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Japan International Cooperation Agency
JICA has supported more than 60 cities mainly in Asian
developing countries by conducting studies on formulating
master plans on urban transport development, often follow-
ing them with feasibility studies. In these studies, however, it
is crucial to formulate hardware and software development
plans based on the study area’s socio-economic develop-
ment level and to implement the proposed policy measures
and projects in steady and purposeful steps. In contrast to
such studies, this current study, entitled “The Research on a
Practical Approach for Urban Transport Planning,” devel-
oped a different approach: By reviewing available informa-
tion on current socioeconomic urban development, this
study aimed to contribute to the formulation of medium-to
long-term development strategies for urban transport.
The Research on Practical Approachfor Urban Transport Planning
都市交通計画策定にかかるプロジェクト研究
A strategy comprises a set of long-term policy objectives or an actionable vision of some 20 years ahead and a set of policy measures that should be implemented in the coming five to 10 years. Importantly, it also includes a description of how to implement and manage the proposed projects. How-ever, because formulating such a strategy through orthodox master planning is time-consuming and costly, the present study attempted to develop a simple method that would require minimal data and simple analytical formats in formulating an urban transport strategy.
Guidelines for Formulatingan Urban Transport Strategy
The data required by the urban data sheet, the checklist for diagnosing urban transport conditions, and the interview sheet must be collected because these are necessary inputs to the tools devised for formulating an urban transport strategy.
Collection of Data Necessary for Strategy Formulation(INPUT)
Check List for DiagnosingTransport Problems
Urban Data Sheet
Procedure for Data Collection
Interview Sheet
• Because the list is simplified, data can be collected not only from experts and government officials but also from ordinary citizens.
• Gather information from as many sources as possible to avoid the effects of biased opinions on the statistical significance of collected data.
• Collect information via transport con-sultants who have access to available sources of transport statistic
• Inter views are conducted with a number of experts (10 to 15) who are knowledgeable in urban transport problems and policy measures.
• Pre-interviews need be carried out prior to final interviews so as to finalize the questions for interviewees.
Guidelines for Formulating an Urban Transport Strategy
1
Check List for DiagnosingTransport Problems
Urban Data Sheet Interview Sheet
Collection of Data Necessary for Strategy Formulation (INPUT)
Tool for Urban Transport Strategy Formulation (PROCESS)
Matrix for Diagnosis andPrescription on
Urban Transport Problems
Diagnoses ofUrban Transport Problems
Prescriptions forUrban Transport Problems
Selection of a BasicUrban Transport Strategy
Procedures to Select BasicComponents for Transport
Strategy Formulation
Urban Transport Strategy Proposal (OUTPUT)
DiagnosesDiagnoses
In terms of per capita GDP, there is strong correlation between higher urban density and larger share of public transit in high-income countries. The correlation progressively dimin-ishes from high-income countries to middle-income, then to low-income countries (Fig.1).
The potential of urban population growth is inversely corre-lated to the level of per capita GDP. The projected growth rates of urban population are higher in cities from low-income countries (Fig.4).
An appreciable correlation exists between higher density and lower rates of car ownership among city populations. The correlation is stronger in high-income countries but weaker in medium- to low-income countries (Fig.2).
The correlation between higher per capita GDP and higher passenger car ownership is strong, and this tendency lessens in medium- to low-income countries (Fig.5).
Fig.3 plots the relationships among passenger car ownership, PT share, and per capita GDP. There is significant correlation between higher rates of car ownership and lower shares of public transport, but the coefficient among 100 global cities is not strong enough. The correlation is strong in high-income countries but declines in medium- to low-income countries.
0
10
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40
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0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Perc
enta
ge
ofm
oto
rised
public
modes
over
mechaniz
ed
trip
s(%
)
Urban Density (people/ha)
> US$25,000
US$ 10,000-25,000
US$ 3,000-10,000
< US$3,000
GDP per capita (R2)(0.7024)(0.6291)(0.0563)(0.0327)
Fig.1 Urban Density and Modal Shareof Public Transit (100 Cities in 1995)
400
500
600
700
800
Pa
ss
en
ge
rc
ars
pe
r1
00
0p
eo
ple
> 25,000 USD
10,000-25,000 USD
3,000-10,000 USD
< 3,000 USD
GDP per capita (R2)(0.6598)(0.7298)(0.1205)(0.2346)
0
100
200
300
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Pa
ss
en
ge
rc
ars
pe
r1
00
0
Urban Density (people/ha)
Fig.2 Urban Density and Passenger CarOwnerships (100 Cities in 1995)
40
50
60
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80
90
Pe
rce
nta
geo
fm
oto
rise
dp
ub
lic
mo
de
so
ver
me
cha
niz
ed
trip
s(%
)
0
10
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30
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Pe
rce
nta
geo
fm
oto
rise
dp
ub
lic
mo
de
so
ver
me
cha
niz
ed
trip
s(%
)
Passenger cars per 1000people
> 25,000 USD
10,000-25,000 USD
3,000-10,000 USD
< 3,000 USD
(0.6598)(0.4577)(0.1347)(0.0769)
Fig.3 Passenger Car Ownerships andModal Share of Public Transit (100 Cities in 1995)
-1.00%
0.00%
1.00%
2.00%
3.00%
4.00%
5.00%
6.00%
0 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000 30,000 35,000 40,000 45,000
Po
pu
lati
on
Gro
wth
Po
ten
tia
l(2
01
0-2
02
5)
GDP per capita (USD)
AfricaEast&SE-AsiaEULatin AmericaMiddle EastNorth AmericaSouth$Cen.Asia
Fig.4 Per Capita GDP and Urban PopulationGrowth Potentials (250 Cities)
y = 0.4459x0.6693
R² = 0.6425
300
400
500
600
700
800
Pas
sen
ger
cars
pe
r1
00
0p
eo
ple
(19
95
,UIT
PM
CD
B)
Osaka
Tokyo
Atlanta
MunichFrankfurt
Cracow
Warsaw
Prague
Calgary
SanFrancisco
DusseldorfGeneva
Helsinki
0
100
200
100 1,000 10,000 100,000
Pas
sen
ger
cars
pe
r1
00
0p
eo
ple
(19
95
,UIT
PM
CD
B)
Metro politan gross domestic product per capita(USD,1995,UITP MCDB)
Hongkong
Singapore
Osaka
Copenhagen
Lisbon
Guangzhou
CasablancaHarare
Chennai
Fig.5 Per Capita GDP and Passenger CarOwnerships (100 Cities in 1995)
It is no exaggeration to say that the most fundamental issue shared by global urban policy makers is facilitating a shift in traffic demand from private passenger cars to public transit systems. In this study, the relation-ship between city types and urban traffic patterns was analyzed by referring to transport indices in the UITP Millennium Cities 1995 data on transport.
The findings of the analysis are summarized below.
• Of the 100 cities in the UITP database, those that have been assisted by JICA in urban transport strategy formulation somehow differ from global tendencies.
• Especially among Asian cities, JICA-assisted cities that have larger shares of two wheelers are found to be more divergent from global tendencies. Such cities can be classified as pre-motorization cities with per capita GDPs of less than USD1,000.
• It is now generally acknowledged that in large cities it would no longer be possible to continue serving a growing motor-ized traffic merely by constructing more roads.
When brakes are put on increasing private car ownership and use, existing public transport systems will be unable to absorb additional passenger traffic. Therefore, the most urgent issue in such cities is the development of urban public transport services.
Relationships between Urban Transport and Three Indicestopic
2
Matrix Preparation for Diagnoses and PrescriptionsThe vertical axis shows rows of itemized urban transport problems and the hori-zontal axis lists columns of prescribed measures to solve the problems. The components are rated by assigning 1 to 3 points to three levels of their effective-ness.
Prescribed Measures for Transport Problems
2
3
1
Urban Transport ProblemsPrimary Classification Secondary Classification Tertiary Classification
(A) TrafficCongestions
1) Congestions on urban highways andexclusive motorways
Shortage of road capacity
2) Congestions on single-lane sectionsof arterial motorways
Shortage of road capacityMingling of intra-city and inter-city trafficPoor road surface pavementAbandoned cars after accidents and breakdownsIll-mannered drivingInadequate public education on traffic safetyRoadside parking and vending stalls
3) Congestions on roads in the CBD
Excessive traffic demandIncrease of private traffic volumeRoadside parkingNegligent policing over illegal parkingMingling of automobiles, two-wheelers andnon-motorized vehiclesShortage of public transit servicesInefficient bus networkIll-mannered driving
4) Congestions at intersectionsShortage of capacityInefficient traffic control at intersectionsIll-mannered driving
5) Congestions of bus traffic and at busstops
Excessive bus servicesObstruction of through traffic by parked busesand at bus stopsIll-mannered driving
(B) Inconvenience inTransportation
1) Low passenger convenience ofpublic transit
Absence of affordable public transit servicesPoor access to public transit servicesUnpredictability of travel time
2) Low passenger comfort and safetyHigh occupancy ratio on public transitInefficient bus network
3) Inconvenience to transferpassengers
Inconvenience of transfer at transport nodesToo frequent transfers
4) Low user convenience of taxiservices
Dishonest taxi drivers wilfully refusingpassengersPoor transparency of taxi fare
5) Low user convenience ofpara-transit services
Lowered service level due to inadequatemanagement
(C) Declined TrafficSafety
1) Lowered pedestrian safety(crosswalks)
Ill-mannered drivingShortage of pedestrian facilities
2) Lowered pedestrian safety(sidewalks)
Capacity shortage of sidewalks
3) Traffic accidents on motorways
Mixed traffic of automobiles and NMT vehicles orof buses and private passenger carsPoor road surface pavementTraffic signal violations and ill-mannered drivingPresence of locations prone to cause accidents
4) Declined law and order on publictransit services
High occupancy ratio of public transit services
(D)Transport-originatingAir Pollution andNuisance
1) Atmospheric pollution by exhaustgases
Entry of trucks to the CBDIncrease of private automobiles
2) Noises and vibrations caused bymotorized traffic
Increase of night trafficIncrease of ill-maintained vehiclesPoor road surface pavement
3) Landscape and sunlight obstructionsDamages by the construction of transportfacilities
(E) Social Injustice
1) Presence of the transportation-poor
Presence of areas not serviced by public transitPresence of disaster-prone areasLow mobility of pedestrians and NMT usersShortage of barrier-free facilitiesGender-related disparity in mobility
2) Adverse impact on localcommunities by the construction oftransport facilities
Inadequate relocation compensation for localinhabitants
3) Deficient compensation system forvictims of traffic accidents
Absence of insurance policies
4) Negligent policing on violations oftraffic rules
Police corruption
5) Disadvantage of fare scalesBiased subsidizationInappropriate fare scales for the poor
Prescribed Measures for Transport ProblemsPrimary
ClassificationSecondary
ClassificationTertiary Classification
Land Use / Urban Structure Compact multi-core urban structure
Infrastructure
RoadInfrastructure
Construction of urban highways and arterial roads
Construction of missing links in the network
Establishment of grade-separated network
Development of feeder roads and local roads
Strengthening of road maintenance system (improvement ofpavement)
Grade separation at major intersections
Improved designs for intersections at grade with traffic
Removal of roundabouts
Construction and widening of bridges
TransitInfrastructure
Construction and improvement of urban railways
Restructuring of bus network
Construction and improvement of bus stops
Construction and improvement of bus terminals
Diversification and replacement of vehicles
Modernization of bus services
Integrated separation of bus, minibus and para-transit services
TrafficManagement
Road TrafficManagement
Installation of traffic signals
Improvement of signal control (green phases for left- andright-turn traffic)
Introduction of zone traffic control
Efficiency improvement of traffic control
Development of roadside and off-road parking space
Strict policing on illegal parking
TrafficDemandManagement
Suppression on ownership and use of private automobiles
Facilitation of modal shift
Transit-oriented development policy
Demand dispersing measures
Traffic Safety
Public education on traffic safety
Construction and improvement of traffic safety facilities
Strengthening of policing on traffic rule violations
Organization /Institution
TransportPlanning andAdministration
Clear definitions of administrative jurisdiction between relatedagencies or departmentsEstablishment of an administrative coordinating body for urbantransport development and management
Capacity development of personnel
Managementand Operationof TransitSystems
Efficiency improvement of management systems (licensingand permits, enforcement of regulations, etc.)Establishment of fiscal independence and abolition ofsubsidies
Modernization of operating systems
Institutions forProject andProgramImplementation
Improvement of the procedure for land acquisition orappropriation
Development of PPP schemes
Capacity development of personnel
Shortage ofFinance
Increase of revenue sources
Creation of transport-specific revenue sources
3
UrbanTransportProblems
Tool for Urban TransportStrategy Formulation(PROCESS)
Choices on Basic Components of Urban Transport StrategyThe focus of the present study is to seek possibilities of devising a method or methods to identify a suitable transit system which could play a central role in urban transportation for a given city, and to judge whether or not the city is ready for introducing railways or urban highways.
The timing for introducing a metro system is closely related to the level of socio-economic development a city has achieved. The larger the city population, the more likely the city can develop a metro system, even though the GDP per capita is not high enough. At the same time, cities with higher levels of GDP per capita started their metro systems when their populations were still small. Based on the figure below, it can be argued that the GDP range of USD3–30 billion makes the opening of a metro system economically possible and its operation sustainable. The GDP of a city is calculated here by multiplying the city’ s population by GDP per capita.
Yes
Rail Transit: Metroor Commuter
Medium-capacity Transit:Monorail or AGT
BRT
Yes
No
(F.3-3): Possible public transport demand on the corridor
Unit: PHPD (passengers per hour per direction during peak hours)Road 1 (Corridor 1): V1Road 2 (Corridor 2): V2
Road 3 (Corridor 3): V3
Line Bus /para-transit
Yes
No
D1: Developed Level ofUrban Economy
No
No
Yes
Yes
No
D1: Level ofurban economy
D6: Affordablefare by citizens
Yes
Yes YesYes
No
No
NoNo
D3 Possibledemand shift by
TDM: V > 15,000
D1: Level ofurban economy
D6: Affordablefare by citizens
D1: Level ofurban economy
D6: Affordablefare by citizens
D2: V > 15,000 (TrafficVolume exceeds 15,000
PHPD)
D3: Possible demandshift by TDM: V >
8,000
D2: V > 8,000
D5: 3 or more
lanes per directionon major corridors
Yes
No
YesYes
No
Yes
Yes
No
D2: Does the traffic onthe transit exceed
200,000 passengersper day?
A new railway transit systemis worth consideration
Careful consideration is yetneeded
Too early to consider arailway transit
No
No
D1: Is any rail-basedtransit system in
operation or underconstruction?
D3: Do the population sizeand the scale of urban
Economy (GRDP) exceedcertain justifiable levels?
D4: Does the traffic onpublic transport on arterial
roads exceed 200,000passengers per day?
D5: Does the governmenthave a plan to introduce arail-based transit system?
100
1,000
10,000
100,000
100 1,000 10,000 100,000
GDPpercapita(USD2000constant,WDI)
Population (x1000, UN)
Tokyo
Seoul
Hangzhou
Chongqing
Dalian
Chengdu
Beijing
Shanghai
Guangzhou
Ulaanbaatar
Manila
Davao
Hà Noi
Ho Chi Minh City
Vien ane
Phnom Penh
Bangkok
Kuala Lumpur
Johore Bharu
Singapore
metro open
Note: A metro system refers to an urban railway system operated on exclusive tracks (tram cars are not included). Intercity railway, where some rails are operated exclusively for urban transport, is included.
3 bin USDUrban GDPUrban GDP 30 bin USD
Urban GDPUrban GDP
Procedure to judge the selection of a basic public transport mode Procedure to judge the introduction of a railway transit system
4
Analysis of the Timing for Metro Operationtopic
Diagnoses
Diagnosis of Urban Tra�c ProblemsThe diagnosis of an urban traffic problem involves observing the problem, the number of times it occurs, and the extent of its seriousness. The problems are rated according to the following scale of seriousness and urgency: A = very serious / immediate actions needed (3 points); B = serious / actions needed (2 points); and C = not serious (0 point). For each primary classification level, the share of the points to the maximum rate is calculated and shown in radar charts per city (see figure below). If all tertiary items are considered as “very serious,” the rate would be 100, and if not serious (0 point), the rate would be zero.
Proposal (OUTPUT)
Transport ProblemsNo. of
TertiaryItems
MaximumPoints
Jakarta Hanoi
PointsRatio to
MaximumPoints
Ratio toMaximum
Congestions (CapacityShortage of Infrastructure)
5 15 13 87 % 11 73 %
Congestions (Other Causes) 17 51 40 78 % 28 55 %
Inconvenience 10 30 23 77 % 9 30 %
Declined Traffic Safety 8 24 18 75 % 20 83 %
Transport-origin Pollution andNuisance
6 18 10 56 % 3 17 %
Social Injustice 10 30 22 73 % 5 17 %
Total 56 168 126 75 % 76 45 %
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Congestion byinsufficient road capacity
Congestion by theother reason
Inconvinienttransport service
Lowering of trafficsafety
Traffic pollution
Social injustice
Hanoi
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Congestion byinsufficient road capacity
Congestion by theother reason
Inconvinienttransport service
Lowering of trafficsafety
Traffic pollution
Social injustice
Jakarta
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Dhaka
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Brasilia
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Sao Paulo
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Phnom Penh
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Cairo
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Addis Ababa
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Nairobi
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Bogota
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
UlaanBaatar
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Mapu o
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Kathmandu
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Metro Manila
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Colombo
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Dar-Es Salaam
Diagnoses of Urban Transport Problems in Jakarta and Hanoi
Diagnoses of Urban Transport Problems in Jakarta and Hanoi
DiagnosesUrban Transport Problems in the World Citiestopic
5
Prescriptions
Prescriptions for Urban Transport ProblemsThe importance of a prescribed measure is determined by the seriousness of the prob-lem it aims to solve and its potential to help solve that problem. The results should be able to indicate the relative importance of measures prescribed for each subsector.
Relative Importance of Prescribed Measures: Jakarta and Hanoi
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%Road Infurastructure
Public TransportInfrastructure
Road TrafficManegement
TransportationDemand Management
Traffic Safety
Organization andInstitution
Hanoi
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%Road Infurastructure
Public TransportInfrastructure
Road TrafficManegement
TransportationDemand Management
Traffic Safety
Organization andInstitution
Jakarta
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Dhaka
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Brasilia
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Sao Paulo
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Phnom Penh
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Bogota
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Cairo
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Addis Ababa
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Nairobi
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
UlaanBaatar
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Mapu o
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Metro Manila
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Kathmandu
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Colombo
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Dar-Es Salaam
Relative Importance of Prescribed Measure for Transport Problems: Jakarta and Hanoi
Prescriptions
6Note: To come up with these �gures, trainees from various countries evaluated their own cities by using the Checklist for
Urban Transport Diagnosis in the Comprehensive Urban Transport Planning and Project by JICA in October 2011.
Development Strategy (Prescribed Measures forTransport Problems
PrimaryClassification
Secondary Classification
Land Use / Urban Structure
InfrastructureRoad InfrastructurePublic TransportInfrastructure
TrafficManagement
Road Traffic ManagementTraffic Demand ManagementTraffic Safety
Organization /Institution
Transport Planning andAdministrationTransit Management andOperationInstitutions for project andprogram ImplementationFinance
Total
asures for PointsJakarta Hanoi Jakarta
Primary Secondary Primary Second
ary Primary
23 23 14 14 96 %
264136
14297
85 %128 45
22772
17858
80 %Traffic Demand Management 87 5868 62
111
36
81
30
76 %17 9
23 13
35 29625 521 415 287 82 %
Ratio to MaximumJakarta Hanoi
Secondary Primary Second
ary
96 % 58 % 58 %89 %
46 %63 %
82 % 29 %
75 %62 %
60 %94 % 62 %71 % 65 %
75 %
55 %
63 %
63 % 33 %
77 % 43 %
83 % 69 %68 % 54 % 38 %
This paper summarizes the results of “The Research on Practi-
cal Approach for Urban Transport Planning” conducted by the
Economic Infrastructure Department of JICA.
Japan International Cooperation Agencythe Economic Infrastructure Department
Nibancho Center Building 5-25, Niban-cho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 102-8012
Choices on Basic Components of Urban Transport StrategyThe present study selected two cities each from India, Vietnam, and Indonesia and collected information on their current transport conditions, policies, and programs. The collected data included those needed to make strategic judgments about urban transport development. A case study of these six cities was then made by using the collected data as inputs to the flowcharts. The table below compares the Study Team’ s evaluation of the cities’ existing transport conditions and the proposals indi-cated in their respective transport master plans.
The present study has developed three tools to deal with urban transport develop-ment, namely, the tool to diagnose problems and subsectoral priorities, the tool to prescribe appropriate measures to solve or alleviate problems, and the tool to select the most strategically suitable alternative for transport development.The tools are simple and compact in design to quickly provide answers, but there is no denying that the logic employed in the process of devising these tools maybe too crude to stand up to well-intentioned scrutiny. It will thus be necessary to improve their designs and raise their practicability.
Issue to be Addressed in the Future
Country / City
Flowcharts
Vietnam India Indonesia
HanoiHo ChiMinh
Hyderabad Pune Jakarta Surabaya
(I) Selecting a Basic Public Transport Mode A A A A A A
(II) Judging the Justification for a Railway Transit A A A A A A
(III) Judging the Justification for a BRT System A A B A C A
(IV) Judging the Justification for TDM Measures B B NA B B NA
(V) Judging the Justification for Urban Highways C A NA NA A C
AdvisersTetsuro HYODO Professor, Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, Department of
Logistics & Information Engineering
Shinya HANAOKA Associate Professor, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Department of International Development Engineering (IDE)
Support AgenciesNoriaki NISHIMIYA Yukihiro KOIZUMI Yoshinori KITAGUCHI Aya SHIMADA(the Economic Infrastructure Department, JICA)
Study teamTetsuo WAKUI Takashi SHOYAMA Mitsuro YAJIMA Motoko KANEKO Yuko OKAZAWA Yoshiaki NISHIKATSU Momoko ITO(ALMEC corporation)
front cover photos: (top to bottom)Tra�c congestion on arterial road at Lahore in Pakistan; KTM Komuter at Kuala Lumpur in Malaysia;
Buses in tra�c congestion caused by mixed tra�c at Hanoi in Vietnam; Sathorn station at Bangkok BRT in Thailand;Street parking by Para-transit and reckless crossing of pedestrian at Lahore in Pakistan; Park-and-ride parking of Mo Chit station at Bangkok in Thailand
Note: A=not much di�erent from the city’s master plan; B=di�erent from the city’s master plan in some parts; C=no congruity with the city’s master plan; NA=not applicable.
(Dr. Eng.)
(Dr. of Info.Sci.)
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