structure and interactions of nuclear matter (99.95% of

Nuclear Science

Objectives of Basic Science:

• Structure and Interactions of Nuclear Matter (99.95% of visible)complexity and synergy emerging from simplicity

Applications:

complexity and synergy emerging from simplicity• Synthesis and Transformation of Elements

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Life science (nuclear medicine, diagnostic imaging, pharmaceuticals, therapy)

Materials science

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a Materials scienceCosmology (chemistry & physics)Environmental studiesEarth and planetary scienceEarth and planetary scienceSeparation technologyHot-atom chemistryNuclear forensics

W. Udo Schröder, 2007

Nuclear forensics Advanced nuclear power generation/transmutation

Applications of Nuclear Instruments and Methods2

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W. Udo Schröder, 2007

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

• 1.5T, MasterQ Body Coil

Magnetic Resonance Angiogram

• Q-Body Coil• 3D T1-FFE• Low-high profile order3

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• 50 x 1.6 mm slices oc.• 512 x 196 matrix• FOV = 400 x 320 mm• TE / TR = 1.3 / 5.0 ms

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a TE / TR 1.3 / 5.0 ms• WFS = 0.9 pix (± 62 kHz)• Flip = 35°

18 seconds Breathhold• 30 cc Gadolinium @ 2cc/sec• 30 cc Gadolinium @ 2cc/sec.

18 Second MRI image!!

W. Udo Schröder, 2007

Radiation Detectors for Medical Imaging

P it i i t hi (PET) i t l li th h ti t’ b i

Positron e+ (anti-matter) annihilates with electron e-

Positron emission tomographic (PET) virtual slice through patient’s brain

annihilates with electron e(its matter equivalent of the same mass) to produce pure energy (photons,

rays) Energy and

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γ-rays). Energy and momentum balance require back-to-back (1800) emission of 2 γ-rays

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e e 2 (511 keV )γ+ −+ →

( ) γ yof equal energy

e e 2 (511 keV )γ+ →

W. Udo Schröder, 2007

γ detectors (NaI(Tl))

Positron Emission Tomography

After

Positron emission tomographic image of the heart

After administration of radioactive water: H2

17O to

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2blood flow, after infarct episode

blood flow

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a blood flow

After administration of radioactive acetat: 11CH3COOX

W. Udo Schröder, 2007

metabolism

Loveland, Morrissey, Seaborg

DNA Analysis

DNA sample decomposed into single strands into single strands, cut by enzymes into pieces, use electrophoresis to separate according to size,

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p g ,React separated segments with radio-labeled probe protein sequences,identify by auto-radiography

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a identify by auto-radiography

W. Udo Schröder, 2007

Applications of Nuclear Instruments and Methods7

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W. Udo Schröder, 2007

Nuclear Batteries with Really Long Lifetimes

Nuclear battery: a radioactive source placed inside a capacitor emits αpparticles, which build up an electric charge on the plates, or deliver an electric current

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electric current. Such batteries can operate for long durations, a major fraction of a century (e.g.,

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t1/2=86 a) and can be made small enough to be used in implant pace makersmakers.

W. Udo Schröder, 2007

Cancer Treatment with Neutrons

Patient treatment station

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Cyclotron accelerates protons, which generate a

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awhich generate a well defined secondary beam of neutrons with variable energy and range in tissue.

W. Udo Schröder, 2007

Treatment success rates of neutron and gamma irradiation

Radio Therapy

Heavy ions (here 12C) have a well-defined range in defined range in materials. They lose much of their kinetic energy sho tl befo e

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12GeV

shortly before complete stopping, leading to a radiation dose

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a 12GeVconcentrated at the end of their range. This provides a non intrusive non-intrusive surgical tool

W. Udo Schröder, 2007

Applications of Nuclear Instruments and Methods11

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W. Udo Schröder, 2007

Rutherford α Backscattering

Backscatter energy

m M

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0 4m ME(180 ) E α

mα M

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( )0

0 2

00

E(180 ) E1 m M

M m E(180 ) E

α

α

α

= ⋅+

→ ≈

W. Udo Schröder, 2007Target Material Mass Number A

Thickness of Thin Films

Probe particle (α) loses energy ≤ ΔE in

0M 0E(180 ) k E= ⋅

gyelectronic interactions

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0M 0E(180 ) k (E E)= ⋅ − Δ

W. Udo Schröder, 2007

Sample Mass Analysis14

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Abalone – Pacific shellfish

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W. Udo Schröder, 2007

Blood sample

Non-Destructive Material Depth Analysis

Ion Beam le

Different ions of a given energy test to different depths. Used most often: p.

Recoil mass Mr

Ion Beam

Elastic Scattering KinematicsSam

p

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Depth Projectile

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f Fli

gh

tTim

e o

f

W. Udo Schröder, 2007

Recoil Energy E2

Applications of Nuclear Instruments and Methods16

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W. Udo Schröder, 2007

Nuclear Space Technology

Nuclear radiation detectors are used inNuclear radiation detectors are used inexplorations of the sun and its planets. Spacevehicles use them to detect and identify directlyemitted or back-scattered radiation. Surfacematerials on Mars have been analyzed withactivation methods using radioactive sources.1

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detector

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adetector

W. Udo Schröder, 2007

Sojourner Pathfinder Mars explorer

Activation Radiation from Planetary Surface18

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W. Udo Schröder, 2007Group project: N* Detector for Application in Nuclear Forensics

Origin of Chemical Elements: Stellar Nucleosynthesis

r-p process (rapid-proton capture)produces heavy elements.

r process (rapid-neutron capture)

Strong T dependence19

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Details of nuclear structure andstability and the conditions atformation (star, Big Bang) account forthe natural abundance of elements.reaction

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Much of the information needed is notyet known

Task of future experiments.

path

W. Udo Schröder, 2007

Abundance of Solar Elements

Too many heavy elements for production in solar burning processes. solar burning processes. Temperature is too low in solar interior(T9 = 0.015 K, ρ = 158 g/cm3).Sun is result of evolution through several

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stellar life cycles (accretion of interstellar dust, ignition, burning, collapse and explosion)

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W. Udo Schröder, 2007

Supernovae

Large Magellanic Cloud

Kamiokande II

Time-of-flight spectrumof neutrinos, measuredrelative to γ -rays.

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0.85 MeV and 1.24 MeV γ -rays from 56Co synthesized in the SN.

W. Udo Schröder, 2007

Supernova Explosion Imaged by Hubble Space Telescope22

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W. Udo Schröder, 2007

Supernova 1994D in Galaxy NGC 4526 (108 M ly). It is brighter than the galaxy. (Hubble Space Telescope, NASA)

Supernova: Collapse and Explosion of a Star

(Simulation:NASA)

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Binary X-Ray System: Neutron Star/Companion Star

Neutron star and companion in a binary

t A ti di k i

Image:NASA

system. Accretion disk is created from matter pulled out of the companion. 2

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h ’ f l

W. Udo Schröder, 2007

Matter impinging on the neutron star’s surface creates nuclear reactions.sp and rp processes proceed rapidly along drip lines and drive X-ray bursts that can be observed on earth.

Structure of a Neutron StarNSCL-ISF Proposal, 2006

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W. Udo Schröder, 2007

rp Reactions flow during X-Ray Burst

rp reaction flow (red line) during X-(red line) during Xray burst.

The series ends at the Sn-Sb-Te cycle.

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y

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Applications of Nuclear Instruments and Methods27

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W. Udo Schröder, 2007

Halflives of Radio-Isotopes for Dating

years Age of Earth Nucl. Synth.

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α, β, β− : particles measured to identify fractional abundance of radioactive isotope, K: K electron capture pR : measure series of several decay products

W. Udo Schröder, 2007

Carbon Dating of Organic Objects0 6931 0 6931 4 1

1 / 2

0.6931 0.69311.21

5730a10 a

tλ − −= = ×=

12C 12CN (t ) N (t 0)= = t 0 :=

12

t14C 14C

t14C

12C 1 3 10

N (t ) N (t 0) e

N (t )R(t ) R(t 0) e

N (t )

λ

λ

−

− ⋅

− ⋅

= = ⋅

= = = ⋅

n

14

time of deathNo further

C intake

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12C 1.3 10

" ag1 R(0)

t nR(

e"t )λ

≈ ⋅

⎡ ⎤= ⎢ ⎥

⎣ ⎦→ =

Measure 14C/12C ratio of sample at t

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Conventional method: β counting

14 2 1

Now :

N( C ) 2 5 − −

W. Udo Schröder, 2007

14 2 1

14 12 12

1 2

N( C ) 2.5 cm s

C C 1.5 10t 5730 a

−

≈

= ⋅=

Direct 14C counting method: Accelerator Mass Spectroscopy R á 10 -16 (10 5 a)

Calibration of 14C Dating Methods

t-dependent flux of cosmic rays (solar cycles)

t dependent 14C

Variation in 14C Production

t-dependent 14C production and intake

Calibration:30

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14C-analyze yearly rings in trees of different ages (number and widths of rings) connect to fossils

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a rings), connect to fossils

Errors in very old samples lead to underestimation of age (few hundred years)

(a) CE age (few hundred years).

W. Udo Schröder, 2007

Rb/Sr Dating of Rocks/Age of the Earth

All rocky objects (planets, asteroids, meteorites) of solar system crystallized ≈ simultaneously (t=0) out of interstellar dust/nebula (supernova remnants).

87 87

87

P P D

Parent P Rb, daughter D Sr

Re ference R Rb (stable)N (0) N (t ) N (t ) but unknown!

= =

== +

1 2

9

t

4.7 10 a

=

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Undisturbed by erosion/transmutation

tP P R R

D P P D

P P D

N (t ) N (

N (0) N (t )

0) e N (t ) N (0)

N (t ) N (0) N (t ) N (0)

N (t ) but unknown!λ− ⋅= ⋅ =

= − +

+

R

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tD P D

tPD

N

N (t )N

(t ) N (t ) e 1 N (0)

N (t )e 1

N (t )(t )

λ

λ

+ ⋅

+ ⋅

⎡ ⎤= ⋅ − +⎣ ⎦

⎡ ⎤= ⋅ −⎣ ⎦DN (0)

N (0)+

Different minerals in meteorite containing different amounts of R

mx

R

y

N N (t )(t )0

R

y

N (0)different amounts of NP different x

Construct isochron1

W. Udo Schröder, 2007

0 m( ) xy y t= + ⋅ 1t n m 1

λ→ = ⋅ +⎡ ⎤⎣ ⎦ Age of rock (since formation)

Age of Earth

Age of Earth = 4.5·109 aMoon has similar age

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Terrestrial volcanic activity dated:

W. Udo Schröder, 2007

produces younger rocks

Applications of Nuclear Instruments and Methods33

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W. Udo Schröder, 2007

Energy from Nuclear Fission

235 236 * 2 2(3) 200U U FF M V

converts 0.1% of the mass into energy1g 235U/day = 1MW108 h i l i

1938: Otto HahnFritz Straβmann Lise Meitner, Otto FrischHahn Straβmann

235 236

235 236 * 147 87

2 2(3) 200

: 2

th

th

U n U FF n MeV

Ex U n U La Br n

+ → → + +

+ → → + +

108 x chemical energies

Eff = 168 MeVEn tot = 5 MeVE 7 MeV

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sion

Pow

er

Eγ = 7 MeVFF β-decay = 27 MeV

Qtotal = 207 MeV

<En>th = 0.025eVfission

fragment

Nucl

ear

Fiss

Neutrons:<mn> =2.5 ±0.1 nt

235U

n

neutron energies <En>≈2MeV

h

n

W. Udo Schröder, 2004

fission fragment

The “Atomic Bomb”

July 16, 1945July 16, 1945

First explosion of a nuclear device.First explosion of a nuclear device.North of Alamogordo/NMNorth of Alamogordo/NMNorth of Alamogordo/NMNorth of Alamogordo/NM

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Wea

pons

Nucl

ear

W

W. Udo Schröder, 2004

Nuclear Power in Space

Nuclear energy is used to powersubmarines, ice-breakers, aircraftcarriers, extra-terrestrial craft,deep space probes, i.e.,everywhere where power has to becreated very reliably andefficiently, in order to maintainautonomous operations for long

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time periods.

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Galileo spacecraft

W. Udo Schröder, 2007Voyager spacecraft

Global Problem: Finite Conventional Energy Sources

Most existing oil and gas fields have already been discovered.

X 4Major new discoveries not expected (world-wide)

Oil companies have not

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productionbuilt any new refineries in > 30 years.

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World will run out of oil,

time

gas, and coal within a few human generations

W. Udo Schröder, 2007

The Need for Nuclear Power

Conventional and Advanced Nuclear Energy Generation

Conventional power generation:Fission of 236U (5%-6% enriched)

Open fuel cycle produces long-lived

Fission induced by thermal neutronsFission chain reaction

Fi i i d d Open fuel cycle produces long lived radioactive fission fragments and weapons Pu

N th d Th/U l

Fission induced by thermal neutrons stops neutronsFission chain

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Neutron multipliers:

New methods: Th/U cycle:

• Fission of 233Th (no Pu generation)closed fuel cycle

reaction

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New methods:

•Spallation of heavy materials (Hg Pb Bi neutron multipliers

Neutron multipliers:p-induced spallation produces fast neutrons

fission of actinides and breedingU, actin. mix fuel

(Hg, Pb, Bi… neutron multipliersfast n fission Th, U, spent nucl. fuel)

• Sub-critical reactors ( k < 1)238U

W. Udo Schröder, 2007

• D - T fusion

Transmutation of nuclear wasteU, Cm, Np, Am

Transmutation of Spent Nuclear Fuel

Spallation of heavy materials generates net energy: Powerout≈50xPowerin

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W. Udo Schröder, 2007

Transmutation / Incineration

Fission P d t

Fission + + 180 MeV (32 pJ)

Incineration of TransUnnn

Product Product+84%

+ 180 MeV (32 pJ)

Pu-239n Pu-24024 000

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Pu-240 U-2366535 a

α+16%

24.000 a

R l

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Transmutation of Fission Fragments

Recycle, irradiate again

I-129n I-130 Xe-13012 h + β-

Transmutation of Fission Fragments

16 Ma

W. Udo Schröder, 2007

Xe-130 not radioactive

Energy Source of the Future: Hydrogen Fusion

3 3 27M Vd d H

Deuterium and tritium in oceanic water (d: 0.015% in natH2O)

3

4

3 4

3.27

17.59

18 35

MeV

M

d d He n

d t He n

d He He

eV

p MeV

+ → +

+ → +

+ → +

+

+

+

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18.35d He He p MeV+ → + +131 1.6 10MeV J−= ×

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Laser Beams

W. Udo Schröder, 2007

Target UR-LLEOmega laser system

Z-Pinch:

D-T Fusion Energy Generation in a Plasma Z-Pinch:In a z-pinch, a plasma is generated by passing a fast current pulse through many thin metal wires. These wires are usually initially arranged in a cylindrical shell geometry. After the current pulse ablates the wire material, the strong magnetic forces resulting from the current tend to crush the plasma toward the central z axis of the shell, hence the name "z-pinch."

Sandia National Lab is currently investigating the z-pinch as a possible ignition source for inertial confinement fusion. On its "Z-machine," Sandia can achieve dense, high temperature plasmas by firing fast, 100

(Ronald M. Gilgenbach, Yue Ying Lau)

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temperature plasmas by firing fast, 100

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zB

W. Udo Schröder, 2007

Inertial Confinement Fusion by Electromagnetic Constriction

Sandia Laboratories, “Z machine”. 36 bus bars concentrate electrical energy in an intense current pulse (∼100 TW, 20 ns) focused on target chamber. Electric energy stored in capacitor banks.

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Collapse of DT pellet

W. Udo Schröder, 2007

Converging currents

Inertial Confinement Fusion by High Electric Currents

Shot of the Z-Machine

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W. Udo Schröder, 2007

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W. Udo Schröder, 2007