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Emu 2014, 114, 1–12 © BirdLife Australia 2014 © BirdLife Australia 2014
doi:10.1071/MU12122_AC
Page 1 of 17
Supplementary material
Threats from introduced birds to native birds
Jack BakerA,B
, Kerinne J. HarveyA and Kris French
A
AInstitute for Conservation Biology and Environmental Management, University of Wollongong,
NSW 2522, Australia.
BCorresponding author. Email: jbaker@uow.edu.au
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doi:10.1071/MU12122_AC
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Table S1. Interspecific interactions between introduced and native bird species showing the type of interaction, level of evidence, outcome and
whether a population-level threat was demonstrated Introduced bird Native bird as named in
reference Location Process Level of
evidence Outcome Threat
demonstrated Reference
Austral Thrush (Turdus
falcklandii)
Juan Fernandez Firecrown
Juan Fernandez Archipelago
Predation Anecdotal Introduced species known to be a nest predator of the native species
No Hahn et al. (2011)
Australian Magpie (Cracticus
tibicen)
Silvereye New Zealand Competition – interference
Causal Native species avoids artificial feeding site near introduced species
No Borowske et al. (2012)
20+ species including 12 native species
New Zealand Competition – interference
Anecdotal Introduced species seen to attack 12 native species
No McCaskill (1945)
Swamp Harrier New Zealand Competition – interference
Anecdotal Introduced species makes 100+ non-contact attacks on native species
No McIlroy (1968)
White-faced Heron, Tui, Australasian Pipit
New Zealand Competition – interference
Anecdotal Introduced species attacks nests and nestlings of native species
No Moon (1956)
45 species, including 27 native species
New Zealand Competition – interference
Correlative Introduced species attacks 27 native species – 33% of attacks on 45 species are fatal and 25% of fatalities eaten
No Morgan et al. (2005)
Predation Swamp Harrier, Sacred
Kingfisher, Masked Lapwing, Grey Fantail, Welcome Swallow, New Zealand Pigeon and several non-native species
New Zealand Competition – interference
Correlative Fewer native birds in the vicinity of introduced species – territoriality inferred
No Morgan et al. (2006a)
Purple Swamphen (Pukeko) and several non-native species
New Zealand Predation Causal 38 nests monitored – no predation by introduced species
No Morgan et al. (2006b)
Canada Goose (Branta
canadensis)
Native waterfowl Northern Ireland
Competition – interference
Theoretical Introduced species could affect nesting of some species at a very local level
No Allen & Mellon Environmental Ltd (2005)
Cattle Egret (Bubulcus ibis)
Black-necked Stilt Hawaiian Islands
Predation Anecdotal Introduced species takes chicks of native species
No Stone and Anderson (1988)
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Introduced bird Native bird as named in reference
Location Process Level of evidence
Outcome Threat demonstrated
Reference
Chukar (Alectoris
chukar)
Red-legged Partridge Italy Hybridisation Correlative Native population introgressed at genomic level with introduced species
Potentially Baratti et al. (2005)
Red-legged Partridge Italy Hybridisation Correlative High level of hybridisation in three populations
Potentially Barbanera et al. (2005)
Red-legged Partridge, Rock Partridge
Europe Hybridisation Correlative Introduced species hybridised with native species
Potentially Barilani et al. (2007)
Red-legged Partridge Iberian Peninsula
Hybridisation Correlative Introduced species hybridised with native species
Potentially Blanco-Aguiar et
al. (2008) Red-legged Partridge Spain Hybridisation Correlative Introduced species hybridised with native
species Potentially Tejedor et al.
(2007) Common Myna (Acridotheres
tristis)
Tahiti Monarch Tahiti Competition – interference
Correlative Reproductive success of native species reduced – predation inferred
Yes Blanvillain et al. (2003)
Silvereye New Zealand Competition – interference
Causal Native species does not avoid artificial feeding site near introduced species
No Borowske et al. (2012)
Various species Global Disease Theoretical Introduced species presumed to carry diseases that infect native species
No Brochier et al. (2010)
Black-backed and Red-billed Gulls
New Zealand Competition – food
Anecdotal Introduced species fights over some food items with native species
No Counsilman (1974)
Honeyeaters and other native species
Australia Competition – food
Anecdotal Introduced species presumed to have negligible competition with native species
No Crisp and Lill (2006)
Various species Global Predation Theoretical (review)
Introduced species may be a predator of native eggs and chicks, may outcompete native species for food, and may spread parasites and diseases to native species
No Dhami and Nagle (2009) Competition –
food Disease
17 native and 3 introduced species
Australia Competition – nest site
Correlative Reduced abundance of one nativespecies – competition for nesting hollows inferred
No Grarock et al. (2012)
Competition – interference
Growth in populations of 7 native species was slowed – competition inferred
Silver Gull, Australian Magpie, Noisy Miner, Australian Raven, Crested Pigeon
Australia Competition – food
Causal Interspecific aggression measured – inferred that competition for food not significant
No Haythorpe et al. (2012)
Sooty Tern Ascension Island
Predation Causal Introduced species a predator of nest-contents of native species
No Hughes et al. (2008)
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Introduced bird Native bird as named in reference
Location Process Level of evidence
Outcome Threat demonstrated
Reference
Common Myna (cont.)
Various species Australia, Pacific islands
Disease Correlative Introduced species carries parasite (avian malaria, Plasmodium spp.) lineages to sites of introductions
No Ishtiaq et al. (2006)
Mauritius Kestrel Mauritius Competition – nesting sites
Anecdotal Introduced species excluded native species from nest-boxes
No Jones (1996)
Seychelles Magpie-Robin
Seychelles Competition – interference
Correlative All nesting attempts (n = 9) by native species abandoned when introduced species present
Yes Komdeur (1996)
Wedge-tailed Shearwater
Hawaiian Islands
Predation Anecdotal Introduced species a predator of nest-contents of native species
No Long (1981)
Various species Disease Introduced species carries diseases
Various species Australia Competition – nesting sites
Causal Introduced species had low rate of nesting in native vegetation – lack of competition with native species inferred
No Lowe et al. (2011)
Competition – interference
Introduced species had low rate of aggression toward native species
Purple Martin USA Competition – nesting sites
Anecdotal Native species attacked at its nesting sites by introduced species
No Neville (2003)
7 small common garden birds
Australia Competition – interference
Correlative No native species was negatively associated with presence of introduced species
No Parsons et al. (2006)
Red-rumped Parrot, Crimson Rosella, Eastern Rosella
Australia Competition – nesting sites
Causal During breeding period, introduced species was dominant aggressor and user of nest-hollows
No Pell and Tidemann (1997)
Tanga’eo (Mangaia Kingfisher)
Cook Islands Competition – interference
Anecdotal Introduced species disrupted one nest of native species
No Rowe and Empson (1996)
Pomarea spp. (Monarchidae)
Tahiti Predation Causal No egg predation by introduced species No Thibault et al. (2002)
Various species New Zealand Competition – interference
Correlative Native species increased in abundance with removal of introduced species – release from competition inferred
No Tindall et al. (2007)
Common Starling (Sturnus
vulgaris)
Various species North America
Competition – food
Theoretical Introduced species does not compete with native species because it occupies a new niche
No Elton (1958)
Red-rumped Parrot; Tree Martin
Australia Competition – nesting sites
Correlative Availability of nest-hollows was not a limiting factor for native species
No Gates (1996)
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Introduced bird Native bird as named in reference
Location Process Level of evidence
Outcome Threat demonstrated
Reference
Common Starling (cont.)
Rufous Hornero, Chalk-browed Mockingbird, Shiny Cowbird, Golden-breasted Woodpecker
South America
Competition – nesting sites
Anecdotal Introduced species disrupted 3 nest-hollows of one native species
No Ifran and Fiorini (2010)
Red-bellied Woodpecker, Red-headed Woodpecker
North America
Competition – nesting sites
Causal Nest-hollows lost to introduced species and correlated with reduced fecundity in one native species
No Ingold (1989)
Red-bellied Woodpecker, Red-headed Woodpecker, Northern Flicker
North America
Competition – nesting sites
Causal Nest-hollows of native species lost to introduced species
No Ingold (1994)
Northern Flicker North America
Competition – nesting sites
Causal Native species pairs that delayed breeding had reduced fecundity – competition for nest-hollows with introduced species inferred
No Ingold (1996)
Northern Flicker North America
Competition – nesting sites
Causal Supplementation with nesting boxes did not reduce competition with introduced species
No Ingold (1998)
Mountain Bluebird, Tree Swallow
North America
Competition – nesting sites
Correlative Introduced species had little effect on fecundity of native species – Tree Swallow may shift nesting niche in response to density of introduced species
No Koch et al. (2012)
27 hollow-nesting native species
North America
Competition – nesting sites
Correlative One native species possibly declining owing to competition for nest-hollows with introduced species
No Koenig (2003)
Red-rumped Parrot, Crimson Rosella, Eastern Rosella
Australia Competition – nesting sites
Causal During breeding, introduced species was a dominant user of nest-hollows
No Pell and Tidemann (1997)
Acorn Woodpecker North America
Competition – nesting sites
Causal Introduced species increased nesting hollow usage, native excavated more nest-hollows, native fecundity not reduced
No Troetschler (1976)
Lewis’s Woodpecker North America
Competition – nesting sites
Causal Introduced species usurped one native-species nest-hollow, native species dominated aggressive interactions
No Vierling (1998)
Competition – interference
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Introduced bird Native bird as named in reference
Location Process Level of evidence
Outcome Threat demonstrated
Reference
Common Starling (cont.)
Various species North America
Competition – food
Correlative Association of introduced species with native species varies with season
No Williamson and Gray (1975)
Competition – interference
Introduced species imitates feeding behaviour of native species
Crimson Rosella (Platycercus
elegans)
Tasman Parakeet, Norfolk Island Southern Boobook
Norfolk Island
Competition – nesting sites
Anecdotal Introduced species competes with native species for limited number of nest-hollows
Yes Garnett et al. (2011)
Eurasian Collared Dove (Streptopelia
decaocto)
Mourning Dove North America
Competition – food
Causal High degree of dietary overlap, introduced species not more aggressive or competitive
No Poling and Hayslette (2006)
Mourning Dove North America
Competition – food
Theoretical Introduced species a potential competitor to native species owing to similar requirements
No Romagosa and McEneaney (1999)
Competition – nesting sites
Great Kiskadee (Pitangus
sulphuratus)
Bermuda’s Bluebird Bermuda Competition – food
Theoretical Introduced species a potential competitor No Forbes (2012)
Competition – nesting sites
Green-backed Firecrown (Sephanoides
sephaniodes)
Juan Fernandez Firecrown
Juan Fernandez Archipelago
Competition – nesting sites
Correlative Introduced species has different nesting microhabitat requirements
No Hahn et al. (2011)
House Crow (Corvus
splendens)
Weaver spp. and other small bird species
Kenya Predation Anecdotal Introduced species a predator of nest-contents of native species
No Sodhi (2011)
House Finch (Carpodacus
mexicanus)
Various species North America
Disease Theoretical Introduced species could spread conjunctivitis to native species
No Avery and Moulton (2007)
Various species North America
Disease Causal Native species experimentally infected with introduced species strain of conjunctivitis developed disease
No Farmer et al. (2005)
Various species North America
Competition – nesting sites
Theoretical Introduced species not a competitive threat to native species in eastern North America
No InfoNatura (2007)
Various species Hawaiian Islands
Disease Anecdotal Introduced species as a carrier of birdpox virus (Avipoxvirus spp.) – infection of native species inferred
No Warner (1968)
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Introduced bird Native bird as named in reference
Location Process Level of evidence
Outcome Threat demonstrated
Reference
House Sparrow (Passer
domesticus)
Eastern Bluebird Bermuda Competition – nesting sites
Theoretical Introduced species and native species have similar nesting requirements
No Forbes (2012)
Endemic passerines Juan Fernandez Archipelago
Competition – nesting sites
Correlative Introduced species has different nesting macrohabitat requirements to native species
No Hahn et al. (2011)
Cliff Swallow North America
Competition – nesting sites
Causal Introduced species reduced reproductive success of native species at artificial structure
No Leasure et al. (2010)
Various species Western Mexico
Competition – interference
Correlative Introduced species related to lower species richness of native species – aggression inferred
No MacGregor-Fors et al. (2010)
Noisy Miner Australia Competition – interference
Correlative Native species negatively affects introduced species – aggression inferred
No Woodall (1996)
Japanese White-eye (Zosterops
japonica)
8 species, including the endangered Hawaii Akepa
Hawaiian Islands
Competition – food
Causal Juvenile native species had decreased growth and survival in presence of introduced species – competition inferred
Yes Freed and Cann (2009)
Bonin Island White-eye Bonin Islands (Japan)
Competition – food
Causal and Correlative
Native species diet and fledgling body weight not different in allopatric and sympatric populations, preferred habitat of introduced species different to native – lack of competition inferred
No Kawakami and Higuchi (2003)
Various species Hawaiian Islands
Disease Anecdotal Introduced species as a carrier of avian malaria – infection of native species inferred
No Warner (1968)
Little Corella (Cacatua
sanguinea)
Various species Western Australia
Competition – nesting sites
Theoretical Potential for interactions No Blythman (2012)
Disease
Hybridisation
Long-billed Corella (Cacatua
tenuirostris)
Various species Western Australia
Competition – nesting sites
Theoretical Potential for interactions No Blythman (2012)
Disease
Hybridisation
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Introduced bird Native bird as named in reference
Location Process Level of evidence
Outcome Threat demonstrated
Reference
Northern Mallard (Anas
platyrhynchos)
Hawaiian Duck (Koloa) Hawaiian Islands
Hybridisation Theoretical Genetic introgression considered primary threat to native species
Potentially BirdLife International (2012)
Hawaiian Duck (Koloa) Hawaiian Islands
Hybridisation Causal Markers established that can distinguish native from hybrids – threat inferred
Potentially Fowler et al. (2009)
Pacific Black Duck New Zealand Hybridisation Correlative Phenotypic classification showed only 4.5% of sample was native species
Yes Gillespie (1985)
Anas spp. Global Hybridisation Theoretical List of congenerics that hybridise with introduced species
Potentially Global Invasive Species Database (2010)
Pacific Black Duck Australia, New Zealand, Lord Howe Island, Macquarie Island
Hybridisation Theoretical (review)
Hybridisation of introduced and native species – potential threat to native species in Australia inferred
Potentially Guay and Tracey (2009)
Pacific Black Duck Macquarie Island
Hybridisation Anecdotal Hybrids identified No Norman (1990)
Pacific Black Duck Australia Competition – interference
Anecdotal Introduced species a superior aggressor No Paton et al. (1992)
Hybridisation Introduced species and hybrids said to be increasing
Pacific Black Duck New Zealand Hybridisation Causal Two-way introgression between introduced and native species
Yes Rhymer et al. (1994)
Pacific Black Duck Lord Howe Island
Hybridisation Correlative Phenotypic classification revealed no pure individuals of native species
Yes Tracey et al. (2008)
Hawaiian Duck (Koloa) Hawaiian Islands
Hybridisation Anecdotal Rapid increase in incidence of hybridisation Yes US Fish and Wildlife Service (2011)
Mute Swan (Cygnus olor)
Native waterfowl North America
Competition – interference
Correlative Introduced species aggression had negligible effect on native species
No Conover and Kania (1994)
Nutmeg Mannikin (Lonchura
punctata)
Iiwi Hawaii Disease Causal Introduced species not infected with avian malaria in captive trials – spread of disease by native species inferred
No Atkinson et al. (1995)
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Introduced bird Native bird as named in reference
Location Process Level of evidence
Outcome Threat demonstrated
Reference
Purple Swamphen (Porphyrio
porphyrio)
Native species North America
Competition – interference
Theoretical Introduced species may aggressively out-compete native species for food and territories
No Johnson and McGarrity (2009)
Rainbow Lorikeet (Trichoglossus
haematodus)
Various species Western Australia
Competition – nesting sites
Anecdotal Potential for introduced species to affect native species
No Chapman (2006)
Competition – food Disease
Red-vented Bulbul (Pycnonotus
cafer)
Tahiti Monarch Tahiti Competition – interference
Correlative Reproductive success of native species reduced – competition with introduced species for nesting sites and territories inferred
Yes Blanvillain et al. (2003)
Pomarea spp. (Monarchidae)
Tahiti Predation Causal No egg predation by introduced species No Thibault et al. (2002)
Red-whiskered Bulbul (Pycnonotus
jocosus)
Native passerines Mascarene Islands
Competition – interference
Theoretical Rapid colonisation by introduced species documented – competition and predation inferred
No Clergeau and Mandon-Dalger (2001) Predation
Red Junglefowl (domestic poultry) (Gallus
gallus)
Various species Galápagos Islands
Disease Theoretical (review)
Diseases in introduced species could spread to native species
No Deem et al. (2008)
Various species Galápagos Islands
Disease Correlative No evidence of exposure to diseases – no transmission between introduced and native species inferred
No Soos et al. (2008)
Various species Hawaii Disease Anecdotal Introduced species a source of birdpox virus that may be transmitted to native species
No Warner (1968)
Rock Dove (Columba livia)
Galapagos Dove Galápagos Islands
Disease Correlative Introduced species presumed to bring parasite Trichomonas gallinae, which is also found in native species
No Harmon et al. (1987)
Galapagos Dove Galápagos Islands
Disease Anecdotal Native species rapidly declining – infection with Trichomonas gallinae inferred
Potentially Wikelski et al. (2004)
Rock Partridge Red-legged Partridge Spain Hybridisation Correlative Hybridisation demonstrated using molecular genotyping
No Arruga et al. (1996)
Red-legged Partridge Spain Hybridisation Correlative Farmed hybrids are being introduced into wild populations – introgression inferred
No Negro et al. (2001)
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Introduced bird Native bird as named in reference
Location Process Level of evidence
Outcome Threat demonstrated
Reference
Rose-ringed Parakeet (Psittacula
krameri)
Kestrel, Stock Dove, Jackdaw, Green Woodpecker, Common Starling
United Kingdom
Competition – nesting sites
Anecdotal Introduced species not likely to be causing declines in native species but may become a more serious competitor for hollows
No Butler (2003)
Eurasian Nuthatch and 7 other hollow-nesting species
United Kingdom
Competition – nesting sites
Correlative Negative correlation with abundance of Eurasian Nuthatch – different habitat preference inferred
No Newson et al. (2011)
Eurasian Nuthatch and other hollow-nesting species
Belgium Competition – nesting sites
Correlative Negative association of introduced species with Eurasian Nuthatch but not other hollow-nesters – competition inferred
Potentially Strubbe and Matthysen (2007)
Eurasian Nuthatch Belgium Competition – nesting sites
Causal When nest-hollows of introduced species were artificially blocked they usurped hollows of native species
Potentially Strubbe and Matthysen (2009)
Eurasian Nuthatch Belgium Competition – nesting sites
Correlative Introduced species affecting one-third of native population
No Strubbe et al.(2010)
Ruddy Duck (Oxyura
jamaicensis)
White-headed Duck Europe Hybridisation Anecdotal Reports of hybridisation – threat inferred No Hughes (1996) White-headed Duck Europe Hybridisation Causal Hybridisation confirmed using molecular
genotyping Potentially Muñoz-Fuentes et
al. (2007) Sacred Ibis (Threskiornis
aethiopicus)
Sandwich Tern, Whiskered Tern, Common Tern, Black Tern, Northern Mallard, Black-winged Stilt, Cattle Egret, Little Egret, Lapwing
France Predation Anecdotal Introduced species a predator of nest-contents of native species
No Yésou and Clergeau (2005)
Shiny Cowbird (Molothrus
bonariensis)
Puerto Rican Vireo and 16 other native species
Puerto Rico Brood parasitism
Causal Native species suffered high rates of parasitism from introduced species
Potentially Woodworth (1997)
Swamp Harrier (Circus
approximans)
Tahiti Imperial-Pigeon, Blue Lorikeet
Tahiti Predation Theoretical Introduced species said to be main cause of extinction of native species
No Meyer (2003)
Tasmanian Masked Owl (Tyto
novaehollandiae
castanops)
Lord Howe Woodhen, White Tern, Black-winged Petrel, Providence Petrels
Lord Howe Island
Predation Anecdotal Introduced species noted as a predator of native species
No Hutton (1991)
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