psikologi eksperiment bab 1
Post on 03-Mar-2018
220 Views
Preview:
TRANSCRIPT
7/26/2019 Psikologi Eksperiment Bab 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/psikologi-eksperiment-bab-1 1/29
The Need for Scientific Methodology
The Characteristics of Modern Science
The Objectives of Psychological Science
The Tools of Psychological Science
Scientific Explanation in Psychological Science
The Organization of the Text
7/26/2019 Psikologi Eksperiment Bab 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/psikologi-eksperiment-bab-1 2/29
How are science, methodology, and data
interrelated?
The Need for Scientific Methodology
Science connotes content and process.
Methodology consists of the scientific
techniques we use to collect and evaluate data.Data are the facts we gather using scientificmethods.
7/26/2019 Psikologi Eksperiment Bab 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/psikologi-eksperiment-bab-1 3/29
What is commonsense psychology?
The Need for Scientific Methodology
Heider called nonscientific data gatheringcommonsense psycho logy .
This approach uses nonscientific sourcesof data and nonscientific inference.
An everyday example is believing that“opposites attract.”
7/26/2019 Psikologi Eksperiment Bab 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/psikologi-eksperiment-bab-1 4/29
Explain nonscientific inference.
The Need for Scientific Methodology
Nonscient i fic inference is the nonscientific useof information to explain or predict behavior.
The gambler’s fallacy, overuse of traitexplanations, stereotyping, and overconfidencebias illustrate this problem.
7/26/2019 Psikologi Eksperiment Bab 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/psikologi-eksperiment-bab-1 5/29
What is the gambler’s fallacy?
The Need for Scientific Methodology
In the gambler’s fallacy , people misuse data toestimate the probability of an event, like when aslot machine will pay off.
7/26/2019 Psikologi Eksperiment Bab 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/psikologi-eksperiment-bab-1 6/29
Why is the overuse of trait explanations a problem?
The Need for Scientific Methodology
When we overuse trait explanations to explainothers' behavior, we often make unwarranteddispositional attributions and underuse
situational information.
This bias can reduce the accuracy of ourexplanations and predictions.
7/26/2019 Psikologi Eksperiment Bab 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/psikologi-eksperiment-bab-1 7/29
How can stereotyping mislead us?
The Need for Scientific Methodology
In stereotyping , we falsely assume that specificbehaviors cluster together.
For example, since Imei is a Chinese-Americanstudent, she must study 10 hours a day andexcel at math. In reality, she failed calculus.
Stereotypes ignore individual differences.
7/26/2019 Psikologi Eksperiment Bab 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/psikologi-eksperiment-bab-1 8/29
Why is overconfidence bias a problem?
The Need for Scientific Methodology
In overconf idence b ias, we feel more confidentabout our conclusions than is warranted byavailable data.
This form of nonscientific inference can result inerroneous conclusions when we don’t recognizethe limitations of supporting data.
7/26/2019 Psikologi Eksperiment Bab 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/psikologi-eksperiment-bab-1 9/29
Why is the scientific mentality important?
The Characteristics of Modern Science
Alfred North Whitehead’s scient i f ic mental i ty
assumes that behavior follows a natural orderand can be predicted.
This assumption is essential to science. There isno point to using the scientific method to gatherand analyze data if there is no implicit order.
7/26/2019 Psikologi Eksperiment Bab 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/psikologi-eksperiment-bab-1 10/29
What makes data empirical?
The Characteristics of Modern Science
Data are empir ical when observed orexperienced.
Galileo’s empirical approach was superiorto Aristotle’s commonsense method.
Galileo correctly concluded that light objectsfall as rapidly as heavy ones in a vacuum.
7/26/2019 Psikologi Eksperiment Bab 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/psikologi-eksperiment-bab-1 11/29
What is a law?
The Characteristics of Modern Science
A law consists of statements generallyexpressed as equations with few variablesthat have overwhelming empirical support.
Laws, like the Laws of Thermodynamics,are useful in the physical sciences.
7/26/2019 Psikologi Eksperiment Bab 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/psikologi-eksperiment-bab-1 12/29
What is a theory?
The Characteristics of Modern Science
A theory is an interim explanation; a set ofrelated statements used explain and predictphenomena.
Theories integrate diverse data, explainbehavior, and predict new instances of behavior.
7/26/2019 Psikologi Eksperiment Bab 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/psikologi-eksperiment-bab-1 13/29
What is good thinking and why is it important?
The Characteristics of Modern Science
Good th ink ing is critical to the scientific method.
We engage in good thinking when data collectionand interpretation are systematic, objective, andrational.
7/26/2019 Psikologi Eksperiment Bab 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/psikologi-eksperiment-bab-1 14/29
What is parsimony?
The Characteristics of Modern Science
The principle of pars imony is that we preferthe simplest useful explanation.
For example, Crandall (1988) showed thata soc ial con tagion model of bulimiawas more parsimonious than competingexplanations.
7/26/2019 Psikologi Eksperiment Bab 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/psikologi-eksperiment-bab-1 15/29
How did Sir Karl Popper believe that science
advances?
The Characteristics of Modern Science
Sir Karl Popper proposed that science advancesby revising theories based on the “weight ofevidence.”
Science is self-correcting as scientificexplanations and theories are challenged,and revised or replaced.
7/26/2019 Psikologi Eksperiment Bab 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/psikologi-eksperiment-bab-1 16/29
What role does the principle of modus tollens play in
science?
The Characteristics of Modern Science
The pr inc ip le of modus tol lens allows us todisprove statements using a single, contraryobservation.
We can never prove a statement because acontradictory observation might be found later.
7/26/2019 Psikologi Eksperiment Bab 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/psikologi-eksperiment-bab-1 17/29
How does replication advance science?
The Characteristics of Modern Science
Repl icat ion is an exact or systematic repetitionof a study.
Replication increases our confidence inexperimental results by adding to the weight ofsupporting evidence.
7/26/2019 Psikologi Eksperiment Bab 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/psikologi-eksperiment-bab-1 18/29
What are the four main objectives of science?
The Objectives of Psychological Science
The four main objectives of science are:
description
prediction
explanation
control
7/26/2019 Psikologi Eksperiment Bab 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/psikologi-eksperiment-bab-1 19/29
What are the four main objectives of science?
The Objectives of Psychological Science
Descr ipt ion is a systematic and unbiasedaccount of observed characteristics of behaviors.
Predict ion is the capability of knowing inadvance when certain behaviors should occur.
Explanat ion is knowledge of the conditions thatreliably produce a behavior.
7/26/2019 Psikologi Eksperiment Bab 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/psikologi-eksperiment-bab-1 20/29
What are the four main objectives of science?
The Objectives of Psychological Science
Contro l is the use of scientific knowledge toinfluence behavior.
7/26/2019 Psikologi Eksperiment Bab 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/psikologi-eksperiment-bab-1 21/29
How does applied research differ from basic
research?
The Objectives of Psychological Science
Appl ied research addresses real-worldproblems like how to improve student graduationrates.
Basic research tests theories and explainspsychological phenomena like helping behavior.
7/26/2019 Psikologi Eksperiment Bab 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/psikologi-eksperiment-bab-1 22/29
What are the main tools of psychological science?
The Tools of Psychological Science
The main tools of psychological science are:
observation
measurement
experimentation
7/26/2019 Psikologi Eksperiment Bab 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/psikologi-eksperiment-bab-1 23/29
What are the main tools of psychological science?
The Tools of Psychological Science
Observat ion is the systematic noting andrecording of events. Systematic means thatthe procedures are consistently applied.
The events or their signs must be observable.
Observations must be objective so that therecan be strong agreement among raters.
7/26/2019 Psikologi Eksperiment Bab 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/psikologi-eksperiment-bab-1 24/29
What are the main tools of psychological science?
The Tools of Psychological Science
Measurement assigns numbers to objects,events, or their characteristics. This is aninherent feature of quantitative research.
Baron and colleagues (1985) measured angerand depression using numerical scales.
7/26/2019 Psikologi Eksperiment Bab 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/psikologi-eksperiment-bab-1 25/29
What are the main tools of psychological science?
The Tools of Psychological Science
Experimentat ion is the process we use to testthe predictions we call hypotheses and establishcause-and-effect relationships.
Experimentation is not always possible becauseour predictions must be testable .
7/26/2019 Psikologi Eksperiment Bab 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/psikologi-eksperiment-bab-1 26/29
What are the requirements for an experiment?
The Tools of Psychological Science
We must be able to manipulate the independentvariable and measure its effect on the dependentvariable.
Ethical concerns or technological limitations mayprevent experimentation.
7/26/2019 Psikologi Eksperiment Bab 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/psikologi-eksperiment-bab-1 27/29
What are the requirements for an experiment?
Scientific Explanation
An experiment requires that we create atleast two treatment conditions and randomlyassign subjects to these conditions.
In psychology experiments, we control
extraneous variables so we that we can
measure “what we intend to measure.”
7/26/2019 Psikologi Eksperiment Bab 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/psikologi-eksperiment-bab-1 28/29
How does an experiment establish cause and
effect?
Scientific Explanation
An experiment attempts to establish a cause-and-effect relationship between the antecedentconditions (IV) and subject behavior (DV).
Experiments establish a tempo ral relat ionship ,because causes must precede effects. However,not all prior events are causes.
7/26/2019 Psikologi Eksperiment Bab 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/psikologi-eksperiment-bab-1 29/29
What are pseudosciences?
Scientific Explanation
A pseudosc ience is any field of study thatgives the appearance of being scientific,but has no true scientific basis and has not
been confirmed using the scientific method.Modern pseudosciences include past liferegression, reparenting, and rebirthing.
top related