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UNIVERSITY OF GOTHENBURG
Simulation of model spectra for evaluation of
in vivo magnetic resonance spectra with LCModel
M.Sc. Thesis
Author: Christina Söderman
Supervisors: Ph.D Maria Ljungberg & Ph.D Åsa Carlsson
Department of Radiation Physics
University of Gothenburg
Gothenburg, Sweden
Abstract
LCModel is a software tool for analysis and quantification of in vivo magnetic resonance (MR)
spectra. It estimates the spectrum under evaluation as a linear combination of a set of model
spectra for each metabolite of interest. This thesis describes the work of simulating model spectra
for the point resolved spectroscopy sequence (PRESS) on a 3T MR system, verifying them with
phantom measurements and applying them on in vivo data.
The model spectra were generated by using Vespa-Simulation, which is based on the
GAMMA/PyGAMMA NMR simulation libraries. Six different PRESS echo times (TE:s) were
considered and ideal “hard” RF-pulses were assumed. MR spectroscopy measurements were
performed on a phantom with known concentrations of the metabolites glutamate and creatine.
In vivo measurements were performed on a healthy volunteer in four different regions of the
brain.
Evaluation of the simulated spectra indicated that the timing of the RF-pulses in the PRESS
sequence influences the outcome of the spectra for metabolites containing coupled spins, whereas
uncoupled spins show no such dependence.
The LCModel fit of the simulated model spectra to the phantom measurement data resulted in
non-random residuals. This might be due to effects on the measured data originating from the
actual RF-pulse shapes on the MR system, not accounted for in the simulations. A concentration
calibration factor for the metabolite concentrations given by LCModel, using the simulated basis
sets, was determined to 0.87 ± 2.5 %.
LCModel analysis of the in vivo data, using the simulated model spectra, showed good results for
the fit. Some structure in the residual could be seen in two of the fitted data sets, presumably a
spurious echo artifact or a consequence of the residuals seen in the fit of the phantom data.
Table of contents1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 MRS basics................................................................................................................................1
1.2 Vespa-Simulation.....................................................................................................................7
1.3 LCModel basis sets...................................................................................................................8
2 MATERIAL AND METHODS 92.1 Model spectra simulations.......................................................................................................9
2.2 Phantom measurements........................................................................................................14
2.3 Concentration calibration......................................................................................................15
2.4 In vivo measurements............................................................................................................16
3 RESULTS 193.1 Model spectra simulation......................................................................................................19
3.2 Phantom measurements........................................................................................................22
3.3 Concentration calibration......................................................................................................25
3.4 In vivo measurements............................................................................................................25
4 DISCUSSION 28
5 CONCLUSION 31
Acknowledgments 32
References 33
1 INTRODUCTION
In vivo magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) is a non-invasive technique for quantification of
tissue metabolites. One of the areas in which the technique is widely used, is in the research of
brain deceases, e.g. gliomas or dementia[1][2]. The goal of many studies is to correlate an
elevation or decrease of the concentration of a certain metabolite with the unhealthy state. This
approach indicates the need of a reliable MRS analysis tool, with as little user dependence as
possible. LCModel is a well established software for evaluation and quantification of in vivo MR
spectra, where the spectrum under evaluation is estimated as a linear combination of a set of
model spectra for each metabolite of interest[3]. These model spectra form a basis set within
LCModel, and they may be measured in vitro from aqueous metabolite solutions, or may be
quantum-mechanically simulated.
The aim of this work was to create model spectra for a PRESS sequence on a 3T system for
LCModel by means of simulation, to perform phantom measurements for verification and
concentration calibration and to finally apply the model spectra on in vivo data.
1.1 MRS basics1
Atomic nuclei with an odd atomic number posses non zero quantum spin and charge. The spin
puts the charge in motion, resulting in a magnetic field accompanied by a magnetic dipole moment
and magnetization vector. When placed in a strong external magnetic field, the magnetization
vector will precess, or resonate, around the field axis with a frequency ν, called the Larmor or
resonance frequency, given by:
ν=ω/2π=B0⋅γ/2π (1.1)
where ω is the angular frequency in radians per second, B0 is the strength of the magnetic field in
Tesla (T) and γ is the gyromagnetic ratio in Hz/T.
1 This chapter contains basic magnetic resonance spectroscopy theory, which can be found in [4],[5] and [6].
1
A large group of nuclei, for example the 1H nuclei in the human body, placed in a magnetic field will
create a net magnetic field, M0, in the same direction as the main field vector as illustrated in
Figure 1.1. However, to measure this weak M0-field is difficult in the much stronger B0-field. By
applying a radio frequency pulse (RF-pulse), the net magnetization can be exited, i.e. can be
flipped to a plane perpendicular to the B0-field. The magnetization is then said to be in the
transverse plane, see Figure 1.2.
The precession in the transverse plane can be detected as an alternating voltage in a coil. Various
factors will induce a relaxation effect on the transverse magnetization, causing a damped signal
with a decay time referred to as T2*. This signal is called the Free Induction Decay, or FID, and
consists of an x- and y-component which are detected separately, referred to as the real and
imaginary part of the FID respectively, see Figure 1.3.
2
Figure 1.1: When placed in an outer magnetic field, B0, a group of nuclei will create a net magnetization, M0, aligned with the B0.
Figure 1.2: If subjected to a RF pulse, the net magnetization will be flipped to the transverse plane, perpendicular to the B0-field.
Figure 1.3: The real and imaginary part of the FID.
The signal components, Sx(t) and Sy(t), are given by Equations 1.2 and 1.3.
Sx t =S0t [cos 0−t]e−t/T2* (1.2)
Sy (t )=S0(t)[sin(ω0−ω) t+φ]e(−t/T 2*) (1.3)
φ is the phase of the signal and ω0 is a reference angular frequency. The angular frequency
contents of the FID, S(ω), can be extracted with a Fourier transform of the time domain data of the
signal, S(t), according to:
S (ω)=∫−∞
∞
S (t)e(−i ω t)dt=Re(ω )+Im (ω ) (1.4)
Re(ω )=A(ω)cos (φ)−D(ω)sin(φ) (1.5)
Im(ω )=A(ω)sin(φ)+D(ω)cos(φ) (1.6)
where
A(ω)=S0 T 2
*
1+(ω0−ω)2T 2* 2
(1.7)
D(ω)=S0(ω0−ω)T 2
*
1+(ω0−ω)2T 2* 2
(1.8)
A(ω) and D(ω) are the absorption and dispersion components of the signal. The final spectrum is a
plot of the real part of the Fourier transform in the frequency domain, where the area under one
peak is proportional to the number of protons contributing to the signal.
3
When analyzing spectra, it is preferable to work with the peaks originating from the absorption
mode, shown in Figure 1.4. However if φ≠0, the resulting spectrum after Fourier transform will be
a mixture of absorption and dispersion mode, leading to a distorted lineshape as in Figure 1.5.
By doing a zero-order phase correction of the spectrum, so that φ=φc in Equation 1.9, a pure
absorption mode spectrum is achieved.
Re( )=A cos −c−D sin−c (1.9)
The resolution of an MR spectra is given by the Full Width at Half Maximum (FWHM), which is the
width of a peak at half its maximum value.
It is of importance that the acquisition time of the FID is sufficiently long, so that the signal has
time to decay in to noise. If this is not the case, the peaks of the spectrum will be subjected to
truncation artifacts.
The Larmor equation (Equation 1.1) suggest that every nuclei of the same species will resonate
with the same frequency given an outer magnetic field. This is not entirely true. Electrons orbiting
the nuclei will create a magnetic field, which shields the nucleus from the B 0-field. The extent to
which the strength of the B0-field is shielded, depends on the chemical environment of the
nucleus, i.e. the electronic density in its vicinity. The corresponding effect on the resonance
frequency is referred to as the chemical shift. With this in consideration, the resonance frequency
4
Figure 1.5: If the phase of the FID is non-zero, the resulting spectrum will be a mixture of absorption and dispersion mode.
Figure 1.4: The absorption (solid line) and dispersion (dashed line) components of the lineshape.
ν, in Hz, is instead given by:
ν=B0(1−σ)⋅γ/2π (1.10)
where σ is a dimensionless “shielding constant”, describing the effect on the magnetic field from
the electrons. By convention the chemical shift δ is given in parts per million (ppm) relative to a
reference frequency υref, according to
δ=ν−νref
νref
⋅106 (1.11)
MR spectra are in general presented as the signal strength as a function of ppm, with the ppm
range increasing from right to left.
Another phenomenon that affects the appearance of the spectrum is the so called J-coupling. This
is an interaction between the magnetic moments of nuclei and electrons orbiting neighboring
nuclei, which causes a fine structure splitting of the resonance lines. The intensity of the splitting
is given in Hz by the J-coupling constant, and in the case of coupling between 1H nuclei, is
somewhere in the range of 1-15 Hz. The number of lines the splitting results in, and the relation
between their amplitudes, depends on the number of nuclei in a J-coupling. Pascal's triangle,
depicted in Figure 1.6, illustrates these relations.
5
Figure 1.6: The number of lines due to J-coupling and their relative amplitudes are given by Pascal's triangel.
With prior knowledge of the chemical shift and J-coupling constants of metabolites, it is possible to
identify them in human tissue by acquiring signal from a volume of interest (VOI) in the body, e.g. a
small volume of a certain part of the brain. Volume selection is generally achieved by the
application of magnetic field gradients in combination with RF-pulses, the point resolved
spectroscopy sequence (PRESS) is such a method[7]. Figure 1.7 depicts the PRESS sequence
generically.
The PRESS sequence starts of with a 90o RF-pulse that flips the spins to the transverse plane, which
is followed by two RF pulses that flips the spins 180o through the transverse plane. A 180o-pulse
will reverse the phases of the spins, and as they continue to phase evolve in the same direction,
they will be refocused and form a spin echo. By applying a magnetic field gradient over the object,
there will be a variation of the Larmor frequency, see Equation 1.1. Only those spins with
resonances matching the frequency contents of the RF-pulse, will be effected by it. With three RF-
pulses and three orthogonal magnetic field gradients, as in PRESS, the final signal measured is that
from a VOI containing spins which have experienced all three RF-pulses. The time between the 90o-
pulse and the top of the second spin echo, is defined as the PRESS echo time, TE. In MRS
measurements, especially in vivo, there can be a large amount of noise in the acquired signal. To
keep the signal to noise ratio high, several FID:s are acquired, giving an averaged signal were the
noise is suppressed. The time between the 90o pulses of a series of PRESS sequences is referred to
as the repetition time, TR. For J-coupled spins, a 180o-pulse may not cause complete refocusing,
resulting in a phase difference between the signals from a coupled spin. The phase difference is
proportional to TE and J, and can for example manifest itself as inverted peaks in the final
6
Figure 1.7: The generic PRESS sequence.
spectrum. In vivo, the signal from the metabolites of interest is many magnitudes smaller than the
signal from water. To obtain satisfactory information from the metabolites requires that the water
signal is sufficiently suppressed. This is done using a water suppression sequence, e.g. CHESS[8].
During MRS measurements, currents can be induced in the surrounding material of the magnet
due to the switching of the magnetic field gradients. These so called Eddy currents induce an
unwanted time-varying magnetic field. This will disturb the B0-field and cause a frequency drift of
the MRS signal and consequently distort the lineshape in the spectrum. By measuring the effect of
Eddy currents in an unsuppressed water signal, it is possible to compensate for this effect on the
signals from metabolites of interest[9].
1.2 Vespa-Simulation
Vespa-Simulation is a software tool with the ability to simulate MRS experiments[10][11]. The
program is written in the Python programming language and works as a front end to the
GAMMA/PyGAMMA NMR simulation libraries[12]. Vespa-Simulation allows the user to define
metabolites by specifying the isotope, the number of spins, the chemical shift and J-coupling
constants. Pulse sequences with ideal “hard” pulses or user defined RF pulse waveforms and
timings can be designed. The pulse sequence design consists of sequence code with Python scripts
that calls to the PyGAMMA library. In the sequence code the parameters of the simulation are
defined. Vespa-Simulation allows the user to view the resulting frequency spectra directly within
the interface, and also, if requested, gives the result as a textfile. The number of sampling points,
bandwidth and resolution are set before the results are generated.
7
1.3 LCModel basis sets
Demands on the LCModel basis set model spectra include that they are acquired with the same
pulse sequence, the same TE, too within a few ms, and also with at same B0-field strength as when
the in vivo spectrum was acquired. The FWHM should not be larger than 0.03 ppm for singlets in
each model spectra, and a noise level well below that of the in vivo spectrum is also desirable[13].
MakeBasis within LCModel is used for the creation of the basis set[13]. Time domain data from all
the metabolites of interest are required, along with information about which concentration of the
metabolite yielded the data. In order to get correct chemical shift referencing, a frequency
reference singlet must be present in all spectra. It is important that the model spectra are scaled
consistently with it each other, with regard to intensity, so that the relationship between number
of protons and peak area is the same. Making in vitro measured basis sets by preparing metabolite
solutions and collecting signals from each of the metabolites for every possible sequence timing is
very time and resource consuming. Simulation has the advantage of being a more flexible method,
giving completely noise free spectra.
An LCModel analysis of in vivo data results in estimated absolute metabolite concentrations, based
on how much of each model spectra is found in the data. Therefor, in order to get meaningful
results, the intensity scaling between the data and the basis set must be consistent. LCModel
achieves this by multiplying the measured data with the ratio of the areas of a reference peak of
the basis set and a peak from unsuppressed water from the measurement. Both areas are
normalized with respect to the number of protons in each molecule which contribute to the peak,
the concentration of the basis set metabolite and of the water in the measured data respectively,
and relaxation effects. By default, the peak of the creatine spectrum at approximately 3.03 ppm is
used as reference peak from the basis set. The metabolite concentration will still be wrong by a
factor, due to the difficulty in estimating the water concentration and relaxation effects on water in
vivo.
8
Figure 1.8 shows an example of the output from an LCModel analysis. In the lower panel the
measured data is plotted with a thin black curve, and the LCModel fit to this data is shown with a
thicker red curve. Also shown, as a smooth black curve, is the estimated baseline, representing
signals from macromolecules such as fat. The upper panel shows the residual, given by the
measured data minus the fit. A good fit results in a residual consisting of only noise. The table to
the right is a list of the metabolites in the basis set and an estimation of with which concentration
they are present in the measured data, along with the standard deviation. Eddy current correction
can be done in LCModel if data from unsuppressed water is available[9].
9
Figure 1.8: Example of the output from an LCModel analysis of in vivo MRS data.
2 MATERIAL AND METHODSThe simulations were done on a standard Windows PC and LCModel was run on a Linux PC. The
phantom and in vivo measurements were performed on a Philips Achieva 3T, software release 3.2,
with a transmit/recieve Birdcage Head Coil (Philips Healthcare, the Netherlands).
2.1 Model spectra simulations
Time domain 1H-MRS data from a PRESS sequence for a number of common brain metabolites,
restricted to those recommended for LCModel model spectra[13], were simulated with a beta
version of Vespa-Simulation. Most of the metabolites were predefined in the software. The
performance of PyGAMMA decreased as the number of spins in the simulations increased[14][15],
it was acceptable with systems up to eight spins. This complicated the simulation of time domain
data from choline, glycerophosphocoline and phosphocholine, which contain 13, 18 and 13 1H-
nuclei respectively. For glycerophosphocoline and phosphocholine, the spin-spin coupling with one
31P- and one 14N-nuclei also had to be accounted for. By dividing the metabolites in to groups of
manageable numbers of spins, making sure no spin-spin coupling exist between the groups, and by
running the simulation on the groups separately, the achieved data could be summed and scaled
correctly to obtain the time domain data for the metabolite as a whole. All chemical shifts and J-
coupling constants for input in Vespa-Simulation were taken from Govindaraju et al.[16]. The
chemical shifts are given with reference to 2,2-dimethyl-2-silapentate-5-sulfonate (DSS) which is a
commonly used in vitro reference in 1H-MRS. Metabolites and corresponding chemical shift and J-
coupling values used in the simulations are presented in Table 2.1.
10
Table 2.1: Chemical shift and J-coupling constants for a selection of brain metabolites, all present in the LCModel basis sets. DSS is used as chemical shift reference. The connectivity specifies between which 1H-nuclei the J-coupling exists, where the number indicates to which group the nucleus belongs. If there are more than one 1H-nucleus in the group, this is indicated with apostrophes. Values are taken from Govindaraju et al.[16].
Metabolite Group Chemical Shift (ppm) J-Coupling constant (Hz) Connectivity
Acetate 2CH3 1.9040 None
Alanine 2CH 3.7746 7.234 2 - 33CH3 1.4667 -14.366 3 - 3', 3 -3 '', 3' -3''
Aspartate 2CH 3.8914 3.647 2 - 33CH2 2.8011 9.107 2 - 3'
2.6533 -17.426 3 - 3'
Choline N(CH3)3 3.1850 None1CH2 4.0540 3.140 1 - 22CH2 3.5010 6.979 1 - 2'
3.168 1' - 2'
7.011 1' - 2
2.572 1 - N
2.681 1' - N
0.57 N - CH3
Creatine N(CH3) 3.0270 None2CH2 3.9130 None
NH 6.6490 None
Gamma aminobutyric acid 2CH2 3.0128 5.372 2 - 3
7.127 2 - 3'3CH2 1.8890 10.578 2' - 3
6.982 2' - 3'4CH2 2.2840 7.755 3 - 4
7.432 3 - 4'
6.173 3' - 4
7.933 3' - 4'
Glucose 1CH 5.216 3.8 1 - 22CH 3.519 9.6 2 - 33CH 3.698 9.4 3 - 44CH 3.395 9.9 4 - 55CH 3.822 1.5 5 - 66CH 3.826 6.0 5 - 6'6'CH 3.749 -12.1 6 - 6'
11
Table 2.1 cont.
Metabolite Group Chemical shift (ppm) J-Coupling constant (Hz) Connectivity
Glutamate 2CH 3.7433 7.331 2 - 33CH2 2.0375 4.651 2 - 3'
2.1200 -14.849 3 - 3'4CH2 2.3378 8.406 3 - 4'
2.3520 6.875 3' - 4'
6.413 3 - 4
8.478 3' - 4
-15.915 4 - 4'
Glutamine 2CH 3.7530 5.847 2 - 33CH2 2.1290 6.500 2 - 3'
2.1090 -14.504 3 - 3'4CH2 2.4320 9.165 3 - 4
2.4540 6.347 3 - 4'
6.324 3' - 4
9.209 3' - 4'
-15.371 4 - 4'
Glycerophosphocoline 1CH2 3.605 5.77 1 - 2, 2 - 3
3.672 4.53 1' – 2, 2 - 3'2CH 3.903
3CH2 3.871
3.946 3.10 7 – 8, 7' - 8'7CH2 4.312 2.67 7,7' - N8CH2 3.659 5.90 7 – 8', 7' - 8
N(CH3)3 3.212 6.03 3,3' – P; 7,7' - P
Lactate 2CH 4.0974 6.933 2 - 33CH3 1.3142
Myo-inositol 1CH 3.5217 2.889 1 - 22CH 4.0538 9.998 1 - 63CH 3.5217 3.006 2 - 34CH 3.6144 9.997 3 - 45CH 3.2690 9.485 4 - 56CH 3.6144 9.482 5 - 6
N-acetylaspartate 2CH3 2.00892CH 4.3817 3.861 2 - 3
3CH2 2.6727 9.821 2 - 3'
2.4863 -15.592 3 - 3'
NH 7.8205 6.400 NH - 2
N-acetylaspartylglutamate 2CH3 2.042 None
12
Table 2.1 cont.
Metabolite Group Chemical shift (ppm) J-Coupling constant (Hz) Connectivity
Phosphocholine 1CH2 4.2805 2.284 1 - 2
7.231 1 - 2'
2.235 1' - 2'
7.326 1' - 22CH2 3.6410 2.680 1 - N
2.772 1' - N
6.298 1 - P
N(CH3)3 3.2080 6.249 1' - P
Phosphocreatine N(CH3) 3.0290 None2CH2 3.9300 None
NH 6.5810 None
NH 7.2960 None
Scyllo-inositol 1-6CH 3.3400 None
Taurine 1CH2 3.4206 6.742 1 - 2
6.403 1' - 22CH2 3.2459 6.464 1 - 2'
6.792 1' - 2'
Negative J-coupling constants are given for so called geminal couplings. The sign of the J-coupling
constant has no effect on the overall appearance of a spectrum.
The RF-pulses in the simulation were set to be hard pulses, i.e. ideal RF pulses. This means that
they flip all the spins with the same angle and phase, during an infinitely short time[12]. Six
different TE:s were considered, 30, 35, 40, 45, 144 and 288 ms. The timing of the pulses in the
simulated PRESS sequence, was chosen to match the timing of the pulses at the 3T system in use,
i.e. the ideal pulses acted on the spin system at the time of the magnetic centra of the RF-pulses in
the implemented sequence. The parameters of the pulse sequences were extracted with a
research interface (sequence development mode) on the scanner. For TE = 30 ms, spectra with
other RF-pulse timings, than that implemented on the system in use, were also simulated. For TE =
45 ms, the timing of two different pulse shapes implemented were simulated and compared.
Number of sampling points were set to 32K, the bandwidth to 3kHz and the FWHM for single
13
peaks set to 0.2 Hz. To assure that the signal had decayed to zero, the time domain data was
plotted with PlotRaw within LCModel. The ability of Vespa-Simulation to add a resonance peak at
0.0 ppm was made use of for referencing.
The simulated time domain data were applied to MakeBasis in LCModel and basis set for the above
mentioned TE:s were created. For all metabolites the concentration was set to 1 mM.
2.2 Phantom measurements
Two separate metabolite solutions were prepared. One containing glutamate, which has a complex
MR spectra due to the presence of coupled spins in its molecule, and one containing creatine,
which gives a relatively simple spectrum with single well isolated peaks. The solutions were both
based on an aqueous standard solution, its contents given is in Table 2.2 [13].
Table 2.2: Contents of standard solution for the metabolite phantoms, with vendor and order number. NaOH is a pH buffert and its concentration is not definite. (1 M = 1 mol/liter)
Substance Conc. Vendor Product number
DSS 1 mM Aldrich 178837-5G
Dipotassium phsophate (K2HPO4) 72 mM Merck 1051041000
Monopotassium phosphate (KH2PO4) 28mM Merck 1048730250
Sodium formate (HCOONa) 200mM Sigma S2140
Sodium azide (NaN3) 1g/L Merck 1066880250
NaOH - Merck 1064961000
Creatine 50mM Fluka 27890
Glutamate 50mM Fluka 49449
DSS works as a frequency reference. K2HPO4 and KH2PO4 are pH-bufferts, necessary since the
resonance frequency of some metabolites tend to drift if the pH is not controlled. The single
sodium formate resonance is used for scaling the spectra with each other, in regards to the
intensity, for example due to difference in gain factor during acquisition. NaN3 is added for
preservation reasons. The standard solution was finally adjusted to 7.2 pH by titration with NaOH.
Glutamate and creatine were added separately to two equal parts of the standard solvent.
14
A spherical glass phantom with a volume of about 300 ml was used[17][18]. It was placed on a
Styrofoam support on a PMMA plate in the head coil, see Figure 2.1.
Survey scans were performed to check the position of the phantom in the coil. The B0-field
inhomogeneity was evaluated with phase images acquired with a gradient echo sequence with TE
= 64 ms, resulting in 0.12 ppm per phase wrap. One phase wrap is represented by the change in
grayscale, from black to white, in the phase images. Separate 1H-MRS measurements were done on
the two metabolite solutions, using the PRESS sequence with TE = 30, 35, 40, 45, 144 and 288 ms,
TR = 10000ms, bandwidth = 3kHz, 32 FID averages with the number of data points set to 8192.
The acquisition time of 2.73 s was the maximum achievable. The VOI was 3 x 3 x 3 cm3, and
positioned in the center of the phantom. Second order magnetic field pencilbeam shimming and
water suppression optimization were performed. Data was exported both with and without Eddy
current correction, which was enabled by setting the spectral correction parameter to yes and
measuring 16 signal averages from unsuppressed water. To investigate the influence of the RF-
pulse shape on the spectra, two different pulse shapes were used with TE = 45 ms, denoted
normal and sharp in the sequence parameters. The timing of the RF-pulses in the two sequences
were not identical and this was considered in the simulations.
15
Figure 2.1: Position of the metabolite phantom in the head coil.
2.3 Concentration calibration
An unknown scaling factor between the simulated and measured spectra, with regards to the
relation of number of protons contributing to a peak in the spectrum and the area under the peak,
will exist. To find this calibration factor f, the data from the phantom measurements of creatine
and glutamate were analyzed in LCModel with the corresponding simulated basis set, with same
TE and RF pulse timing. The given concentrations of glutamate and creatine by LCModel for all TE
were noted, and f was given by
f =ctrue /clcm (2.1)
were ctrue is the actual concentration of the metabolite in the phantom solution (50 mM) and clcm is
the mean value of the metabolite concentrations given by LCModel. The determined calibration
factor can be implemented in LCModel and automatically be accounted for in following analysis.
Due to changes in the MR system over time, the factor f must be verified periodically.
The water concentration cw, in mol/liter (M), of the phantom is known, given by
cw=ρw
mw
=1000g / liter
18g /mol=55556 mM (2.2)
where ρw and mw is the density and the molar mass of water. Relaxation effects on water in vitro
was assumed negligible.
2.4 In vivo measurements
In vivo brain 1H-MRS measurements were performed on a healthy volunteer in four different
regions of the brain, the gyrus cinguli (GC), the nucleus caudatus (NC), the occipital cortex (OC) and
the orbito frontal cortex (OFC). The measurement parameters were TE = 30 ms, TR = 2000 ms,
bandwidth = 1kHz with the number of data points set to 1024. Number of FID averages were 256
for all regions except for the scan of GC, where it was set to 64. The GC VOI was 25 x 25 x 20 mm3,
the NC VOI 15 x 10 x 10 mm3, the OC VOI 20 x 14 x 15 mm3 and the OFC VOI 12 x 12 x 12 mm3.
Iterative optimization of linear shims was performed for each VOI. Water suppression settings
16
were optimized on the GC measurement, and then used for the other regions. Illustrations of the
VOI positions in the different regions of the brain are given in Figures 2.2-2.5.
17
Figure 2.2: Position of the VOI in the gyrus cinguli.
Figure 2.4: Position of the VOI in the nucleus caudatus.
Figure 2.3: Position of the VOI in the occipital cortex.
The volunteer gave written informed consent before any measurements were done.
The data from the in vivo measurements were analyzed in LCModel with the simulated basis set for
TE = 30 ms, with the same RF-pulse timing as that on the 3T system in use. The water
concentration cw, in mol/liter (M) in the regions were the VOIs were placed, was assumed to be
35880 mM according to LCModel recommendations[13]. A signal loss of 30 % from water due to
relaxation effects was assumed, also suggested by LCModel.
18
Figure 2.5: Position of VOI in the orbito frontal cortex.
3 RESULTS
3.1 Model spectra simulations
Figure 3.1 shows simulated PRESS spectra each for glutamate and creatine with TE = 30 ms, where
the timing of the RF-pulses of the sequence differ. Also shown is the difference between the
spectra. One can see a RF-pulse timing dependence in the glutamate spectra, but the creatine
simulation remained unaffected.
19
Figure 3.1: Simulated spectra from glutamate (A and B) and creatine (D and E) for TE = 30 ms, with different timing of the RF-pulses in the PRESS sequence, and the difference between them (C and F). In A and D the time between the 90o-pulse and the first and second 180o-pulse are 7.5000 and 22.5000 ms respectively. In B and E, the corresponding times are 9.1348 and 24.1348 ms, which is the implemented timing on the 3T system in use. C shows B – A and F shows E – D. Note the scale of the y-axis in C and F.
Simulated PRESS spectra for glutamate with TE = 30, 35, 40, 45, 144 and 288 ms are shown in
Figure 3.2. There is a complex TE dependence of the shape of the glutamate spectra. For creatine,
TE will only effect the amplitude of the peaks due to relaxation effects.
20
Figure 3.2: Simulated PRESS spectra from glutamate for TE = 30,35, 40, 45, 144 and 288 ms. One area, where the difference in the shape between the spectra is particularly visible, has been marked.
The impact of different TE on the appearance of the glutamate spectrum are shown in figure 3.3.
This illustrates that a difference of 5 ms in TE, in the acquisition of glutamate PRESS data, affects
the outcome of the spectrum substantially.
Figure 3.4 and 3.5 show two simulated spectra, from creatine and glutamate, of the basis set for
TE=30 ms. These were created with MakeBasis in LCModel using simulated time domain data
obtained with RF-pulse timing matching that implemented on the 3T system in use. The imaginary
part is shown in the upper panel and the real part is shown in the lower panel.
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Figure 3.4: Basis spectra for glutamate for a PRESS sequence with TE=30 ms and the same RF-pulse timing as that on the 3T system in use.
Figure 3.3: Simulated spectra from glutamate for TE = 30 ms and TE = 35 ms, and the difference between them. Note the scale on the y-axis in the difference spectrum.
For a B0-field strength of 3T a FWHM of 0.2 Hz corresponds to 0.0016 ppm, which indicates that
the resolution demands from LCModel on the basis spectra, FWHM < 0.03 ppm, as mentioned in
Section 1.3, were well met.
3.2 Phantom measurements
Figure 3.6 shows a center slice phase image of the phantom. The B0-field homogeneity over the
phantom was found to be very good, exceeding by far that found in vivo.
22
Figure 3.5: Basis spectra for creatine for a PRESS sequence with TE=30 ms and the same RF-pulse timing as that on the 3T system in use.
Figure 3.6: A center slice phase image of the phantom. The image was acquired with TE = 64 ms, resulting in 0.12 ppm per phase wrap.
The phantom measurements with differing RF-pulse shapes for TE = 45 ms, yielded spectra with
differing shapes for glutamate. This can be seen in Figure 3.7.
Figure 3.8 and 3.9 show the results of the LCModel analysis of the data from the phantom
measurements of creatine and glutamate, acquired with TE = 30 ms, using the corresponding
simulated basis set, i.e. same TE and RF pulse timing as during the measurements.
23
Figure 3.8: The results from an LCModel analysis of the data from the phantom measurement of creatine, acquired with TE = 30 ms. The simulated basis set for TE = 30 ms, with the same RF pulse timing as on the 3T system in use, was used.
Figure 3.7: Spectrum from glutamate phantom measurement for TE = 45 ms. Spectrum A and B were acquired with the RF-pulse shape denoted Normal and Sharp respectively. The spectra are not to scale.
Non-random residuals in the fit were present in all measurements, indicating that the simulated
spectra do not account for all influences on the measured data. LCModel found that the best fit for
the measured creatine data was with the phosphocreatine spectrum in the basis set.
The FWHM of the single peaks in the measured spectra were in the range of 1-3 Hz, which
corresponds to 0.008-0.02 ppm.
24
Figure 3.9: The results from an LCModel analysis of the data from the phantom measurement of glutamate, acquired with TE = 30 ms. The simulated basis set for TE = 30 ms, with the same RF pulse timing as on the 3T system in use, was used.
3.3 Concentration calibration
The estimated concentrations with standard deviation, given by LCModel analysis of the data from
the phantom measurements, using corresponding basis sets, are shown in table 3.1.
Table 3.1: Results from the LCModel analysis of the data from the phantom measurements. The subscript of TE = 45 ms denotes the RF-pulse shape used for the measurement.
Glutamate Phoshpocreatine
TE (ms) Concentration (mM) SD (%) TE (ms) Concentration (mM) SD (%)
30 56.21 1 30 57.48 1
35 58.16 1 35 55.40 1
40 69.60 3 40 58.28 1
45normal 56.27 2 45normal 59.89 1
45sharp 55.36 3 45sharp 57.20 1
144 33.36 2 144 57.77 1
288 31.10 2 288 57.52 1
Since the concentration measurements for glutamate varied largely for the different TE:s, only the
results from the creatine data was considered in the concentration calibration. For consistency, the
concentration given for the measurement with the RF-pulse shape denoted Sharp was not
accounted for. Clcm and f in equation 2.1 was found to be 57.723 mM ± 2.5 % and 0.87 ± 2.5 %
respectively.
3.4 In vivo measurements
Figure 3.10-3.13 show the results of the LCModel analysis of the data from the in vivo
measurements, using the simulated basis set for TE = 30 and the same RF pulse timing as on the 3T
system in use. In Figure 3.10 is the spectrum from the gyrus cinguli measurement, in Figure 3.11 is
the nucleus caudatus spectrum, in Figure 3.12 is the occipital cortex spectrum and the spectrum
from the orbito frontal cortex is shown in Figure 3.13. Some structure can be seen in the residual in
the nucleus caudatus spectrum in the range 3.6 – 3.2 ppm, and in the occipital frontal cortex
spectrum in the range 4-3.8 ppm.
25
26
Figure 3.10: In vivo data from the gyrus cinguli analysed in LCModel with the simulated basis set for TE=30ms.
Figure 3.11: In vivo data from the nucleus caudatus, analyzed in LCModel with the simulated basis set for TE=30ms.
27
Figure 3.12: In vivo data from the occipital cortex, analyzed in LCModel with the simulated basis set for TE=30ms.
Figure 3.13: In vivo data from the orbito frontal cortex, analyzed in LCModel with the simulated basis set for TE=30ms.
4 DISCUSSION
Vespa-Simulation allows the user to design MRS pulse sequences and define metabolites in a
relatively straightforward way, making it very suitable for this work. One favorable quality in
particular of the software is the ability of giving the simulated time domain data as a textfile that is
directly readable for MakeBasis in LCModel.
Figure 3.1 shows that the timing of the RF-pulses in a PRESS sequence, influences the outcome of
the glutamate spectrum but has no effect on the spectrum from creatine, i.e. glutamate seems to
have a timing dependent signal modulation. This effect has been shown previously for glutamate
and other so called strongly coupled spin systems, where the J-coupling constant between spins is
in the same order of magnitude as the difference in chemical shift between them[19]. Therefor, in
order to achieve the best possible simulated basis set, the timing of the RF-pulses must be taken
into account for all coupled spins. However, the results also indicate that for the uncoupled spins
of acetate, choline, creatine, phosphocreatine, N-acetylaspartate, N-acetylaspartylglutamate and
scyllo-inositol, it is sufficient to create one basis set for each TE, which can be used for any RF-
pulse timing.
One demand on LCModel basis sets is that they are acquired with the same TE, to within a few ms,
of that used during acquisition of data. A visual comparison of the glutamate spectra in Figure 3.2
indicates that a significant difference in shape between spectra acquired with TE:s differing more
than 10 ms is present. Figure 3.3 shows that even a difference of 5 ms in TE results in prominent
differences. This is due to the TE dependent phase modulation of coupled spins, and illustrates the
need for as similar TE:s as possible between the measured data and the basis set, preferably
identical. As with the RF-pulse timing, the effect of different TE is not as severe on uncoupled
spins. The only visible effect will be a reduction in the area under the peaks in the spectrum due to
relaxation effects.
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Difference in chemical shift between the two peaks of creatine and phosphocreatine, at about 3.2
and 3.9 ppm, are 0.002 and 0.02 ppm, see table 2.1, making it difficult to distinguish them from
one another in a MR spectrum. In analysis of in vivo MRS measurements with LCModel the sum of
the peaks from creatine and phoshocreatine is estimated, increasing the accuracy substantially as
compared to estimating each peak for itself[3].
There was a discrepancy between the simulated and in vitro measured spectra and the reason for
this can be several different experimental influences e.g. RF pulse shapes or Eddy currents. The
ideal hard RF-pulses used in the simulations is a simplified view of the reality. RF-pulses on MR
systems act on spins during a finite time, and will cause a variation of the flipangle over the object.
A phase variation of spins over the object can cause signal cancellation, which in turn might affect
the amplitudes in the final spectrum from an MRS measurement[20]. These effects are not taken
into account in these simulated spectra, which to some extent, might explain the discrepancies
between the measured and simulated data, see Figures 3.8 and 3.9. The possibility in Vespa-
Simulation to incorporate real RF-pulses in the simulation was considered, but was not feasible to
implement during this thesis, due to several practicalities. The difference between the spectra
measured with TE = 45 ms, as seen in Figure 3.7, could be due to the differing RF-pulse shapes
during the measurements. It is however difficult to determine to what extent, since the RF-pulse
timing in the two measurements also differ.
LCModel employes an Eddy current correction method which assumes negligible signal
components from the metabolites in the unsuppressed water signal[9], explained in Section 1.1.
This is a reasonable assumption for in vivo measurements, but in the phantom used in this work
the metabolite concentrations are much higher than those found in vivo. There is a possibility that
this might degrade the Eddy current correction, and contribute to the residual between the
phantom measurement data and the simulated spectra.
29
Although the FWHM of the basis set is smaller than that found of the single peaks in the data from
the phantom measurements, LCModel might not be optimal for finding a fit to this kind of data.
Phantom measurements yield much better resolution than in in vivo data, which is more forgiving.
A line broadening of the phantom data before analysis might give a better fit between the
simulated model spectra and the measured data. However, this would undermine the purpose of
the measurements, which was to verify that the simulations handled the more complex shape of
the measured spectra.
A satisfying explanation as to why the concentration of the glutamate phantom data given by
LCModel depends on the TE (Table 3.1) has not been found, however it could be linked to the
obtained residual of the fit. Relaxation effects on the metabolite in the phantom might also be a
contributing factor, but does not, according to the results for TE = 144 and 288 ms, exclusively
explain the effect.
By visual evaluation, the simulated basis set for TE = 30 ms seem to work very well on the in vivo
data. Figures 3.10-3.13 show residuals mainly consisting of noise. The structure present in the
residual of the nucleus caudatus and occipital frontal cortex spectra might be a consequence of the
residuals seen in the in vitro data analysis. Another very likely source of these non-random
residuals seen in vivo is that unwanted echos, originating from regions outside the VOI with
unsuppressed water, have disturbed the measurements. This effect, called the spurious echo
artifact, has previously been shown to give similar residuals of fitted data as that seen in this
work[21].
It is important to keep in mind that the metabolite concentrations given by LCModel, which are
scaled with reference to water, are not the actual concentrations present in the VOI. They will be
off by an unknown factor due to errors in the assumed water concentration and relaxation effects
on the water in the VOI, as mentioned above. Another factor affecting the outcome of the
LCModel analysis using the simulated basis set, is that relaxation effects on the metabolites are not
taken into account in the simulations. This might cause an underestimation of metabolite
concentrations, especially for long TE:s. However, in the course of one study, if all measurement
30
parameters are kept constant and if one expects that relaxation effects will not change
considerably from one measurement to another, the concentrations might still be used, with
arbitrary units, to observe concentration trends related to a pathological state. An alternative
common method is to use the LCModel concentrations given only in ratios relative to another
present metabolite. This method is only reliable if the concentration of the reference metabolite is
unaffected by any pathological state.
It is of great interest to set up a simulation environment for the creation of model spectra for
LCModel, since time and resources can be saved compared to measuring the model spectra from
phantom solutions. One advantage of measuring the model spectra in vitro is that many
experimental influences are automatically taken into account. In the creation of the simulated
model spectra as many of these influences as possible should be considered. Therefor, a natural
next step in improving the basis sets created in this work would be to implement the actual RF-
pulse shapes in the simulations.
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5 CONCLUSION
LCModel basis sets was succesfully created for a PRESS sequence on a 3T MR system by simulation
with the software tool Vespa-Simulation. Spectra were simulated for six different TE:s and with
ideal “hard” RF-pulses with implemented RF pulse timing.
MRS measurements were performed on a phantom with known concentrations of glutamate and
creatine. The LCModel fit of the simulated basis set to the phantom measurement data resulted in
non-random residuals. This might be due to effects on the measured data originating from the
actual RF-pulse shapes on the MR system, not accounted for in the simulations. Concentrations
given by LCModel using the simulated basis sets needed to be corrected with a factor of 0.87 ±
2.5%.
In vivo MRS measurements were performed on a healthy volunteer in four different regions of the
brain. LCModel analysis of the data, using the simulated basis sets, showed good results for the fit.
Some structure in the residual could be seen in two of the fitted data sets, presumably a spurious
echo artifact or a consequence of the residuals seen in the fit of the phantom data.
32
Acknowledgments
A spectrum of people have helped we with this thesis, and to that I am very grateful. Firstly I would
like to thank my supervisors Maria Ljungberg and Åsa Carlsson for taking the time to provide
excellent guidance and feedback during this work. A special thanks to the creators of Vespa-
Simulation for letting me take part of their efforts. Marianne Wallgren at Klinisk Kemi at
Sahlgrenska University Hospital deserves a big thank you for the help with preparing the phantom
solutions. I would also like to thank the MR physicists, to whom I have been able to come to with
questions.
I want to thank my fellow students for making the last five years very special, I wish you all good
luck in your future endeavors! To my family, thank you for all the great support and
encouragement.
33
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