006(0020) (0020)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0021lowast -0021lowastlowast
(0011) (0011)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0019 0019 0019 0019
Panel D Indicator for post-college education (years of schooling gt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0014(0010)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0011(0018) (0018)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0014 -0014(0010) (0010)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0039 0039 0039 0039
Summary amp Notes This table replaces our continuous measure of years of schooling with specified dummy variables Firstgeneration time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Secondgeneration controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and its square and birth order All estimationis performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
36
Appendix Table 7 Young mothers Direct effect on Gen 1 Females
Dependent Variable Years of Sch Job Prestige Family SES
(1) (2) (3)
Ind for First Gen Female Flu Exposure (1918-1919) -0325lowastlowast -0841 -1749lowastlowastlowast
(0137) (1015) (0584)
Ind for mother born during 1920-1921 -0567lowastlowastlowast 0745 -1157(0206) (1515) (0914)
Ind for mother born during 1922-1923 -0666lowastlowast 0098 -2113(0330) (2210) (1298)
Ind for mother born after 1924 -0392 5682 0384(0486) (3705) (2126)
Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y
Observations 8487 6683 8487R Sqr 0014 0005 0014
Summary amp Notes This table includes indicators for alternative years of birth Younger mothers are shown to have lessyears of schooling All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
37
App
endix
Tab
le8
You
ng
mot
her
sG
ener
atio
n2
and
3eff
ects
Gen
2
Gen
3
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
ln
Fam
In
c
1992
Std
N
W
2004
Sel
f-re
p
hea
lth
Hei
ght
BM
IY
ears
of
Sch
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
emal
eF
luE
xp
osu
re(1
918-
1919
)-0
201lowastlowast
-02
95lowastlowast
-00
45
-00
73lowastlowast
-00
90
02
07
-00
86(0
092)
(01
32)
(00
32)
(00
32)
(01
22)
(02
25)
(00
94)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
20-1
921
-00
22
-00
40
-00
10
-00
61
01
33
-04
10
01
13
(01
37)
(01
74)
(00
51)
(00
43)
(01
80)
(03
11)
(01
41)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
22-1
923
-00
96
-01
88
-00
57
00
20
04
61
-11
29lowastlowast
01
55(0
184)
(03
20)
(00
61)
(00
75)
(02
83)
(04
51)
(02
23)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
afte
r19
2404
58
-01
87
00
01
-00
27
03
12
-08
85
03
99
(03
06)
(03
94)
(00
87)
(01
27)
(04
94)
(10
70)
(03
21)
Bas
eC
ontr
ols
YY
YY
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
12459
12112
10498
9888
9783
9671
19913
RS
qr
00
85
00
21
00
08
00
09
05
86
00
29
00
79
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
incl
ud
esin
dic
ator
sfo
ralt
ernati
ve
years
of
bir
th
Bei
ng
born
toa
you
nger
moth
ergen
erall
yis
not
ass
oci
ate
dw
ith
gen
erati
on
2or
3rsquos
outc
omes
ofin
tere
st
inst
ead
n
egat
ive
effec
tsar
eon
lyob
serv
edfo
rth
ose
born
du
rin
gth
efl
u
All
esti
mati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hfa
mil
y(2
nd
gen
erat
ion
)cl
ust
ered
stan
dar
der
rors
rep
orte
din
par
enth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
signifi
can
ceis
den
ote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vel
y
38
Appendix Table 9 Summary Statistics by Gen 2 Sex
Variable N Mean Std Deviation
FemaleYears of Schooling 6607 13352 2088ln Family Income (1992 wave) 6411 9424 3577
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5654 10686 1010Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 5612 -0047 0539Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 5313 4164 0670Height (inches) 5231 646635 247936BMI 5124 26073 5114
Gen 3Years of Schooling 11947 14240 2291
MaleYears of Schooling 5852 14047 2587ln Family Income (1992 wave) 5701 10139 3030
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5264 10981 0836Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 4886 0059 1159Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 4575 4133 0665Height (inches) 4554 7055484 25596BMI 4547 27496 3948
Gen 3Years of Schooling 8046 14371 2332
Appendix Table 10A Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0090(0086)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0198 0214(0169) (0169)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104 -0114(0087) (0087)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6607 6607 6607 6607R Sqr 0075 0075 0075 0075
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
39
Appendix Table 10B Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0523lowastlowastlowast
(0170)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0483 -0410(0321) (0323)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0512lowastlowastlowast -0491lowastlowastlowast
(0179) (0180)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6411 6411 6411 6411R Sqr 0015 0013 0014 0015
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10C Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0007(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0078lowast 0078(0048) (0048)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0008 0005(0025) (0025)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5612 5612 5612 5612R Sqr 0007 0007 0007 0007
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
40
Appendix Table 10D Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0027(0036)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 -0001(0071) (0071)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0022 -0022(0037) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5313 5313 5313 5313r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10E Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -2382(13366)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 44280lowastlowast 46351lowastlowast
(22343) (22480)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -12253 -14428(13485) (13561)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5231 5231 5231 5231r2 0015 0016 0015 0016
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
41
Appendix Table 10F Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0353(0286)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0105 0060(0514) (0516)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0326 0323(0289) (0290)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5124 5124 5124 5124R Sqr 0010 0010 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0087(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0104 -0101(0190) (0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0042 -0039(0098) (0098)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 11906 11906 11906 11906R Sqr 0086 0086 0086 0086
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
42
Appendix Table 11A Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0322lowastlowastlowast
(0116)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0369lowastlowast -0338lowast
(0181) (0180)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0309lowastlowastlowast -0297lowastlowast
(0119) (0119)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5852 5852 5852 5852R Sqr 0060 0059 0060 0060
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11B RResults by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0116(0138)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0262 0261(0200) (0199)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0024 0014(0141) (0140)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5701 5701 5701 5701R Sqr 0009 0009 0008 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
43
Appendix Table 11C Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0038)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0001(0081) (0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0094lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0035)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4886 4886 4886 4886R Sqr 0004 0004 0004 0004
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
44
Appendix Table 11D Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0083lowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 0012(0062) (0062)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104lowastlowastlowast -0105lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0041)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4575 4575 4575 4575r2 0010 0009 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11E Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -15122(14275)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -22991 -20537(23287) (23176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -18595 -17540(14734) (14751)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4554 4554 4554 4554r2 0011 0011 0011 0011
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
45
Appendix Table 11F Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0465lowast
(0238)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0079 0006(0403) (0405)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0520lowastlowast 0520lowastlowast
(0245) (0246)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4547 4547 4547 4547R Sqr 0006 0005 0006 0006
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0177(0123)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0098 0144(0194) (0192)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0293lowastlowast -0302lowastlowast
(0125) (0126)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8007 8007 8007 8007R Sqr 0067 0067 0068 0068
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
46
Appendix Table 12A Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0253lowastlowast
(0107)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0252 -0226(0170) (0172)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0263lowastlowast -0242lowastlowast
(0113) (0115)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0084(0120)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0341 0339(0216) (0219)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0096 0056(0130) (0132)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459r2 0085 0085 0085 0085
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
47
Appendix Table 12B Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0128)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0196 0169(0190) (0189)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0081 -0104(0135) (0135)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0383lowastlowast
(0189)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0594lowast -0474(0349) (0355)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0339lowast -0283(0204) (0207)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112r2 0021 0021 0021 0021
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
48
Appendix Table 12C Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0034)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0019(0077) (0079)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0095lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0030) (0031)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0071lowast
(0038)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0072 0039(0087) (0089)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0104lowastlowastlowast 0100lowastlowastlowast
(0035) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498r2 0008 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
49
Appendix Table 12D Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0071lowast
(0036)[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0012 0031
(0058) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0093lowastlowast -0097lowastlowast
(0039) (0039)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0030(0045)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0031 -0051(0087) (0088)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0059 0065(0048) (0049)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
50
Appendix Table 12E Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0129 -0125(0223) (0224)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0152 -0129(0141) (0142)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0000(0158)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0454 0495lowast
(0279) (0287)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0031 -0090(0170) (0175)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783nr2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
51
Appendix Table 12F Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0376(0231)
[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0059 -0122(0402) (0407)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0441lowast 0457lowast
(0240) (0243)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0068(0316)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0282 0288(0573) (0589)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0035 -0069(0340) (0350)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
52
Appendix Table 12G Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0131(0114)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male 0114 0175(0185) (0188)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0237lowastlowast -0261lowastlowast
(0118) (0121)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0009(0133)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0225 -0292(0249) (0254)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0152 0189(0141) (0145)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913r2 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
53
Appendix Table 13 Family Income 1992 excluding non-earners (ie fam inc = 0)
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992 wave (excluding those reporting 0)(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0095lowastlowastlowast
(0033)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0031 -0019(0053) (0053)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0101lowastlowastlowast -0100lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0034)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10918 10918 10918 10918r2 0050 0049 0050 0050
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0084lowast
(0050)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0019 -0007(0089) (0090)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0083 -0083(0053) (0054)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5654 5654 5654 5654r2 0026 0026 0026 0026
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102lowastlowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0051 -0040(0060) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0113lowastlowastlowast -0112lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0040)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5264 5264 5264 5264r2 0029 0028 0029 0029
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel B in Table 4 excluding those who report $0 for familyincome All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
54
Appendix Table 14 Net Worth 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable Std Net Worth 2011 Wave of WLS(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0032lowastlowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0023lowast -0021lowast
(0012) (0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0032lowastlowastlowast -0031lowastlowastlowast
(0010) (0010)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9435 9435 9435 9435r2 0002 0002 0002 0002
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0012lowast
(0006)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0009 -0008(0009) (0009)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0012lowastlowast -0011lowastlowast
(0006) (0006)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5026 5026 5026 5026r2 0007 0006 0007 0007
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0057lowastlowast
(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0040lowast -0036lowast
(0023) (0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0057lowastlowast -0056lowastlowast
(0023) (0022)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4409 4409 4409 4409r2 0001 0001 0001 0001
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel C in Table 4 replacing the net worth measure from the 2004wave with an identical measure from the 2011 wave of the WLS All estimation is performed with OLS with family clusteredstandard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 105 and 1 levels respectively
55
Appendix Table 15A Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 1992 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0243(0152)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0107 0039(0252) (0255)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0285lowast 0282lowast
(0158) (0160)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9849 9849 9849 9849
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0007(0091)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0210 -0216(0170) (0173)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0007 0024(0095) (0097)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9858 9858 9858 9858
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0255(0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0107 -0169(0328) (0338)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0237 0252(0193) (0198)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9845 9845 9845 9845
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
56
Appendix Table 15B Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2004 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0018(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0190 0207(0160) (0162)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0066 -0083(0102) (0104)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10672 10672 10672 10672
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0096 0108(0124) (0125)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0051 -0059(0076) (0077)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10619 10619 10619 10619
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0108(0110)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0064 0027(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0181 0179(0113) (0113)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10617 10617 10617 10617
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
57
Appendix Table 15C Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0099(0092)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0244 0242(0154) (0155)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0033 0016(0099) (0100)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0021(0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0095 0097(0138) (0139)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0004 -0011(0085) (0086)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0134(0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0203 0181(0175) (0176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0140 0127(0107) (0107)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8709 8709 8709 8709
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
58
- text 10818
- tables 10-8-18
-
(a)
Fat
her
(b)
Moth
er
Fig
ure
1F
irst
Gen
erat
ion
Dis
trib
uti
onof
Yea
rof
Bir
th
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
figu
rep
lots
the
dis
trib
uti
on
for
firs
tgen
erati
on
year
of
bir
th
Flu
exp
osu
reis
class
ified
as
bei
ng
born
inei
ther
1918
or
1919
30
Appendix Tables
Appendix Table 1 First Generation Flu Exposure Effect on Family Income
Dependent Variable Family Income ($100s) 1957
(1) (2)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -3366(2592)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -5363lowastlowast
(2390)
Birth Year Time Trends Y YObservations 7440 7456R Sqr 0013 0004
Summary amp Notes This table replaces the index of socioeconomic status with family income (in $100s) in 1957 Allestimation is performed with OLS with robust standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
31
App
endix
Tab
le2
Mar
riag
eM
arke
tE
ffec
ts
Con
trol
ling
for
Ow
nY
ear
ofB
irth
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
Job
Pre
stig
eY
ears
of
Sch
Job
Pre
stig
e
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale
)-0
052
-211
82
-01
98
-03
74
(02
03)
(131
30)
(01
61)
(14
38)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emale
)-0
346lowast
lowastlowast-2
44
97lowastlowast
lowast-0
103
-13
88
(01
16)
(76
88)
(00
94)
(08
54)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
(Male
an
dF
emale
)Y
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8348
8279
8348
6587
RS
qr
00
40
00
22
00
25
00
04
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
re-e
stim
ates
Tab
le3
wh
ile
contr
oll
ing
for
year
of
bir
than
dfl
uin
dic
ato
rsass
oci
ate
dw
ith
the
spou
sein
the
dep
end
ent
vari
ab
le
All
esti
mat
ion
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
and
ard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
sign
ifica
nce
isd
enote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
atth
e10
5
and
1le
vel
sre
spec
tive
ly
32
Appendix Table 3 2nd Gen Economic Effects Controlling for 1st Gen Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Years of Schooling
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0088(0070)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0005 0008(0119) (0119)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0116 -0117(0072) (0072)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0206 0206 0206 0206
Panel B ln Family Income 1992
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0193lowast
(0111)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0080 -0050(0184) (0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0240lowastlowast -0238lowastlowast
(0116) (0116)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112R Sqr 0024 0024 0024 0024
Panel C Std Normal Net Worth 2004
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0003(0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0047 0049(0046) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0019 -0021(0020) (0020)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498R Sqr 0033 0033 0033 0033
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 4 while controlling for generation one economic outcomes fatherrsquos years ofschooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 First generation time trends are given by year of birth and itssquare for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex secondgeneration year of birth and its square and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standarderrors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and1 levels respectively 33
Appendix Table 4 2nd Gen Health Effects Controlling for 1st Gen Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A BMI
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0352lowast
(0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0051 -0001(0342) (0344)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0372lowast 0372lowast
(0192) (0193)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671R Sqr 0035 0035 0035 0035
Panel B Count of Illnesses
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0122lowast
(0065)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0076 -0096(0102) (0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0139lowastlowast 0144lowastlowast
(0067) (0068)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9921 9921 9921 9921R Sqr 0046 0046 0046 0046
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 5 while controlling for generation one economic outcomes fatherrsquos years ofschooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 First generation time trends are given by year of birth and itssquare for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex secondgeneration year of birth and its square and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standarderrors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and1 levels respectively
34
Appendix Table 5 Generation threersquos years of schooling Controlling for previous generation economicwell-being
Dependent Variable Years of Schooling for Gen 3(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A First Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0069(0076)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0022 0034(0133) (0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0102 -0104(0077) (0078)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913R Sqr 0117 0117 0117 0117
Panel B Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0025(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0008 0013(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0038 -0039(0073) (0073)
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0190 0190 0190 0190
Panel C First and Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0008(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0016 0019(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0028 -0029(0073) (0073)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0196 0196 0196 0196
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 6 while controlling for generation one and tworsquos economic outcomes Forgeneration one these include fatherrsquos years of schooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 generation twocontrols include the WLS graduatesiblingrsquos years of schooling family income in 1992 and net worth in 2004 First generationtime trends are year of birth measures for each parent and their square Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sexsecond generation year of birth and its square and birth order Third generation controls include a sex indicator year of birthand its square and birth order Given the focus on years of schooling the sample is restricted to those third generationindividuals 35 years of age and older or born during or before 1970 (data were collected in 2005) All estimation is performedwith OLS with family (second generation) clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denotedby and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
35
Appendix Table 6 Alternative measures of schooling in the second generation
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Indicator for any college (years of schooling gt12)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0044lowastlowastlowast
(0017)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0011 -0006(0029) (0029)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0044lowastlowast -0043lowastlowast
(0017) (0017)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0071 0070 0071 0071
Panel B Indicator for incomplete college (years of schooling gt12 amp lt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0008(0013)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 -0001(0022) (0022)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0008 -0008(0013) (0013)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0005 0005 0005 0005
Panel C Indicator for college graduate (years of schooling = 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0022lowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0003 0006(0020) (0020)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0021lowast -0021lowastlowast
(0011) (0011)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0019 0019 0019 0019
Panel D Indicator for post-college education (years of schooling gt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0014(0010)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0011(0018) (0018)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0014 -0014(0010) (0010)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0039 0039 0039 0039
Summary amp Notes This table replaces our continuous measure of years of schooling with specified dummy variables Firstgeneration time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Secondgeneration controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and its square and birth order All estimationis performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
36
Appendix Table 7 Young mothers Direct effect on Gen 1 Females
Dependent Variable Years of Sch Job Prestige Family SES
(1) (2) (3)
Ind for First Gen Female Flu Exposure (1918-1919) -0325lowastlowast -0841 -1749lowastlowastlowast
(0137) (1015) (0584)
Ind for mother born during 1920-1921 -0567lowastlowastlowast 0745 -1157(0206) (1515) (0914)
Ind for mother born during 1922-1923 -0666lowastlowast 0098 -2113(0330) (2210) (1298)
Ind for mother born after 1924 -0392 5682 0384(0486) (3705) (2126)
Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y
Observations 8487 6683 8487R Sqr 0014 0005 0014
Summary amp Notes This table includes indicators for alternative years of birth Younger mothers are shown to have lessyears of schooling All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
37
App
endix
Tab
le8
You
ng
mot
her
sG
ener
atio
n2
and
3eff
ects
Gen
2
Gen
3
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
ln
Fam
In
c
1992
Std
N
W
2004
Sel
f-re
p
hea
lth
Hei
ght
BM
IY
ears
of
Sch
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
emal
eF
luE
xp
osu
re(1
918-
1919
)-0
201lowastlowast
-02
95lowastlowast
-00
45
-00
73lowastlowast
-00
90
02
07
-00
86(0
092)
(01
32)
(00
32)
(00
32)
(01
22)
(02
25)
(00
94)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
20-1
921
-00
22
-00
40
-00
10
-00
61
01
33
-04
10
01
13
(01
37)
(01
74)
(00
51)
(00
43)
(01
80)
(03
11)
(01
41)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
22-1
923
-00
96
-01
88
-00
57
00
20
04
61
-11
29lowastlowast
01
55(0
184)
(03
20)
(00
61)
(00
75)
(02
83)
(04
51)
(02
23)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
afte
r19
2404
58
-01
87
00
01
-00
27
03
12
-08
85
03
99
(03
06)
(03
94)
(00
87)
(01
27)
(04
94)
(10
70)
(03
21)
Bas
eC
ontr
ols
YY
YY
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
12459
12112
10498
9888
9783
9671
19913
RS
qr
00
85
00
21
00
08
00
09
05
86
00
29
00
79
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
incl
ud
esin
dic
ator
sfo
ralt
ernati
ve
years
of
bir
th
Bei
ng
born
toa
you
nger
moth
ergen
erall
yis
not
ass
oci
ate
dw
ith
gen
erati
on
2or
3rsquos
outc
omes
ofin
tere
st
inst
ead
n
egat
ive
effec
tsar
eon
lyob
serv
edfo
rth
ose
born
du
rin
gth
efl
u
All
esti
mati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hfa
mil
y(2
nd
gen
erat
ion
)cl
ust
ered
stan
dar
der
rors
rep
orte
din
par
enth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
signifi
can
ceis
den
ote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vel
y
38
Appendix Table 9 Summary Statistics by Gen 2 Sex
Variable N Mean Std Deviation
FemaleYears of Schooling 6607 13352 2088ln Family Income (1992 wave) 6411 9424 3577
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5654 10686 1010Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 5612 -0047 0539Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 5313 4164 0670Height (inches) 5231 646635 247936BMI 5124 26073 5114
Gen 3Years of Schooling 11947 14240 2291
MaleYears of Schooling 5852 14047 2587ln Family Income (1992 wave) 5701 10139 3030
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5264 10981 0836Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 4886 0059 1159Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 4575 4133 0665Height (inches) 4554 7055484 25596BMI 4547 27496 3948
Gen 3Years of Schooling 8046 14371 2332
Appendix Table 10A Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0090(0086)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0198 0214(0169) (0169)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104 -0114(0087) (0087)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6607 6607 6607 6607R Sqr 0075 0075 0075 0075
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
39
Appendix Table 10B Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0523lowastlowastlowast
(0170)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0483 -0410(0321) (0323)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0512lowastlowastlowast -0491lowastlowastlowast
(0179) (0180)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6411 6411 6411 6411R Sqr 0015 0013 0014 0015
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10C Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0007(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0078lowast 0078(0048) (0048)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0008 0005(0025) (0025)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5612 5612 5612 5612R Sqr 0007 0007 0007 0007
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
40
Appendix Table 10D Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0027(0036)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 -0001(0071) (0071)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0022 -0022(0037) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5313 5313 5313 5313r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10E Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -2382(13366)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 44280lowastlowast 46351lowastlowast
(22343) (22480)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -12253 -14428(13485) (13561)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5231 5231 5231 5231r2 0015 0016 0015 0016
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
41
Appendix Table 10F Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0353(0286)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0105 0060(0514) (0516)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0326 0323(0289) (0290)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5124 5124 5124 5124R Sqr 0010 0010 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0087(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0104 -0101(0190) (0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0042 -0039(0098) (0098)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 11906 11906 11906 11906R Sqr 0086 0086 0086 0086
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
42
Appendix Table 11A Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0322lowastlowastlowast
(0116)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0369lowastlowast -0338lowast
(0181) (0180)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0309lowastlowastlowast -0297lowastlowast
(0119) (0119)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5852 5852 5852 5852R Sqr 0060 0059 0060 0060
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11B RResults by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0116(0138)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0262 0261(0200) (0199)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0024 0014(0141) (0140)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5701 5701 5701 5701R Sqr 0009 0009 0008 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
43
Appendix Table 11C Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0038)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0001(0081) (0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0094lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0035)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4886 4886 4886 4886R Sqr 0004 0004 0004 0004
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
44
Appendix Table 11D Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0083lowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 0012(0062) (0062)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104lowastlowastlowast -0105lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0041)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4575 4575 4575 4575r2 0010 0009 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11E Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -15122(14275)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -22991 -20537(23287) (23176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -18595 -17540(14734) (14751)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4554 4554 4554 4554r2 0011 0011 0011 0011
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
45
Appendix Table 11F Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0465lowast
(0238)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0079 0006(0403) (0405)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0520lowastlowast 0520lowastlowast
(0245) (0246)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4547 4547 4547 4547R Sqr 0006 0005 0006 0006
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0177(0123)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0098 0144(0194) (0192)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0293lowastlowast -0302lowastlowast
(0125) (0126)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8007 8007 8007 8007R Sqr 0067 0067 0068 0068
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
46
Appendix Table 12A Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0253lowastlowast
(0107)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0252 -0226(0170) (0172)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0263lowastlowast -0242lowastlowast
(0113) (0115)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0084(0120)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0341 0339(0216) (0219)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0096 0056(0130) (0132)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459r2 0085 0085 0085 0085
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
47
Appendix Table 12B Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0128)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0196 0169(0190) (0189)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0081 -0104(0135) (0135)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0383lowastlowast
(0189)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0594lowast -0474(0349) (0355)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0339lowast -0283(0204) (0207)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112r2 0021 0021 0021 0021
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
48
Appendix Table 12C Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0034)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0019(0077) (0079)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0095lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0030) (0031)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0071lowast
(0038)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0072 0039(0087) (0089)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0104lowastlowastlowast 0100lowastlowastlowast
(0035) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498r2 0008 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
49
Appendix Table 12D Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0071lowast
(0036)[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0012 0031
(0058) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0093lowastlowast -0097lowastlowast
(0039) (0039)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0030(0045)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0031 -0051(0087) (0088)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0059 0065(0048) (0049)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
50
Appendix Table 12E Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0129 -0125(0223) (0224)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0152 -0129(0141) (0142)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0000(0158)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0454 0495lowast
(0279) (0287)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0031 -0090(0170) (0175)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783nr2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
51
Appendix Table 12F Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0376(0231)
[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0059 -0122(0402) (0407)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0441lowast 0457lowast
(0240) (0243)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0068(0316)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0282 0288(0573) (0589)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0035 -0069(0340) (0350)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
52
Appendix Table 12G Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0131(0114)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male 0114 0175(0185) (0188)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0237lowastlowast -0261lowastlowast
(0118) (0121)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0009(0133)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0225 -0292(0249) (0254)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0152 0189(0141) (0145)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913r2 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
53
Appendix Table 13 Family Income 1992 excluding non-earners (ie fam inc = 0)
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992 wave (excluding those reporting 0)(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0095lowastlowastlowast
(0033)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0031 -0019(0053) (0053)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0101lowastlowastlowast -0100lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0034)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10918 10918 10918 10918r2 0050 0049 0050 0050
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0084lowast
(0050)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0019 -0007(0089) (0090)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0083 -0083(0053) (0054)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5654 5654 5654 5654r2 0026 0026 0026 0026
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102lowastlowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0051 -0040(0060) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0113lowastlowastlowast -0112lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0040)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5264 5264 5264 5264r2 0029 0028 0029 0029
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel B in Table 4 excluding those who report $0 for familyincome All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
54
Appendix Table 14 Net Worth 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable Std Net Worth 2011 Wave of WLS(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0032lowastlowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0023lowast -0021lowast
(0012) (0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0032lowastlowastlowast -0031lowastlowastlowast
(0010) (0010)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9435 9435 9435 9435r2 0002 0002 0002 0002
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0012lowast
(0006)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0009 -0008(0009) (0009)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0012lowastlowast -0011lowastlowast
(0006) (0006)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5026 5026 5026 5026r2 0007 0006 0007 0007
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0057lowastlowast
(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0040lowast -0036lowast
(0023) (0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0057lowastlowast -0056lowastlowast
(0023) (0022)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4409 4409 4409 4409r2 0001 0001 0001 0001
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel C in Table 4 replacing the net worth measure from the 2004wave with an identical measure from the 2011 wave of the WLS All estimation is performed with OLS with family clusteredstandard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 105 and 1 levels respectively
55
Appendix Table 15A Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 1992 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0243(0152)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0107 0039(0252) (0255)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0285lowast 0282lowast
(0158) (0160)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9849 9849 9849 9849
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0007(0091)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0210 -0216(0170) (0173)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0007 0024(0095) (0097)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9858 9858 9858 9858
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0255(0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0107 -0169(0328) (0338)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0237 0252(0193) (0198)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9845 9845 9845 9845
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
56
Appendix Table 15B Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2004 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0018(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0190 0207(0160) (0162)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0066 -0083(0102) (0104)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10672 10672 10672 10672
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0096 0108(0124) (0125)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0051 -0059(0076) (0077)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10619 10619 10619 10619
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0108(0110)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0064 0027(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0181 0179(0113) (0113)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10617 10617 10617 10617
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
57
Appendix Table 15C Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0099(0092)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0244 0242(0154) (0155)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0033 0016(0099) (0100)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0021(0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0095 0097(0138) (0139)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0004 -0011(0085) (0086)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0134(0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0203 0181(0175) (0176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0140 0127(0107) (0107)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8709 8709 8709 8709
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
58
- text 10818
- tables 10-8-18
-
Appendix Tables
Appendix Table 1 First Generation Flu Exposure Effect on Family Income
Dependent Variable Family Income ($100s) 1957
(1) (2)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -3366(2592)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -5363lowastlowast
(2390)
Birth Year Time Trends Y YObservations 7440 7456R Sqr 0013 0004
Summary amp Notes This table replaces the index of socioeconomic status with family income (in $100s) in 1957 Allestimation is performed with OLS with robust standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
31
App
endix
Tab
le2
Mar
riag
eM
arke
tE
ffec
ts
Con
trol
ling
for
Ow
nY
ear
ofB
irth
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
Job
Pre
stig
eY
ears
of
Sch
Job
Pre
stig
e
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale
)-0
052
-211
82
-01
98
-03
74
(02
03)
(131
30)
(01
61)
(14
38)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emale
)-0
346lowast
lowastlowast-2
44
97lowastlowast
lowast-0
103
-13
88
(01
16)
(76
88)
(00
94)
(08
54)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
(Male
an
dF
emale
)Y
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8348
8279
8348
6587
RS
qr
00
40
00
22
00
25
00
04
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
re-e
stim
ates
Tab
le3
wh
ile
contr
oll
ing
for
year
of
bir
than
dfl
uin
dic
ato
rsass
oci
ate
dw
ith
the
spou
sein
the
dep
end
ent
vari
ab
le
All
esti
mat
ion
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
and
ard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
sign
ifica
nce
isd
enote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
atth
e10
5
and
1le
vel
sre
spec
tive
ly
32
Appendix Table 3 2nd Gen Economic Effects Controlling for 1st Gen Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Years of Schooling
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0088(0070)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0005 0008(0119) (0119)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0116 -0117(0072) (0072)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0206 0206 0206 0206
Panel B ln Family Income 1992
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0193lowast
(0111)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0080 -0050(0184) (0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0240lowastlowast -0238lowastlowast
(0116) (0116)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112R Sqr 0024 0024 0024 0024
Panel C Std Normal Net Worth 2004
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0003(0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0047 0049(0046) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0019 -0021(0020) (0020)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498R Sqr 0033 0033 0033 0033
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 4 while controlling for generation one economic outcomes fatherrsquos years ofschooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 First generation time trends are given by year of birth and itssquare for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex secondgeneration year of birth and its square and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standarderrors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and1 levels respectively 33
Appendix Table 4 2nd Gen Health Effects Controlling for 1st Gen Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A BMI
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0352lowast
(0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0051 -0001(0342) (0344)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0372lowast 0372lowast
(0192) (0193)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671R Sqr 0035 0035 0035 0035
Panel B Count of Illnesses
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0122lowast
(0065)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0076 -0096(0102) (0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0139lowastlowast 0144lowastlowast
(0067) (0068)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9921 9921 9921 9921R Sqr 0046 0046 0046 0046
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 5 while controlling for generation one economic outcomes fatherrsquos years ofschooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 First generation time trends are given by year of birth and itssquare for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex secondgeneration year of birth and its square and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standarderrors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and1 levels respectively
34
Appendix Table 5 Generation threersquos years of schooling Controlling for previous generation economicwell-being
Dependent Variable Years of Schooling for Gen 3(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A First Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0069(0076)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0022 0034(0133) (0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0102 -0104(0077) (0078)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913R Sqr 0117 0117 0117 0117
Panel B Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0025(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0008 0013(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0038 -0039(0073) (0073)
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0190 0190 0190 0190
Panel C First and Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0008(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0016 0019(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0028 -0029(0073) (0073)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0196 0196 0196 0196
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 6 while controlling for generation one and tworsquos economic outcomes Forgeneration one these include fatherrsquos years of schooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 generation twocontrols include the WLS graduatesiblingrsquos years of schooling family income in 1992 and net worth in 2004 First generationtime trends are year of birth measures for each parent and their square Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sexsecond generation year of birth and its square and birth order Third generation controls include a sex indicator year of birthand its square and birth order Given the focus on years of schooling the sample is restricted to those third generationindividuals 35 years of age and older or born during or before 1970 (data were collected in 2005) All estimation is performedwith OLS with family (second generation) clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denotedby and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
35
Appendix Table 6 Alternative measures of schooling in the second generation
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Indicator for any college (years of schooling gt12)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0044lowastlowastlowast
(0017)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0011 -0006(0029) (0029)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0044lowastlowast -0043lowastlowast
(0017) (0017)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0071 0070 0071 0071
Panel B Indicator for incomplete college (years of schooling gt12 amp lt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0008(0013)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 -0001(0022) (0022)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0008 -0008(0013) (0013)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0005 0005 0005 0005
Panel C Indicator for college graduate (years of schooling = 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0022lowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0003 0006(0020) (0020)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0021lowast -0021lowastlowast
(0011) (0011)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0019 0019 0019 0019
Panel D Indicator for post-college education (years of schooling gt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0014(0010)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0011(0018) (0018)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0014 -0014(0010) (0010)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0039 0039 0039 0039
Summary amp Notes This table replaces our continuous measure of years of schooling with specified dummy variables Firstgeneration time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Secondgeneration controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and its square and birth order All estimationis performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
36
Appendix Table 7 Young mothers Direct effect on Gen 1 Females
Dependent Variable Years of Sch Job Prestige Family SES
(1) (2) (3)
Ind for First Gen Female Flu Exposure (1918-1919) -0325lowastlowast -0841 -1749lowastlowastlowast
(0137) (1015) (0584)
Ind for mother born during 1920-1921 -0567lowastlowastlowast 0745 -1157(0206) (1515) (0914)
Ind for mother born during 1922-1923 -0666lowastlowast 0098 -2113(0330) (2210) (1298)
Ind for mother born after 1924 -0392 5682 0384(0486) (3705) (2126)
Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y
Observations 8487 6683 8487R Sqr 0014 0005 0014
Summary amp Notes This table includes indicators for alternative years of birth Younger mothers are shown to have lessyears of schooling All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
37
App
endix
Tab
le8
You
ng
mot
her
sG
ener
atio
n2
and
3eff
ects
Gen
2
Gen
3
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
ln
Fam
In
c
1992
Std
N
W
2004
Sel
f-re
p
hea
lth
Hei
ght
BM
IY
ears
of
Sch
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
emal
eF
luE
xp
osu
re(1
918-
1919
)-0
201lowastlowast
-02
95lowastlowast
-00
45
-00
73lowastlowast
-00
90
02
07
-00
86(0
092)
(01
32)
(00
32)
(00
32)
(01
22)
(02
25)
(00
94)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
20-1
921
-00
22
-00
40
-00
10
-00
61
01
33
-04
10
01
13
(01
37)
(01
74)
(00
51)
(00
43)
(01
80)
(03
11)
(01
41)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
22-1
923
-00
96
-01
88
-00
57
00
20
04
61
-11
29lowastlowast
01
55(0
184)
(03
20)
(00
61)
(00
75)
(02
83)
(04
51)
(02
23)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
afte
r19
2404
58
-01
87
00
01
-00
27
03
12
-08
85
03
99
(03
06)
(03
94)
(00
87)
(01
27)
(04
94)
(10
70)
(03
21)
Bas
eC
ontr
ols
YY
YY
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
12459
12112
10498
9888
9783
9671
19913
RS
qr
00
85
00
21
00
08
00
09
05
86
00
29
00
79
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
incl
ud
esin
dic
ator
sfo
ralt
ernati
ve
years
of
bir
th
Bei
ng
born
toa
you
nger
moth
ergen
erall
yis
not
ass
oci
ate
dw
ith
gen
erati
on
2or
3rsquos
outc
omes
ofin
tere
st
inst
ead
n
egat
ive
effec
tsar
eon
lyob
serv
edfo
rth
ose
born
du
rin
gth
efl
u
All
esti
mati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hfa
mil
y(2
nd
gen
erat
ion
)cl
ust
ered
stan
dar
der
rors
rep
orte
din
par
enth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
signifi
can
ceis
den
ote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vel
y
38
Appendix Table 9 Summary Statistics by Gen 2 Sex
Variable N Mean Std Deviation
FemaleYears of Schooling 6607 13352 2088ln Family Income (1992 wave) 6411 9424 3577
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5654 10686 1010Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 5612 -0047 0539Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 5313 4164 0670Height (inches) 5231 646635 247936BMI 5124 26073 5114
Gen 3Years of Schooling 11947 14240 2291
MaleYears of Schooling 5852 14047 2587ln Family Income (1992 wave) 5701 10139 3030
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5264 10981 0836Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 4886 0059 1159Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 4575 4133 0665Height (inches) 4554 7055484 25596BMI 4547 27496 3948
Gen 3Years of Schooling 8046 14371 2332
Appendix Table 10A Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0090(0086)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0198 0214(0169) (0169)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104 -0114(0087) (0087)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6607 6607 6607 6607R Sqr 0075 0075 0075 0075
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
39
Appendix Table 10B Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0523lowastlowastlowast
(0170)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0483 -0410(0321) (0323)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0512lowastlowastlowast -0491lowastlowastlowast
(0179) (0180)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6411 6411 6411 6411R Sqr 0015 0013 0014 0015
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10C Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0007(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0078lowast 0078(0048) (0048)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0008 0005(0025) (0025)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5612 5612 5612 5612R Sqr 0007 0007 0007 0007
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
40
Appendix Table 10D Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0027(0036)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 -0001(0071) (0071)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0022 -0022(0037) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5313 5313 5313 5313r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10E Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -2382(13366)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 44280lowastlowast 46351lowastlowast
(22343) (22480)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -12253 -14428(13485) (13561)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5231 5231 5231 5231r2 0015 0016 0015 0016
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
41
Appendix Table 10F Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0353(0286)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0105 0060(0514) (0516)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0326 0323(0289) (0290)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5124 5124 5124 5124R Sqr 0010 0010 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0087(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0104 -0101(0190) (0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0042 -0039(0098) (0098)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 11906 11906 11906 11906R Sqr 0086 0086 0086 0086
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
42
Appendix Table 11A Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0322lowastlowastlowast
(0116)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0369lowastlowast -0338lowast
(0181) (0180)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0309lowastlowastlowast -0297lowastlowast
(0119) (0119)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5852 5852 5852 5852R Sqr 0060 0059 0060 0060
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11B RResults by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0116(0138)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0262 0261(0200) (0199)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0024 0014(0141) (0140)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5701 5701 5701 5701R Sqr 0009 0009 0008 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
43
Appendix Table 11C Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0038)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0001(0081) (0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0094lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0035)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4886 4886 4886 4886R Sqr 0004 0004 0004 0004
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
44
Appendix Table 11D Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0083lowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 0012(0062) (0062)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104lowastlowastlowast -0105lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0041)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4575 4575 4575 4575r2 0010 0009 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11E Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -15122(14275)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -22991 -20537(23287) (23176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -18595 -17540(14734) (14751)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4554 4554 4554 4554r2 0011 0011 0011 0011
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
45
Appendix Table 11F Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0465lowast
(0238)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0079 0006(0403) (0405)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0520lowastlowast 0520lowastlowast
(0245) (0246)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4547 4547 4547 4547R Sqr 0006 0005 0006 0006
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0177(0123)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0098 0144(0194) (0192)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0293lowastlowast -0302lowastlowast
(0125) (0126)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8007 8007 8007 8007R Sqr 0067 0067 0068 0068
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
46
Appendix Table 12A Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0253lowastlowast
(0107)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0252 -0226(0170) (0172)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0263lowastlowast -0242lowastlowast
(0113) (0115)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0084(0120)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0341 0339(0216) (0219)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0096 0056(0130) (0132)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459r2 0085 0085 0085 0085
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
47
Appendix Table 12B Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0128)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0196 0169(0190) (0189)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0081 -0104(0135) (0135)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0383lowastlowast
(0189)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0594lowast -0474(0349) (0355)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0339lowast -0283(0204) (0207)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112r2 0021 0021 0021 0021
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
48
Appendix Table 12C Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0034)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0019(0077) (0079)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0095lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0030) (0031)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0071lowast
(0038)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0072 0039(0087) (0089)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0104lowastlowastlowast 0100lowastlowastlowast
(0035) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498r2 0008 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
49
Appendix Table 12D Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0071lowast
(0036)[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0012 0031
(0058) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0093lowastlowast -0097lowastlowast
(0039) (0039)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0030(0045)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0031 -0051(0087) (0088)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0059 0065(0048) (0049)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
50
Appendix Table 12E Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0129 -0125(0223) (0224)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0152 -0129(0141) (0142)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0000(0158)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0454 0495lowast
(0279) (0287)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0031 -0090(0170) (0175)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783nr2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
51
Appendix Table 12F Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0376(0231)
[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0059 -0122(0402) (0407)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0441lowast 0457lowast
(0240) (0243)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0068(0316)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0282 0288(0573) (0589)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0035 -0069(0340) (0350)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
52
Appendix Table 12G Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0131(0114)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male 0114 0175(0185) (0188)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0237lowastlowast -0261lowastlowast
(0118) (0121)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0009(0133)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0225 -0292(0249) (0254)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0152 0189(0141) (0145)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913r2 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
53
Appendix Table 13 Family Income 1992 excluding non-earners (ie fam inc = 0)
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992 wave (excluding those reporting 0)(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0095lowastlowastlowast
(0033)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0031 -0019(0053) (0053)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0101lowastlowastlowast -0100lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0034)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10918 10918 10918 10918r2 0050 0049 0050 0050
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0084lowast
(0050)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0019 -0007(0089) (0090)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0083 -0083(0053) (0054)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5654 5654 5654 5654r2 0026 0026 0026 0026
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102lowastlowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0051 -0040(0060) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0113lowastlowastlowast -0112lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0040)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5264 5264 5264 5264r2 0029 0028 0029 0029
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel B in Table 4 excluding those who report $0 for familyincome All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
54
Appendix Table 14 Net Worth 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable Std Net Worth 2011 Wave of WLS(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0032lowastlowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0023lowast -0021lowast
(0012) (0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0032lowastlowastlowast -0031lowastlowastlowast
(0010) (0010)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9435 9435 9435 9435r2 0002 0002 0002 0002
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0012lowast
(0006)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0009 -0008(0009) (0009)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0012lowastlowast -0011lowastlowast
(0006) (0006)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5026 5026 5026 5026r2 0007 0006 0007 0007
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0057lowastlowast
(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0040lowast -0036lowast
(0023) (0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0057lowastlowast -0056lowastlowast
(0023) (0022)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4409 4409 4409 4409r2 0001 0001 0001 0001
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel C in Table 4 replacing the net worth measure from the 2004wave with an identical measure from the 2011 wave of the WLS All estimation is performed with OLS with family clusteredstandard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 105 and 1 levels respectively
55
Appendix Table 15A Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 1992 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0243(0152)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0107 0039(0252) (0255)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0285lowast 0282lowast
(0158) (0160)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9849 9849 9849 9849
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0007(0091)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0210 -0216(0170) (0173)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0007 0024(0095) (0097)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9858 9858 9858 9858
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0255(0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0107 -0169(0328) (0338)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0237 0252(0193) (0198)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9845 9845 9845 9845
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
56
Appendix Table 15B Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2004 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0018(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0190 0207(0160) (0162)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0066 -0083(0102) (0104)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10672 10672 10672 10672
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0096 0108(0124) (0125)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0051 -0059(0076) (0077)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10619 10619 10619 10619
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0108(0110)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0064 0027(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0181 0179(0113) (0113)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10617 10617 10617 10617
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
57
Appendix Table 15C Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0099(0092)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0244 0242(0154) (0155)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0033 0016(0099) (0100)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0021(0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0095 0097(0138) (0139)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0004 -0011(0085) (0086)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0134(0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0203 0181(0175) (0176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0140 0127(0107) (0107)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8709 8709 8709 8709
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
58
- text 10818
- tables 10-8-18
-
App
endix
Tab
le2
Mar
riag
eM
arke
tE
ffec
ts
Con
trol
ling
for
Ow
nY
ear
ofB
irth
Male
Fem
ale
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
Job
Pre
stig
eY
ears
of
Sch
Job
Pre
stig
e
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(M
ale
)-0
052
-211
82
-01
98
-03
74
(02
03)
(131
30)
(01
61)
(14
38)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
luE
xp
osu
re(F
emale
)-0
346lowast
lowastlowast-2
44
97lowastlowast
lowast-0
103
-13
88
(01
16)
(76
88)
(00
94)
(08
54)
Bir
thY
ear
Tim
eT
ren
ds
(Male
an
dF
emale
)Y
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
8348
8279
8348
6587
RS
qr
00
40
00
22
00
25
00
04
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
re-e
stim
ates
Tab
le3
wh
ile
contr
oll
ing
for
year
of
bir
than
dfl
uin
dic
ato
rsass
oci
ate
dw
ith
the
spou
sein
the
dep
end
ent
vari
ab
le
All
esti
mat
ion
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hro
bu
stst
and
ard
erro
rsre
port
edin
pare
nth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
sign
ifica
nce
isd
enote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
atth
e10
5
and
1le
vel
sre
spec
tive
ly
32
Appendix Table 3 2nd Gen Economic Effects Controlling for 1st Gen Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Years of Schooling
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0088(0070)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0005 0008(0119) (0119)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0116 -0117(0072) (0072)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0206 0206 0206 0206
Panel B ln Family Income 1992
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0193lowast
(0111)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0080 -0050(0184) (0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0240lowastlowast -0238lowastlowast
(0116) (0116)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112R Sqr 0024 0024 0024 0024
Panel C Std Normal Net Worth 2004
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0003(0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0047 0049(0046) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0019 -0021(0020) (0020)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498R Sqr 0033 0033 0033 0033
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 4 while controlling for generation one economic outcomes fatherrsquos years ofschooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 First generation time trends are given by year of birth and itssquare for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex secondgeneration year of birth and its square and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standarderrors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and1 levels respectively 33
Appendix Table 4 2nd Gen Health Effects Controlling for 1st Gen Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A BMI
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0352lowast
(0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0051 -0001(0342) (0344)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0372lowast 0372lowast
(0192) (0193)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671R Sqr 0035 0035 0035 0035
Panel B Count of Illnesses
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0122lowast
(0065)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0076 -0096(0102) (0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0139lowastlowast 0144lowastlowast
(0067) (0068)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9921 9921 9921 9921R Sqr 0046 0046 0046 0046
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 5 while controlling for generation one economic outcomes fatherrsquos years ofschooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 First generation time trends are given by year of birth and itssquare for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex secondgeneration year of birth and its square and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standarderrors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and1 levels respectively
34
Appendix Table 5 Generation threersquos years of schooling Controlling for previous generation economicwell-being
Dependent Variable Years of Schooling for Gen 3(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A First Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0069(0076)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0022 0034(0133) (0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0102 -0104(0077) (0078)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913R Sqr 0117 0117 0117 0117
Panel B Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0025(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0008 0013(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0038 -0039(0073) (0073)
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0190 0190 0190 0190
Panel C First and Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0008(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0016 0019(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0028 -0029(0073) (0073)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0196 0196 0196 0196
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 6 while controlling for generation one and tworsquos economic outcomes Forgeneration one these include fatherrsquos years of schooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 generation twocontrols include the WLS graduatesiblingrsquos years of schooling family income in 1992 and net worth in 2004 First generationtime trends are year of birth measures for each parent and their square Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sexsecond generation year of birth and its square and birth order Third generation controls include a sex indicator year of birthand its square and birth order Given the focus on years of schooling the sample is restricted to those third generationindividuals 35 years of age and older or born during or before 1970 (data were collected in 2005) All estimation is performedwith OLS with family (second generation) clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denotedby and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
35
Appendix Table 6 Alternative measures of schooling in the second generation
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Indicator for any college (years of schooling gt12)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0044lowastlowastlowast
(0017)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0011 -0006(0029) (0029)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0044lowastlowast -0043lowastlowast
(0017) (0017)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0071 0070 0071 0071
Panel B Indicator for incomplete college (years of schooling gt12 amp lt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0008(0013)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 -0001(0022) (0022)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0008 -0008(0013) (0013)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0005 0005 0005 0005
Panel C Indicator for college graduate (years of schooling = 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0022lowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0003 0006(0020) (0020)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0021lowast -0021lowastlowast
(0011) (0011)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0019 0019 0019 0019
Panel D Indicator for post-college education (years of schooling gt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0014(0010)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0011(0018) (0018)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0014 -0014(0010) (0010)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0039 0039 0039 0039
Summary amp Notes This table replaces our continuous measure of years of schooling with specified dummy variables Firstgeneration time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Secondgeneration controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and its square and birth order All estimationis performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
36
Appendix Table 7 Young mothers Direct effect on Gen 1 Females
Dependent Variable Years of Sch Job Prestige Family SES
(1) (2) (3)
Ind for First Gen Female Flu Exposure (1918-1919) -0325lowastlowast -0841 -1749lowastlowastlowast
(0137) (1015) (0584)
Ind for mother born during 1920-1921 -0567lowastlowastlowast 0745 -1157(0206) (1515) (0914)
Ind for mother born during 1922-1923 -0666lowastlowast 0098 -2113(0330) (2210) (1298)
Ind for mother born after 1924 -0392 5682 0384(0486) (3705) (2126)
Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y
Observations 8487 6683 8487R Sqr 0014 0005 0014
Summary amp Notes This table includes indicators for alternative years of birth Younger mothers are shown to have lessyears of schooling All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
37
App
endix
Tab
le8
You
ng
mot
her
sG
ener
atio
n2
and
3eff
ects
Gen
2
Gen
3
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
ln
Fam
In
c
1992
Std
N
W
2004
Sel
f-re
p
hea
lth
Hei
ght
BM
IY
ears
of
Sch
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
emal
eF
luE
xp
osu
re(1
918-
1919
)-0
201lowastlowast
-02
95lowastlowast
-00
45
-00
73lowastlowast
-00
90
02
07
-00
86(0
092)
(01
32)
(00
32)
(00
32)
(01
22)
(02
25)
(00
94)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
20-1
921
-00
22
-00
40
-00
10
-00
61
01
33
-04
10
01
13
(01
37)
(01
74)
(00
51)
(00
43)
(01
80)
(03
11)
(01
41)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
22-1
923
-00
96
-01
88
-00
57
00
20
04
61
-11
29lowastlowast
01
55(0
184)
(03
20)
(00
61)
(00
75)
(02
83)
(04
51)
(02
23)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
afte
r19
2404
58
-01
87
00
01
-00
27
03
12
-08
85
03
99
(03
06)
(03
94)
(00
87)
(01
27)
(04
94)
(10
70)
(03
21)
Bas
eC
ontr
ols
YY
YY
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
12459
12112
10498
9888
9783
9671
19913
RS
qr
00
85
00
21
00
08
00
09
05
86
00
29
00
79
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
incl
ud
esin
dic
ator
sfo
ralt
ernati
ve
years
of
bir
th
Bei
ng
born
toa
you
nger
moth
ergen
erall
yis
not
ass
oci
ate
dw
ith
gen
erati
on
2or
3rsquos
outc
omes
ofin
tere
st
inst
ead
n
egat
ive
effec
tsar
eon
lyob
serv
edfo
rth
ose
born
du
rin
gth
efl
u
All
esti
mati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hfa
mil
y(2
nd
gen
erat
ion
)cl
ust
ered
stan
dar
der
rors
rep
orte
din
par
enth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
signifi
can
ceis
den
ote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vel
y
38
Appendix Table 9 Summary Statistics by Gen 2 Sex
Variable N Mean Std Deviation
FemaleYears of Schooling 6607 13352 2088ln Family Income (1992 wave) 6411 9424 3577
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5654 10686 1010Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 5612 -0047 0539Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 5313 4164 0670Height (inches) 5231 646635 247936BMI 5124 26073 5114
Gen 3Years of Schooling 11947 14240 2291
MaleYears of Schooling 5852 14047 2587ln Family Income (1992 wave) 5701 10139 3030
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5264 10981 0836Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 4886 0059 1159Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 4575 4133 0665Height (inches) 4554 7055484 25596BMI 4547 27496 3948
Gen 3Years of Schooling 8046 14371 2332
Appendix Table 10A Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0090(0086)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0198 0214(0169) (0169)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104 -0114(0087) (0087)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6607 6607 6607 6607R Sqr 0075 0075 0075 0075
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
39
Appendix Table 10B Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0523lowastlowastlowast
(0170)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0483 -0410(0321) (0323)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0512lowastlowastlowast -0491lowastlowastlowast
(0179) (0180)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6411 6411 6411 6411R Sqr 0015 0013 0014 0015
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10C Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0007(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0078lowast 0078(0048) (0048)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0008 0005(0025) (0025)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5612 5612 5612 5612R Sqr 0007 0007 0007 0007
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
40
Appendix Table 10D Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0027(0036)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 -0001(0071) (0071)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0022 -0022(0037) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5313 5313 5313 5313r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10E Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -2382(13366)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 44280lowastlowast 46351lowastlowast
(22343) (22480)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -12253 -14428(13485) (13561)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5231 5231 5231 5231r2 0015 0016 0015 0016
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
41
Appendix Table 10F Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0353(0286)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0105 0060(0514) (0516)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0326 0323(0289) (0290)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5124 5124 5124 5124R Sqr 0010 0010 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0087(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0104 -0101(0190) (0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0042 -0039(0098) (0098)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 11906 11906 11906 11906R Sqr 0086 0086 0086 0086
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
42
Appendix Table 11A Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0322lowastlowastlowast
(0116)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0369lowastlowast -0338lowast
(0181) (0180)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0309lowastlowastlowast -0297lowastlowast
(0119) (0119)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5852 5852 5852 5852R Sqr 0060 0059 0060 0060
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11B RResults by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0116(0138)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0262 0261(0200) (0199)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0024 0014(0141) (0140)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5701 5701 5701 5701R Sqr 0009 0009 0008 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
43
Appendix Table 11C Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0038)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0001(0081) (0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0094lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0035)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4886 4886 4886 4886R Sqr 0004 0004 0004 0004
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
44
Appendix Table 11D Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0083lowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 0012(0062) (0062)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104lowastlowastlowast -0105lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0041)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4575 4575 4575 4575r2 0010 0009 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11E Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -15122(14275)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -22991 -20537(23287) (23176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -18595 -17540(14734) (14751)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4554 4554 4554 4554r2 0011 0011 0011 0011
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
45
Appendix Table 11F Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0465lowast
(0238)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0079 0006(0403) (0405)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0520lowastlowast 0520lowastlowast
(0245) (0246)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4547 4547 4547 4547R Sqr 0006 0005 0006 0006
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0177(0123)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0098 0144(0194) (0192)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0293lowastlowast -0302lowastlowast
(0125) (0126)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8007 8007 8007 8007R Sqr 0067 0067 0068 0068
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
46
Appendix Table 12A Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0253lowastlowast
(0107)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0252 -0226(0170) (0172)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0263lowastlowast -0242lowastlowast
(0113) (0115)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0084(0120)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0341 0339(0216) (0219)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0096 0056(0130) (0132)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459r2 0085 0085 0085 0085
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
47
Appendix Table 12B Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0128)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0196 0169(0190) (0189)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0081 -0104(0135) (0135)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0383lowastlowast
(0189)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0594lowast -0474(0349) (0355)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0339lowast -0283(0204) (0207)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112r2 0021 0021 0021 0021
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
48
Appendix Table 12C Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0034)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0019(0077) (0079)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0095lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0030) (0031)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0071lowast
(0038)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0072 0039(0087) (0089)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0104lowastlowastlowast 0100lowastlowastlowast
(0035) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498r2 0008 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
49
Appendix Table 12D Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0071lowast
(0036)[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0012 0031
(0058) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0093lowastlowast -0097lowastlowast
(0039) (0039)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0030(0045)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0031 -0051(0087) (0088)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0059 0065(0048) (0049)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
50
Appendix Table 12E Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0129 -0125(0223) (0224)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0152 -0129(0141) (0142)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0000(0158)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0454 0495lowast
(0279) (0287)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0031 -0090(0170) (0175)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783nr2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
51
Appendix Table 12F Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0376(0231)
[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0059 -0122(0402) (0407)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0441lowast 0457lowast
(0240) (0243)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0068(0316)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0282 0288(0573) (0589)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0035 -0069(0340) (0350)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
52
Appendix Table 12G Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0131(0114)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male 0114 0175(0185) (0188)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0237lowastlowast -0261lowastlowast
(0118) (0121)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0009(0133)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0225 -0292(0249) (0254)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0152 0189(0141) (0145)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913r2 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
53
Appendix Table 13 Family Income 1992 excluding non-earners (ie fam inc = 0)
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992 wave (excluding those reporting 0)(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0095lowastlowastlowast
(0033)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0031 -0019(0053) (0053)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0101lowastlowastlowast -0100lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0034)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10918 10918 10918 10918r2 0050 0049 0050 0050
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0084lowast
(0050)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0019 -0007(0089) (0090)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0083 -0083(0053) (0054)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5654 5654 5654 5654r2 0026 0026 0026 0026
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102lowastlowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0051 -0040(0060) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0113lowastlowastlowast -0112lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0040)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5264 5264 5264 5264r2 0029 0028 0029 0029
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel B in Table 4 excluding those who report $0 for familyincome All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
54
Appendix Table 14 Net Worth 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable Std Net Worth 2011 Wave of WLS(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0032lowastlowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0023lowast -0021lowast
(0012) (0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0032lowastlowastlowast -0031lowastlowastlowast
(0010) (0010)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9435 9435 9435 9435r2 0002 0002 0002 0002
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0012lowast
(0006)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0009 -0008(0009) (0009)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0012lowastlowast -0011lowastlowast
(0006) (0006)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5026 5026 5026 5026r2 0007 0006 0007 0007
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0057lowastlowast
(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0040lowast -0036lowast
(0023) (0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0057lowastlowast -0056lowastlowast
(0023) (0022)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4409 4409 4409 4409r2 0001 0001 0001 0001
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel C in Table 4 replacing the net worth measure from the 2004wave with an identical measure from the 2011 wave of the WLS All estimation is performed with OLS with family clusteredstandard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 105 and 1 levels respectively
55
Appendix Table 15A Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 1992 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0243(0152)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0107 0039(0252) (0255)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0285lowast 0282lowast
(0158) (0160)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9849 9849 9849 9849
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0007(0091)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0210 -0216(0170) (0173)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0007 0024(0095) (0097)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9858 9858 9858 9858
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0255(0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0107 -0169(0328) (0338)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0237 0252(0193) (0198)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9845 9845 9845 9845
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
56
Appendix Table 15B Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2004 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0018(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0190 0207(0160) (0162)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0066 -0083(0102) (0104)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10672 10672 10672 10672
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0096 0108(0124) (0125)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0051 -0059(0076) (0077)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10619 10619 10619 10619
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0108(0110)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0064 0027(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0181 0179(0113) (0113)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10617 10617 10617 10617
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
57
Appendix Table 15C Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0099(0092)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0244 0242(0154) (0155)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0033 0016(0099) (0100)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0021(0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0095 0097(0138) (0139)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0004 -0011(0085) (0086)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0134(0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0203 0181(0175) (0176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0140 0127(0107) (0107)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8709 8709 8709 8709
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
58
- text 10818
- tables 10-8-18
-
Appendix Table 3 2nd Gen Economic Effects Controlling for 1st Gen Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Years of Schooling
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0088(0070)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0005 0008(0119) (0119)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0116 -0117(0072) (0072)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0206 0206 0206 0206
Panel B ln Family Income 1992
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0193lowast
(0111)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0080 -0050(0184) (0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0240lowastlowast -0238lowastlowast
(0116) (0116)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112R Sqr 0024 0024 0024 0024
Panel C Std Normal Net Worth 2004
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0003(0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0047 0049(0046) (0047)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0019 -0021(0020) (0020)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498R Sqr 0033 0033 0033 0033
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 4 while controlling for generation one economic outcomes fatherrsquos years ofschooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 First generation time trends are given by year of birth and itssquare for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex secondgeneration year of birth and its square and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standarderrors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and1 levels respectively 33
Appendix Table 4 2nd Gen Health Effects Controlling for 1st Gen Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A BMI
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0352lowast
(0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0051 -0001(0342) (0344)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0372lowast 0372lowast
(0192) (0193)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671R Sqr 0035 0035 0035 0035
Panel B Count of Illnesses
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0122lowast
(0065)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0076 -0096(0102) (0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0139lowastlowast 0144lowastlowast
(0067) (0068)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9921 9921 9921 9921R Sqr 0046 0046 0046 0046
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 5 while controlling for generation one economic outcomes fatherrsquos years ofschooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 First generation time trends are given by year of birth and itssquare for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex secondgeneration year of birth and its square and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standarderrors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and1 levels respectively
34
Appendix Table 5 Generation threersquos years of schooling Controlling for previous generation economicwell-being
Dependent Variable Years of Schooling for Gen 3(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A First Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0069(0076)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0022 0034(0133) (0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0102 -0104(0077) (0078)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913R Sqr 0117 0117 0117 0117
Panel B Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0025(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0008 0013(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0038 -0039(0073) (0073)
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0190 0190 0190 0190
Panel C First and Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0008(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0016 0019(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0028 -0029(0073) (0073)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0196 0196 0196 0196
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 6 while controlling for generation one and tworsquos economic outcomes Forgeneration one these include fatherrsquos years of schooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 generation twocontrols include the WLS graduatesiblingrsquos years of schooling family income in 1992 and net worth in 2004 First generationtime trends are year of birth measures for each parent and their square Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sexsecond generation year of birth and its square and birth order Third generation controls include a sex indicator year of birthand its square and birth order Given the focus on years of schooling the sample is restricted to those third generationindividuals 35 years of age and older or born during or before 1970 (data were collected in 2005) All estimation is performedwith OLS with family (second generation) clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denotedby and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
35
Appendix Table 6 Alternative measures of schooling in the second generation
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Indicator for any college (years of schooling gt12)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0044lowastlowastlowast
(0017)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0011 -0006(0029) (0029)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0044lowastlowast -0043lowastlowast
(0017) (0017)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0071 0070 0071 0071
Panel B Indicator for incomplete college (years of schooling gt12 amp lt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0008(0013)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 -0001(0022) (0022)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0008 -0008(0013) (0013)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0005 0005 0005 0005
Panel C Indicator for college graduate (years of schooling = 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0022lowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0003 0006(0020) (0020)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0021lowast -0021lowastlowast
(0011) (0011)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0019 0019 0019 0019
Panel D Indicator for post-college education (years of schooling gt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0014(0010)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0011(0018) (0018)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0014 -0014(0010) (0010)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0039 0039 0039 0039
Summary amp Notes This table replaces our continuous measure of years of schooling with specified dummy variables Firstgeneration time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Secondgeneration controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and its square and birth order All estimationis performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
36
Appendix Table 7 Young mothers Direct effect on Gen 1 Females
Dependent Variable Years of Sch Job Prestige Family SES
(1) (2) (3)
Ind for First Gen Female Flu Exposure (1918-1919) -0325lowastlowast -0841 -1749lowastlowastlowast
(0137) (1015) (0584)
Ind for mother born during 1920-1921 -0567lowastlowastlowast 0745 -1157(0206) (1515) (0914)
Ind for mother born during 1922-1923 -0666lowastlowast 0098 -2113(0330) (2210) (1298)
Ind for mother born after 1924 -0392 5682 0384(0486) (3705) (2126)
Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y
Observations 8487 6683 8487R Sqr 0014 0005 0014
Summary amp Notes This table includes indicators for alternative years of birth Younger mothers are shown to have lessyears of schooling All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
37
App
endix
Tab
le8
You
ng
mot
her
sG
ener
atio
n2
and
3eff
ects
Gen
2
Gen
3
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
ln
Fam
In
c
1992
Std
N
W
2004
Sel
f-re
p
hea
lth
Hei
ght
BM
IY
ears
of
Sch
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
emal
eF
luE
xp
osu
re(1
918-
1919
)-0
201lowastlowast
-02
95lowastlowast
-00
45
-00
73lowastlowast
-00
90
02
07
-00
86(0
092)
(01
32)
(00
32)
(00
32)
(01
22)
(02
25)
(00
94)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
20-1
921
-00
22
-00
40
-00
10
-00
61
01
33
-04
10
01
13
(01
37)
(01
74)
(00
51)
(00
43)
(01
80)
(03
11)
(01
41)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
22-1
923
-00
96
-01
88
-00
57
00
20
04
61
-11
29lowastlowast
01
55(0
184)
(03
20)
(00
61)
(00
75)
(02
83)
(04
51)
(02
23)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
afte
r19
2404
58
-01
87
00
01
-00
27
03
12
-08
85
03
99
(03
06)
(03
94)
(00
87)
(01
27)
(04
94)
(10
70)
(03
21)
Bas
eC
ontr
ols
YY
YY
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
12459
12112
10498
9888
9783
9671
19913
RS
qr
00
85
00
21
00
08
00
09
05
86
00
29
00
79
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
incl
ud
esin
dic
ator
sfo
ralt
ernati
ve
years
of
bir
th
Bei
ng
born
toa
you
nger
moth
ergen
erall
yis
not
ass
oci
ate
dw
ith
gen
erati
on
2or
3rsquos
outc
omes
ofin
tere
st
inst
ead
n
egat
ive
effec
tsar
eon
lyob
serv
edfo
rth
ose
born
du
rin
gth
efl
u
All
esti
mati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hfa
mil
y(2
nd
gen
erat
ion
)cl
ust
ered
stan
dar
der
rors
rep
orte
din
par
enth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
signifi
can
ceis
den
ote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vel
y
38
Appendix Table 9 Summary Statistics by Gen 2 Sex
Variable N Mean Std Deviation
FemaleYears of Schooling 6607 13352 2088ln Family Income (1992 wave) 6411 9424 3577
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5654 10686 1010Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 5612 -0047 0539Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 5313 4164 0670Height (inches) 5231 646635 247936BMI 5124 26073 5114
Gen 3Years of Schooling 11947 14240 2291
MaleYears of Schooling 5852 14047 2587ln Family Income (1992 wave) 5701 10139 3030
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5264 10981 0836Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 4886 0059 1159Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 4575 4133 0665Height (inches) 4554 7055484 25596BMI 4547 27496 3948
Gen 3Years of Schooling 8046 14371 2332
Appendix Table 10A Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0090(0086)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0198 0214(0169) (0169)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104 -0114(0087) (0087)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6607 6607 6607 6607R Sqr 0075 0075 0075 0075
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
39
Appendix Table 10B Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0523lowastlowastlowast
(0170)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0483 -0410(0321) (0323)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0512lowastlowastlowast -0491lowastlowastlowast
(0179) (0180)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6411 6411 6411 6411R Sqr 0015 0013 0014 0015
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10C Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0007(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0078lowast 0078(0048) (0048)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0008 0005(0025) (0025)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5612 5612 5612 5612R Sqr 0007 0007 0007 0007
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
40
Appendix Table 10D Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0027(0036)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 -0001(0071) (0071)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0022 -0022(0037) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5313 5313 5313 5313r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10E Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -2382(13366)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 44280lowastlowast 46351lowastlowast
(22343) (22480)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -12253 -14428(13485) (13561)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5231 5231 5231 5231r2 0015 0016 0015 0016
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
41
Appendix Table 10F Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0353(0286)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0105 0060(0514) (0516)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0326 0323(0289) (0290)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5124 5124 5124 5124R Sqr 0010 0010 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0087(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0104 -0101(0190) (0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0042 -0039(0098) (0098)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 11906 11906 11906 11906R Sqr 0086 0086 0086 0086
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
42
Appendix Table 11A Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0322lowastlowastlowast
(0116)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0369lowastlowast -0338lowast
(0181) (0180)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0309lowastlowastlowast -0297lowastlowast
(0119) (0119)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5852 5852 5852 5852R Sqr 0060 0059 0060 0060
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11B RResults by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0116(0138)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0262 0261(0200) (0199)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0024 0014(0141) (0140)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5701 5701 5701 5701R Sqr 0009 0009 0008 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
43
Appendix Table 11C Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0038)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0001(0081) (0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0094lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0035)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4886 4886 4886 4886R Sqr 0004 0004 0004 0004
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
44
Appendix Table 11D Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0083lowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 0012(0062) (0062)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104lowastlowastlowast -0105lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0041)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4575 4575 4575 4575r2 0010 0009 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11E Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -15122(14275)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -22991 -20537(23287) (23176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -18595 -17540(14734) (14751)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4554 4554 4554 4554r2 0011 0011 0011 0011
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
45
Appendix Table 11F Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0465lowast
(0238)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0079 0006(0403) (0405)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0520lowastlowast 0520lowastlowast
(0245) (0246)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4547 4547 4547 4547R Sqr 0006 0005 0006 0006
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0177(0123)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0098 0144(0194) (0192)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0293lowastlowast -0302lowastlowast
(0125) (0126)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8007 8007 8007 8007R Sqr 0067 0067 0068 0068
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
46
Appendix Table 12A Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0253lowastlowast
(0107)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0252 -0226(0170) (0172)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0263lowastlowast -0242lowastlowast
(0113) (0115)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0084(0120)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0341 0339(0216) (0219)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0096 0056(0130) (0132)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459r2 0085 0085 0085 0085
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
47
Appendix Table 12B Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0128)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0196 0169(0190) (0189)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0081 -0104(0135) (0135)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0383lowastlowast
(0189)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0594lowast -0474(0349) (0355)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0339lowast -0283(0204) (0207)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112r2 0021 0021 0021 0021
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
48
Appendix Table 12C Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0034)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0019(0077) (0079)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0095lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0030) (0031)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0071lowast
(0038)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0072 0039(0087) (0089)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0104lowastlowastlowast 0100lowastlowastlowast
(0035) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498r2 0008 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
49
Appendix Table 12D Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0071lowast
(0036)[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0012 0031
(0058) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0093lowastlowast -0097lowastlowast
(0039) (0039)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0030(0045)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0031 -0051(0087) (0088)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0059 0065(0048) (0049)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
50
Appendix Table 12E Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0129 -0125(0223) (0224)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0152 -0129(0141) (0142)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0000(0158)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0454 0495lowast
(0279) (0287)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0031 -0090(0170) (0175)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783nr2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
51
Appendix Table 12F Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0376(0231)
[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0059 -0122(0402) (0407)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0441lowast 0457lowast
(0240) (0243)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0068(0316)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0282 0288(0573) (0589)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0035 -0069(0340) (0350)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
52
Appendix Table 12G Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0131(0114)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male 0114 0175(0185) (0188)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0237lowastlowast -0261lowastlowast
(0118) (0121)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0009(0133)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0225 -0292(0249) (0254)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0152 0189(0141) (0145)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913r2 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
53
Appendix Table 13 Family Income 1992 excluding non-earners (ie fam inc = 0)
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992 wave (excluding those reporting 0)(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0095lowastlowastlowast
(0033)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0031 -0019(0053) (0053)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0101lowastlowastlowast -0100lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0034)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10918 10918 10918 10918r2 0050 0049 0050 0050
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0084lowast
(0050)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0019 -0007(0089) (0090)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0083 -0083(0053) (0054)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5654 5654 5654 5654r2 0026 0026 0026 0026
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102lowastlowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0051 -0040(0060) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0113lowastlowastlowast -0112lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0040)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5264 5264 5264 5264r2 0029 0028 0029 0029
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel B in Table 4 excluding those who report $0 for familyincome All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
54
Appendix Table 14 Net Worth 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable Std Net Worth 2011 Wave of WLS(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0032lowastlowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0023lowast -0021lowast
(0012) (0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0032lowastlowastlowast -0031lowastlowastlowast
(0010) (0010)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9435 9435 9435 9435r2 0002 0002 0002 0002
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0012lowast
(0006)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0009 -0008(0009) (0009)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0012lowastlowast -0011lowastlowast
(0006) (0006)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5026 5026 5026 5026r2 0007 0006 0007 0007
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0057lowastlowast
(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0040lowast -0036lowast
(0023) (0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0057lowastlowast -0056lowastlowast
(0023) (0022)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4409 4409 4409 4409r2 0001 0001 0001 0001
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel C in Table 4 replacing the net worth measure from the 2004wave with an identical measure from the 2011 wave of the WLS All estimation is performed with OLS with family clusteredstandard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 105 and 1 levels respectively
55
Appendix Table 15A Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 1992 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0243(0152)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0107 0039(0252) (0255)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0285lowast 0282lowast
(0158) (0160)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9849 9849 9849 9849
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0007(0091)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0210 -0216(0170) (0173)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0007 0024(0095) (0097)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9858 9858 9858 9858
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0255(0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0107 -0169(0328) (0338)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0237 0252(0193) (0198)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9845 9845 9845 9845
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
56
Appendix Table 15B Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2004 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0018(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0190 0207(0160) (0162)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0066 -0083(0102) (0104)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10672 10672 10672 10672
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0096 0108(0124) (0125)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0051 -0059(0076) (0077)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10619 10619 10619 10619
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0108(0110)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0064 0027(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0181 0179(0113) (0113)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10617 10617 10617 10617
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
57
Appendix Table 15C Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0099(0092)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0244 0242(0154) (0155)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0033 0016(0099) (0100)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0021(0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0095 0097(0138) (0139)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0004 -0011(0085) (0086)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0134(0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0203 0181(0175) (0176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0140 0127(0107) (0107)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8709 8709 8709 8709
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
58
- text 10818
- tables 10-8-18
-
Appendix Table 4 2nd Gen Health Effects Controlling for 1st Gen Outcomes
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A BMI
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0352lowast
(0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0051 -0001(0342) (0344)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0372lowast 0372lowast
(0192) (0193)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671R Sqr 0035 0035 0035 0035
Panel B Count of Illnesses
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0122lowast
(0065)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0076 -0096(0102) (0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0139lowastlowast 0144lowastlowast
(0067) (0068)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9921 9921 9921 9921R Sqr 0046 0046 0046 0046
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 5 while controlling for generation one economic outcomes fatherrsquos years ofschooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 First generation time trends are given by year of birth and itssquare for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sex secondgeneration year of birth and its square and birth order All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standarderrors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and1 levels respectively
34
Appendix Table 5 Generation threersquos years of schooling Controlling for previous generation economicwell-being
Dependent Variable Years of Schooling for Gen 3(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A First Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0069(0076)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0022 0034(0133) (0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0102 -0104(0077) (0078)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913R Sqr 0117 0117 0117 0117
Panel B Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0025(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0008 0013(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0038 -0039(0073) (0073)
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0190 0190 0190 0190
Panel C First and Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0008(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0016 0019(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0028 -0029(0073) (0073)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0196 0196 0196 0196
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 6 while controlling for generation one and tworsquos economic outcomes Forgeneration one these include fatherrsquos years of schooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 generation twocontrols include the WLS graduatesiblingrsquos years of schooling family income in 1992 and net worth in 2004 First generationtime trends are year of birth measures for each parent and their square Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sexsecond generation year of birth and its square and birth order Third generation controls include a sex indicator year of birthand its square and birth order Given the focus on years of schooling the sample is restricted to those third generationindividuals 35 years of age and older or born during or before 1970 (data were collected in 2005) All estimation is performedwith OLS with family (second generation) clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denotedby and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
35
Appendix Table 6 Alternative measures of schooling in the second generation
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Indicator for any college (years of schooling gt12)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0044lowastlowastlowast
(0017)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0011 -0006(0029) (0029)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0044lowastlowast -0043lowastlowast
(0017) (0017)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0071 0070 0071 0071
Panel B Indicator for incomplete college (years of schooling gt12 amp lt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0008(0013)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 -0001(0022) (0022)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0008 -0008(0013) (0013)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0005 0005 0005 0005
Panel C Indicator for college graduate (years of schooling = 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0022lowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0003 0006(0020) (0020)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0021lowast -0021lowastlowast
(0011) (0011)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0019 0019 0019 0019
Panel D Indicator for post-college education (years of schooling gt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0014(0010)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0011(0018) (0018)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0014 -0014(0010) (0010)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0039 0039 0039 0039
Summary amp Notes This table replaces our continuous measure of years of schooling with specified dummy variables Firstgeneration time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Secondgeneration controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and its square and birth order All estimationis performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
36
Appendix Table 7 Young mothers Direct effect on Gen 1 Females
Dependent Variable Years of Sch Job Prestige Family SES
(1) (2) (3)
Ind for First Gen Female Flu Exposure (1918-1919) -0325lowastlowast -0841 -1749lowastlowastlowast
(0137) (1015) (0584)
Ind for mother born during 1920-1921 -0567lowastlowastlowast 0745 -1157(0206) (1515) (0914)
Ind for mother born during 1922-1923 -0666lowastlowast 0098 -2113(0330) (2210) (1298)
Ind for mother born after 1924 -0392 5682 0384(0486) (3705) (2126)
Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y
Observations 8487 6683 8487R Sqr 0014 0005 0014
Summary amp Notes This table includes indicators for alternative years of birth Younger mothers are shown to have lessyears of schooling All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
37
App
endix
Tab
le8
You
ng
mot
her
sG
ener
atio
n2
and
3eff
ects
Gen
2
Gen
3
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
ln
Fam
In
c
1992
Std
N
W
2004
Sel
f-re
p
hea
lth
Hei
ght
BM
IY
ears
of
Sch
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
emal
eF
luE
xp
osu
re(1
918-
1919
)-0
201lowastlowast
-02
95lowastlowast
-00
45
-00
73lowastlowast
-00
90
02
07
-00
86(0
092)
(01
32)
(00
32)
(00
32)
(01
22)
(02
25)
(00
94)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
20-1
921
-00
22
-00
40
-00
10
-00
61
01
33
-04
10
01
13
(01
37)
(01
74)
(00
51)
(00
43)
(01
80)
(03
11)
(01
41)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
22-1
923
-00
96
-01
88
-00
57
00
20
04
61
-11
29lowastlowast
01
55(0
184)
(03
20)
(00
61)
(00
75)
(02
83)
(04
51)
(02
23)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
afte
r19
2404
58
-01
87
00
01
-00
27
03
12
-08
85
03
99
(03
06)
(03
94)
(00
87)
(01
27)
(04
94)
(10
70)
(03
21)
Bas
eC
ontr
ols
YY
YY
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
12459
12112
10498
9888
9783
9671
19913
RS
qr
00
85
00
21
00
08
00
09
05
86
00
29
00
79
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
incl
ud
esin
dic
ator
sfo
ralt
ernati
ve
years
of
bir
th
Bei
ng
born
toa
you
nger
moth
ergen
erall
yis
not
ass
oci
ate
dw
ith
gen
erati
on
2or
3rsquos
outc
omes
ofin
tere
st
inst
ead
n
egat
ive
effec
tsar
eon
lyob
serv
edfo
rth
ose
born
du
rin
gth
efl
u
All
esti
mati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hfa
mil
y(2
nd
gen
erat
ion
)cl
ust
ered
stan
dar
der
rors
rep
orte
din
par
enth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
signifi
can
ceis
den
ote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vel
y
38
Appendix Table 9 Summary Statistics by Gen 2 Sex
Variable N Mean Std Deviation
FemaleYears of Schooling 6607 13352 2088ln Family Income (1992 wave) 6411 9424 3577
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5654 10686 1010Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 5612 -0047 0539Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 5313 4164 0670Height (inches) 5231 646635 247936BMI 5124 26073 5114
Gen 3Years of Schooling 11947 14240 2291
MaleYears of Schooling 5852 14047 2587ln Family Income (1992 wave) 5701 10139 3030
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5264 10981 0836Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 4886 0059 1159Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 4575 4133 0665Height (inches) 4554 7055484 25596BMI 4547 27496 3948
Gen 3Years of Schooling 8046 14371 2332
Appendix Table 10A Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0090(0086)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0198 0214(0169) (0169)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104 -0114(0087) (0087)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6607 6607 6607 6607R Sqr 0075 0075 0075 0075
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
39
Appendix Table 10B Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0523lowastlowastlowast
(0170)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0483 -0410(0321) (0323)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0512lowastlowastlowast -0491lowastlowastlowast
(0179) (0180)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6411 6411 6411 6411R Sqr 0015 0013 0014 0015
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10C Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0007(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0078lowast 0078(0048) (0048)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0008 0005(0025) (0025)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5612 5612 5612 5612R Sqr 0007 0007 0007 0007
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
40
Appendix Table 10D Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0027(0036)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 -0001(0071) (0071)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0022 -0022(0037) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5313 5313 5313 5313r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10E Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -2382(13366)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 44280lowastlowast 46351lowastlowast
(22343) (22480)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -12253 -14428(13485) (13561)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5231 5231 5231 5231r2 0015 0016 0015 0016
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
41
Appendix Table 10F Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0353(0286)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0105 0060(0514) (0516)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0326 0323(0289) (0290)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5124 5124 5124 5124R Sqr 0010 0010 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0087(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0104 -0101(0190) (0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0042 -0039(0098) (0098)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 11906 11906 11906 11906R Sqr 0086 0086 0086 0086
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
42
Appendix Table 11A Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0322lowastlowastlowast
(0116)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0369lowastlowast -0338lowast
(0181) (0180)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0309lowastlowastlowast -0297lowastlowast
(0119) (0119)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5852 5852 5852 5852R Sqr 0060 0059 0060 0060
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11B RResults by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0116(0138)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0262 0261(0200) (0199)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0024 0014(0141) (0140)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5701 5701 5701 5701R Sqr 0009 0009 0008 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
43
Appendix Table 11C Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0038)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0001(0081) (0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0094lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0035)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4886 4886 4886 4886R Sqr 0004 0004 0004 0004
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
44
Appendix Table 11D Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0083lowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 0012(0062) (0062)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104lowastlowastlowast -0105lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0041)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4575 4575 4575 4575r2 0010 0009 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11E Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -15122(14275)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -22991 -20537(23287) (23176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -18595 -17540(14734) (14751)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4554 4554 4554 4554r2 0011 0011 0011 0011
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
45
Appendix Table 11F Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0465lowast
(0238)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0079 0006(0403) (0405)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0520lowastlowast 0520lowastlowast
(0245) (0246)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4547 4547 4547 4547R Sqr 0006 0005 0006 0006
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0177(0123)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0098 0144(0194) (0192)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0293lowastlowast -0302lowastlowast
(0125) (0126)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8007 8007 8007 8007R Sqr 0067 0067 0068 0068
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
46
Appendix Table 12A Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0253lowastlowast
(0107)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0252 -0226(0170) (0172)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0263lowastlowast -0242lowastlowast
(0113) (0115)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0084(0120)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0341 0339(0216) (0219)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0096 0056(0130) (0132)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459r2 0085 0085 0085 0085
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
47
Appendix Table 12B Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0128)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0196 0169(0190) (0189)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0081 -0104(0135) (0135)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0383lowastlowast
(0189)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0594lowast -0474(0349) (0355)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0339lowast -0283(0204) (0207)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112r2 0021 0021 0021 0021
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
48
Appendix Table 12C Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0034)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0019(0077) (0079)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0095lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0030) (0031)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0071lowast
(0038)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0072 0039(0087) (0089)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0104lowastlowastlowast 0100lowastlowastlowast
(0035) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498r2 0008 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
49
Appendix Table 12D Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0071lowast
(0036)[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0012 0031
(0058) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0093lowastlowast -0097lowastlowast
(0039) (0039)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0030(0045)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0031 -0051(0087) (0088)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0059 0065(0048) (0049)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
50
Appendix Table 12E Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0129 -0125(0223) (0224)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0152 -0129(0141) (0142)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0000(0158)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0454 0495lowast
(0279) (0287)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0031 -0090(0170) (0175)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783nr2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
51
Appendix Table 12F Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0376(0231)
[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0059 -0122(0402) (0407)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0441lowast 0457lowast
(0240) (0243)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0068(0316)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0282 0288(0573) (0589)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0035 -0069(0340) (0350)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
52
Appendix Table 12G Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0131(0114)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male 0114 0175(0185) (0188)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0237lowastlowast -0261lowastlowast
(0118) (0121)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0009(0133)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0225 -0292(0249) (0254)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0152 0189(0141) (0145)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913r2 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
53
Appendix Table 13 Family Income 1992 excluding non-earners (ie fam inc = 0)
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992 wave (excluding those reporting 0)(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0095lowastlowastlowast
(0033)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0031 -0019(0053) (0053)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0101lowastlowastlowast -0100lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0034)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10918 10918 10918 10918r2 0050 0049 0050 0050
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0084lowast
(0050)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0019 -0007(0089) (0090)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0083 -0083(0053) (0054)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5654 5654 5654 5654r2 0026 0026 0026 0026
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102lowastlowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0051 -0040(0060) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0113lowastlowastlowast -0112lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0040)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5264 5264 5264 5264r2 0029 0028 0029 0029
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel B in Table 4 excluding those who report $0 for familyincome All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
54
Appendix Table 14 Net Worth 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable Std Net Worth 2011 Wave of WLS(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0032lowastlowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0023lowast -0021lowast
(0012) (0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0032lowastlowastlowast -0031lowastlowastlowast
(0010) (0010)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9435 9435 9435 9435r2 0002 0002 0002 0002
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0012lowast
(0006)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0009 -0008(0009) (0009)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0012lowastlowast -0011lowastlowast
(0006) (0006)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5026 5026 5026 5026r2 0007 0006 0007 0007
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0057lowastlowast
(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0040lowast -0036lowast
(0023) (0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0057lowastlowast -0056lowastlowast
(0023) (0022)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4409 4409 4409 4409r2 0001 0001 0001 0001
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel C in Table 4 replacing the net worth measure from the 2004wave with an identical measure from the 2011 wave of the WLS All estimation is performed with OLS with family clusteredstandard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 105 and 1 levels respectively
55
Appendix Table 15A Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 1992 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0243(0152)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0107 0039(0252) (0255)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0285lowast 0282lowast
(0158) (0160)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9849 9849 9849 9849
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0007(0091)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0210 -0216(0170) (0173)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0007 0024(0095) (0097)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9858 9858 9858 9858
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0255(0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0107 -0169(0328) (0338)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0237 0252(0193) (0198)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9845 9845 9845 9845
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
56
Appendix Table 15B Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2004 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0018(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0190 0207(0160) (0162)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0066 -0083(0102) (0104)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10672 10672 10672 10672
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0096 0108(0124) (0125)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0051 -0059(0076) (0077)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10619 10619 10619 10619
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0108(0110)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0064 0027(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0181 0179(0113) (0113)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10617 10617 10617 10617
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
57
Appendix Table 15C Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0099(0092)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0244 0242(0154) (0155)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0033 0016(0099) (0100)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0021(0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0095 0097(0138) (0139)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0004 -0011(0085) (0086)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0134(0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0203 0181(0175) (0176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0140 0127(0107) (0107)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8709 8709 8709 8709
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
58
- text 10818
- tables 10-8-18
-
Appendix Table 5 Generation threersquos years of schooling Controlling for previous generation economicwell-being
Dependent Variable Years of Schooling for Gen 3(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A First Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0069(0076)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0022 0034(0133) (0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0102 -0104(0077) (0078)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913R Sqr 0117 0117 0117 0117
Panel B Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0025(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0008 0013(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0038 -0039(0073) (0073)
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0190 0190 0190 0190
Panel C First and Second Generation Controls
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex -0008(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0016 0019(0122) (0122)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0028 -0029(0073) (0073)
First Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Economic Outcomes Y Y Y Y
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Third Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 18449 18449 18449 18449R Sqr 0196 0196 0196 0196
Summary amp Notes This table re-estimates table 6 while controlling for generation one and tworsquos economic outcomes Forgeneration one these include fatherrsquos years of schooling motherrsquos years of schooling and family SES in 1957 generation twocontrols include the WLS graduatesiblingrsquos years of schooling family income in 1992 and net worth in 2004 First generationtime trends are year of birth measures for each parent and their square Second generation controls inlcude an indicator for sexsecond generation year of birth and its square and birth order Third generation controls include a sex indicator year of birthand its square and birth order Given the focus on years of schooling the sample is restricted to those third generationindividuals 35 years of age and older or born during or before 1970 (data were collected in 2005) All estimation is performedwith OLS with family (second generation) clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denotedby and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
35
Appendix Table 6 Alternative measures of schooling in the second generation
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Indicator for any college (years of schooling gt12)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0044lowastlowastlowast
(0017)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0011 -0006(0029) (0029)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0044lowastlowast -0043lowastlowast
(0017) (0017)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0071 0070 0071 0071
Panel B Indicator for incomplete college (years of schooling gt12 amp lt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0008(0013)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 -0001(0022) (0022)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0008 -0008(0013) (0013)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0005 0005 0005 0005
Panel C Indicator for college graduate (years of schooling = 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0022lowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0003 0006(0020) (0020)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0021lowast -0021lowastlowast
(0011) (0011)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0019 0019 0019 0019
Panel D Indicator for post-college education (years of schooling gt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0014(0010)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0011(0018) (0018)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0014 -0014(0010) (0010)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0039 0039 0039 0039
Summary amp Notes This table replaces our continuous measure of years of schooling with specified dummy variables Firstgeneration time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Secondgeneration controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and its square and birth order All estimationis performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
36
Appendix Table 7 Young mothers Direct effect on Gen 1 Females
Dependent Variable Years of Sch Job Prestige Family SES
(1) (2) (3)
Ind for First Gen Female Flu Exposure (1918-1919) -0325lowastlowast -0841 -1749lowastlowastlowast
(0137) (1015) (0584)
Ind for mother born during 1920-1921 -0567lowastlowastlowast 0745 -1157(0206) (1515) (0914)
Ind for mother born during 1922-1923 -0666lowastlowast 0098 -2113(0330) (2210) (1298)
Ind for mother born after 1924 -0392 5682 0384(0486) (3705) (2126)
Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y
Observations 8487 6683 8487R Sqr 0014 0005 0014
Summary amp Notes This table includes indicators for alternative years of birth Younger mothers are shown to have lessyears of schooling All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
37
App
endix
Tab
le8
You
ng
mot
her
sG
ener
atio
n2
and
3eff
ects
Gen
2
Gen
3
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
ln
Fam
In
c
1992
Std
N
W
2004
Sel
f-re
p
hea
lth
Hei
ght
BM
IY
ears
of
Sch
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
emal
eF
luE
xp
osu
re(1
918-
1919
)-0
201lowastlowast
-02
95lowastlowast
-00
45
-00
73lowastlowast
-00
90
02
07
-00
86(0
092)
(01
32)
(00
32)
(00
32)
(01
22)
(02
25)
(00
94)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
20-1
921
-00
22
-00
40
-00
10
-00
61
01
33
-04
10
01
13
(01
37)
(01
74)
(00
51)
(00
43)
(01
80)
(03
11)
(01
41)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
22-1
923
-00
96
-01
88
-00
57
00
20
04
61
-11
29lowastlowast
01
55(0
184)
(03
20)
(00
61)
(00
75)
(02
83)
(04
51)
(02
23)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
afte
r19
2404
58
-01
87
00
01
-00
27
03
12
-08
85
03
99
(03
06)
(03
94)
(00
87)
(01
27)
(04
94)
(10
70)
(03
21)
Bas
eC
ontr
ols
YY
YY
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
12459
12112
10498
9888
9783
9671
19913
RS
qr
00
85
00
21
00
08
00
09
05
86
00
29
00
79
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
incl
ud
esin
dic
ator
sfo
ralt
ernati
ve
years
of
bir
th
Bei
ng
born
toa
you
nger
moth
ergen
erall
yis
not
ass
oci
ate
dw
ith
gen
erati
on
2or
3rsquos
outc
omes
ofin
tere
st
inst
ead
n
egat
ive
effec
tsar
eon
lyob
serv
edfo
rth
ose
born
du
rin
gth
efl
u
All
esti
mati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hfa
mil
y(2
nd
gen
erat
ion
)cl
ust
ered
stan
dar
der
rors
rep
orte
din
par
enth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
signifi
can
ceis
den
ote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vel
y
38
Appendix Table 9 Summary Statistics by Gen 2 Sex
Variable N Mean Std Deviation
FemaleYears of Schooling 6607 13352 2088ln Family Income (1992 wave) 6411 9424 3577
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5654 10686 1010Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 5612 -0047 0539Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 5313 4164 0670Height (inches) 5231 646635 247936BMI 5124 26073 5114
Gen 3Years of Schooling 11947 14240 2291
MaleYears of Schooling 5852 14047 2587ln Family Income (1992 wave) 5701 10139 3030
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5264 10981 0836Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 4886 0059 1159Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 4575 4133 0665Height (inches) 4554 7055484 25596BMI 4547 27496 3948
Gen 3Years of Schooling 8046 14371 2332
Appendix Table 10A Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0090(0086)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0198 0214(0169) (0169)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104 -0114(0087) (0087)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6607 6607 6607 6607R Sqr 0075 0075 0075 0075
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
39
Appendix Table 10B Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0523lowastlowastlowast
(0170)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0483 -0410(0321) (0323)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0512lowastlowastlowast -0491lowastlowastlowast
(0179) (0180)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6411 6411 6411 6411R Sqr 0015 0013 0014 0015
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10C Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0007(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0078lowast 0078(0048) (0048)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0008 0005(0025) (0025)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5612 5612 5612 5612R Sqr 0007 0007 0007 0007
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
40
Appendix Table 10D Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0027(0036)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 -0001(0071) (0071)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0022 -0022(0037) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5313 5313 5313 5313r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10E Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -2382(13366)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 44280lowastlowast 46351lowastlowast
(22343) (22480)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -12253 -14428(13485) (13561)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5231 5231 5231 5231r2 0015 0016 0015 0016
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
41
Appendix Table 10F Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0353(0286)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0105 0060(0514) (0516)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0326 0323(0289) (0290)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5124 5124 5124 5124R Sqr 0010 0010 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0087(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0104 -0101(0190) (0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0042 -0039(0098) (0098)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 11906 11906 11906 11906R Sqr 0086 0086 0086 0086
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
42
Appendix Table 11A Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0322lowastlowastlowast
(0116)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0369lowastlowast -0338lowast
(0181) (0180)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0309lowastlowastlowast -0297lowastlowast
(0119) (0119)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5852 5852 5852 5852R Sqr 0060 0059 0060 0060
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11B RResults by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0116(0138)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0262 0261(0200) (0199)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0024 0014(0141) (0140)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5701 5701 5701 5701R Sqr 0009 0009 0008 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
43
Appendix Table 11C Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0038)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0001(0081) (0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0094lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0035)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4886 4886 4886 4886R Sqr 0004 0004 0004 0004
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
44
Appendix Table 11D Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0083lowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 0012(0062) (0062)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104lowastlowastlowast -0105lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0041)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4575 4575 4575 4575r2 0010 0009 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11E Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -15122(14275)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -22991 -20537(23287) (23176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -18595 -17540(14734) (14751)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4554 4554 4554 4554r2 0011 0011 0011 0011
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
45
Appendix Table 11F Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0465lowast
(0238)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0079 0006(0403) (0405)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0520lowastlowast 0520lowastlowast
(0245) (0246)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4547 4547 4547 4547R Sqr 0006 0005 0006 0006
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0177(0123)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0098 0144(0194) (0192)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0293lowastlowast -0302lowastlowast
(0125) (0126)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8007 8007 8007 8007R Sqr 0067 0067 0068 0068
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
46
Appendix Table 12A Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0253lowastlowast
(0107)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0252 -0226(0170) (0172)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0263lowastlowast -0242lowastlowast
(0113) (0115)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0084(0120)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0341 0339(0216) (0219)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0096 0056(0130) (0132)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459r2 0085 0085 0085 0085
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
47
Appendix Table 12B Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0128)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0196 0169(0190) (0189)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0081 -0104(0135) (0135)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0383lowastlowast
(0189)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0594lowast -0474(0349) (0355)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0339lowast -0283(0204) (0207)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112r2 0021 0021 0021 0021
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
48
Appendix Table 12C Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0034)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0019(0077) (0079)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0095lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0030) (0031)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0071lowast
(0038)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0072 0039(0087) (0089)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0104lowastlowastlowast 0100lowastlowastlowast
(0035) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498r2 0008 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
49
Appendix Table 12D Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0071lowast
(0036)[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0012 0031
(0058) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0093lowastlowast -0097lowastlowast
(0039) (0039)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0030(0045)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0031 -0051(0087) (0088)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0059 0065(0048) (0049)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
50
Appendix Table 12E Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0129 -0125(0223) (0224)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0152 -0129(0141) (0142)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0000(0158)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0454 0495lowast
(0279) (0287)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0031 -0090(0170) (0175)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783nr2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
51
Appendix Table 12F Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0376(0231)
[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0059 -0122(0402) (0407)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0441lowast 0457lowast
(0240) (0243)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0068(0316)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0282 0288(0573) (0589)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0035 -0069(0340) (0350)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
52
Appendix Table 12G Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0131(0114)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male 0114 0175(0185) (0188)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0237lowastlowast -0261lowastlowast
(0118) (0121)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0009(0133)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0225 -0292(0249) (0254)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0152 0189(0141) (0145)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913r2 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
53
Appendix Table 13 Family Income 1992 excluding non-earners (ie fam inc = 0)
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992 wave (excluding those reporting 0)(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0095lowastlowastlowast
(0033)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0031 -0019(0053) (0053)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0101lowastlowastlowast -0100lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0034)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10918 10918 10918 10918r2 0050 0049 0050 0050
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0084lowast
(0050)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0019 -0007(0089) (0090)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0083 -0083(0053) (0054)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5654 5654 5654 5654r2 0026 0026 0026 0026
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102lowastlowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0051 -0040(0060) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0113lowastlowastlowast -0112lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0040)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5264 5264 5264 5264r2 0029 0028 0029 0029
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel B in Table 4 excluding those who report $0 for familyincome All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
54
Appendix Table 14 Net Worth 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable Std Net Worth 2011 Wave of WLS(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0032lowastlowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0023lowast -0021lowast
(0012) (0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0032lowastlowastlowast -0031lowastlowastlowast
(0010) (0010)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9435 9435 9435 9435r2 0002 0002 0002 0002
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0012lowast
(0006)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0009 -0008(0009) (0009)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0012lowastlowast -0011lowastlowast
(0006) (0006)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5026 5026 5026 5026r2 0007 0006 0007 0007
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0057lowastlowast
(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0040lowast -0036lowast
(0023) (0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0057lowastlowast -0056lowastlowast
(0023) (0022)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4409 4409 4409 4409r2 0001 0001 0001 0001
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel C in Table 4 replacing the net worth measure from the 2004wave with an identical measure from the 2011 wave of the WLS All estimation is performed with OLS with family clusteredstandard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 105 and 1 levels respectively
55
Appendix Table 15A Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 1992 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0243(0152)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0107 0039(0252) (0255)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0285lowast 0282lowast
(0158) (0160)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9849 9849 9849 9849
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0007(0091)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0210 -0216(0170) (0173)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0007 0024(0095) (0097)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9858 9858 9858 9858
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0255(0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0107 -0169(0328) (0338)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0237 0252(0193) (0198)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9845 9845 9845 9845
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
56
Appendix Table 15B Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2004 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0018(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0190 0207(0160) (0162)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0066 -0083(0102) (0104)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10672 10672 10672 10672
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0096 0108(0124) (0125)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0051 -0059(0076) (0077)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10619 10619 10619 10619
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0108(0110)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0064 0027(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0181 0179(0113) (0113)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10617 10617 10617 10617
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
57
Appendix Table 15C Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0099(0092)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0244 0242(0154) (0155)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0033 0016(0099) (0100)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0021(0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0095 0097(0138) (0139)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0004 -0011(0085) (0086)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0134(0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0203 0181(0175) (0176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0140 0127(0107) (0107)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8709 8709 8709 8709
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
58
- text 10818
- tables 10-8-18
-
Appendix Table 6 Alternative measures of schooling in the second generation
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Indicator for any college (years of schooling gt12)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0044lowastlowastlowast
(0017)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0011 -0006(0029) (0029)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0044lowastlowast -0043lowastlowast
(0017) (0017)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0071 0070 0071 0071
Panel B Indicator for incomplete college (years of schooling gt12 amp lt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0008(0013)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 -0001(0022) (0022)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0008 -0008(0013) (0013)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0005 0005 0005 0005
Panel C Indicator for college graduate (years of schooling = 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0022lowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0003 0006(0020) (0020)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0021lowast -0021lowastlowast
(0011) (0011)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0019 0019 0019 0019
Panel D Indicator for post-college education (years of schooling gt 16)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0014(0010)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0011(0018) (0018)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0014 -0014(0010) (0010)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459R Sqr 0039 0039 0039 0039
Summary amp Notes This table replaces our continuous measure of years of schooling with specified dummy variables Firstgeneration time trends are given by year of birth and its square for both WLS parents (ie gen1 males and females) Secondgeneration controls inlcude an indicator for sex second generation year of birth and its square and birth order All estimationis performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
36
Appendix Table 7 Young mothers Direct effect on Gen 1 Females
Dependent Variable Years of Sch Job Prestige Family SES
(1) (2) (3)
Ind for First Gen Female Flu Exposure (1918-1919) -0325lowastlowast -0841 -1749lowastlowastlowast
(0137) (1015) (0584)
Ind for mother born during 1920-1921 -0567lowastlowastlowast 0745 -1157(0206) (1515) (0914)
Ind for mother born during 1922-1923 -0666lowastlowast 0098 -2113(0330) (2210) (1298)
Ind for mother born after 1924 -0392 5682 0384(0486) (3705) (2126)
Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y
Observations 8487 6683 8487R Sqr 0014 0005 0014
Summary amp Notes This table includes indicators for alternative years of birth Younger mothers are shown to have lessyears of schooling All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
37
App
endix
Tab
le8
You
ng
mot
her
sG
ener
atio
n2
and
3eff
ects
Gen
2
Gen
3
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
ln
Fam
In
c
1992
Std
N
W
2004
Sel
f-re
p
hea
lth
Hei
ght
BM
IY
ears
of
Sch
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
emal
eF
luE
xp
osu
re(1
918-
1919
)-0
201lowastlowast
-02
95lowastlowast
-00
45
-00
73lowastlowast
-00
90
02
07
-00
86(0
092)
(01
32)
(00
32)
(00
32)
(01
22)
(02
25)
(00
94)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
20-1
921
-00
22
-00
40
-00
10
-00
61
01
33
-04
10
01
13
(01
37)
(01
74)
(00
51)
(00
43)
(01
80)
(03
11)
(01
41)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
22-1
923
-00
96
-01
88
-00
57
00
20
04
61
-11
29lowastlowast
01
55(0
184)
(03
20)
(00
61)
(00
75)
(02
83)
(04
51)
(02
23)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
afte
r19
2404
58
-01
87
00
01
-00
27
03
12
-08
85
03
99
(03
06)
(03
94)
(00
87)
(01
27)
(04
94)
(10
70)
(03
21)
Bas
eC
ontr
ols
YY
YY
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
12459
12112
10498
9888
9783
9671
19913
RS
qr
00
85
00
21
00
08
00
09
05
86
00
29
00
79
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
incl
ud
esin
dic
ator
sfo
ralt
ernati
ve
years
of
bir
th
Bei
ng
born
toa
you
nger
moth
ergen
erall
yis
not
ass
oci
ate
dw
ith
gen
erati
on
2or
3rsquos
outc
omes
ofin
tere
st
inst
ead
n
egat
ive
effec
tsar
eon
lyob
serv
edfo
rth
ose
born
du
rin
gth
efl
u
All
esti
mati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hfa
mil
y(2
nd
gen
erat
ion
)cl
ust
ered
stan
dar
der
rors
rep
orte
din
par
enth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
signifi
can
ceis
den
ote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vel
y
38
Appendix Table 9 Summary Statistics by Gen 2 Sex
Variable N Mean Std Deviation
FemaleYears of Schooling 6607 13352 2088ln Family Income (1992 wave) 6411 9424 3577
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5654 10686 1010Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 5612 -0047 0539Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 5313 4164 0670Height (inches) 5231 646635 247936BMI 5124 26073 5114
Gen 3Years of Schooling 11947 14240 2291
MaleYears of Schooling 5852 14047 2587ln Family Income (1992 wave) 5701 10139 3030
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5264 10981 0836Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 4886 0059 1159Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 4575 4133 0665Height (inches) 4554 7055484 25596BMI 4547 27496 3948
Gen 3Years of Schooling 8046 14371 2332
Appendix Table 10A Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0090(0086)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0198 0214(0169) (0169)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104 -0114(0087) (0087)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6607 6607 6607 6607R Sqr 0075 0075 0075 0075
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
39
Appendix Table 10B Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0523lowastlowastlowast
(0170)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0483 -0410(0321) (0323)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0512lowastlowastlowast -0491lowastlowastlowast
(0179) (0180)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6411 6411 6411 6411R Sqr 0015 0013 0014 0015
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10C Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0007(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0078lowast 0078(0048) (0048)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0008 0005(0025) (0025)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5612 5612 5612 5612R Sqr 0007 0007 0007 0007
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
40
Appendix Table 10D Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0027(0036)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 -0001(0071) (0071)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0022 -0022(0037) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5313 5313 5313 5313r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10E Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -2382(13366)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 44280lowastlowast 46351lowastlowast
(22343) (22480)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -12253 -14428(13485) (13561)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5231 5231 5231 5231r2 0015 0016 0015 0016
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
41
Appendix Table 10F Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0353(0286)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0105 0060(0514) (0516)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0326 0323(0289) (0290)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5124 5124 5124 5124R Sqr 0010 0010 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0087(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0104 -0101(0190) (0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0042 -0039(0098) (0098)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 11906 11906 11906 11906R Sqr 0086 0086 0086 0086
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
42
Appendix Table 11A Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0322lowastlowastlowast
(0116)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0369lowastlowast -0338lowast
(0181) (0180)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0309lowastlowastlowast -0297lowastlowast
(0119) (0119)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5852 5852 5852 5852R Sqr 0060 0059 0060 0060
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11B RResults by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0116(0138)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0262 0261(0200) (0199)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0024 0014(0141) (0140)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5701 5701 5701 5701R Sqr 0009 0009 0008 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
43
Appendix Table 11C Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0038)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0001(0081) (0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0094lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0035)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4886 4886 4886 4886R Sqr 0004 0004 0004 0004
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
44
Appendix Table 11D Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0083lowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 0012(0062) (0062)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104lowastlowastlowast -0105lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0041)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4575 4575 4575 4575r2 0010 0009 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11E Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -15122(14275)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -22991 -20537(23287) (23176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -18595 -17540(14734) (14751)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4554 4554 4554 4554r2 0011 0011 0011 0011
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
45
Appendix Table 11F Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0465lowast
(0238)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0079 0006(0403) (0405)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0520lowastlowast 0520lowastlowast
(0245) (0246)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4547 4547 4547 4547R Sqr 0006 0005 0006 0006
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0177(0123)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0098 0144(0194) (0192)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0293lowastlowast -0302lowastlowast
(0125) (0126)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8007 8007 8007 8007R Sqr 0067 0067 0068 0068
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
46
Appendix Table 12A Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0253lowastlowast
(0107)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0252 -0226(0170) (0172)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0263lowastlowast -0242lowastlowast
(0113) (0115)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0084(0120)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0341 0339(0216) (0219)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0096 0056(0130) (0132)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459r2 0085 0085 0085 0085
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
47
Appendix Table 12B Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0128)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0196 0169(0190) (0189)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0081 -0104(0135) (0135)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0383lowastlowast
(0189)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0594lowast -0474(0349) (0355)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0339lowast -0283(0204) (0207)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112r2 0021 0021 0021 0021
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
48
Appendix Table 12C Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0034)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0019(0077) (0079)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0095lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0030) (0031)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0071lowast
(0038)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0072 0039(0087) (0089)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0104lowastlowastlowast 0100lowastlowastlowast
(0035) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498r2 0008 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
49
Appendix Table 12D Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0071lowast
(0036)[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0012 0031
(0058) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0093lowastlowast -0097lowastlowast
(0039) (0039)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0030(0045)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0031 -0051(0087) (0088)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0059 0065(0048) (0049)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
50
Appendix Table 12E Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0129 -0125(0223) (0224)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0152 -0129(0141) (0142)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0000(0158)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0454 0495lowast
(0279) (0287)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0031 -0090(0170) (0175)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783nr2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
51
Appendix Table 12F Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0376(0231)
[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0059 -0122(0402) (0407)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0441lowast 0457lowast
(0240) (0243)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0068(0316)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0282 0288(0573) (0589)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0035 -0069(0340) (0350)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
52
Appendix Table 12G Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0131(0114)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male 0114 0175(0185) (0188)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0237lowastlowast -0261lowastlowast
(0118) (0121)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0009(0133)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0225 -0292(0249) (0254)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0152 0189(0141) (0145)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913r2 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
53
Appendix Table 13 Family Income 1992 excluding non-earners (ie fam inc = 0)
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992 wave (excluding those reporting 0)(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0095lowastlowastlowast
(0033)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0031 -0019(0053) (0053)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0101lowastlowastlowast -0100lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0034)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10918 10918 10918 10918r2 0050 0049 0050 0050
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0084lowast
(0050)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0019 -0007(0089) (0090)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0083 -0083(0053) (0054)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5654 5654 5654 5654r2 0026 0026 0026 0026
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102lowastlowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0051 -0040(0060) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0113lowastlowastlowast -0112lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0040)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5264 5264 5264 5264r2 0029 0028 0029 0029
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel B in Table 4 excluding those who report $0 for familyincome All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
54
Appendix Table 14 Net Worth 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable Std Net Worth 2011 Wave of WLS(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0032lowastlowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0023lowast -0021lowast
(0012) (0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0032lowastlowastlowast -0031lowastlowastlowast
(0010) (0010)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9435 9435 9435 9435r2 0002 0002 0002 0002
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0012lowast
(0006)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0009 -0008(0009) (0009)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0012lowastlowast -0011lowastlowast
(0006) (0006)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5026 5026 5026 5026r2 0007 0006 0007 0007
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0057lowastlowast
(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0040lowast -0036lowast
(0023) (0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0057lowastlowast -0056lowastlowast
(0023) (0022)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4409 4409 4409 4409r2 0001 0001 0001 0001
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel C in Table 4 replacing the net worth measure from the 2004wave with an identical measure from the 2011 wave of the WLS All estimation is performed with OLS with family clusteredstandard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 105 and 1 levels respectively
55
Appendix Table 15A Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 1992 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0243(0152)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0107 0039(0252) (0255)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0285lowast 0282lowast
(0158) (0160)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9849 9849 9849 9849
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0007(0091)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0210 -0216(0170) (0173)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0007 0024(0095) (0097)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9858 9858 9858 9858
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0255(0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0107 -0169(0328) (0338)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0237 0252(0193) (0198)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9845 9845 9845 9845
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
56
Appendix Table 15B Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2004 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0018(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0190 0207(0160) (0162)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0066 -0083(0102) (0104)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10672 10672 10672 10672
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0096 0108(0124) (0125)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0051 -0059(0076) (0077)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10619 10619 10619 10619
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0108(0110)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0064 0027(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0181 0179(0113) (0113)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10617 10617 10617 10617
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
57
Appendix Table 15C Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0099(0092)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0244 0242(0154) (0155)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0033 0016(0099) (0100)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0021(0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0095 0097(0138) (0139)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0004 -0011(0085) (0086)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0134(0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0203 0181(0175) (0176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0140 0127(0107) (0107)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8709 8709 8709 8709
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
58
- text 10818
- tables 10-8-18
-
Appendix Table 7 Young mothers Direct effect on Gen 1 Females
Dependent Variable Years of Sch Job Prestige Family SES
(1) (2) (3)
Ind for First Gen Female Flu Exposure (1918-1919) -0325lowastlowast -0841 -1749lowastlowastlowast
(0137) (1015) (0584)
Ind for mother born during 1920-1921 -0567lowastlowastlowast 0745 -1157(0206) (1515) (0914)
Ind for mother born during 1922-1923 -0666lowastlowast 0098 -2113(0330) (2210) (1298)
Ind for mother born after 1924 -0392 5682 0384(0486) (3705) (2126)
Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y
Observations 8487 6683 8487R Sqr 0014 0005 0014
Summary amp Notes This table includes indicators for alternative years of birth Younger mothers are shown to have lessyears of schooling All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesisStatistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
37
App
endix
Tab
le8
You
ng
mot
her
sG
ener
atio
n2
and
3eff
ects
Gen
2
Gen
3
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
ln
Fam
In
c
1992
Std
N
W
2004
Sel
f-re
p
hea
lth
Hei
ght
BM
IY
ears
of
Sch
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
emal
eF
luE
xp
osu
re(1
918-
1919
)-0
201lowastlowast
-02
95lowastlowast
-00
45
-00
73lowastlowast
-00
90
02
07
-00
86(0
092)
(01
32)
(00
32)
(00
32)
(01
22)
(02
25)
(00
94)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
20-1
921
-00
22
-00
40
-00
10
-00
61
01
33
-04
10
01
13
(01
37)
(01
74)
(00
51)
(00
43)
(01
80)
(03
11)
(01
41)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
22-1
923
-00
96
-01
88
-00
57
00
20
04
61
-11
29lowastlowast
01
55(0
184)
(03
20)
(00
61)
(00
75)
(02
83)
(04
51)
(02
23)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
afte
r19
2404
58
-01
87
00
01
-00
27
03
12
-08
85
03
99
(03
06)
(03
94)
(00
87)
(01
27)
(04
94)
(10
70)
(03
21)
Bas
eC
ontr
ols
YY
YY
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
12459
12112
10498
9888
9783
9671
19913
RS
qr
00
85
00
21
00
08
00
09
05
86
00
29
00
79
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
incl
ud
esin
dic
ator
sfo
ralt
ernati
ve
years
of
bir
th
Bei
ng
born
toa
you
nger
moth
ergen
erall
yis
not
ass
oci
ate
dw
ith
gen
erati
on
2or
3rsquos
outc
omes
ofin
tere
st
inst
ead
n
egat
ive
effec
tsar
eon
lyob
serv
edfo
rth
ose
born
du
rin
gth
efl
u
All
esti
mati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hfa
mil
y(2
nd
gen
erat
ion
)cl
ust
ered
stan
dar
der
rors
rep
orte
din
par
enth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
signifi
can
ceis
den
ote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vel
y
38
Appendix Table 9 Summary Statistics by Gen 2 Sex
Variable N Mean Std Deviation
FemaleYears of Schooling 6607 13352 2088ln Family Income (1992 wave) 6411 9424 3577
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5654 10686 1010Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 5612 -0047 0539Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 5313 4164 0670Height (inches) 5231 646635 247936BMI 5124 26073 5114
Gen 3Years of Schooling 11947 14240 2291
MaleYears of Schooling 5852 14047 2587ln Family Income (1992 wave) 5701 10139 3030
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5264 10981 0836Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 4886 0059 1159Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 4575 4133 0665Height (inches) 4554 7055484 25596BMI 4547 27496 3948
Gen 3Years of Schooling 8046 14371 2332
Appendix Table 10A Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0090(0086)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0198 0214(0169) (0169)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104 -0114(0087) (0087)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6607 6607 6607 6607R Sqr 0075 0075 0075 0075
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
39
Appendix Table 10B Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0523lowastlowastlowast
(0170)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0483 -0410(0321) (0323)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0512lowastlowastlowast -0491lowastlowastlowast
(0179) (0180)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6411 6411 6411 6411R Sqr 0015 0013 0014 0015
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10C Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0007(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0078lowast 0078(0048) (0048)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0008 0005(0025) (0025)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5612 5612 5612 5612R Sqr 0007 0007 0007 0007
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
40
Appendix Table 10D Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0027(0036)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 -0001(0071) (0071)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0022 -0022(0037) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5313 5313 5313 5313r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10E Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -2382(13366)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 44280lowastlowast 46351lowastlowast
(22343) (22480)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -12253 -14428(13485) (13561)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5231 5231 5231 5231r2 0015 0016 0015 0016
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
41
Appendix Table 10F Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0353(0286)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0105 0060(0514) (0516)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0326 0323(0289) (0290)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5124 5124 5124 5124R Sqr 0010 0010 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0087(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0104 -0101(0190) (0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0042 -0039(0098) (0098)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 11906 11906 11906 11906R Sqr 0086 0086 0086 0086
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
42
Appendix Table 11A Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0322lowastlowastlowast
(0116)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0369lowastlowast -0338lowast
(0181) (0180)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0309lowastlowastlowast -0297lowastlowast
(0119) (0119)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5852 5852 5852 5852R Sqr 0060 0059 0060 0060
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11B RResults by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0116(0138)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0262 0261(0200) (0199)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0024 0014(0141) (0140)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5701 5701 5701 5701R Sqr 0009 0009 0008 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
43
Appendix Table 11C Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0038)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0001(0081) (0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0094lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0035)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4886 4886 4886 4886R Sqr 0004 0004 0004 0004
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
44
Appendix Table 11D Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0083lowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 0012(0062) (0062)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104lowastlowastlowast -0105lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0041)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4575 4575 4575 4575r2 0010 0009 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11E Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -15122(14275)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -22991 -20537(23287) (23176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -18595 -17540(14734) (14751)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4554 4554 4554 4554r2 0011 0011 0011 0011
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
45
Appendix Table 11F Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0465lowast
(0238)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0079 0006(0403) (0405)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0520lowastlowast 0520lowastlowast
(0245) (0246)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4547 4547 4547 4547R Sqr 0006 0005 0006 0006
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0177(0123)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0098 0144(0194) (0192)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0293lowastlowast -0302lowastlowast
(0125) (0126)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8007 8007 8007 8007R Sqr 0067 0067 0068 0068
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
46
Appendix Table 12A Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0253lowastlowast
(0107)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0252 -0226(0170) (0172)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0263lowastlowast -0242lowastlowast
(0113) (0115)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0084(0120)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0341 0339(0216) (0219)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0096 0056(0130) (0132)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459r2 0085 0085 0085 0085
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
47
Appendix Table 12B Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0128)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0196 0169(0190) (0189)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0081 -0104(0135) (0135)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0383lowastlowast
(0189)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0594lowast -0474(0349) (0355)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0339lowast -0283(0204) (0207)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112r2 0021 0021 0021 0021
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
48
Appendix Table 12C Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0034)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0019(0077) (0079)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0095lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0030) (0031)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0071lowast
(0038)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0072 0039(0087) (0089)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0104lowastlowastlowast 0100lowastlowastlowast
(0035) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498r2 0008 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
49
Appendix Table 12D Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0071lowast
(0036)[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0012 0031
(0058) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0093lowastlowast -0097lowastlowast
(0039) (0039)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0030(0045)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0031 -0051(0087) (0088)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0059 0065(0048) (0049)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
50
Appendix Table 12E Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0129 -0125(0223) (0224)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0152 -0129(0141) (0142)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0000(0158)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0454 0495lowast
(0279) (0287)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0031 -0090(0170) (0175)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783nr2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
51
Appendix Table 12F Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0376(0231)
[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0059 -0122(0402) (0407)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0441lowast 0457lowast
(0240) (0243)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0068(0316)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0282 0288(0573) (0589)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0035 -0069(0340) (0350)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
52
Appendix Table 12G Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0131(0114)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male 0114 0175(0185) (0188)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0237lowastlowast -0261lowastlowast
(0118) (0121)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0009(0133)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0225 -0292(0249) (0254)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0152 0189(0141) (0145)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913r2 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
53
Appendix Table 13 Family Income 1992 excluding non-earners (ie fam inc = 0)
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992 wave (excluding those reporting 0)(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0095lowastlowastlowast
(0033)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0031 -0019(0053) (0053)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0101lowastlowastlowast -0100lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0034)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10918 10918 10918 10918r2 0050 0049 0050 0050
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0084lowast
(0050)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0019 -0007(0089) (0090)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0083 -0083(0053) (0054)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5654 5654 5654 5654r2 0026 0026 0026 0026
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102lowastlowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0051 -0040(0060) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0113lowastlowastlowast -0112lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0040)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5264 5264 5264 5264r2 0029 0028 0029 0029
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel B in Table 4 excluding those who report $0 for familyincome All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
54
Appendix Table 14 Net Worth 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable Std Net Worth 2011 Wave of WLS(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0032lowastlowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0023lowast -0021lowast
(0012) (0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0032lowastlowastlowast -0031lowastlowastlowast
(0010) (0010)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9435 9435 9435 9435r2 0002 0002 0002 0002
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0012lowast
(0006)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0009 -0008(0009) (0009)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0012lowastlowast -0011lowastlowast
(0006) (0006)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5026 5026 5026 5026r2 0007 0006 0007 0007
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0057lowastlowast
(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0040lowast -0036lowast
(0023) (0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0057lowastlowast -0056lowastlowast
(0023) (0022)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4409 4409 4409 4409r2 0001 0001 0001 0001
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel C in Table 4 replacing the net worth measure from the 2004wave with an identical measure from the 2011 wave of the WLS All estimation is performed with OLS with family clusteredstandard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 105 and 1 levels respectively
55
Appendix Table 15A Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 1992 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0243(0152)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0107 0039(0252) (0255)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0285lowast 0282lowast
(0158) (0160)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9849 9849 9849 9849
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0007(0091)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0210 -0216(0170) (0173)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0007 0024(0095) (0097)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9858 9858 9858 9858
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0255(0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0107 -0169(0328) (0338)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0237 0252(0193) (0198)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9845 9845 9845 9845
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
56
Appendix Table 15B Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2004 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0018(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0190 0207(0160) (0162)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0066 -0083(0102) (0104)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10672 10672 10672 10672
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0096 0108(0124) (0125)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0051 -0059(0076) (0077)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10619 10619 10619 10619
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0108(0110)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0064 0027(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0181 0179(0113) (0113)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10617 10617 10617 10617
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
57
Appendix Table 15C Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0099(0092)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0244 0242(0154) (0155)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0033 0016(0099) (0100)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0021(0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0095 0097(0138) (0139)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0004 -0011(0085) (0086)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0134(0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0203 0181(0175) (0176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0140 0127(0107) (0107)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8709 8709 8709 8709
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
58
- text 10818
- tables 10-8-18
-
App
endix
Tab
le8
You
ng
mot
her
sG
ener
atio
n2
and
3eff
ects
Gen
2
Gen
3
Dep
end
ent
Var
iab
le
Yea
rsof
Sch
ln
Fam
In
c
1992
Std
N
W
2004
Sel
f-re
p
hea
lth
Hei
ght
BM
IY
ears
of
Sch
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
Ind
fo
rF
irst
Gen
F
emal
eF
luE
xp
osu
re(1
918-
1919
)-0
201lowastlowast
-02
95lowastlowast
-00
45
-00
73lowastlowast
-00
90
02
07
-00
86(0
092)
(01
32)
(00
32)
(00
32)
(01
22)
(02
25)
(00
94)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
20-1
921
-00
22
-00
40
-00
10
-00
61
01
33
-04
10
01
13
(01
37)
(01
74)
(00
51)
(00
43)
(01
80)
(03
11)
(01
41)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
du
rin
g19
22-1
923
-00
96
-01
88
-00
57
00
20
04
61
-11
29lowastlowast
01
55(0
184)
(03
20)
(00
61)
(00
75)
(02
83)
(04
51)
(02
23)
Ind
fo
rm
oth
erb
orn
afte
r19
2404
58
-01
87
00
01
-00
27
03
12
-08
85
03
99
(03
06)
(03
94)
(00
87)
(01
27)
(04
94)
(10
70)
(03
21)
Bas
eC
ontr
ols
YY
YY
YY
Y
Ob
serv
atio
ns
12459
12112
10498
9888
9783
9671
19913
RS
qr
00
85
00
21
00
08
00
09
05
86
00
29
00
79
Summary
ampNotes
Th
ista
ble
incl
ud
esin
dic
ator
sfo
ralt
ernati
ve
years
of
bir
th
Bei
ng
born
toa
you
nger
moth
ergen
erall
yis
not
ass
oci
ate
dw
ith
gen
erati
on
2or
3rsquos
outc
omes
ofin
tere
st
inst
ead
n
egat
ive
effec
tsar
eon
lyob
serv
edfo
rth
ose
born
du
rin
gth
efl
u
All
esti
mati
on
isp
erfo
rmed
wit
hO
LS
wit
hfa
mil
y(2
nd
gen
erat
ion
)cl
ust
ered
stan
dar
der
rors
rep
orte
din
par
enth
esis
S
tati
stic
al
signifi
can
ceis
den
ote
dby
an
d
rep
rese
nti
ng
sign
ifica
nce
at
the
10
5
an
d1
leve
ls
resp
ecti
vel
y
38
Appendix Table 9 Summary Statistics by Gen 2 Sex
Variable N Mean Std Deviation
FemaleYears of Schooling 6607 13352 2088ln Family Income (1992 wave) 6411 9424 3577
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5654 10686 1010Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 5612 -0047 0539Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 5313 4164 0670Height (inches) 5231 646635 247936BMI 5124 26073 5114
Gen 3Years of Schooling 11947 14240 2291
MaleYears of Schooling 5852 14047 2587ln Family Income (1992 wave) 5701 10139 3030
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5264 10981 0836Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 4886 0059 1159Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 4575 4133 0665Height (inches) 4554 7055484 25596BMI 4547 27496 3948
Gen 3Years of Schooling 8046 14371 2332
Appendix Table 10A Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0090(0086)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0198 0214(0169) (0169)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104 -0114(0087) (0087)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6607 6607 6607 6607R Sqr 0075 0075 0075 0075
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
39
Appendix Table 10B Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0523lowastlowastlowast
(0170)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0483 -0410(0321) (0323)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0512lowastlowastlowast -0491lowastlowastlowast
(0179) (0180)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6411 6411 6411 6411R Sqr 0015 0013 0014 0015
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10C Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0007(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0078lowast 0078(0048) (0048)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0008 0005(0025) (0025)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5612 5612 5612 5612R Sqr 0007 0007 0007 0007
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
40
Appendix Table 10D Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0027(0036)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 -0001(0071) (0071)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0022 -0022(0037) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5313 5313 5313 5313r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10E Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -2382(13366)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 44280lowastlowast 46351lowastlowast
(22343) (22480)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -12253 -14428(13485) (13561)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5231 5231 5231 5231r2 0015 0016 0015 0016
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
41
Appendix Table 10F Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0353(0286)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0105 0060(0514) (0516)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0326 0323(0289) (0290)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5124 5124 5124 5124R Sqr 0010 0010 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0087(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0104 -0101(0190) (0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0042 -0039(0098) (0098)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 11906 11906 11906 11906R Sqr 0086 0086 0086 0086
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
42
Appendix Table 11A Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0322lowastlowastlowast
(0116)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0369lowastlowast -0338lowast
(0181) (0180)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0309lowastlowastlowast -0297lowastlowast
(0119) (0119)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5852 5852 5852 5852R Sqr 0060 0059 0060 0060
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11B RResults by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0116(0138)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0262 0261(0200) (0199)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0024 0014(0141) (0140)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5701 5701 5701 5701R Sqr 0009 0009 0008 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
43
Appendix Table 11C Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0038)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0001(0081) (0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0094lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0035)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4886 4886 4886 4886R Sqr 0004 0004 0004 0004
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
44
Appendix Table 11D Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0083lowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 0012(0062) (0062)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104lowastlowastlowast -0105lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0041)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4575 4575 4575 4575r2 0010 0009 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11E Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -15122(14275)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -22991 -20537(23287) (23176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -18595 -17540(14734) (14751)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4554 4554 4554 4554r2 0011 0011 0011 0011
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
45
Appendix Table 11F Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0465lowast
(0238)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0079 0006(0403) (0405)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0520lowastlowast 0520lowastlowast
(0245) (0246)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4547 4547 4547 4547R Sqr 0006 0005 0006 0006
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0177(0123)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0098 0144(0194) (0192)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0293lowastlowast -0302lowastlowast
(0125) (0126)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8007 8007 8007 8007R Sqr 0067 0067 0068 0068
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
46
Appendix Table 12A Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0253lowastlowast
(0107)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0252 -0226(0170) (0172)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0263lowastlowast -0242lowastlowast
(0113) (0115)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0084(0120)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0341 0339(0216) (0219)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0096 0056(0130) (0132)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459r2 0085 0085 0085 0085
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
47
Appendix Table 12B Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0128)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0196 0169(0190) (0189)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0081 -0104(0135) (0135)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0383lowastlowast
(0189)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0594lowast -0474(0349) (0355)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0339lowast -0283(0204) (0207)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112r2 0021 0021 0021 0021
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
48
Appendix Table 12C Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0034)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0019(0077) (0079)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0095lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0030) (0031)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0071lowast
(0038)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0072 0039(0087) (0089)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0104lowastlowastlowast 0100lowastlowastlowast
(0035) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498r2 0008 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
49
Appendix Table 12D Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0071lowast
(0036)[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0012 0031
(0058) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0093lowastlowast -0097lowastlowast
(0039) (0039)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0030(0045)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0031 -0051(0087) (0088)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0059 0065(0048) (0049)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
50
Appendix Table 12E Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0129 -0125(0223) (0224)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0152 -0129(0141) (0142)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0000(0158)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0454 0495lowast
(0279) (0287)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0031 -0090(0170) (0175)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783nr2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
51
Appendix Table 12F Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0376(0231)
[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0059 -0122(0402) (0407)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0441lowast 0457lowast
(0240) (0243)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0068(0316)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0282 0288(0573) (0589)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0035 -0069(0340) (0350)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
52
Appendix Table 12G Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0131(0114)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male 0114 0175(0185) (0188)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0237lowastlowast -0261lowastlowast
(0118) (0121)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0009(0133)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0225 -0292(0249) (0254)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0152 0189(0141) (0145)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913r2 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
53
Appendix Table 13 Family Income 1992 excluding non-earners (ie fam inc = 0)
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992 wave (excluding those reporting 0)(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0095lowastlowastlowast
(0033)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0031 -0019(0053) (0053)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0101lowastlowastlowast -0100lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0034)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10918 10918 10918 10918r2 0050 0049 0050 0050
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0084lowast
(0050)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0019 -0007(0089) (0090)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0083 -0083(0053) (0054)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5654 5654 5654 5654r2 0026 0026 0026 0026
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102lowastlowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0051 -0040(0060) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0113lowastlowastlowast -0112lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0040)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5264 5264 5264 5264r2 0029 0028 0029 0029
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel B in Table 4 excluding those who report $0 for familyincome All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
54
Appendix Table 14 Net Worth 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable Std Net Worth 2011 Wave of WLS(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0032lowastlowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0023lowast -0021lowast
(0012) (0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0032lowastlowastlowast -0031lowastlowastlowast
(0010) (0010)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9435 9435 9435 9435r2 0002 0002 0002 0002
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0012lowast
(0006)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0009 -0008(0009) (0009)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0012lowastlowast -0011lowastlowast
(0006) (0006)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5026 5026 5026 5026r2 0007 0006 0007 0007
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0057lowastlowast
(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0040lowast -0036lowast
(0023) (0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0057lowastlowast -0056lowastlowast
(0023) (0022)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4409 4409 4409 4409r2 0001 0001 0001 0001
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel C in Table 4 replacing the net worth measure from the 2004wave with an identical measure from the 2011 wave of the WLS All estimation is performed with OLS with family clusteredstandard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 105 and 1 levels respectively
55
Appendix Table 15A Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 1992 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0243(0152)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0107 0039(0252) (0255)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0285lowast 0282lowast
(0158) (0160)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9849 9849 9849 9849
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0007(0091)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0210 -0216(0170) (0173)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0007 0024(0095) (0097)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9858 9858 9858 9858
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0255(0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0107 -0169(0328) (0338)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0237 0252(0193) (0198)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9845 9845 9845 9845
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
56
Appendix Table 15B Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2004 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0018(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0190 0207(0160) (0162)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0066 -0083(0102) (0104)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10672 10672 10672 10672
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0096 0108(0124) (0125)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0051 -0059(0076) (0077)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10619 10619 10619 10619
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0108(0110)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0064 0027(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0181 0179(0113) (0113)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10617 10617 10617 10617
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
57
Appendix Table 15C Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0099(0092)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0244 0242(0154) (0155)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0033 0016(0099) (0100)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0021(0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0095 0097(0138) (0139)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0004 -0011(0085) (0086)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0134(0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0203 0181(0175) (0176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0140 0127(0107) (0107)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8709 8709 8709 8709
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
58
- text 10818
- tables 10-8-18
-
Appendix Table 9 Summary Statistics by Gen 2 Sex
Variable N Mean Std Deviation
FemaleYears of Schooling 6607 13352 2088ln Family Income (1992 wave) 6411 9424 3577
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5654 10686 1010Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 5612 -0047 0539Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 5313 4164 0670Height (inches) 5231 646635 247936BMI 5124 26073 5114
Gen 3Years of Schooling 11947 14240 2291
MaleYears of Schooling 5852 14047 2587ln Family Income (1992 wave) 5701 10139 3030
ln Family Income (excl non-earners) 5264 10981 0836Std Net Worth (2004 wave) 4886 0059 1159Self-reported Health (1993 wave) 4575 4133 0665Height (inches) 4554 7055484 25596BMI 4547 27496 3948
Gen 3Years of Schooling 8046 14371 2332
Appendix Table 10A Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0090(0086)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0198 0214(0169) (0169)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104 -0114(0087) (0087)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6607 6607 6607 6607R Sqr 0075 0075 0075 0075
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
39
Appendix Table 10B Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0523lowastlowastlowast
(0170)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0483 -0410(0321) (0323)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0512lowastlowastlowast -0491lowastlowastlowast
(0179) (0180)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6411 6411 6411 6411R Sqr 0015 0013 0014 0015
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10C Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0007(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0078lowast 0078(0048) (0048)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0008 0005(0025) (0025)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5612 5612 5612 5612R Sqr 0007 0007 0007 0007
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
40
Appendix Table 10D Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0027(0036)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 -0001(0071) (0071)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0022 -0022(0037) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5313 5313 5313 5313r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10E Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -2382(13366)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 44280lowastlowast 46351lowastlowast
(22343) (22480)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -12253 -14428(13485) (13561)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5231 5231 5231 5231r2 0015 0016 0015 0016
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
41
Appendix Table 10F Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0353(0286)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0105 0060(0514) (0516)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0326 0323(0289) (0290)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5124 5124 5124 5124R Sqr 0010 0010 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0087(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0104 -0101(0190) (0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0042 -0039(0098) (0098)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 11906 11906 11906 11906R Sqr 0086 0086 0086 0086
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
42
Appendix Table 11A Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0322lowastlowastlowast
(0116)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0369lowastlowast -0338lowast
(0181) (0180)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0309lowastlowastlowast -0297lowastlowast
(0119) (0119)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5852 5852 5852 5852R Sqr 0060 0059 0060 0060
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11B RResults by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0116(0138)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0262 0261(0200) (0199)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0024 0014(0141) (0140)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5701 5701 5701 5701R Sqr 0009 0009 0008 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
43
Appendix Table 11C Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0038)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0001(0081) (0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0094lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0035)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4886 4886 4886 4886R Sqr 0004 0004 0004 0004
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
44
Appendix Table 11D Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0083lowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 0012(0062) (0062)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104lowastlowastlowast -0105lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0041)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4575 4575 4575 4575r2 0010 0009 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11E Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -15122(14275)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -22991 -20537(23287) (23176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -18595 -17540(14734) (14751)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4554 4554 4554 4554r2 0011 0011 0011 0011
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
45
Appendix Table 11F Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0465lowast
(0238)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0079 0006(0403) (0405)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0520lowastlowast 0520lowastlowast
(0245) (0246)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4547 4547 4547 4547R Sqr 0006 0005 0006 0006
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0177(0123)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0098 0144(0194) (0192)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0293lowastlowast -0302lowastlowast
(0125) (0126)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8007 8007 8007 8007R Sqr 0067 0067 0068 0068
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
46
Appendix Table 12A Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0253lowastlowast
(0107)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0252 -0226(0170) (0172)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0263lowastlowast -0242lowastlowast
(0113) (0115)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0084(0120)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0341 0339(0216) (0219)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0096 0056(0130) (0132)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459r2 0085 0085 0085 0085
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
47
Appendix Table 12B Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0128)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0196 0169(0190) (0189)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0081 -0104(0135) (0135)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0383lowastlowast
(0189)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0594lowast -0474(0349) (0355)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0339lowast -0283(0204) (0207)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112r2 0021 0021 0021 0021
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
48
Appendix Table 12C Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0034)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0019(0077) (0079)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0095lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0030) (0031)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0071lowast
(0038)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0072 0039(0087) (0089)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0104lowastlowastlowast 0100lowastlowastlowast
(0035) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498r2 0008 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
49
Appendix Table 12D Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0071lowast
(0036)[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0012 0031
(0058) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0093lowastlowast -0097lowastlowast
(0039) (0039)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0030(0045)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0031 -0051(0087) (0088)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0059 0065(0048) (0049)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
50
Appendix Table 12E Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0129 -0125(0223) (0224)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0152 -0129(0141) (0142)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0000(0158)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0454 0495lowast
(0279) (0287)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0031 -0090(0170) (0175)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783nr2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
51
Appendix Table 12F Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0376(0231)
[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0059 -0122(0402) (0407)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0441lowast 0457lowast
(0240) (0243)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0068(0316)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0282 0288(0573) (0589)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0035 -0069(0340) (0350)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
52
Appendix Table 12G Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0131(0114)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male 0114 0175(0185) (0188)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0237lowastlowast -0261lowastlowast
(0118) (0121)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0009(0133)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0225 -0292(0249) (0254)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0152 0189(0141) (0145)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913r2 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
53
Appendix Table 13 Family Income 1992 excluding non-earners (ie fam inc = 0)
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992 wave (excluding those reporting 0)(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0095lowastlowastlowast
(0033)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0031 -0019(0053) (0053)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0101lowastlowastlowast -0100lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0034)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10918 10918 10918 10918r2 0050 0049 0050 0050
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0084lowast
(0050)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0019 -0007(0089) (0090)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0083 -0083(0053) (0054)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5654 5654 5654 5654r2 0026 0026 0026 0026
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102lowastlowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0051 -0040(0060) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0113lowastlowastlowast -0112lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0040)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5264 5264 5264 5264r2 0029 0028 0029 0029
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel B in Table 4 excluding those who report $0 for familyincome All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
54
Appendix Table 14 Net Worth 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable Std Net Worth 2011 Wave of WLS(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0032lowastlowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0023lowast -0021lowast
(0012) (0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0032lowastlowastlowast -0031lowastlowastlowast
(0010) (0010)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9435 9435 9435 9435r2 0002 0002 0002 0002
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0012lowast
(0006)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0009 -0008(0009) (0009)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0012lowastlowast -0011lowastlowast
(0006) (0006)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5026 5026 5026 5026r2 0007 0006 0007 0007
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0057lowastlowast
(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0040lowast -0036lowast
(0023) (0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0057lowastlowast -0056lowastlowast
(0023) (0022)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4409 4409 4409 4409r2 0001 0001 0001 0001
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel C in Table 4 replacing the net worth measure from the 2004wave with an identical measure from the 2011 wave of the WLS All estimation is performed with OLS with family clusteredstandard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 105 and 1 levels respectively
55
Appendix Table 15A Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 1992 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0243(0152)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0107 0039(0252) (0255)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0285lowast 0282lowast
(0158) (0160)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9849 9849 9849 9849
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0007(0091)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0210 -0216(0170) (0173)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0007 0024(0095) (0097)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9858 9858 9858 9858
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0255(0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0107 -0169(0328) (0338)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0237 0252(0193) (0198)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9845 9845 9845 9845
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
56
Appendix Table 15B Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2004 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0018(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0190 0207(0160) (0162)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0066 -0083(0102) (0104)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10672 10672 10672 10672
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0096 0108(0124) (0125)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0051 -0059(0076) (0077)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10619 10619 10619 10619
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0108(0110)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0064 0027(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0181 0179(0113) (0113)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10617 10617 10617 10617
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
57
Appendix Table 15C Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0099(0092)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0244 0242(0154) (0155)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0033 0016(0099) (0100)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0021(0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0095 0097(0138) (0139)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0004 -0011(0085) (0086)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0134(0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0203 0181(0175) (0176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0140 0127(0107) (0107)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8709 8709 8709 8709
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
58
- text 10818
- tables 10-8-18
-
Appendix Table 10B Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0523lowastlowastlowast
(0170)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0483 -0410(0321) (0323)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0512lowastlowastlowast -0491lowastlowastlowast
(0179) (0180)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 6411 6411 6411 6411R Sqr 0015 0013 0014 0015
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10C Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0007(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0078lowast 0078(0048) (0048)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0008 0005(0025) (0025)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5612 5612 5612 5612R Sqr 0007 0007 0007 0007
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
40
Appendix Table 10D Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0027(0036)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 -0001(0071) (0071)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0022 -0022(0037) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5313 5313 5313 5313r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10E Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -2382(13366)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 44280lowastlowast 46351lowastlowast
(22343) (22480)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -12253 -14428(13485) (13561)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5231 5231 5231 5231r2 0015 0016 0015 0016
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
41
Appendix Table 10F Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0353(0286)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0105 0060(0514) (0516)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0326 0323(0289) (0290)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5124 5124 5124 5124R Sqr 0010 0010 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0087(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0104 -0101(0190) (0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0042 -0039(0098) (0098)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 11906 11906 11906 11906R Sqr 0086 0086 0086 0086
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
42
Appendix Table 11A Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0322lowastlowastlowast
(0116)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0369lowastlowast -0338lowast
(0181) (0180)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0309lowastlowastlowast -0297lowastlowast
(0119) (0119)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5852 5852 5852 5852R Sqr 0060 0059 0060 0060
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11B RResults by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0116(0138)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0262 0261(0200) (0199)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0024 0014(0141) (0140)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5701 5701 5701 5701R Sqr 0009 0009 0008 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
43
Appendix Table 11C Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0038)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0001(0081) (0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0094lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0035)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4886 4886 4886 4886R Sqr 0004 0004 0004 0004
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
44
Appendix Table 11D Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0083lowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 0012(0062) (0062)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104lowastlowastlowast -0105lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0041)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4575 4575 4575 4575r2 0010 0009 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11E Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -15122(14275)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -22991 -20537(23287) (23176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -18595 -17540(14734) (14751)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4554 4554 4554 4554r2 0011 0011 0011 0011
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
45
Appendix Table 11F Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0465lowast
(0238)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0079 0006(0403) (0405)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0520lowastlowast 0520lowastlowast
(0245) (0246)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4547 4547 4547 4547R Sqr 0006 0005 0006 0006
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0177(0123)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0098 0144(0194) (0192)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0293lowastlowast -0302lowastlowast
(0125) (0126)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8007 8007 8007 8007R Sqr 0067 0067 0068 0068
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
46
Appendix Table 12A Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0253lowastlowast
(0107)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0252 -0226(0170) (0172)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0263lowastlowast -0242lowastlowast
(0113) (0115)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0084(0120)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0341 0339(0216) (0219)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0096 0056(0130) (0132)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459r2 0085 0085 0085 0085
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
47
Appendix Table 12B Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0128)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0196 0169(0190) (0189)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0081 -0104(0135) (0135)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0383lowastlowast
(0189)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0594lowast -0474(0349) (0355)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0339lowast -0283(0204) (0207)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112r2 0021 0021 0021 0021
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
48
Appendix Table 12C Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0034)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0019(0077) (0079)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0095lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0030) (0031)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0071lowast
(0038)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0072 0039(0087) (0089)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0104lowastlowastlowast 0100lowastlowastlowast
(0035) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498r2 0008 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
49
Appendix Table 12D Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0071lowast
(0036)[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0012 0031
(0058) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0093lowastlowast -0097lowastlowast
(0039) (0039)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0030(0045)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0031 -0051(0087) (0088)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0059 0065(0048) (0049)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
50
Appendix Table 12E Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0129 -0125(0223) (0224)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0152 -0129(0141) (0142)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0000(0158)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0454 0495lowast
(0279) (0287)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0031 -0090(0170) (0175)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783nr2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
51
Appendix Table 12F Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0376(0231)
[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0059 -0122(0402) (0407)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0441lowast 0457lowast
(0240) (0243)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0068(0316)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0282 0288(0573) (0589)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0035 -0069(0340) (0350)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
52
Appendix Table 12G Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0131(0114)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male 0114 0175(0185) (0188)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0237lowastlowast -0261lowastlowast
(0118) (0121)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0009(0133)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0225 -0292(0249) (0254)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0152 0189(0141) (0145)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913r2 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
53
Appendix Table 13 Family Income 1992 excluding non-earners (ie fam inc = 0)
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992 wave (excluding those reporting 0)(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0095lowastlowastlowast
(0033)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0031 -0019(0053) (0053)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0101lowastlowastlowast -0100lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0034)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10918 10918 10918 10918r2 0050 0049 0050 0050
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0084lowast
(0050)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0019 -0007(0089) (0090)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0083 -0083(0053) (0054)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5654 5654 5654 5654r2 0026 0026 0026 0026
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102lowastlowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0051 -0040(0060) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0113lowastlowastlowast -0112lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0040)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5264 5264 5264 5264r2 0029 0028 0029 0029
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel B in Table 4 excluding those who report $0 for familyincome All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
54
Appendix Table 14 Net Worth 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable Std Net Worth 2011 Wave of WLS(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0032lowastlowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0023lowast -0021lowast
(0012) (0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0032lowastlowastlowast -0031lowastlowastlowast
(0010) (0010)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9435 9435 9435 9435r2 0002 0002 0002 0002
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0012lowast
(0006)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0009 -0008(0009) (0009)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0012lowastlowast -0011lowastlowast
(0006) (0006)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5026 5026 5026 5026r2 0007 0006 0007 0007
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0057lowastlowast
(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0040lowast -0036lowast
(0023) (0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0057lowastlowast -0056lowastlowast
(0023) (0022)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4409 4409 4409 4409r2 0001 0001 0001 0001
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel C in Table 4 replacing the net worth measure from the 2004wave with an identical measure from the 2011 wave of the WLS All estimation is performed with OLS with family clusteredstandard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 105 and 1 levels respectively
55
Appendix Table 15A Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 1992 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0243(0152)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0107 0039(0252) (0255)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0285lowast 0282lowast
(0158) (0160)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9849 9849 9849 9849
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0007(0091)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0210 -0216(0170) (0173)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0007 0024(0095) (0097)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9858 9858 9858 9858
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0255(0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0107 -0169(0328) (0338)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0237 0252(0193) (0198)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9845 9845 9845 9845
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
56
Appendix Table 15B Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2004 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0018(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0190 0207(0160) (0162)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0066 -0083(0102) (0104)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10672 10672 10672 10672
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0096 0108(0124) (0125)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0051 -0059(0076) (0077)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10619 10619 10619 10619
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0108(0110)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0064 0027(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0181 0179(0113) (0113)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10617 10617 10617 10617
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
57
Appendix Table 15C Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0099(0092)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0244 0242(0154) (0155)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0033 0016(0099) (0100)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0021(0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0095 0097(0138) (0139)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0004 -0011(0085) (0086)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0134(0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0203 0181(0175) (0176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0140 0127(0107) (0107)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8709 8709 8709 8709
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
58
- text 10818
- tables 10-8-18
-
Appendix Table 10D Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0027(0036)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 -0001(0071) (0071)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0022 -0022(0037) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5313 5313 5313 5313r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10E Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -2382(13366)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 44280lowastlowast 46351lowastlowast
(22343) (22480)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -12253 -14428(13485) (13561)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5231 5231 5231 5231r2 0015 0016 0015 0016
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
41
Appendix Table 10F Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0353(0286)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0105 0060(0514) (0516)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0326 0323(0289) (0290)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5124 5124 5124 5124R Sqr 0010 0010 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0087(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0104 -0101(0190) (0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0042 -0039(0098) (0098)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 11906 11906 11906 11906R Sqr 0086 0086 0086 0086
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
42
Appendix Table 11A Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0322lowastlowastlowast
(0116)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0369lowastlowast -0338lowast
(0181) (0180)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0309lowastlowastlowast -0297lowastlowast
(0119) (0119)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5852 5852 5852 5852R Sqr 0060 0059 0060 0060
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11B RResults by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0116(0138)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0262 0261(0200) (0199)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0024 0014(0141) (0140)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5701 5701 5701 5701R Sqr 0009 0009 0008 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
43
Appendix Table 11C Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0038)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0001(0081) (0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0094lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0035)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4886 4886 4886 4886R Sqr 0004 0004 0004 0004
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
44
Appendix Table 11D Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0083lowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 0012(0062) (0062)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104lowastlowastlowast -0105lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0041)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4575 4575 4575 4575r2 0010 0009 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11E Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -15122(14275)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -22991 -20537(23287) (23176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -18595 -17540(14734) (14751)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4554 4554 4554 4554r2 0011 0011 0011 0011
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
45
Appendix Table 11F Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0465lowast
(0238)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0079 0006(0403) (0405)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0520lowastlowast 0520lowastlowast
(0245) (0246)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4547 4547 4547 4547R Sqr 0006 0005 0006 0006
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0177(0123)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0098 0144(0194) (0192)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0293lowastlowast -0302lowastlowast
(0125) (0126)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8007 8007 8007 8007R Sqr 0067 0067 0068 0068
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
46
Appendix Table 12A Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0253lowastlowast
(0107)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0252 -0226(0170) (0172)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0263lowastlowast -0242lowastlowast
(0113) (0115)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0084(0120)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0341 0339(0216) (0219)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0096 0056(0130) (0132)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459r2 0085 0085 0085 0085
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
47
Appendix Table 12B Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0128)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0196 0169(0190) (0189)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0081 -0104(0135) (0135)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0383lowastlowast
(0189)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0594lowast -0474(0349) (0355)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0339lowast -0283(0204) (0207)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112r2 0021 0021 0021 0021
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
48
Appendix Table 12C Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0034)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0019(0077) (0079)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0095lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0030) (0031)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0071lowast
(0038)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0072 0039(0087) (0089)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0104lowastlowastlowast 0100lowastlowastlowast
(0035) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498r2 0008 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
49
Appendix Table 12D Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0071lowast
(0036)[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0012 0031
(0058) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0093lowastlowast -0097lowastlowast
(0039) (0039)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0030(0045)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0031 -0051(0087) (0088)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0059 0065(0048) (0049)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
50
Appendix Table 12E Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0129 -0125(0223) (0224)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0152 -0129(0141) (0142)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0000(0158)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0454 0495lowast
(0279) (0287)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0031 -0090(0170) (0175)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783nr2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
51
Appendix Table 12F Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0376(0231)
[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0059 -0122(0402) (0407)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0441lowast 0457lowast
(0240) (0243)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0068(0316)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0282 0288(0573) (0589)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0035 -0069(0340) (0350)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
52
Appendix Table 12G Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0131(0114)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male 0114 0175(0185) (0188)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0237lowastlowast -0261lowastlowast
(0118) (0121)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0009(0133)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0225 -0292(0249) (0254)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0152 0189(0141) (0145)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913r2 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
53
Appendix Table 13 Family Income 1992 excluding non-earners (ie fam inc = 0)
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992 wave (excluding those reporting 0)(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0095lowastlowastlowast
(0033)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0031 -0019(0053) (0053)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0101lowastlowastlowast -0100lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0034)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10918 10918 10918 10918r2 0050 0049 0050 0050
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0084lowast
(0050)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0019 -0007(0089) (0090)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0083 -0083(0053) (0054)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5654 5654 5654 5654r2 0026 0026 0026 0026
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102lowastlowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0051 -0040(0060) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0113lowastlowastlowast -0112lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0040)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5264 5264 5264 5264r2 0029 0028 0029 0029
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel B in Table 4 excluding those who report $0 for familyincome All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
54
Appendix Table 14 Net Worth 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable Std Net Worth 2011 Wave of WLS(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0032lowastlowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0023lowast -0021lowast
(0012) (0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0032lowastlowastlowast -0031lowastlowastlowast
(0010) (0010)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9435 9435 9435 9435r2 0002 0002 0002 0002
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0012lowast
(0006)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0009 -0008(0009) (0009)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0012lowastlowast -0011lowastlowast
(0006) (0006)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5026 5026 5026 5026r2 0007 0006 0007 0007
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0057lowastlowast
(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0040lowast -0036lowast
(0023) (0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0057lowastlowast -0056lowastlowast
(0023) (0022)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4409 4409 4409 4409r2 0001 0001 0001 0001
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel C in Table 4 replacing the net worth measure from the 2004wave with an identical measure from the 2011 wave of the WLS All estimation is performed with OLS with family clusteredstandard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 105 and 1 levels respectively
55
Appendix Table 15A Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 1992 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0243(0152)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0107 0039(0252) (0255)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0285lowast 0282lowast
(0158) (0160)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9849 9849 9849 9849
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0007(0091)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0210 -0216(0170) (0173)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0007 0024(0095) (0097)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9858 9858 9858 9858
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0255(0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0107 -0169(0328) (0338)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0237 0252(0193) (0198)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9845 9845 9845 9845
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
56
Appendix Table 15B Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2004 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0018(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0190 0207(0160) (0162)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0066 -0083(0102) (0104)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10672 10672 10672 10672
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0096 0108(0124) (0125)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0051 -0059(0076) (0077)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10619 10619 10619 10619
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0108(0110)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0064 0027(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0181 0179(0113) (0113)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10617 10617 10617 10617
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
57
Appendix Table 15C Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0099(0092)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0244 0242(0154) (0155)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0033 0016(0099) (0100)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0021(0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0095 0097(0138) (0139)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0004 -0011(0085) (0086)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0134(0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0203 0181(0175) (0176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0140 0127(0107) (0107)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8709 8709 8709 8709
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
58
- text 10818
- tables 10-8-18
-
Appendix Table 10F Results by sex Generation 2 Females
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0353(0286)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0105 0060(0514) (0516)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0326 0323(0289) (0290)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5124 5124 5124 5124R Sqr 0010 0010 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 10G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Females
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0087(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0104 -0101(0190) (0190)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0042 -0039(0098) (0098)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 11906 11906 11906 11906R Sqr 0086 0086 0086 0086
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
42
Appendix Table 11A Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0322lowastlowastlowast
(0116)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0369lowastlowast -0338lowast
(0181) (0180)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0309lowastlowastlowast -0297lowastlowast
(0119) (0119)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5852 5852 5852 5852R Sqr 0060 0059 0060 0060
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11B RResults by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0116(0138)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0262 0261(0200) (0199)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0024 0014(0141) (0140)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5701 5701 5701 5701R Sqr 0009 0009 0008 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
43
Appendix Table 11C Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0038)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0001(0081) (0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0094lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0035)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4886 4886 4886 4886R Sqr 0004 0004 0004 0004
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
44
Appendix Table 11D Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0083lowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 0012(0062) (0062)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104lowastlowastlowast -0105lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0041)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4575 4575 4575 4575r2 0010 0009 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11E Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -15122(14275)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -22991 -20537(23287) (23176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -18595 -17540(14734) (14751)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4554 4554 4554 4554r2 0011 0011 0011 0011
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
45
Appendix Table 11F Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0465lowast
(0238)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0079 0006(0403) (0405)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0520lowastlowast 0520lowastlowast
(0245) (0246)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4547 4547 4547 4547R Sqr 0006 0005 0006 0006
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0177(0123)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0098 0144(0194) (0192)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0293lowastlowast -0302lowastlowast
(0125) (0126)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8007 8007 8007 8007R Sqr 0067 0067 0068 0068
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
46
Appendix Table 12A Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0253lowastlowast
(0107)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0252 -0226(0170) (0172)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0263lowastlowast -0242lowastlowast
(0113) (0115)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0084(0120)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0341 0339(0216) (0219)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0096 0056(0130) (0132)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459r2 0085 0085 0085 0085
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
47
Appendix Table 12B Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0128)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0196 0169(0190) (0189)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0081 -0104(0135) (0135)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0383lowastlowast
(0189)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0594lowast -0474(0349) (0355)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0339lowast -0283(0204) (0207)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112r2 0021 0021 0021 0021
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
48
Appendix Table 12C Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0034)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0019(0077) (0079)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0095lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0030) (0031)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0071lowast
(0038)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0072 0039(0087) (0089)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0104lowastlowastlowast 0100lowastlowastlowast
(0035) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498r2 0008 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
49
Appendix Table 12D Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0071lowast
(0036)[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0012 0031
(0058) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0093lowastlowast -0097lowastlowast
(0039) (0039)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0030(0045)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0031 -0051(0087) (0088)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0059 0065(0048) (0049)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
50
Appendix Table 12E Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0129 -0125(0223) (0224)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0152 -0129(0141) (0142)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0000(0158)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0454 0495lowast
(0279) (0287)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0031 -0090(0170) (0175)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783nr2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
51
Appendix Table 12F Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0376(0231)
[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0059 -0122(0402) (0407)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0441lowast 0457lowast
(0240) (0243)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0068(0316)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0282 0288(0573) (0589)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0035 -0069(0340) (0350)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
52
Appendix Table 12G Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0131(0114)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male 0114 0175(0185) (0188)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0237lowastlowast -0261lowastlowast
(0118) (0121)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0009(0133)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0225 -0292(0249) (0254)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0152 0189(0141) (0145)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913r2 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
53
Appendix Table 13 Family Income 1992 excluding non-earners (ie fam inc = 0)
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992 wave (excluding those reporting 0)(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0095lowastlowastlowast
(0033)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0031 -0019(0053) (0053)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0101lowastlowastlowast -0100lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0034)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10918 10918 10918 10918r2 0050 0049 0050 0050
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0084lowast
(0050)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0019 -0007(0089) (0090)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0083 -0083(0053) (0054)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5654 5654 5654 5654r2 0026 0026 0026 0026
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102lowastlowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0051 -0040(0060) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0113lowastlowastlowast -0112lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0040)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5264 5264 5264 5264r2 0029 0028 0029 0029
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel B in Table 4 excluding those who report $0 for familyincome All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
54
Appendix Table 14 Net Worth 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable Std Net Worth 2011 Wave of WLS(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0032lowastlowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0023lowast -0021lowast
(0012) (0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0032lowastlowastlowast -0031lowastlowastlowast
(0010) (0010)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9435 9435 9435 9435r2 0002 0002 0002 0002
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0012lowast
(0006)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0009 -0008(0009) (0009)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0012lowastlowast -0011lowastlowast
(0006) (0006)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5026 5026 5026 5026r2 0007 0006 0007 0007
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0057lowastlowast
(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0040lowast -0036lowast
(0023) (0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0057lowastlowast -0056lowastlowast
(0023) (0022)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4409 4409 4409 4409r2 0001 0001 0001 0001
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel C in Table 4 replacing the net worth measure from the 2004wave with an identical measure from the 2011 wave of the WLS All estimation is performed with OLS with family clusteredstandard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 105 and 1 levels respectively
55
Appendix Table 15A Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 1992 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0243(0152)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0107 0039(0252) (0255)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0285lowast 0282lowast
(0158) (0160)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9849 9849 9849 9849
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0007(0091)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0210 -0216(0170) (0173)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0007 0024(0095) (0097)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9858 9858 9858 9858
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0255(0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0107 -0169(0328) (0338)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0237 0252(0193) (0198)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9845 9845 9845 9845
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
56
Appendix Table 15B Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2004 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0018(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0190 0207(0160) (0162)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0066 -0083(0102) (0104)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10672 10672 10672 10672
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0096 0108(0124) (0125)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0051 -0059(0076) (0077)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10619 10619 10619 10619
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0108(0110)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0064 0027(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0181 0179(0113) (0113)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10617 10617 10617 10617
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
57
Appendix Table 15C Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0099(0092)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0244 0242(0154) (0155)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0033 0016(0099) (0100)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0021(0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0095 0097(0138) (0139)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0004 -0011(0085) (0086)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0134(0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0203 0181(0175) (0176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0140 0127(0107) (0107)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8709 8709 8709 8709
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
58
- text 10818
- tables 10-8-18
-
Appendix Table 11A Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0322lowastlowastlowast
(0116)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0369lowastlowast -0338lowast
(0181) (0180)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0309lowastlowastlowast -0297lowastlowast
(0119) (0119)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5852 5852 5852 5852R Sqr 0060 0059 0060 0060
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11B RResults by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0116(0138)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0262 0261(0200) (0199)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0024 0014(0141) (0140)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5701 5701 5701 5701R Sqr 0009 0009 0008 0009
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
43
Appendix Table 11C Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0038)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0001(0081) (0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0094lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0035)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4886 4886 4886 4886R Sqr 0004 0004 0004 0004
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
44
Appendix Table 11D Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0083lowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 0012(0062) (0062)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104lowastlowastlowast -0105lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0041)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4575 4575 4575 4575r2 0010 0009 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11E Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -15122(14275)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -22991 -20537(23287) (23176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -18595 -17540(14734) (14751)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4554 4554 4554 4554r2 0011 0011 0011 0011
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
45
Appendix Table 11F Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0465lowast
(0238)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0079 0006(0403) (0405)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0520lowastlowast 0520lowastlowast
(0245) (0246)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4547 4547 4547 4547R Sqr 0006 0005 0006 0006
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0177(0123)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0098 0144(0194) (0192)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0293lowastlowast -0302lowastlowast
(0125) (0126)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8007 8007 8007 8007R Sqr 0067 0067 0068 0068
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
46
Appendix Table 12A Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0253lowastlowast
(0107)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0252 -0226(0170) (0172)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0263lowastlowast -0242lowastlowast
(0113) (0115)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0084(0120)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0341 0339(0216) (0219)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0096 0056(0130) (0132)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459r2 0085 0085 0085 0085
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
47
Appendix Table 12B Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0128)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0196 0169(0190) (0189)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0081 -0104(0135) (0135)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0383lowastlowast
(0189)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0594lowast -0474(0349) (0355)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0339lowast -0283(0204) (0207)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112r2 0021 0021 0021 0021
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
48
Appendix Table 12C Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0034)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0019(0077) (0079)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0095lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0030) (0031)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0071lowast
(0038)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0072 0039(0087) (0089)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0104lowastlowastlowast 0100lowastlowastlowast
(0035) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498r2 0008 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
49
Appendix Table 12D Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0071lowast
(0036)[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0012 0031
(0058) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0093lowastlowast -0097lowastlowast
(0039) (0039)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0030(0045)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0031 -0051(0087) (0088)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0059 0065(0048) (0049)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
50
Appendix Table 12E Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0129 -0125(0223) (0224)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0152 -0129(0141) (0142)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0000(0158)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0454 0495lowast
(0279) (0287)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0031 -0090(0170) (0175)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783nr2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
51
Appendix Table 12F Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0376(0231)
[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0059 -0122(0402) (0407)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0441lowast 0457lowast
(0240) (0243)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0068(0316)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0282 0288(0573) (0589)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0035 -0069(0340) (0350)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
52
Appendix Table 12G Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0131(0114)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male 0114 0175(0185) (0188)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0237lowastlowast -0261lowastlowast
(0118) (0121)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0009(0133)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0225 -0292(0249) (0254)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0152 0189(0141) (0145)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913r2 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
53
Appendix Table 13 Family Income 1992 excluding non-earners (ie fam inc = 0)
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992 wave (excluding those reporting 0)(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0095lowastlowastlowast
(0033)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0031 -0019(0053) (0053)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0101lowastlowastlowast -0100lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0034)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10918 10918 10918 10918r2 0050 0049 0050 0050
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0084lowast
(0050)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0019 -0007(0089) (0090)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0083 -0083(0053) (0054)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5654 5654 5654 5654r2 0026 0026 0026 0026
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102lowastlowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0051 -0040(0060) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0113lowastlowastlowast -0112lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0040)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5264 5264 5264 5264r2 0029 0028 0029 0029
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel B in Table 4 excluding those who report $0 for familyincome All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
54
Appendix Table 14 Net Worth 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable Std Net Worth 2011 Wave of WLS(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0032lowastlowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0023lowast -0021lowast
(0012) (0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0032lowastlowastlowast -0031lowastlowastlowast
(0010) (0010)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9435 9435 9435 9435r2 0002 0002 0002 0002
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0012lowast
(0006)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0009 -0008(0009) (0009)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0012lowastlowast -0011lowastlowast
(0006) (0006)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5026 5026 5026 5026r2 0007 0006 0007 0007
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0057lowastlowast
(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0040lowast -0036lowast
(0023) (0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0057lowastlowast -0056lowastlowast
(0023) (0022)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4409 4409 4409 4409r2 0001 0001 0001 0001
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel C in Table 4 replacing the net worth measure from the 2004wave with an identical measure from the 2011 wave of the WLS All estimation is performed with OLS with family clusteredstandard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 105 and 1 levels respectively
55
Appendix Table 15A Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 1992 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0243(0152)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0107 0039(0252) (0255)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0285lowast 0282lowast
(0158) (0160)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9849 9849 9849 9849
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0007(0091)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0210 -0216(0170) (0173)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0007 0024(0095) (0097)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9858 9858 9858 9858
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0255(0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0107 -0169(0328) (0338)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0237 0252(0193) (0198)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9845 9845 9845 9845
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
56
Appendix Table 15B Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2004 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0018(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0190 0207(0160) (0162)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0066 -0083(0102) (0104)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10672 10672 10672 10672
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0096 0108(0124) (0125)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0051 -0059(0076) (0077)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10619 10619 10619 10619
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0108(0110)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0064 0027(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0181 0179(0113) (0113)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10617 10617 10617 10617
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
57
Appendix Table 15C Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0099(0092)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0244 0242(0154) (0155)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0033 0016(0099) (0100)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0021(0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0095 0097(0138) (0139)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0004 -0011(0085) (0086)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0134(0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0203 0181(0175) (0176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0140 0127(0107) (0107)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8709 8709 8709 8709
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
58
- text 10818
- tables 10-8-18
-
Appendix Table 11C Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0038)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0013 -0001(0081) (0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0094lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0035)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4886 4886 4886 4886R Sqr 0004 0004 0004 0004
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
44
Appendix Table 11D Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0083lowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 0012(0062) (0062)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104lowastlowastlowast -0105lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0041)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4575 4575 4575 4575r2 0010 0009 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11E Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -15122(14275)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -22991 -20537(23287) (23176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -18595 -17540(14734) (14751)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4554 4554 4554 4554r2 0011 0011 0011 0011
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
45
Appendix Table 11F Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0465lowast
(0238)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0079 0006(0403) (0405)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0520lowastlowast 0520lowastlowast
(0245) (0246)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4547 4547 4547 4547R Sqr 0006 0005 0006 0006
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0177(0123)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0098 0144(0194) (0192)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0293lowastlowast -0302lowastlowast
(0125) (0126)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8007 8007 8007 8007R Sqr 0067 0067 0068 0068
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
46
Appendix Table 12A Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0253lowastlowast
(0107)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0252 -0226(0170) (0172)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0263lowastlowast -0242lowastlowast
(0113) (0115)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0084(0120)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0341 0339(0216) (0219)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0096 0056(0130) (0132)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459r2 0085 0085 0085 0085
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
47
Appendix Table 12B Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0128)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0196 0169(0190) (0189)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0081 -0104(0135) (0135)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0383lowastlowast
(0189)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0594lowast -0474(0349) (0355)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0339lowast -0283(0204) (0207)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112r2 0021 0021 0021 0021
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
48
Appendix Table 12C Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0034)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0019(0077) (0079)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0095lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0030) (0031)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0071lowast
(0038)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0072 0039(0087) (0089)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0104lowastlowastlowast 0100lowastlowastlowast
(0035) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498r2 0008 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
49
Appendix Table 12D Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0071lowast
(0036)[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0012 0031
(0058) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0093lowastlowast -0097lowastlowast
(0039) (0039)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0030(0045)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0031 -0051(0087) (0088)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0059 0065(0048) (0049)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
50
Appendix Table 12E Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0129 -0125(0223) (0224)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0152 -0129(0141) (0142)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0000(0158)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0454 0495lowast
(0279) (0287)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0031 -0090(0170) (0175)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783nr2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
51
Appendix Table 12F Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0376(0231)
[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0059 -0122(0402) (0407)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0441lowast 0457lowast
(0240) (0243)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0068(0316)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0282 0288(0573) (0589)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0035 -0069(0340) (0350)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
52
Appendix Table 12G Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0131(0114)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male 0114 0175(0185) (0188)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0237lowastlowast -0261lowastlowast
(0118) (0121)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0009(0133)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0225 -0292(0249) (0254)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0152 0189(0141) (0145)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913r2 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
53
Appendix Table 13 Family Income 1992 excluding non-earners (ie fam inc = 0)
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992 wave (excluding those reporting 0)(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0095lowastlowastlowast
(0033)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0031 -0019(0053) (0053)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0101lowastlowastlowast -0100lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0034)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10918 10918 10918 10918r2 0050 0049 0050 0050
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0084lowast
(0050)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0019 -0007(0089) (0090)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0083 -0083(0053) (0054)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5654 5654 5654 5654r2 0026 0026 0026 0026
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102lowastlowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0051 -0040(0060) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0113lowastlowastlowast -0112lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0040)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5264 5264 5264 5264r2 0029 0028 0029 0029
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel B in Table 4 excluding those who report $0 for familyincome All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
54
Appendix Table 14 Net Worth 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable Std Net Worth 2011 Wave of WLS(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0032lowastlowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0023lowast -0021lowast
(0012) (0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0032lowastlowastlowast -0031lowastlowastlowast
(0010) (0010)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9435 9435 9435 9435r2 0002 0002 0002 0002
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0012lowast
(0006)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0009 -0008(0009) (0009)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0012lowastlowast -0011lowastlowast
(0006) (0006)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5026 5026 5026 5026r2 0007 0006 0007 0007
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0057lowastlowast
(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0040lowast -0036lowast
(0023) (0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0057lowastlowast -0056lowastlowast
(0023) (0022)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4409 4409 4409 4409r2 0001 0001 0001 0001
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel C in Table 4 replacing the net worth measure from the 2004wave with an identical measure from the 2011 wave of the WLS All estimation is performed with OLS with family clusteredstandard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 105 and 1 levels respectively
55
Appendix Table 15A Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 1992 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0243(0152)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0107 0039(0252) (0255)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0285lowast 0282lowast
(0158) (0160)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9849 9849 9849 9849
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0007(0091)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0210 -0216(0170) (0173)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0007 0024(0095) (0097)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9858 9858 9858 9858
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0255(0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0107 -0169(0328) (0338)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0237 0252(0193) (0198)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9845 9845 9845 9845
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
56
Appendix Table 15B Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2004 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0018(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0190 0207(0160) (0162)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0066 -0083(0102) (0104)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10672 10672 10672 10672
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0096 0108(0124) (0125)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0051 -0059(0076) (0077)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10619 10619 10619 10619
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0108(0110)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0064 0027(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0181 0179(0113) (0113)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10617 10617 10617 10617
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
57
Appendix Table 15C Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0099(0092)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0244 0242(0154) (0155)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0033 0016(0099) (0100)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0021(0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0095 0097(0138) (0139)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0004 -0011(0085) (0086)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0134(0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0203 0181(0175) (0176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0140 0127(0107) (0107)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8709 8709 8709 8709
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
58
- text 10818
- tables 10-8-18
-
Appendix Table 11D Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0083lowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0002 0012(0062) (0062)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0104lowastlowastlowast -0105lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0041)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4575 4575 4575 4575r2 0010 0009 0010 0010
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11E Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -15122(14275)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -22991 -20537(23287) (23176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -18595 -17540(14734) (14751)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4554 4554 4554 4554r2 0011 0011 0011 0011
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
45
Appendix Table 11F Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0465lowast
(0238)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0079 0006(0403) (0405)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0520lowastlowast 0520lowastlowast
(0245) (0246)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4547 4547 4547 4547R Sqr 0006 0005 0006 0006
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0177(0123)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0098 0144(0194) (0192)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0293lowastlowast -0302lowastlowast
(0125) (0126)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8007 8007 8007 8007R Sqr 0067 0067 0068 0068
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
46
Appendix Table 12A Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0253lowastlowast
(0107)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0252 -0226(0170) (0172)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0263lowastlowast -0242lowastlowast
(0113) (0115)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0084(0120)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0341 0339(0216) (0219)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0096 0056(0130) (0132)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459r2 0085 0085 0085 0085
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
47
Appendix Table 12B Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0128)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0196 0169(0190) (0189)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0081 -0104(0135) (0135)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0383lowastlowast
(0189)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0594lowast -0474(0349) (0355)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0339lowast -0283(0204) (0207)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112r2 0021 0021 0021 0021
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
48
Appendix Table 12C Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0034)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0019(0077) (0079)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0095lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0030) (0031)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0071lowast
(0038)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0072 0039(0087) (0089)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0104lowastlowastlowast 0100lowastlowastlowast
(0035) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498r2 0008 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
49
Appendix Table 12D Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0071lowast
(0036)[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0012 0031
(0058) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0093lowastlowast -0097lowastlowast
(0039) (0039)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0030(0045)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0031 -0051(0087) (0088)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0059 0065(0048) (0049)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
50
Appendix Table 12E Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0129 -0125(0223) (0224)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0152 -0129(0141) (0142)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0000(0158)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0454 0495lowast
(0279) (0287)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0031 -0090(0170) (0175)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783nr2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
51
Appendix Table 12F Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0376(0231)
[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0059 -0122(0402) (0407)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0441lowast 0457lowast
(0240) (0243)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0068(0316)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0282 0288(0573) (0589)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0035 -0069(0340) (0350)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
52
Appendix Table 12G Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0131(0114)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male 0114 0175(0185) (0188)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0237lowastlowast -0261lowastlowast
(0118) (0121)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0009(0133)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0225 -0292(0249) (0254)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0152 0189(0141) (0145)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913r2 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
53
Appendix Table 13 Family Income 1992 excluding non-earners (ie fam inc = 0)
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992 wave (excluding those reporting 0)(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0095lowastlowastlowast
(0033)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0031 -0019(0053) (0053)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0101lowastlowastlowast -0100lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0034)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10918 10918 10918 10918r2 0050 0049 0050 0050
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0084lowast
(0050)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0019 -0007(0089) (0090)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0083 -0083(0053) (0054)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5654 5654 5654 5654r2 0026 0026 0026 0026
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102lowastlowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0051 -0040(0060) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0113lowastlowastlowast -0112lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0040)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5264 5264 5264 5264r2 0029 0028 0029 0029
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel B in Table 4 excluding those who report $0 for familyincome All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
54
Appendix Table 14 Net Worth 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable Std Net Worth 2011 Wave of WLS(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0032lowastlowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0023lowast -0021lowast
(0012) (0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0032lowastlowastlowast -0031lowastlowastlowast
(0010) (0010)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9435 9435 9435 9435r2 0002 0002 0002 0002
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0012lowast
(0006)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0009 -0008(0009) (0009)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0012lowastlowast -0011lowastlowast
(0006) (0006)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5026 5026 5026 5026r2 0007 0006 0007 0007
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0057lowastlowast
(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0040lowast -0036lowast
(0023) (0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0057lowastlowast -0056lowastlowast
(0023) (0022)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4409 4409 4409 4409r2 0001 0001 0001 0001
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel C in Table 4 replacing the net worth measure from the 2004wave with an identical measure from the 2011 wave of the WLS All estimation is performed with OLS with family clusteredstandard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 105 and 1 levels respectively
55
Appendix Table 15A Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 1992 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0243(0152)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0107 0039(0252) (0255)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0285lowast 0282lowast
(0158) (0160)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9849 9849 9849 9849
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0007(0091)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0210 -0216(0170) (0173)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0007 0024(0095) (0097)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9858 9858 9858 9858
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0255(0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0107 -0169(0328) (0338)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0237 0252(0193) (0198)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9845 9845 9845 9845
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
56
Appendix Table 15B Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2004 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0018(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0190 0207(0160) (0162)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0066 -0083(0102) (0104)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10672 10672 10672 10672
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0096 0108(0124) (0125)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0051 -0059(0076) (0077)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10619 10619 10619 10619
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0108(0110)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0064 0027(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0181 0179(0113) (0113)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10617 10617 10617 10617
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
57
Appendix Table 15C Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0099(0092)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0244 0242(0154) (0155)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0033 0016(0099) (0100)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0021(0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0095 0097(0138) (0139)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0004 -0011(0085) (0086)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0134(0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0203 0181(0175) (0176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0140 0127(0107) (0107)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8709 8709 8709 8709
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
58
- text 10818
- tables 10-8-18
-
Appendix Table 11F Results by sex Generation 2 Males
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0465lowast
(0238)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0079 0006(0403) (0405)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0520lowastlowast 0520lowastlowast
(0245) (0246)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4547 4547 4547 4547R Sqr 0006 0005 0006 0006
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
Appendix Table 11G Results by sex Gen 3rsquos Years of Schooling for Gen 2 Males
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0177(0123)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0098 0144(0194) (0192)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0293lowastlowast -0302lowastlowast
(0125) (0126)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8007 8007 8007 8007R Sqr 0067 0067 0068 0068
Summary amp Notes This table repeats our base analysis while limiting the sample by sex of the second generation WLSrespondent All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
46
Appendix Table 12A Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0253lowastlowast
(0107)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0252 -0226(0170) (0172)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0263lowastlowast -0242lowastlowast
(0113) (0115)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0084(0120)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0341 0339(0216) (0219)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0096 0056(0130) (0132)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459r2 0085 0085 0085 0085
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
47
Appendix Table 12B Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0128)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0196 0169(0190) (0189)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0081 -0104(0135) (0135)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0383lowastlowast
(0189)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0594lowast -0474(0349) (0355)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0339lowast -0283(0204) (0207)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112r2 0021 0021 0021 0021
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
48
Appendix Table 12C Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0034)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0019(0077) (0079)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0095lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0030) (0031)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0071lowast
(0038)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0072 0039(0087) (0089)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0104lowastlowastlowast 0100lowastlowastlowast
(0035) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498r2 0008 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
49
Appendix Table 12D Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0071lowast
(0036)[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0012 0031
(0058) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0093lowastlowast -0097lowastlowast
(0039) (0039)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0030(0045)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0031 -0051(0087) (0088)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0059 0065(0048) (0049)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
50
Appendix Table 12E Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0129 -0125(0223) (0224)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0152 -0129(0141) (0142)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0000(0158)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0454 0495lowast
(0279) (0287)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0031 -0090(0170) (0175)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783nr2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
51
Appendix Table 12F Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0376(0231)
[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0059 -0122(0402) (0407)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0441lowast 0457lowast
(0240) (0243)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0068(0316)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0282 0288(0573) (0589)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0035 -0069(0340) (0350)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
52
Appendix Table 12G Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0131(0114)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male 0114 0175(0185) (0188)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0237lowastlowast -0261lowastlowast
(0118) (0121)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0009(0133)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0225 -0292(0249) (0254)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0152 0189(0141) (0145)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913r2 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
53
Appendix Table 13 Family Income 1992 excluding non-earners (ie fam inc = 0)
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992 wave (excluding those reporting 0)(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0095lowastlowastlowast
(0033)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0031 -0019(0053) (0053)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0101lowastlowastlowast -0100lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0034)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10918 10918 10918 10918r2 0050 0049 0050 0050
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0084lowast
(0050)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0019 -0007(0089) (0090)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0083 -0083(0053) (0054)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5654 5654 5654 5654r2 0026 0026 0026 0026
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102lowastlowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0051 -0040(0060) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0113lowastlowastlowast -0112lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0040)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5264 5264 5264 5264r2 0029 0028 0029 0029
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel B in Table 4 excluding those who report $0 for familyincome All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
54
Appendix Table 14 Net Worth 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable Std Net Worth 2011 Wave of WLS(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0032lowastlowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0023lowast -0021lowast
(0012) (0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0032lowastlowastlowast -0031lowastlowastlowast
(0010) (0010)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9435 9435 9435 9435r2 0002 0002 0002 0002
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0012lowast
(0006)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0009 -0008(0009) (0009)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0012lowastlowast -0011lowastlowast
(0006) (0006)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5026 5026 5026 5026r2 0007 0006 0007 0007
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0057lowastlowast
(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0040lowast -0036lowast
(0023) (0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0057lowastlowast -0056lowastlowast
(0023) (0022)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4409 4409 4409 4409r2 0001 0001 0001 0001
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel C in Table 4 replacing the net worth measure from the 2004wave with an identical measure from the 2011 wave of the WLS All estimation is performed with OLS with family clusteredstandard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 105 and 1 levels respectively
55
Appendix Table 15A Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 1992 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0243(0152)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0107 0039(0252) (0255)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0285lowast 0282lowast
(0158) (0160)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9849 9849 9849 9849
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0007(0091)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0210 -0216(0170) (0173)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0007 0024(0095) (0097)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9858 9858 9858 9858
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0255(0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0107 -0169(0328) (0338)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0237 0252(0193) (0198)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9845 9845 9845 9845
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
56
Appendix Table 15B Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2004 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0018(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0190 0207(0160) (0162)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0066 -0083(0102) (0104)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10672 10672 10672 10672
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0096 0108(0124) (0125)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0051 -0059(0076) (0077)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10619 10619 10619 10619
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0108(0110)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0064 0027(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0181 0179(0113) (0113)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10617 10617 10617 10617
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
57
Appendix Table 15C Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0099(0092)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0244 0242(0154) (0155)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0033 0016(0099) (0100)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0021(0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0095 0097(0138) (0139)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0004 -0011(0085) (0086)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0134(0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0203 0181(0175) (0176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0140 0127(0107) (0107)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8709 8709 8709 8709
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
58
- text 10818
- tables 10-8-18
-
Appendix Table 12A Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable Years of schooling
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0253lowastlowast
(0107)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0252 -0226(0170) (0172)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0263lowastlowast -0242lowastlowast
(0113) (0115)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0084(0120)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0341 0339(0216) (0219)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0096 0056(0130) (0132)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12459 12459 12459 12459r2 0085 0085 0085 0085
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
47
Appendix Table 12B Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0128)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0196 0169(0190) (0189)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0081 -0104(0135) (0135)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0383lowastlowast
(0189)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0594lowast -0474(0349) (0355)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0339lowast -0283(0204) (0207)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112r2 0021 0021 0021 0021
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
48
Appendix Table 12C Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0034)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0019(0077) (0079)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0095lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0030) (0031)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0071lowast
(0038)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0072 0039(0087) (0089)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0104lowastlowastlowast 0100lowastlowastlowast
(0035) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498r2 0008 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
49
Appendix Table 12D Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0071lowast
(0036)[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0012 0031
(0058) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0093lowastlowast -0097lowastlowast
(0039) (0039)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0030(0045)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0031 -0051(0087) (0088)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0059 0065(0048) (0049)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
50
Appendix Table 12E Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0129 -0125(0223) (0224)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0152 -0129(0141) (0142)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0000(0158)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0454 0495lowast
(0279) (0287)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0031 -0090(0170) (0175)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783nr2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
51
Appendix Table 12F Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0376(0231)
[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0059 -0122(0402) (0407)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0441lowast 0457lowast
(0240) (0243)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0068(0316)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0282 0288(0573) (0589)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0035 -0069(0340) (0350)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
52
Appendix Table 12G Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0131(0114)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male 0114 0175(0185) (0188)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0237lowastlowast -0261lowastlowast
(0118) (0121)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0009(0133)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0225 -0292(0249) (0254)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0152 0189(0141) (0145)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913r2 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
53
Appendix Table 13 Family Income 1992 excluding non-earners (ie fam inc = 0)
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992 wave (excluding those reporting 0)(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0095lowastlowastlowast
(0033)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0031 -0019(0053) (0053)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0101lowastlowastlowast -0100lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0034)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10918 10918 10918 10918r2 0050 0049 0050 0050
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0084lowast
(0050)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0019 -0007(0089) (0090)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0083 -0083(0053) (0054)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5654 5654 5654 5654r2 0026 0026 0026 0026
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102lowastlowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0051 -0040(0060) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0113lowastlowastlowast -0112lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0040)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5264 5264 5264 5264r2 0029 0028 0029 0029
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel B in Table 4 excluding those who report $0 for familyincome All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
54
Appendix Table 14 Net Worth 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable Std Net Worth 2011 Wave of WLS(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0032lowastlowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0023lowast -0021lowast
(0012) (0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0032lowastlowastlowast -0031lowastlowastlowast
(0010) (0010)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9435 9435 9435 9435r2 0002 0002 0002 0002
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0012lowast
(0006)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0009 -0008(0009) (0009)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0012lowastlowast -0011lowastlowast
(0006) (0006)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5026 5026 5026 5026r2 0007 0006 0007 0007
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0057lowastlowast
(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0040lowast -0036lowast
(0023) (0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0057lowastlowast -0056lowastlowast
(0023) (0022)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4409 4409 4409 4409r2 0001 0001 0001 0001
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel C in Table 4 replacing the net worth measure from the 2004wave with an identical measure from the 2011 wave of the WLS All estimation is performed with OLS with family clusteredstandard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 105 and 1 levels respectively
55
Appendix Table 15A Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 1992 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0243(0152)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0107 0039(0252) (0255)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0285lowast 0282lowast
(0158) (0160)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9849 9849 9849 9849
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0007(0091)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0210 -0216(0170) (0173)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0007 0024(0095) (0097)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9858 9858 9858 9858
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0255(0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0107 -0169(0328) (0338)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0237 0252(0193) (0198)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9845 9845 9845 9845
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
56
Appendix Table 15B Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2004 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0018(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0190 0207(0160) (0162)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0066 -0083(0102) (0104)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10672 10672 10672 10672
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0096 0108(0124) (0125)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0051 -0059(0076) (0077)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10619 10619 10619 10619
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0108(0110)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0064 0027(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0181 0179(0113) (0113)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10617 10617 10617 10617
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
57
Appendix Table 15C Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0099(0092)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0244 0242(0154) (0155)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0033 0016(0099) (0100)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0021(0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0095 0097(0138) (0139)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0004 -0011(0085) (0086)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0134(0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0203 0181(0175) (0176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0140 0127(0107) (0107)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8709 8709 8709 8709
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
58
- text 10818
- tables 10-8-18
-
Appendix Table 12B Heterogeneity by gender
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0128)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0196 0169(0190) (0189)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0081 -0104(0135) (0135)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0383lowastlowast
(0189)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0594lowast -0474(0349) (0355)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0339lowast -0283(0204) (0207)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 12112 12112 12112 12112r2 0021 0021 0021 0021
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
48
Appendix Table 12C Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0034)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0019(0077) (0079)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0095lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0030) (0031)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0071lowast
(0038)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0072 0039(0087) (0089)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0104lowastlowastlowast 0100lowastlowastlowast
(0035) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498r2 0008 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
49
Appendix Table 12D Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0071lowast
(0036)[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0012 0031
(0058) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0093lowastlowast -0097lowastlowast
(0039) (0039)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0030(0045)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0031 -0051(0087) (0088)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0059 0065(0048) (0049)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
50
Appendix Table 12E Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0129 -0125(0223) (0224)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0152 -0129(0141) (0142)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0000(0158)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0454 0495lowast
(0279) (0287)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0031 -0090(0170) (0175)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783nr2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
51
Appendix Table 12F Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0376(0231)
[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0059 -0122(0402) (0407)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0441lowast 0457lowast
(0240) (0243)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0068(0316)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0282 0288(0573) (0589)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0035 -0069(0340) (0350)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
52
Appendix Table 12G Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0131(0114)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male 0114 0175(0185) (0188)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0237lowastlowast -0261lowastlowast
(0118) (0121)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0009(0133)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0225 -0292(0249) (0254)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0152 0189(0141) (0145)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913r2 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
53
Appendix Table 13 Family Income 1992 excluding non-earners (ie fam inc = 0)
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992 wave (excluding those reporting 0)(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0095lowastlowastlowast
(0033)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0031 -0019(0053) (0053)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0101lowastlowastlowast -0100lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0034)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10918 10918 10918 10918r2 0050 0049 0050 0050
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0084lowast
(0050)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0019 -0007(0089) (0090)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0083 -0083(0053) (0054)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5654 5654 5654 5654r2 0026 0026 0026 0026
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102lowastlowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0051 -0040(0060) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0113lowastlowastlowast -0112lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0040)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5264 5264 5264 5264r2 0029 0028 0029 0029
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel B in Table 4 excluding those who report $0 for familyincome All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
54
Appendix Table 14 Net Worth 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable Std Net Worth 2011 Wave of WLS(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0032lowastlowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0023lowast -0021lowast
(0012) (0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0032lowastlowastlowast -0031lowastlowastlowast
(0010) (0010)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9435 9435 9435 9435r2 0002 0002 0002 0002
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0012lowast
(0006)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0009 -0008(0009) (0009)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0012lowastlowast -0011lowastlowast
(0006) (0006)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5026 5026 5026 5026r2 0007 0006 0007 0007
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0057lowastlowast
(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0040lowast -0036lowast
(0023) (0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0057lowastlowast -0056lowastlowast
(0023) (0022)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4409 4409 4409 4409r2 0001 0001 0001 0001
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel C in Table 4 replacing the net worth measure from the 2004wave with an identical measure from the 2011 wave of the WLS All estimation is performed with OLS with family clusteredstandard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 105 and 1 levels respectively
55
Appendix Table 15A Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 1992 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0243(0152)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0107 0039(0252) (0255)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0285lowast 0282lowast
(0158) (0160)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9849 9849 9849 9849
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0007(0091)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0210 -0216(0170) (0173)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0007 0024(0095) (0097)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9858 9858 9858 9858
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0255(0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0107 -0169(0328) (0338)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0237 0252(0193) (0198)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9845 9845 9845 9845
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
56
Appendix Table 15B Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2004 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0018(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0190 0207(0160) (0162)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0066 -0083(0102) (0104)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10672 10672 10672 10672
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0096 0108(0124) (0125)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0051 -0059(0076) (0077)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10619 10619 10619 10619
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0108(0110)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0064 0027(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0181 0179(0113) (0113)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10617 10617 10617 10617
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
57
Appendix Table 15C Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0099(0092)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0244 0242(0154) (0155)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0033 0016(0099) (0100)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0021(0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0095 0097(0138) (0139)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0004 -0011(0085) (0086)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0134(0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0203 0181(0175) (0176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0140 0127(0107) (0107)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8709 8709 8709 8709
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
58
- text 10818
- tables 10-8-18
-
Appendix Table 12C Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Std Normal Net Worth 2004
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0065lowast
(0034)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0004 0019(0077) (0079)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0095lowastlowastlowast -0094lowastlowastlowast
(0030) (0031)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0071lowast
(0038)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0072 0039(0087) (0089)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0104lowastlowastlowast 0100lowastlowastlowast
(0035) (0037)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10498 10498 10498 10498r2 0008 0007 0008 0008
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
49
Appendix Table 12D Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0071lowast
(0036)[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0012 0031
(0058) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0093lowastlowast -0097lowastlowast
(0039) (0039)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0030(0045)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0031 -0051(0087) (0088)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0059 0065(0048) (0049)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
50
Appendix Table 12E Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0129 -0125(0223) (0224)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0152 -0129(0141) (0142)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0000(0158)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0454 0495lowast
(0279) (0287)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0031 -0090(0170) (0175)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783nr2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
51
Appendix Table 12F Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0376(0231)
[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0059 -0122(0402) (0407)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0441lowast 0457lowast
(0240) (0243)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0068(0316)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0282 0288(0573) (0589)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0035 -0069(0340) (0350)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
52
Appendix Table 12G Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0131(0114)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male 0114 0175(0185) (0188)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0237lowastlowast -0261lowastlowast
(0118) (0121)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0009(0133)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0225 -0292(0249) (0254)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0152 0189(0141) (0145)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913r2 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
53
Appendix Table 13 Family Income 1992 excluding non-earners (ie fam inc = 0)
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992 wave (excluding those reporting 0)(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0095lowastlowastlowast
(0033)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0031 -0019(0053) (0053)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0101lowastlowastlowast -0100lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0034)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10918 10918 10918 10918r2 0050 0049 0050 0050
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0084lowast
(0050)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0019 -0007(0089) (0090)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0083 -0083(0053) (0054)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5654 5654 5654 5654r2 0026 0026 0026 0026
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102lowastlowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0051 -0040(0060) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0113lowastlowastlowast -0112lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0040)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5264 5264 5264 5264r2 0029 0028 0029 0029
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel B in Table 4 excluding those who report $0 for familyincome All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
54
Appendix Table 14 Net Worth 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable Std Net Worth 2011 Wave of WLS(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0032lowastlowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0023lowast -0021lowast
(0012) (0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0032lowastlowastlowast -0031lowastlowastlowast
(0010) (0010)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9435 9435 9435 9435r2 0002 0002 0002 0002
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0012lowast
(0006)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0009 -0008(0009) (0009)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0012lowastlowast -0011lowastlowast
(0006) (0006)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5026 5026 5026 5026r2 0007 0006 0007 0007
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0057lowastlowast
(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0040lowast -0036lowast
(0023) (0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0057lowastlowast -0056lowastlowast
(0023) (0022)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4409 4409 4409 4409r2 0001 0001 0001 0001
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel C in Table 4 replacing the net worth measure from the 2004wave with an identical measure from the 2011 wave of the WLS All estimation is performed with OLS with family clusteredstandard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 105 and 1 levels respectively
55
Appendix Table 15A Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 1992 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0243(0152)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0107 0039(0252) (0255)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0285lowast 0282lowast
(0158) (0160)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9849 9849 9849 9849
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0007(0091)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0210 -0216(0170) (0173)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0007 0024(0095) (0097)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9858 9858 9858 9858
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0255(0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0107 -0169(0328) (0338)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0237 0252(0193) (0198)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9845 9845 9845 9845
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
56
Appendix Table 15B Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2004 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0018(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0190 0207(0160) (0162)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0066 -0083(0102) (0104)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10672 10672 10672 10672
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0096 0108(0124) (0125)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0051 -0059(0076) (0077)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10619 10619 10619 10619
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0108(0110)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0064 0027(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0181 0179(0113) (0113)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10617 10617 10617 10617
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
57
Appendix Table 15C Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0099(0092)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0244 0242(0154) (0155)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0033 0016(0099) (0100)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0021(0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0095 0097(0138) (0139)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0004 -0011(0085) (0086)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0134(0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0203 0181(0175) (0176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0140 0127(0107) (0107)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8709 8709 8709 8709
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
58
- text 10818
- tables 10-8-18
-
Appendix Table 12D Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Self-Reported Health
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0071lowast
(0036)[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0012 0031
(0058) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0093lowastlowast -0097lowastlowast
(0039) (0039)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0030(0045)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0031 -0051(0087) (0088)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0059 0065(0048) (0049)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9888 9888 9888 9888r2 0009 0009 0009 0009
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
50
Appendix Table 12E Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0129 -0125(0223) (0224)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0152 -0129(0141) (0142)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0000(0158)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0454 0495lowast
(0279) (0287)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0031 -0090(0170) (0175)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783nr2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
51
Appendix Table 12F Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0376(0231)
[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0059 -0122(0402) (0407)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0441lowast 0457lowast
(0240) (0243)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0068(0316)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0282 0288(0573) (0589)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0035 -0069(0340) (0350)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
52
Appendix Table 12G Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0131(0114)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male 0114 0175(0185) (0188)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0237lowastlowast -0261lowastlowast
(0118) (0121)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0009(0133)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0225 -0292(0249) (0254)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0152 0189(0141) (0145)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913r2 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
53
Appendix Table 13 Family Income 1992 excluding non-earners (ie fam inc = 0)
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992 wave (excluding those reporting 0)(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0095lowastlowastlowast
(0033)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0031 -0019(0053) (0053)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0101lowastlowastlowast -0100lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0034)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10918 10918 10918 10918r2 0050 0049 0050 0050
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0084lowast
(0050)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0019 -0007(0089) (0090)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0083 -0083(0053) (0054)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5654 5654 5654 5654r2 0026 0026 0026 0026
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102lowastlowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0051 -0040(0060) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0113lowastlowastlowast -0112lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0040)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5264 5264 5264 5264r2 0029 0028 0029 0029
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel B in Table 4 excluding those who report $0 for familyincome All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
54
Appendix Table 14 Net Worth 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable Std Net Worth 2011 Wave of WLS(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0032lowastlowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0023lowast -0021lowast
(0012) (0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0032lowastlowastlowast -0031lowastlowastlowast
(0010) (0010)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9435 9435 9435 9435r2 0002 0002 0002 0002
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0012lowast
(0006)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0009 -0008(0009) (0009)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0012lowastlowast -0011lowastlowast
(0006) (0006)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5026 5026 5026 5026r2 0007 0006 0007 0007
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0057lowastlowast
(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0040lowast -0036lowast
(0023) (0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0057lowastlowast -0056lowastlowast
(0023) (0022)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4409 4409 4409 4409r2 0001 0001 0001 0001
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel C in Table 4 replacing the net worth measure from the 2004wave with an identical measure from the 2011 wave of the WLS All estimation is performed with OLS with family clusteredstandard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 105 and 1 levels respectively
55
Appendix Table 15A Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 1992 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0243(0152)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0107 0039(0252) (0255)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0285lowast 0282lowast
(0158) (0160)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9849 9849 9849 9849
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0007(0091)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0210 -0216(0170) (0173)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0007 0024(0095) (0097)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9858 9858 9858 9858
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0255(0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0107 -0169(0328) (0338)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0237 0252(0193) (0198)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9845 9845 9845 9845
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
56
Appendix Table 15B Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2004 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0018(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0190 0207(0160) (0162)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0066 -0083(0102) (0104)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10672 10672 10672 10672
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0096 0108(0124) (0125)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0051 -0059(0076) (0077)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10619 10619 10619 10619
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0108(0110)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0064 0027(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0181 0179(0113) (0113)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10617 10617 10617 10617
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
57
Appendix Table 15C Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0099(0092)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0244 0242(0154) (0155)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0033 0016(0099) (0100)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0021(0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0095 0097(0138) (0139)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0004 -0011(0085) (0086)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0134(0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0203 0181(0175) (0176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0140 0127(0107) (0107)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8709 8709 8709 8709
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
58
- text 10818
- tables 10-8-18
-
Appendix Table 12E Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Height
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102(0133)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0129 -0125(0223) (0224)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0152 -0129(0141) (0142)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female -0000(0158)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0454 0495lowast
(0279) (0287)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0031 -0090(0170) (0175)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9783 9783 9783 9783nr2 0586 0586 0586 0586
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
51
Appendix Table 12F Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0376(0231)
[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0059 -0122(0402) (0407)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0441lowast 0457lowast
(0240) (0243)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0068(0316)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0282 0288(0573) (0589)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0035 -0069(0340) (0350)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
52
Appendix Table 12G Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0131(0114)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male 0114 0175(0185) (0188)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0237lowastlowast -0261lowastlowast
(0118) (0121)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0009(0133)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0225 -0292(0249) (0254)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0152 0189(0141) (0145)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913r2 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
53
Appendix Table 13 Family Income 1992 excluding non-earners (ie fam inc = 0)
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992 wave (excluding those reporting 0)(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0095lowastlowastlowast
(0033)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0031 -0019(0053) (0053)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0101lowastlowastlowast -0100lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0034)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10918 10918 10918 10918r2 0050 0049 0050 0050
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0084lowast
(0050)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0019 -0007(0089) (0090)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0083 -0083(0053) (0054)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5654 5654 5654 5654r2 0026 0026 0026 0026
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102lowastlowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0051 -0040(0060) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0113lowastlowastlowast -0112lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0040)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5264 5264 5264 5264r2 0029 0028 0029 0029
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel B in Table 4 excluding those who report $0 for familyincome All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
54
Appendix Table 14 Net Worth 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable Std Net Worth 2011 Wave of WLS(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0032lowastlowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0023lowast -0021lowast
(0012) (0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0032lowastlowastlowast -0031lowastlowastlowast
(0010) (0010)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9435 9435 9435 9435r2 0002 0002 0002 0002
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0012lowast
(0006)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0009 -0008(0009) (0009)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0012lowastlowast -0011lowastlowast
(0006) (0006)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5026 5026 5026 5026r2 0007 0006 0007 0007
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0057lowastlowast
(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0040lowast -0036lowast
(0023) (0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0057lowastlowast -0056lowastlowast
(0023) (0022)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4409 4409 4409 4409r2 0001 0001 0001 0001
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel C in Table 4 replacing the net worth measure from the 2004wave with an identical measure from the 2011 wave of the WLS All estimation is performed with OLS with family clusteredstandard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 105 and 1 levels respectively
55
Appendix Table 15A Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 1992 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0243(0152)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0107 0039(0252) (0255)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0285lowast 0282lowast
(0158) (0160)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9849 9849 9849 9849
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0007(0091)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0210 -0216(0170) (0173)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0007 0024(0095) (0097)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9858 9858 9858 9858
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0255(0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0107 -0169(0328) (0338)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0237 0252(0193) (0198)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9845 9845 9845 9845
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
56
Appendix Table 15B Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2004 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0018(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0190 0207(0160) (0162)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0066 -0083(0102) (0104)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10672 10672 10672 10672
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0096 0108(0124) (0125)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0051 -0059(0076) (0077)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10619 10619 10619 10619
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0108(0110)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0064 0027(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0181 0179(0113) (0113)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10617 10617 10617 10617
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
57
Appendix Table 15C Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0099(0092)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0244 0242(0154) (0155)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0033 0016(0099) (0100)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0021(0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0095 0097(0138) (0139)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0004 -0011(0085) (0086)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0134(0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0203 0181(0175) (0176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0140 0127(0107) (0107)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8709 8709 8709 8709
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
58
- text 10818
- tables 10-8-18
-
Appendix Table 12F Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0376(0231)
[1em] Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0059 -0122(0402) (0407)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0441lowast 0457lowast
(0240) (0243)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0068(0316)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female 0282 0288(0573) (0589)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female -0035 -0069(0340) (0350)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9671 9671 9671 9671r2 0028 0028 0028 0028
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
52
Appendix Table 12G Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0131(0114)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male 0114 0175(0185) (0188)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0237lowastlowast -0261lowastlowast
(0118) (0121)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0009(0133)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0225 -0292(0249) (0254)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0152 0189(0141) (0145)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913r2 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
53
Appendix Table 13 Family Income 1992 excluding non-earners (ie fam inc = 0)
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992 wave (excluding those reporting 0)(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0095lowastlowastlowast
(0033)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0031 -0019(0053) (0053)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0101lowastlowastlowast -0100lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0034)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10918 10918 10918 10918r2 0050 0049 0050 0050
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0084lowast
(0050)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0019 -0007(0089) (0090)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0083 -0083(0053) (0054)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5654 5654 5654 5654r2 0026 0026 0026 0026
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102lowastlowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0051 -0040(0060) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0113lowastlowastlowast -0112lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0040)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5264 5264 5264 5264r2 0029 0028 0029 0029
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel B in Table 4 excluding those who report $0 for familyincome All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
54
Appendix Table 14 Net Worth 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable Std Net Worth 2011 Wave of WLS(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0032lowastlowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0023lowast -0021lowast
(0012) (0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0032lowastlowastlowast -0031lowastlowastlowast
(0010) (0010)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9435 9435 9435 9435r2 0002 0002 0002 0002
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0012lowast
(0006)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0009 -0008(0009) (0009)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0012lowastlowast -0011lowastlowast
(0006) (0006)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5026 5026 5026 5026r2 0007 0006 0007 0007
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0057lowastlowast
(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0040lowast -0036lowast
(0023) (0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0057lowastlowast -0056lowastlowast
(0023) (0022)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4409 4409 4409 4409r2 0001 0001 0001 0001
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel C in Table 4 replacing the net worth measure from the 2004wave with an identical measure from the 2011 wave of the WLS All estimation is performed with OLS with family clusteredstandard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 105 and 1 levels respectively
55
Appendix Table 15A Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 1992 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0243(0152)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0107 0039(0252) (0255)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0285lowast 0282lowast
(0158) (0160)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9849 9849 9849 9849
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0007(0091)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0210 -0216(0170) (0173)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0007 0024(0095) (0097)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9858 9858 9858 9858
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0255(0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0107 -0169(0328) (0338)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0237 0252(0193) (0198)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9845 9845 9845 9845
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
56
Appendix Table 15B Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2004 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0018(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0190 0207(0160) (0162)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0066 -0083(0102) (0104)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10672 10672 10672 10672
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0096 0108(0124) (0125)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0051 -0059(0076) (0077)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10619 10619 10619 10619
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0108(0110)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0064 0027(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0181 0179(0113) (0113)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10617 10617 10617 10617
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
57
Appendix Table 15C Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0099(0092)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0244 0242(0154) (0155)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0033 0016(0099) (0100)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0021(0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0095 0097(0138) (0139)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0004 -0011(0085) (0086)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0134(0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0203 0181(0175) (0176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0140 0127(0107) (0107)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8709 8709 8709 8709
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
58
- text 10818
- tables 10-8-18
-
Appendix Table 12G Heterogeneity by sex
Dependent Variable Years of schooling in generation 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0131(0114)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male 0114 0175(0185) (0188)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0237lowastlowast -0261lowastlowast
(0118) (0121)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex)times Female 0009(0133)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Male)times Female -0225 -0292(0249) (0254)
First Gen Flu Exposure (Female)times Female 0152 0189(0141) (0145)
First Gen Birth Year Time Trends Y Y Y Y
Second Gen Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 19913 19913 19913 19913r2 0079 0078 0079 0079
Summary amp Notes This table estimates the interaction between an indicator for gen1 flu exposure and gen2rsquos sex tofurther examine the sex differences shown in Appendix Tables 10 and 11 All estimation is performed with OLS with familyclustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significanceat the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
53
Appendix Table 13 Family Income 1992 excluding non-earners (ie fam inc = 0)
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992 wave (excluding those reporting 0)(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0095lowastlowastlowast
(0033)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0031 -0019(0053) (0053)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0101lowastlowastlowast -0100lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0034)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10918 10918 10918 10918r2 0050 0049 0050 0050
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0084lowast
(0050)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0019 -0007(0089) (0090)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0083 -0083(0053) (0054)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5654 5654 5654 5654r2 0026 0026 0026 0026
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102lowastlowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0051 -0040(0060) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0113lowastlowastlowast -0112lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0040)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5264 5264 5264 5264r2 0029 0028 0029 0029
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel B in Table 4 excluding those who report $0 for familyincome All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
54
Appendix Table 14 Net Worth 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable Std Net Worth 2011 Wave of WLS(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0032lowastlowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0023lowast -0021lowast
(0012) (0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0032lowastlowastlowast -0031lowastlowastlowast
(0010) (0010)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9435 9435 9435 9435r2 0002 0002 0002 0002
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0012lowast
(0006)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0009 -0008(0009) (0009)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0012lowastlowast -0011lowastlowast
(0006) (0006)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5026 5026 5026 5026r2 0007 0006 0007 0007
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0057lowastlowast
(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0040lowast -0036lowast
(0023) (0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0057lowastlowast -0056lowastlowast
(0023) (0022)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4409 4409 4409 4409r2 0001 0001 0001 0001
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel C in Table 4 replacing the net worth measure from the 2004wave with an identical measure from the 2011 wave of the WLS All estimation is performed with OLS with family clusteredstandard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 105 and 1 levels respectively
55
Appendix Table 15A Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 1992 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0243(0152)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0107 0039(0252) (0255)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0285lowast 0282lowast
(0158) (0160)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9849 9849 9849 9849
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0007(0091)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0210 -0216(0170) (0173)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0007 0024(0095) (0097)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9858 9858 9858 9858
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0255(0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0107 -0169(0328) (0338)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0237 0252(0193) (0198)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9845 9845 9845 9845
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
56
Appendix Table 15B Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2004 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0018(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0190 0207(0160) (0162)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0066 -0083(0102) (0104)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10672 10672 10672 10672
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0096 0108(0124) (0125)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0051 -0059(0076) (0077)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10619 10619 10619 10619
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0108(0110)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0064 0027(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0181 0179(0113) (0113)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10617 10617 10617 10617
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
57
Appendix Table 15C Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0099(0092)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0244 0242(0154) (0155)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0033 0016(0099) (0100)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0021(0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0095 0097(0138) (0139)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0004 -0011(0085) (0086)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0134(0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0203 0181(0175) (0176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0140 0127(0107) (0107)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8709 8709 8709 8709
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
58
- text 10818
- tables 10-8-18
-
Appendix Table 13 Family Income 1992 excluding non-earners (ie fam inc = 0)
Dependent Variable ln Family Income 1992 wave (excluding those reporting 0)(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0095lowastlowastlowast
(0033)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0031 -0019(0053) (0053)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0101lowastlowastlowast -0100lowastlowastlowast
(0034) (0034)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10918 10918 10918 10918r2 0050 0049 0050 0050
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0084lowast
(0050)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0019 -0007(0089) (0090)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0083 -0083(0053) (0054)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5654 5654 5654 5654r2 0026 0026 0026 0026
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0102lowastlowastlowast
(0039)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0051 -0040(0060) (0059)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0113lowastlowastlowast -0112lowastlowastlowast
(0040) (0040)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5264 5264 5264 5264r2 0029 0028 0029 0029
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel B in Table 4 excluding those who report $0 for familyincome All estimation is performed with OLS with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statisticalsignificance is denoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
54
Appendix Table 14 Net Worth 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable Std Net Worth 2011 Wave of WLS(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0032lowastlowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0023lowast -0021lowast
(0012) (0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0032lowastlowastlowast -0031lowastlowastlowast
(0010) (0010)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9435 9435 9435 9435r2 0002 0002 0002 0002
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0012lowast
(0006)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0009 -0008(0009) (0009)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0012lowastlowast -0011lowastlowast
(0006) (0006)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5026 5026 5026 5026r2 0007 0006 0007 0007
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0057lowastlowast
(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0040lowast -0036lowast
(0023) (0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0057lowastlowast -0056lowastlowast
(0023) (0022)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4409 4409 4409 4409r2 0001 0001 0001 0001
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel C in Table 4 replacing the net worth measure from the 2004wave with an identical measure from the 2011 wave of the WLS All estimation is performed with OLS with family clusteredstandard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 105 and 1 levels respectively
55
Appendix Table 15A Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 1992 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0243(0152)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0107 0039(0252) (0255)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0285lowast 0282lowast
(0158) (0160)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9849 9849 9849 9849
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0007(0091)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0210 -0216(0170) (0173)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0007 0024(0095) (0097)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9858 9858 9858 9858
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0255(0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0107 -0169(0328) (0338)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0237 0252(0193) (0198)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9845 9845 9845 9845
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
56
Appendix Table 15B Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2004 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0018(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0190 0207(0160) (0162)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0066 -0083(0102) (0104)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10672 10672 10672 10672
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0096 0108(0124) (0125)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0051 -0059(0076) (0077)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10619 10619 10619 10619
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0108(0110)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0064 0027(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0181 0179(0113) (0113)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10617 10617 10617 10617
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
57
Appendix Table 15C Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0099(0092)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0244 0242(0154) (0155)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0033 0016(0099) (0100)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0021(0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0095 0097(0138) (0139)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0004 -0011(0085) (0086)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0134(0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0203 0181(0175) (0176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0140 0127(0107) (0107)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8709 8709 8709 8709
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
58
- text 10818
- tables 10-8-18
-
Appendix Table 14 Net Worth 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable Std Net Worth 2011 Wave of WLS(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Full Sample
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0032lowastlowastlowast
(0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0023lowast -0021lowast
(0012) (0011)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0032lowastlowastlowast -0031lowastlowastlowast
(0010) (0010)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9435 9435 9435 9435r2 0002 0002 0002 0002
Panel B Females Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0012lowast
(0006)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0009 -0008(0009) (0009)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0012lowastlowast -0011lowastlowast
(0006) (0006)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 5026 5026 5026 5026r2 0007 0006 0007 0007
Panel C Males Only
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0057lowastlowast
(0024)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0040lowast -0036lowast
(0023) (0021)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0057lowastlowast -0056lowastlowast
(0023) (0022)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 4409 4409 4409 4409r2 0001 0001 0001 0001
Summary amp Notes This table repeats the estimation of Panel C in Table 4 replacing the net worth measure from the 2004wave with an identical measure from the 2011 wave of the WLS All estimation is performed with OLS with family clusteredstandard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance is denoted by and representing significance at the 105 and 1 levels respectively
55
Appendix Table 15A Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 1992 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0243(0152)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0107 0039(0252) (0255)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0285lowast 0282lowast
(0158) (0160)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9849 9849 9849 9849
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0007(0091)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0210 -0216(0170) (0173)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0007 0024(0095) (0097)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9858 9858 9858 9858
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0255(0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0107 -0169(0328) (0338)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0237 0252(0193) (0198)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9845 9845 9845 9845
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
56
Appendix Table 15B Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2004 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0018(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0190 0207(0160) (0162)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0066 -0083(0102) (0104)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10672 10672 10672 10672
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0096 0108(0124) (0125)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0051 -0059(0076) (0077)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10619 10619 10619 10619
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0108(0110)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0064 0027(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0181 0179(0113) (0113)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10617 10617 10617 10617
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
57
Appendix Table 15C Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0099(0092)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0244 0242(0154) (0155)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0033 0016(0099) (0100)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0021(0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0095 0097(0138) (0139)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0004 -0011(0085) (0086)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0134(0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0203 0181(0175) (0176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0140 0127(0107) (0107)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8709 8709 8709 8709
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
58
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Appendix Table 15A Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 1992 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0243(0152)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0107 0039(0252) (0255)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0285lowast 0282lowast
(0158) (0160)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9849 9849 9849 9849
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0007(0091)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0210 -0216(0170) (0173)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0007 0024(0095) (0097)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9858 9858 9858 9858
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0255(0184)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) -0107 -0169(0328) (0338)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0237 0252(0193) (0198)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 9845 9845 9845 9845
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
56
Appendix Table 15B Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2004 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0018(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0190 0207(0160) (0162)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0066 -0083(0102) (0104)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10672 10672 10672 10672
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0096 0108(0124) (0125)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0051 -0059(0076) (0077)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10619 10619 10619 10619
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0108(0110)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0064 0027(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0181 0179(0113) (0113)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10617 10617 10617 10617
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
57
Appendix Table 15C Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0099(0092)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0244 0242(0154) (0155)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0033 0016(0099) (0100)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0021(0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0095 0097(0138) (0139)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0004 -0011(0085) (0086)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0134(0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0203 0181(0175) (0176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0140 0127(0107) (0107)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8709 8709 8709 8709
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
58
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Appendix Table 15B Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2004 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0018(0096)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0190 0207(0160) (0162)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0066 -0083(0102) (0104)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10672 10672 10672 10672
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) -0019(0072)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0096 0108(0124) (0125)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0051 -0059(0076) (0077)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10619 10619 10619 10619
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0108(0110)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0064 0027(0186) (0186)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0181 0179(0113) (0113)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 10617 10617 10617 10617
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
57
Appendix Table 15C Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0099(0092)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0244 0242(0154) (0155)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0033 0016(0099) (0100)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0021(0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0095 0097(0138) (0139)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0004 -0011(0085) (0086)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0134(0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0203 0181(0175) (0176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0140 0127(0107) (0107)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8709 8709 8709 8709
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
58
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Appendix Table 15C Gen 2 Specific Health Indicators 2011 Wave
Dependent Variable By Panel(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A Heart trouble
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0099(0092)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0244 0242(0154) (0155)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0033 0016(0099) (0100)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel B Hypertension
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0021(0081)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0095 0097(0138) (0139)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) -0004 -0011(0085) (0086)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8710 8710 8710 8710
Panel C Diabetes
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Either Sex) 0134(0102)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Male) 0203 0181(0175) (0176)
Ind for First Gen Flu Exposure (Female) 0140 0127(0107) (0107)
Base Controls Y Y Y Y
Observations 8709 8709 8709 8709
Summary amp Notes This table examines the association of gen 1 flu exposure with specific self-reported health conditionsLogistic estimation for all columns with family clustered standard errors reported in parenthesis Statistical significance isdenoted by and representing significance at the 10 5 and 1 levels respectively
58
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