time-life world war ii: victory in europe: defeating the nazis: a triumph of courage, military...
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WORLDWARIIVictoryInEurope
DEFEATINGTHENAZIS:ATRIUMPHOFCOURAGE,MILITARY
STRATEGY,ANDENDURANCE
AlliedsoldiersandFrenchciviliansinPariscelebratedvictoryinEurope,May8,1945.
CONTENTSCoverTitle1THEWESTERNFRONTAs1945dawned,mostGermansknewthattheircountrywasonthebrinkofcollapse.Formany,survivingtheAlliedonslaughtwastheonlythingthatmattered.
2THEEASTERNFRONTTheSovietshadmillionsoftroopstodeployagainsttheGermans,andtheyweredeterminednotjusttowin,buttoretaliate.
3LIBERATINGTHECAMPSTheAlliesdiscoveredtheinconceivableatrocitiesandmassmurderspawnedbytheNaziradicalideology.
4MOVINGTOWARDPEACEWiththeAlliesinfirmcontrolofEurope,Nazileadersbegansearchingforwaystoendthewar.
5V-EDAYAftersixyearsofwarandincalculablesuffering,theAlliesdefeatedHitler’sforcesandrestoredEurope’sfreedom.
6THEPOSTWARWORLDHavingsecuredvictoryinEurope,theAlliesturnedtheirfocustorebuildingthecontinent’sshatteredeconomyandtobringingwarcriminalstotrial.
PhotoCredits
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VEDAY1945CelebratingVictoryinEuropeinPiccadillyCircus,London“Thisisasolemnbutglorioushour.GeneralEisenhowerinformsmethattheforcesofGermanyhavesurrendered....Theflagsoffreedomflyallover
Europe.”
—PresidentHarryTruman,May8,1945
1THEWESTERNFRONTAS1945DAWNED,MOSTGERMANSKNEWTHATTHEIRCOUNTRYWASONTHEBRINKOFCOLLAPSE.FORMANY,SURVIVINGTHEALLIEDONSLAUGHTWASTHEONLYTHINGTHATMATTERED.
TheNewYear:1945ASTHEYEARBEGAN,GERMANYFOUNDITSELFFACINGANINSURMOUNTABLEFOE.
AlliedsoldiersandsailorsarrivedinEnglandin1945followingatourofduty.TheywouldsoonbedeployedbacktothecontinenttowagewaragainstNazitroops.
TheAllieshadmuchtocheeraboutastheycelebratedtheNewYearinJanuary1945.TheinvasionofNormandy,France,theprevioussummerhadfinallyputtheNazisontherun,andtheAllies—theUnitedStates,GreatBritain,andtheSovietUnion—couldseethatGermanywasonthebrinkofcollapse.AlongboththeEasternandWesternFrontsofGermany,though,therewerebrutalbattlestowageandtowiniftheAlliesweretosucceed.NazileaderAdolfHitlerbelievedthathiscountrycouldstilltriumph,butmanyofhisgeneralsnolongersharedthisoptimisticview.InBerlin,Alliedbombingraids—AmericanduringthedayandBritishatnight—
tookaheavytoll.Peoplecrowdedintoair-raidsheltersandbasements.Theywrotemessagesonwallsofguttedbuildingstosonsandhusbandsreturningfromthefront,lettingthemknowtheirfamiliesweresafe,atleastforthemoment,andlivingelsewhere.Berlinerswereshortonfood,water,andsanitationfacilities.“HeilHitler!”hadbeentheprevailingeverydaygreetingandrallyingcry;now,Berlinersdeclared,
“Bleibübrig!”—Survive!TheRussianscompoundedGermans’miseryastheyadvancednorthfromHungary
andwestthroughEastPrussia.TheRedArmyshowednomercytocapturedmilitaryortocivilians.Murder,rape,andlootingbecamecommontacticsoftheSovietforces.Germansfacedtheiruntenablesituationwithadarkhumor:“Bepractical,”theyquippedatChristmastime.“Giveacoffin.”
Europe1945
WhenWorldWarIIbegan,AxispowerslinedupbehindtheNazis,butby1945Germanywassurroundedbyenemyforces.AxisPowers:Germany,Italy,Hungary,Romania,Bulgaria,JapanAlliedPowers:UnitedStates,Britain,USSR,Australia,Belgium,Canada,China,Denmark,France,Greece,Netherlands,NewZealand,Norway,Poland,SouthAfrica,Yugoslavia,Brazil
PathtotheEndAs1945dawned,sixlongyearsofwarwasending.TheAlliessqueezedGermanyfromtwosides,whilethefightinginthePacificbecameevenmoresavagefromallsides.
JANUARY
JANUARY17SovietforcesliberatedPoland’scapitalcity,Warsaw,openingthepathfortheRussianstomovesouthintoGermany.JANUARY25TheBattleoftheBulge,Hitler’slastmajoroffensiveontheWesternFront,endedinadecisivevictoryfortheAllies.
FEBRUARY
FEBRUARY4AlliedleadersmetatYalta,acityontheBlackSea,todiscussthesurrenderofGermanyandJapanandtoplanforthepostwarworld.
MARCH
MARCH7U.S.troopscrossedtheRhineRiveratRemageninwesternGermany,pavingthewayforsoldierstomoveintoGermany’sheartland.
MAY
MAY7GermanysurrenderedtotheWesternAllies.MAY9GermanysurrenderedtotheSoviets,bringingthewarinEuropetoaclose.
TheBattleoftheBulgeWITHTHEALLIESSQUEEZINGGERMANYFROMTHEEASTANDWEST,HITLERPROPOSEDADARINGPLAN.
Germany’sprizedPanzertanksplayedakeyroleintheBattleoftheBulge,December16,1944,toJanuary25,1945.
Inthefallof1944,HitlerdevelopedastrategythathehopedwouldturnthewarinthewesternregionsofEuropetohisfavorandhalttheadvancingAmericanandBritishtroops.HewantedtoseizeAntwerp,Belgium,akeyportcityontheAtlanticcoast,whichwouldsplittheAmericanandBritisharmiesfightingintheheavilywoodedArdennesForestinBelgium.HenamedtheplanOperationAutumnMist,butitbecameknownastheBattleoftheBulgefortheeffectthemaneuverhadontheAlliedfrontlines.Iftheplansucceeded,HitlerbelievedAmericanpresidentFranklinRooseveltandBritishprimeministerWinstonChurchillwouldbeforcedtothenegotiatingtable.Hitler’smilitaryadviserscomplainedthattheschemewasoverlyambitious.The
Naziarmylackedfuel,tanks,replacementparts,guns,andartilleryshellsforsuchanaggressivecampaign.Inaddition,theynotedthatGermansoldiershadbeguntosurrenderenmasseandthatfiveyearsofheavycombathadsodepletedtherankandfilethatmostofthefightingwasbeingdonebyyoungboysandoldmen.Hitlerwasunswayedbytheseargumentsandpushedpreparationsforward.Acornerstoneoftheoffensivestrategywasthecreationofanewarmoredtank
group,theSixthPanzerArmy,whichwasplacedinthehandsofJosef“Sepp”Dietrich,Hitler’sfriendandadviser.TheFifthPanzerArmy,ledbyGeneralHassovonManteuffel,whohadgainedfameforhisbattlestrategiesontheEasternFrontandinNorthAfrica,alsoplayedanessentialrole.Theoffensive’ssuccesshingedontheelementofsurprise.Alliedcodebreakers,however,wereonestepaheadoftheGermans.They
interceptedamessagesentbytheJapaneseambassadorinBerlintogovernmentandmilitaryofficialsinTokyo.Themissivedescribedthemassingof“amillion”NazisontheWesternFront.TheAlliesalsolearnedthattheLuftwaffe,theGermanairforce,wasstockpilingfuelandammunitioninthewestandthatNaziofficerswereseekingsoldierswhospoke“theAmericandialect”todisruptAlliedtroopmovementandspreadconfusionamongtheranks.ButinsteadofprovidingtheAllieswithastrategicadvantage,thisinformationmade
Alliedcommandersoverconfident.ThedeadlybattlebeganearlyonDecember16,1944,whenartillerygunslitupthewinterskyinwhatwouldbeoneofthelastgreatGermanoffensivesofthewar.
WinterchallengedU.S.troopsadvancingtocounterGermanforcesintheArdennesForestinBelgium.
Inthefirstdaysoffighting,Nazisoldiers,partoftheSS,movedquicklythroughtheArdennesForest.
PenetratingAlliedLines
WaryAmericantroopsfightinginSt.Vith,Belgium,watchedforGermansnipersastheysoughttocapturethevillage.
GermanfieldmarshalGerdVonRundstedt,assignedtoleadtheattackintheArdennes,wasatrusted,experiencedcommanderwhohadservedinWorldWarI.Althoughhewaspessimisticabouttheoffensiveandknewhedidnothaveenoughtroopsforadecisivevictory,helineduphismenalonga60-milefrontthatstretchedfromsouthernBelgiumtoLuxembourg.“Yourgreathourhasstruck,”hetoldhismen.“YoubearinyourselvesadivinedutytogiveeverythingandtoachievethesuperhumanforourFatherlandandourFührer.”Astheassaultbegan,250,000Germansoldiers,accompaniedbyinfantryandtanks,
chargedrapidlythroughtheArdennes.Withinninedays,theGermanshadpenetratedtheAmericanandBritishfrontlines,splittingtheirarmiesandcreatinga70-mile-wideand50-mile-deep“bulge”intheAllieddefensivepositions.TheAllieswerecaughtunprepared,andtheir80,000soldierswerefacingtheenemy
forthefirsttime.FormanyAmericantroops,itwouldbetheirfirstbattleandtheirlast.AsthestunnedAlliesretreated,theadvancingGermanscapturedthousandsofsoldiers.TheNazisexecutedmanyofthemandheldothersasprisonersofwar.GermansdisguisedasAmericanGIsmovedbehindtheAlliedlines,cuttingcommunicationlinesandseizingvitalbridgeheads.
HardenedTroops
AmericansoldiersusedoccasionallullsintheBattleoftheBulgetorecoverfromthebittercold.
ByDecember20,fourdaysafterthestartofOperationAutumnMist,theGermanshadsurroundedAmericanforcesstationedinBastogne,Belgium,astrategicallyimportanttownwheretheArdennesregion’smainroadsconverged.Runningshortonammunition,besiegedU.S.troopsfoughtvaliantlybutgaveupgroundhourafterhourwhilesustainingheavylossesfromenemybombardment.Still,theymanagedtoholdon,andwhentheGermansdemandedthattheAmericanssurrenderonDecember22,theU.S.commanderrefused.Finally,onDecember26,theU.S.ThirdArmy,ledbyGeneralGeorgePatton,broke
throughtheGermanlinesandrelievedBastogne’sbeleaguereddefenders.WhentheNaziswererunningoutoffuelandammunition,andunabletopushPatton’stroopsback,FifthPanzerArmygeneralvonManteuffelaskedforpermissiontowithdraw.Hitlerdeniedtherequest,andthePanzersremainedmiredintheconflict.InthedaysafterBastogne,thebattlefortheArdennescontinued,butthetideofwar
hadchanged.Pattonmovedhismennorth,successfullyattackingthesouthernGermanlines.BritishfieldmarshalBernardMontgomeryandhissoldiers,movingsouthonJanuary3,struckonthenorthernflankofthe“bulge.”Fourdayslater,U.S.troopscutoffamainGermansupplyroad,deprivingtheNazisofanimportantroutetotransportammunitionandothercrucialequipment.WiththeBattleoftheBulgelost,thewearyGermansoldiersretreatedtotheeast,towardtheGermanheartland.WhileChurchillcalledtheBattleoftheBulge“undoubtedlythegreatestAmerican
battleofthewar,”troopspaidaheavypriceforthevictory.Closeto21,000Alliedsoldierswerekilled.Another43,000menwerewounded,andover23,000werecapturedorreportedmissinginaction.Germanlosseswerehorrificaswell:15,000killed,41,000wounded,and27,000capturedormissing.TheGermansalsolost600tanksand1,600aircraft.Intheend,Hitler’scostlygrandschemeonlydelayedtheAlliedmarchintoGermanybyaboutsixweeks.Moreover,theAllieshaddestroyed
theGermans’abilitytoholdalineinthewest.
DrivingaWedgeBetweentheWesternAllies
GermanforcespiercedtheAmericanandBritishfrontlinesintheArdennesregionofBelgiumandLuxembourg.
MovingontheWesternFrontAhandfulofkeyeventsforcedGermanytoitskneesandwreakedhavoconthecountry.
1945
JANUARYJANUARY1GermanyconductedaraidagainstAlliedairfields,destroyingmorethan450planes.JANUARY25BattleoftheBulgeended.
FEBRUARY
FEBRUARY3AlliesbeganbombingBerlin.FEBRUARY13Dresdenbombingcreatedafirestormthatreducedthecitytoashes.
MARCH
MARCH7U.S.forcescrossedtheRhineRiveratRemagen,Germany.
APRIL
APRIL12PresidentFranklinRooseveltdied,andHarryTrumanbecamepresident.APRIL26AmericanandSovietarmiesmetattheElbeRiverinGermany.APRIL30AdolfHitlercommittedsuicide.
OldBloodandGuts
GeneralGeorgePatton(1885–1945)wasasaudaciousashewasabrupt,asoldierwhoalwayskepthismenmovingacrossthebattlefield.Pattonalsorelishedcombat.Heearnedthenickname“OldBloodandGuts,”promptinghistroopstojoke,“Ourblood,hisguts.”HehelpedleadAlliedtroopsintheirsuccessfulinvasionofSicily,theislandoffthesoutherntipofItaly,andlaterledtheThirdArmyasitsweptacrossFrancein1944.Hewasneveradiplomat,however,andhisbosses,especiallyGeneralDwightEisenhower,thesupremecommanderoftheAlliedforcesinEurope,wereoftencriticalofhim.
One-WordReply:Nuts!
WhenU.S.ArmygeneralAnthonyMcAuliffe(1898–1975)receivedawrittendemandfromtheGermansonDecember22orderinghimtosurrenderatBastogne,theU.S.positionwasdire.McAuliffe’stroopshadbeensurroundedfordaysandhadsustainedheavycasualties.Nevertheless,McAuliffe’snow-famousresponsewas“Nuts!”Officersunderhiscommandtriedtocomeupwithsuitable,officiallanguagetorephrasetheanswer,butintheenddecidedtolettheone-wordreplystand.Itwouldbecomeoneofthemostfamousquotesofthewar.OnDecember30,1944,McAuliffereceivedtheDistinguishedServiceCross,thesecond-highestmilitaryawardthatcanbegiventoamemberofthearmy.
Germany’sTigerTanksTHESEARMOREDVEHICLESWERETHEPRIDEOFTHENATIONANDTHEBACKBONEOFTHENAZIMILITARY.
Thehuge,fearsomeGermanPanzertanksprovidedexcellentprotectionforinfantrytroopsastheyadvancedonthebattlefield.
Inlessthanadecade,Germanengineersandplantworkersdesignedandturnedoutover25,000tanks,eachversionlarger,moresophisticated,andmoredeadlythanitspredecessor.
SERIESITheNazisdevelopedthefirstPanzertank,thePz.1,fortrainingin1934.TheGermanarmyusedover1,400Pz.1s,smallbutmightytanksnotallerthanaman,inthebattleforFrance.
SERIESIPanzer1orPz.1Introducedin1934Numberbuilt:830*
SERIESIIBythestartofthewar,GermanfactorieswereturningoutthePz.2forcombatduty.
SERIESIIPanzer2orPz.2Introducedin1935
Numberbuilt:1,850*
SERIESIIIWhentheSovietsbeganmanufacturingtanksthatoutgunnedthe10-tonPz.2,theGermanscreatedthemoreheavilyarmedPz.3.Thistank,coveredin2-to3-incharmor,wasarmedwitha50mmgun,weighed20tons,carriedacrewoffive,andwasusedbothintheSovietUnionandsouthernEurope.
SERIESIIIPanzer3orPz.3Introducedin1936Numberbuilt:5,775*
SERIESIVThePz.4weighed25tonsandcamewithtwo75mmgunsandtwomachineguns.Itwasengineeredtomatchimprovingenemydesignsandwasproducedbetween1936and1945.
SERIESIVPanzer4orPz.4Introducedin1936Numberbuilt:8,800*
SERIESVManyhistoriansbelievethatthePanther,thePz.5,wasthebesttankanycountrybuiltduringthewar.Thoughitweighed45tons,thisvehiclewasstillhighlymobileinruggedterrain.And,withits75mmgunandoverthreeinchesofarmoratthefrontandnearlytwoinchesonthebackandsides,itwasaneffectiveweapononthebattlefield.
SERIESVPantherorPz.5Introducedin1942Numberbuilt:5,000*
SERIESVIThePz.6TigerwasmuchbiggerbutslowerandlessagilethanthePanther,andtheGermansusedtheTigermostoftenindefensiveoperations.At70tons,itwastheheaviesttankproducedbyanycountryduringthewar.Andarmedwithan88mmgun,itdecimateditslighterfoe,theU.S.Shermantank.
SERIESVITigerIorPz.6Introducedin1942Numberbuilt:1,350*
*Allnumbersareestimates.
HeinzGuderian:GermanTankMastermind
GermancommanderHeinzGuderian(1888–1954)revolutionizedthewayinwhicharmoredvehicleswereusedonthebattlefield.Prussianbybirth,GuderianservedwiththeGermanarmyinWorldWarI,remainedintheGermanmilitary,andin1934becamechiefofstaffofMotorizedTroopsCommand.In1938,HitlernamedGuderiantothenewpositionofchiefofMobileTroops.Hebecameastudentofmechanizedwarfareandpublishedanumberofpapersdescribinghowtanksshouldbeusedinbattle,includinghis
famousworkAchtung–Panzer!(Attention,Tank!).Guderianwentontopioneertheuseofavarietyofsystemsfortanktroopstocommunicatewitheachotherduringbattle.ThistacticaladvantageledtomuchofGermany’searlysuccessinWorldWarII.In1941,HitlerdismissedGuderianforcriticizinghisdecisiontowithdrawandholdhistanksattheoutskirtsofMoscowinsteadofpushingforwardintotheRussiancapital.ButaftertheRussianshumiliatedtheNazisatStalingradinFebruary1943,HitleragainturnedtoGuderian,elevatinghimfirsttoinspector-generalofArmoredTroopsandthentochiefofstaffofthearmyin1944.AmericanforcescapturedGuderianinMay1945,andheremainedaprisoneruntilhisreleasein1948.
OperationLumberjackTHEBATTLEOFTHEBULGEWASOVER,BUTCROSSINGINTOGERMANYWASNOTEASY.
WhentheGermansfailedtodestroytherailroadbridgeatRemagenandthefirstU.S.forcescrossed,asignappeared:“CrosstheRhinewithdryfeet.Courtesyofthe9thArmoredDivision.”
FollowingtheirJanuaryvictoryattheBattleoftheBulge,theAlliescontinuedtheirslogtowardGermany.TheirgoalwastocapturethewestbankoftheRhineRiverandthreestrategicGermancities:Cologne,Bonn,andRemagen.Alliedleadersagreedthatwhileresistancewouldbefierce,enemyforceswouldnotbeabletostopthecampaigncode-namedLumberjack.The21stArmyGroup,composedofBritish,Canadian,andAmericandivisions,
closedinontheRhineinthenorth,whiletheU.S.FirstArmyheadedforCologneandKoblenz.Inthefaceoftheopposition,theGermanmilitarystooditsground.Inanattemptto
slowtheAlliedadvance,HitlerorderedthebridgesovertheRhinedestroyed.OneofthefewspansleftintactwastheLudendorffBridge,15milessouthofBonn,whichcrossedtheRhineattheancientRomantownofRemagen.NamedforGeneralErichLudendorff,whohadledthefinalGermanoffensivesontheWesternFrontduringWorldWarI,thisstrongrailwaybridgedominatedthetownandprovidedpassagetoretreatingGermansoldiersandescapingrefugees.OnMarch7,theU.S.FirstArmybeganitsadvancetoRemagen,ledbyLieutenant
KarlTimmermann,commanderofCompanyAofthe27thArmoredInfantryBattalion.TimmermannbelievedthattheGermans,whowerestationedoneithersideoftheriver,woulddestroytheLudendorffbeforehearrived.ButwhenthelieutenantputhisfieldglassestohiseyesandlookedtowardtheRhine,hesawthatthebridgewasstillstanding.TheGermanswereplanningtodestroythebridgeassoonastheir
soldierscrossed.
ABridgeTooFar
AftercrossingtheRhine,AmericansplantedtheU.S.flagonthetowersoftheLudendorffBridgeatRemagen.
Ataround2PM,justastheAmericanswereabouttoadvancetowardthebridge,adarktorrentofearth,pavingstones,andironexplodedonitswesternramp.TheGermanshadblowna30-footcraterintheroadwayleadingtothebridge.BulletsthenraineddownontheadvancingGIsfromthebridge’stowers.“I’llseeyouontheotherside,”oneofTimmermann’smensaidasthetroopspressedforward.CompanyAwasthenrockedbyanothertremendousexplosion.Whenthesmokecleared,thesoldiersexpectedonceagaintoseethattheLudendorffhadcollapsedintotheRhine.Instead,thebridgewasstillstanding.TwoofTimmermann’smenracedupthe
girderstocutthewiresleadingtotheremainingGermandemolitioncharges,whiletherestofTimmermann’smenfoughttheirwaytotheotherside.BeforetheGermancaptaininchargeoftheNazieffortssurrendered,hesentthismessagetohissuperiors:“...thedemolitionofthebridgewasunsuccessful...theAmericanshavecrossed.”ThecaptureoftheLudendorff,dubbedthe“MiracleofRemagen,”allowedAllied
armiestostreamacrosstheriver.Withinthefirst24hours,morethan8,000soldiershadpassedoverthelastnaturalbarriertoGermany’sheartland.AnattemptbytheNazistoretakethebridgefailed.Tendayslater,thebridgehadbeenhitbynearlyonedozenGerman-firedV-2rockets,andtheheavilydamagedspancollapsed,taking24Americanstotheirdeath.TheLudendorff,however,hadserveditspurpose.FortheAllies,itwasaone-way,eastboundstreet.TheywerenowpoisedtopushintotheinteriorofGermany.
U.S.ArmyengineersworkedtorepairdamagedonebyGermanstotheLudendorffBridge.
MovingAcrosstheRhine
FollowingtheirvictoryinBelgium,theAllies’nextobjectivewastocrosstheRhineandseizeGermany’sheartland.
FACESofWAR
OMARBRADLEY
“Inwarthereisnosecondprizefortherunner-up.”ThecommanderoftheU.S.FirstArmy,GeneralOmarBradleywasoneofthefirsttoreceivewordthatthebridgeatRemagenhadbeentakenbytheAmericans.Bytheendofthewar,BradleyhadcumulativelycommandedmoretroopsthananyothergeneralinAmericanhistory.HismodeststylemadehimafavoriteoftheGIs.Eisenhowercalledhim“themastertacticianofourforces...America’sforemostbattleleader.”
IntotheHeartlandONCETHEALLIESHADCROSSEDTHERHINE,EISENHOWER’SATTENTIONSHIFTEDTOTHERUHRVALLEY.
GermantroopswhofoughtintheRuhrValleywereheldinaprisoncampfollowingtheirsurrenderonApril17,1945.
OncetheycrossedtheRhineRiver,theWesternAlliesbeganadetermineddriveintotheRuhrValley,anareaborderedroughlybytheRhinetothewest,thecitiesofDortmundandHagentotheeast,theRuhrRivertothesouth,andtheLippeRivertothenorth.Thisstrategicareawasrichwithcoalandirondeposits,anditwastheThirdReich’sprimaryindustrialcenter.TheplancalledforBritishfieldmarshalBernardMontgomerytomarchtowardthe
ElbeRiverinthenorth,whiletheAmericanspushedsouthtowardtheRuhr.ThegoalwastoencircleandeliminatetheGermanforcesthatremainedintheregion.GeneralDwightEisenhower’sstrategysurprisedotherAlliedwarplanners,who
presumedthecommanderwouldcontinuetheadvanceontoBerlin.MontgomeryandChurchillwereunhappy.“Berlinremainsofhighstrategicimportance,”ChurchillwrotetoRoosevelt.“TheAlliedarmiesofthenorthandcentershouldnowmarchatthehighestspeedtowardstheElbe.”Eisenhower,unmoved,wonthedisputeandproceeded,dismissingBerlinas“nothing
butageographicallocation.”OnApril1,theAmericansfinishedsurroundingtheRuhrValleyandcutoffabout500,000Nazitroops.
AlliedairattackstargetedGermanindustriesintheRuhrValley.Survivorsofthebombingssurveyedthedamagetotheirstreetsandhomes.
Despitethedanger,onMarch25,1945,WinstonChurchillcrossedtheRhineaccompaniedbyseveralU.S.andBritishgenerals.
TheGermans,ledbyFieldMarshalWaltherModel,triedunsuccessfullytocounterattack,firstinthenorth,theninthesouth.ModelalsobalkedatordersfromHitlertodestroytheindustriesinthearea.“AllfearcomesfromtheDevil,”hewrotehiswife,astheAmericansclosedin.“Wemustalldieatsometimeorother.”WhenAmericangeneralOmarBradleyorderedmoretroopstosqueezetheRuhr
Valleyfromboththenorthandthesouth,ModelgavehismentheoptionoftryingtogohomeorfightingtheirwayoutoftheRuhr.Mostsoldiersdecidedtosurrender.“Whatistherelefttoacommanderindefeat?”Modeltoldhisofficers,“Inancienttimes,theytookpoison.”AndonApril21,Model,oneoftheThirdReich’sbestcommanders,committedsuicide.
“Mypurposeistodestroytheenemy’sforcesandhis
powers.”—DwightEisenhower
EisenhowertheDiplomat
GeneralDwightEisenhower(right),supremecommanderoftheAlliedforcesinEurope,conferredwithBritishfieldmarshalBernardMontgomeryaboutAlliedbattleplans.
ManagingthepersonalitiesofhiscommandersandoftheWesternleaders—ontopofday-to-daymilitaryproblems—wasoftenachallengeforEisenhower.Torelievethestress,hereadstoriesoftheWildWestatnight.Thatway,“Idon’thavetothink,”hesaid.EisenhowerwasespeciallyirritatedbysomedecisionsbyMontgomery.Inonewell-knownincidentrecordedbyphotographers(seefarright,above),aftertheAmericanshadcapturedtheLudendorffBridgeinGermany,MontgomeryallowedChurchilltocommandeerariverlaunchandcrosstheRhineRiver.TheBritishleader,whohadbeenvisitingMontgomery,tookseveralmembersoftheAlliedforceswithhim,andspentabout30minutesinenemyterritory.Noharmcametothegroup.
ACulturalCenterIsFlattenedINTHEMOSTDESTRUCTIVEBOMBINGRAIDOFTHEWAR,THEALLIESINCINERATEDDRESDEN,KILLINGNEARLY135,000PEOPLE.
AnAlliedbombingraidcreatedafirestorminDresden,Germany.ItreducedmuchofthecitytoashesandkilledmorepeoplethananyotherAlliedbombingraid.
“ItseemstomethatthemomenthascomewhenthequestionofbombingofGermancitiessimplyforthesakeofincreasingtheterror,thoughunderotherpretexts,shouldbereviewed.”—WinstonChurchill,March28,1945
ThenorthernGermancityofDresden,nicknamedthe“FlorenceoftheElbeRiver,”wasfilledwithmuseumsandhistoricbuildingsthatdatedfrommedievaltimes.Becauseithadnotbeenamilitarytargetintheearlyyearsofthewar,DresdenescapedthefirebombingsthatdecimatedotherGermancities,anditbecameamagnetforrefugeesfleeingtheadvancingRedArmy.ByFebruary13,1945,Dresdenwasteemingwithpeople,farmorethanthecity’sofficialpopulationof350,000.Overthenext48hours,anestimated135,000wouldbekilled,thegreatestlossofcivilianlifeofallAlliedbombingraidsduringthewar.Thecampaign,whichwasconductedby800AmericanandBritishaircraft,
unleashedmorethan3,400tonsofexplosivesonthebeleagueredcity.Incendiarybombsignitedafirestormthatburnedfordaysanddestroyedeightsquaremiles.Somecitizenswereluckyenoughtoescapetheinfernoandendedupwithonlyburnedfeet.Afewpeopletriedtofindrefugeinthecity’sreservoirs,onlytodrown.Those
hospitalsleftstandingwereoverwhelmedwiththeinjured.WhywasDresdentargetedsolateinthewar?SomearguethatDresdenwasamajor
communicationscenter,anddestroyingthecitypreventedtheGermanarmyfromsendingmessages.DresdenmayhavebeenselectedbecauseChurchillandRoosevelthadpromisedRussianPremierJosephStalinthattheywouldbombeasternGermany.Or,thecitymayhavebeenchosentowarnStalinnottostrayfromtheagreementsmadeearlierinthewar.TheUnitedStatesandBritainhopedthattheirdisplayoffearsomefirepowerwoulddiscouragetheambitiousRussianleader.
ElderlypeoplelentahandintherebuildingofDresden,buttherewaslittletheycoulddo.Theprocesswouldtakedecades.
“IwouldhavedestroyedDresdenagain.ThebomberskeptoveramillionfitGermansoutoftheGermanarmy.”
—BritishairmarshalSirArthur“Bomber”Harris
Bombers:AKeytoVictory
B-24Liberator
Wingspan:110feetLength:68feet
Engines:1,200horsepowerCeiling:28,000feetThemilitaryuseofaircraftbecamewidespreadduringWorldWarI.Earlyfighterplanes
wereequippedwithmachinegunsandbuiltformaneuverability,whichenabledthemtoengageinaerialcombatandstrafeenemygroundpositions.Bombersweredesignedtocarryheavyweaponsandinflictseriousdamageontheground,buttheirtargetingtechnologywaslimited.Atwo-mancrewmanuallyejectedsingle
bombsasbesttheycould.
WorldWarIItriggeredarapidevolutioninthedesignofcombataircraft.Bombersandfighterswereproducedrapidlytomeetwarneeds,andnumerouschangesweremadetoimprovethem.America’sfirstlong-rangebomber,theB-17Fortress,wasintroducedin1938;itwentfromdesignboardtoaerialflighttestinginlessthanoneyear.ThisplanewassoonfollowedbytheB-24LiberatorandthentheB-29Superfortress.ThesenewplaneswerefasterandcouldreachaltitudesunattainablebyWorldWarI–eraaircraft.Theydeliveredpowerfulexplosivestolevelmilitaryandindustrialsitesandtodestroyessentialwarresources.TheB-17wasusedbytheBritishduringthefirstyearsofthewar.DesignersoftheB-24Liberator,whichwentintoproductionin1941,madeimprovements:Engineerssuccessfullyextendedtherangeby100miles,increasedtheweightofbombstheplanescouldcarryto8,000pounds,andequippedtheaircraftwithtendefensivemachineguns.ThenewlydesignedLiberatorwasusedtocarryoutthemoredamagingairassaultsonGermanyandotherAxistargetsinEurope;itslongerrangeandgreaterspeedwerealsousedtoadvantageinthePacific.SeveralAmericancompaniesincludingConsolidated,Ford,andDouglasAircraftproducedtheLiberator,andtheirworkersstruggledtokeepupwithdemand.Sometimes,theflightcrewevenstayedatthefactorysotheycouldgetusedtothenewplaneassoonasitcameofftheproductionline.Nicknamedthe“FlyingBoxcar”duetoitsflat-sidedfuselage,theB-24LiberatorbecamethemostproducedU.S.bomberduringthewar.Inall,morethan18,000B-24swerebuilt;theplanewasretiredin1945.
TheCaptureofHanoverWHENAMERICANSOLDIERSREACHEDTHECITY,THEYSAWTHATALLIEDBOMBSHADREDUCEDITTORUBBLE.
Hanover’srailwaystationwasdestroyedduringtheAlliedassaultsonthecity.
TheroadthroughtheheartofGermanywaspavedwithbombed-outbuildingsandruinedcities,theresultsofrepeatedaerialassaults.Oneofthehardest-hitmetropolitanareaswasHanover,animportantrailroadjunctionandindustrialcenter.TheBritishhadbeguntheiraerialmissionsoverthecityduringthesummerof1941,
attackingrailyards,oilrefineries,metalworks,andotherstrategictargets.InSeptember1943,theAlliesdroppedover2,100tonsofbombsonHanover,followedbyanother1,600tonsinOctoberofthatyear.Still,theAllieswerenotdone.OnJanuary5and6,1945,theyblanketedthecitywith2,300moretonsofexplosives.Theraidsleft90percentoftheinnercityinruins.Residentialareaswerenearlyobliterated,andsome6,000civilianswerekilled.Still,theAlliedgroundadvanceonHanoverwasslowedbypocketsofGerman
resistance,mostlybydeterminedSSdetachments.Itwasn’tuntilthesecondweekofApril1945thattheAmericans,ledbyMajorGeneralAlexanderBollingandhis84thInfantryDivision,reachedthecity’soutskirts.Theytooktwodaystocapturethecity,andwhenitfellonApril10,the84thInfantrywasreadytopushthroughtoBerlin.Threedayslater,BollingandhismenreachedtheElbeRiver.There,theAmericantroopsreceivedorderstostandtheirgroundandhalttheiradvance.
TheFallofNurembergHAND-TO-HANDFIGHTINGMARKEDTHEDEMISEOFTHESPIRITUALCENTEROFTHENAZIPARTY.
AlliedbombingraidspoundedNuremberganditsfactoriesintorubble,openingthewayforU.S.troopstoenterthecity.
BerlinmayhavebeenthepoliticalcenterofNazism,butNurembergwasitsspiritualhub.AcitywithhistoricaltiestotheHolyRomanEmpire,NurembergwaschosenbyNaziofficialstohosttheparty’sannualrally,aritualizedspectacledesignedtoenergizethefaithful.TheralliesbecamesohugethatAlbertSpeer,theThirdReich’schiefarchitect,designedavastcomplexofbuildingsandparadegrounds,dubbedtheZeppelinfeld,ontheedgeofthecitytoaccommodatethecrowds.Theassembliesincludedmilitaryparades,masscallisthenicclasses,music,and
singing.Thedramatichighpointcameontheeveningofthe“DayofthePoliticalLeaders,”anhomagetotheparty’s“martyrs”whohadbeenkilledinthefailed1923Munich“BeerHallPutsch,”Hitler’sattemptedcoupd’état.In1935,theNazisusedtherallytoannouncetheinfamousNurembergLaws,which
strippedJewsoftheircitizenshipanddeprivedthemofmanypoliticalrights.
DestroyingtheOldCityDuringthewar,Nurembergbecameasignificantsiteforthemanufactureofaircraft,submarines,andtankengines.InJanuaryandFebruary1945,theoldcitysuffereditsheaviestroundsofbombingbyAlliedplanes.ThesesystematicraidsbytheBritishRoyalAirForceandtheU.S.ArmyAirForcedestroyedmostofthecity’scenterincludingmedievalwalls,acastle,andtwohistoricchurches.Inaddition,manufacturingplantsinoutlyingareasweredemolished.IntheraidthattookplaceonJanuary2,nearly2,000peoplewerekilledinjustonehour.Thefollowingmonth,inFebruary,anotherbombingraidkilledanother1,000.Inall,about6,000residentsofthecitylosttheirlivesintheairraidsand100,000werelefthomeless.
DoortoDoorOnMarch28,theU.S.SeventhArmycrossedtheRhineandbeganitsmarchtowardNuremberg.TheyreachedthecitybyApril16andbegantheirattackfromthenorthandsouth.HitlerorderedhistroopstodefendNurembergatallcosts,andtheNazistrainedtheirantiaircraftgunsontheAmericaninvaders.Forthenextfourdays,U.S.troopsfoughthandtohand,blockbyblock,onebuildingatatime.WhentheAmericansbreachedwhatremainedofNuremberg’smedievalwalls,troopsquicklyoverwhelmedabout2,000enemysoldiers;onApril21,theAlliesofficiallytookthecityandinstalledtheAmericanflaghighaboveAdolfHitlerPlatz.MuchofNuremberglayinruins,andlegionsofresidentshadfled.Ancient
landmarkshadbeendestroyedorwerebadlydamaged.AhandfulofdeadNaziloyalistsremainedwheretheyhadfalleninthestreets.Soonthereafter,onthesoutheastedgeofthecity,anAmericanArmyrabbiarrivedat
Speer’simmenseZeppelinfeldtoofferaprayerofthanksgiving.Later,reporterswatchedastheAmericansblewuptheinfamous,largestatueoftheswastikathathadloomedovertheparadegrounds.TheGermansrebuiltNurembergafterthewar.Whilearchitectsandworkersdid
theirbesttorestorethecitytoitsformerglory,manyofthecity’sancientbuildingswerebeyondrepairorreconstruction.
TheFallofBerchtesgadenHITLER’SFAMOUSMOUNTAINRETREATWASAPRIMETARGETASTHEALLIESSQUEEZEDGERMANY.
OnMay4,U.S.ArmysoldiersrippeddowntheNaziflagthatwasflyingoverHitler’sretreatatBerchtesgaden.Britishbombshaddamagedthecomplex,andretreatingSStroopshadsetfiretoit.
Asearlyasthefallof1943,EisenhowerhadworriedthatNaziswouldentrenchthemselvesinheavilyfortifiedstrongholdsinBavariainsoutheasternGermany.Now,astheendofthewarloomed,thegeneralbegantofocusonNaziPartydiehardswhohethoughtwouldeitherwithdrawtoBavaria’sruggedmountainsandmakeadesperatelaststandorholeupthereandwageaguerrilla-stylewar.Oneoftheregion’sprimestrategictargetswasBerchtesgaden,aremotevillage80
milessoutheastofMunich.Itwashere,onthebucolicslopesofamountainretreat,theObersalzberg,thatHitlerhadcomeafterhisfailed1923“BeerHallPutsch”andwherehehadwrittenthesecondvolumeofMeinKampf.ThechaletsandlodgesoftopNazileaders,includingHermannGöring,headoftheLuftwaffe;MartinBormann,Hitler’sprivatesecretary;andSpeer,werelocatedontheObersalzberg.TheareaalsoheldalargeconsignmentoftroopsfromtheSSthatprovidedsecurity.
ThemountaintopEagle’sNestwasbuiltforHitler’s50thbirthday.
TheDashtoBerchtesgadenAlliedtroops,bothFreeFrenchandAmericans,racedtocaptureBerchtesgaden.Atfirst,theytargetedtheenclavefromtheair,hopingtodestroybothHitler’shomeandtheEagle’sNest,thechaletwhereHitlerentertaineddignitariesandguests.OnApril25,agroupofBritishRoyalAirForceplanesdroppedanestimated1,400tonsofbombs,designedtodestroyundergroundbunkersthattheAlliesbelievedexistedbeneaththeObersalzbergcomplex.ThehomesofBormannandGöringandtheEagle’sNestallsustainedheavydamage.Aftertheraid,localGermansracedupthemountaintolootthecontentsofthebuildings.TheystolevaluablepiecesoffurnitureaswellasBormann’sprizedcollectionofwatercolors.OnMay4,departingSStroopssetfiretoHitler’shome,anditwasstillsmoldering
laterthatdaywhentwoAlliedinfantrybattalions,includingtheU.S.Army’sThirdInfantryDivision,marchedonthevillage.ThesoldierstoredowntheNaziflagandrippeditintosouvenirshreds.Finally,theAmericansmadetheirwaytotheEagle’sNest.Theretheyfoundwine,teacups,andspoonsetchedwith“A.H.”Göring’shouseyielded18,000bottlesofwineandliquor,thousandsofcigarettelightersandcameras,andtwodozensuitcasesstuffedwithclothing.
In1933,AdolfHitlerboughtahouseonObersalzbergMountainatBerchtesgadenneartheAustrianborder.Heeventuallyexpandedthesiteintoalargecomplexofbuildings.
AlliesFreetheNetherlandsTHELIBERATIONOFARNHEM,NETHERLANDS,WASNOTEASY,ANDBOTHGERMANSANDTHEWESTERNALLIESFOUGHTHARDFORTHISSTRATEGICTOWN.
OnApril14,1945,theAlliesroutedtheGermansfromArnhem,thefirststepinliberatingtheNetherlands.Here,troopsworktostabilizedamagedbuildings.
AstheWesternAlliescrossedtheRhineandadvancedslowlyintoGermany,theyweresimultaneouslyfightingtoliberateArnhemintheNetherlandsfromitsNazioccupiers.Theinitiative,dubbedOperationCannonshot,wasledbytheCanadianFirstArmyandlaunchedApril11,1945.AsCanadiantroopscrossedtheIJsselRiverandbegantoattackArnhem,theRoyalAirForceprovidedcover,targetinganddestroyingGermanpositionswithinthecity.Aseparateassaultwasmountedfromthesouth,butthosesoldiersencounteredsuchstrongGermanresistancethattheAlliesrelocatedtheirforcesandcontinuedthebattlefromtheeast.Overthenextseveraldays,Alliedprogresswasslowedbyminesanddemolishedbridges,butintheendtheNaziscouldnotholdArnhem.ByApril14,theCanadianshadsecuredmostofthecity,withmop-upoperationstakinganothertwodays.ItwasavictorythatpavedthewaytoliberatetheNetherlands.InearlyMay,Germanforcessurrenderedthecountry.
Arnhem,some20mileswestoftheGermanborder,wasthesceneofamajorbattlefortheNetherlands.
AlliedtroopsfacedstiffresistancefromNazisinDutchcities.TheseBritishsoldierstookcoverfromsniperfireduringabattle.
ACityinRuinsTheliberatedcityofArnhemwasashellofitsprewarself.TheoccupyingNazishadtakenalmosteverythingofuse,andthedamagefrommultiplebombingrunsandartillerybarrageshadleftmostbuildingsemptyskeletons.Homesthatwerestillstandinghadnofurniture,nowindows,andnodoors.Bridgeshadbeendestroyed,andtemporary,movablespansweretheonlymeanstotravelfromwesttoeast.Onewarreporterdescribedthecityas“adeserted,burningshell.”Alliedcasualtiesduringthebattlewerefairlysmall;about60Alliedsoldierslosttheirlivesandover130werewounded.Noexactcountsexist,butthenumberofinjuredanddeadGermansisestimatedtobeinthethousands.
LiberationinItalygaverisetostrongemotionsinthosewhohadsufferedduringthewar.AnelderlywomangaveanAmericansoldierawelcomingkiss.
TheAlliesMoveNorthThroughItalyHELPEDBYITALIANRESISTANCEFIGHTERS,THEALLIESADVANCEDFROMSOUTHERNEUROPE.
ThrongsinBologna,Italy,gaveanexuberantwelcometoItalianresistancemovementmemberswhofreedtheircityonApril21,1945.
In1943,followingitssurrendertotheAllies,Italyhadofficiallychangedsidesinthewar.ButGermanforcesstilloccupiedthenorthernpartofthecountry,andtheregionhaditsownpuppetFascistgovernment,whichwasledbyIlDuceBenitoMussolini.As1945proceeded,theNazisstationedinItalyweredeterminedtopreventtheAlliesfromusingthecountryasabaseforattacksagainstnorthernEuropeandtheBalkanstotheeast.TounseattheGermans,theAlliesplannedaspringoffensive.TheystartedonApril
6withtwodiversionaryattacksonthecoasts,aploytodrawtheGermandefendersawayfromthemainplannedthrustthroughthecountry’scenter.ByApril19,BritishandAmericantroopshadsurroundedthenortherncityofBologna.Twodayslater,anothergroupofAlliedfightersenteredBolognaandsecuredthecity.AmericantroopscontinuedmovingnorthandonApril23crossedthePoRiver.Theywereroughly250milessouthoftheGermanborder.AstheyproceededtoSalò,thesmalltownwherethepuppetgovernmentwasheadquartered,theyencounteredlessandlessresistance.
ItaliansJointheBattleAstheAlliedforcespushednorth,anItalianpoliticalgrouprepresentingresistanceforcesopposedtotheFascistregime,thepartisans,organizedageneralstrikeandarmeduprisinginthemajorcitiesofGenoa,Milan,Turin,andVenice.Thepartisansintendedthis“DayofUprising,”scheduledforApril25,todemonstratethattheFascistsnolongercontrolledthecountry.ThestrikealsofreedpartisansfromtheirdayjobssotheycouldparticipateinthebattleagainsttheremainingGermansandFascists.Theuprisingwassuccessful,andsomehistoriansbelievethatitsavedkeyindustrialsitesinnorthernItalyfromdestructionbyretreatingenemyforces.
TotalSurrenderOverthenextfewdaysastheuprisingscontinued,Fascistgovernmentsinnortherncitiesbegantocrumble.SomewereoustedevenbeforetheAlliedtroopsarrived.OnApril25,anti-FascistsforcedtheNazisoutofTurinandMilan.OnApril27,GeneralReinhartMeinhold,thecommanderofGermanforcesinGenoa,foundhimselfsurroundedbyanti-Fascistforcesandsurrendered—oneofthefewtimesinhistorythatmilitaryforcescapitulatedtocivilians.Thenextday,GermantroopsinVenicewerealsoforcedtocedetothepartisangroups.InthewakeoftheseNazicapitulations,someconfusionensuedoverthesurrender
agreementinItaly.SecretnegotiationsforasettlementhadbeenunderwayinSwitzerlandsinceMarch.ButonMay1,GeneralAlbertKesselring,commanderofGermanforcesinsouthernEurope,voicedhisoppositiontotheagreement.However,onthenextday,heconsented,allowingthesurrendertotakeeffect.ApproximatelyonemillionGermansoldiersfinallylaiddowntheirarms.Atwar’send,AlliedtroopsinItalyhadfoughttheirwayover1,000miles.Morethan
300,000U.S.andBritishtroopsand430,000Germantroopshadbeenkilled,severelywounded,orweremissing.
NaziOccupationinNorthernItalyEnds
Asthepartisans,supportedbyAlliedforces,unitedinItaly’snortherncities,BenitoMussolini’sFascistgovernmentcametoanend.Thedictatorhimself,tryingtoescape,
wascaughtneartheSwissborder.
Partisans:CivilianResistancetotheAxis
PartisanswerefinallyfreetowalkthestreetsofMilanafteritsliberationonApril25,1945.
ThecivilianresistancetoGermanoccupationinnorthernItalywasorganizedbytheCommitteeofNationalLiberation,acoalitionofanti-Fascistsknownaspartisans.Therewereasmanyas200,000ofthesemenandwomen,andtheymanagedtokillenemysoldiers,destroycommunicationlinesandtransportationcenters,anddisruptAxissupplylines.TheAlliessuppliedthepartisanswitharmsandothergoods,usuallybyparachutedropfromtheRoyalAirForceortheAmericanOfficeofStrategicServices.GermanandFascistforcesdidtheirbesttosuppressanyresistanceactivityandoftenexecutedpartisansandmadeapublicdisplayofthebodiestodissuadeothersfromjoiningthegroup.Overthecourseofthewar,nearly50,000partisanslosttheirlivesinthefighttofreeItaly.
TheFinalDaysintheFührerbunkerLIVINGUNDERGROUNDINBERLIN,HITLERISSUEDHISFINALORDERS.
ThedebrisleftbehindintheFührerbunker,whereHitlerandEvaBrauncommittedsuicide,includeda16th-centurypaintingthathadbeenlootedfromaMilanmuseum.
Atwar’send,theFührerbunkerwasstillintact.However,onDecember5,1947,theSovietstriedtodemolishitcompletely.In1959,theareawasleveledandturnedintoapark.
FollowingthecaptureofBerlin,AmericansoldiersexaminedtheremainsoftheReichChancellery.
InJanuary1945,HitlerrelocatedtoBerlinandtookrefugeintheFührerbunker,aself-sufficientundergroundair-raidshelterthathad18roomsanditsownwaterandelectricalsupply.TheheavilyfortifiedbunkerwasadjacenttotheReichChancelleryinthecitycenter,anditwastobethefinalhomeoftheNaziregime.WhenHitlerfirstmovedintotheFührerbunker,hisdaysfollowedacertainpattern.
Intheafternoon,hecametoanundamagedwingoftheChancellerybuilding,whereheconsultedwithhistopmilitaryadvisersandaides.Followingthesemeetings,hehadteawithhissecretariesandotherofficials.Hethenretreatedundergroundandspentthenightsinthebunker.Thisroutinesoongavewaytoanother.Hitleremergedtotakehisdog,anAlsatiannamedBlondi,onshortwalksintheChancellerygardensandthenspenttherestofhistimeunderground.Hitlercontinuedtoconferwithhistopadvisers,includingGöring,HeinrichHimmler,andJoachimvonRibbentrop,inthebunker,usuallymeetingthematnight.InMarch,amidstdesperate,last-ditchfightingandwiththeAlliesclosinginon
Berlin,Hitlerissuedthisorder:“Allmilitarytransportandcommunicationfacilities,industrialestablishmentsandsupplydepots,aswellasanythingelseofvaluewithinReichterritory,whichcouldinanywaybeusedbytheenemyimmediatelyorwithintheforeseeablefuturefortheprosecutionofthewar,willbedestroyed.”HitlerdemandedthatAlbertSpeer,MinisterofArmamentsandWarProduction
andtheprimaryplannerofthecountry’swareconomy,overseethedestruction.SpeerrefusedtoobeywhathasbecomeknownastheNeroDecree,believingthattheGermanpeoplewouldneedtheinfrastructureandsuppliesafterthewar’send.Speerwasabletopersuadegeneralstoignoretheorder.Soonthereafter,hetraveledtoBerlinandtoldHitlerofhisactions.BythattimeitwastoolatetocountermandSpeer’sdecision,and,asaresult,atleastsomeofGermany’sindustrialbasesurvivedthewar.InApril,Hitler’smistress,EvaBraun,andJosephGoebbelsandhisfamilyjoined
HitlerintheFührerbunker.Laterthatmonth,onApril20,HitlercameuptoawardIronCrossestomembersoftheHitlerYouth.Itwouldbehislasttriptothesurface,foronthatdayBerlinwashitbySovietartilleryfire.Justtwodayslater,HitlerwasforcedtoadmitthattheNaziscouldnotwinthewar.HeblamedhisgeneralsforthelossandstatedthathewouldstayinBerlinuntiltheend.Bythe27th,Berlinhadlostallsecureradiocommunicationsandthestaffthat
remainedinthebunkerwereforcedtorelyontelephonelinestosendinstructionsandorderstothosestillinthefield.Eventsprogressedquickly,andpublicradiobecamethemainsourceofnewsandinformationaboutthewar.Onthe28th,HitlerlearnedthatHimmler,headoftheSS,hadbeentryingto
arrangesurrendertermstoendthewar,andHitlerorderedHimmler’sarrest.Thenextday,whenHitlerwastoldofMussolini’scaptureandkilling,theFührervowedhewouldneverbecomeasimilarspectacle.Onthe29that4:00am,Hitlersignedhiswill,inwhichhestatedthathechosesuicideovercaptureandthathewantedhisbodytobeburnedattheChancellery.ToensurethecyanidepillsthattheSShadgivenhimwereeffective,hetestedoneonhisdog.OnApril30,HitlerwasinformedthatBerlinwouldfallbeforetheendoftheday.
Thatafternoon,HitlerandBraunwentintohisstudyandkilledthemselves.Braunbitintooneofthecyanidepillsanddied.Severalminuteslater,Hitlershothimselfinthehead.Inaccordancewithhisorders,soldierstookthetwobodiesuptotheChancelleryandburnedthem.Guardsthenconcealedthecharredremainsinashellcraternexttothebuilding.
FACESofWAR
EVABRAUN
“FromourfirstmeetingIsworetofollowyouanywhere—evenuntodeath—Iliveonlyforyourlove.”
EvaBraunoncedescribedHitleras“agentlemanofacertainagewithafunnymoustache.”Shewouldbecomehismistressanddevotedcompanion,thenthewifewhowoulddiewithinjustafewhoursofhermarriage.
FACESofWARThesemen,verydifferentinbackgroundandleadershipstyle,ralliedtheircountrymentowar.Roosevelt,Churchill,andStalinbroughtvictoryandhonortotheirnationsandcitizens.ThebrutalreignsofHitlerandMussoliniendedindefeat.
WINSTONCHURCHILLAstatesmanandinspiringorator,ChurchillinspiredtheBritishduringtheirdarkesthours.“Ihavenothingtoofferbutblood,toil,tearsandsweat,”hetoldtheHouseofCommonsinhisfirstspeechasprimeminister.
Bornintoalifeofprivilege,WinstonChurchillenteredpoliticsatage25,whenhesuccessfullyranforParliament.In1904,heswitchedallegiancefromtheConservativePartytotheLiberalParty,realizingthathisbeliefsfitbetterwiththeLiberals.WhentheLiberalPartywonthe1905nationalelection,Churchillassumedthepostofunder-secretaryofstateattheColonialOffice.Hecontinuedtoriseinthegovernmentandin1911becameFirstLordoftheAdmiralty,inchargeoftheBritishnavy.Heappliedhisenergiestostrengtheningthenavy,butduringWorldWarI,helostthispositionduetonavalfailures.Afterthewar,Churchillservedinvariousadministrativegovernmentpositions,eventuallyshiftingbacktotheConservativeParty.In1929,heturnedhisenergiestowritingarticles,speeches,andbiographies,andbecameoneofthehighest-paidBritishwritersofthe1930s.AstheNaziscametopowerin1933,ChurchillbecameapersistentvoicespeakingoutabouttheperilsofGermannationalism.WhenHitlerinvadedPolandinSeptember1939,PrimeMinisterNevilleChamberlainwassweptfromofficeduetohispolicyofappeasementtowardHitler;ChurchilltookChamberlain’splacein1940.Churchill’sleadershipinspiredtheBritishpeopleandhelpedkeephiscountrystrongasitsoughttostymieNaziGermany.Inlate1940,ChurchillandRooseveltsignedwhatbecameknownasthe“Lend-Lease”agreement,underwhichtheUnitedStateswould“lend”warsuppliestoBritain,inexchangeforlong-termleasestoterritoryforairandnavalbases.Asprimeminister,ChurchillalsoworkedcloselywithSoviet
premierJosephStalintocreateaunifiedcampaignagainsttheAxis.
“Weshallnotfailorfalter;weshallnotweakenortire....Giveusthetoolsandwewillfinishthejob.”
FRANKLINDELANOROOSEVELTBorntoawealthyfamily,RooseveltledAmericaoutoftheDepressionandthroughWorldWarII.HebecameachampionofeverydayAmericansandastaunchsupporterofthenation’smilitarytroops.
WhenFranklinDelanoRooseveltbecamepresidentin1933,theGreatDepressionwasinfullforce,andthroughoutthecountry,Americansweresuffering.Withinhisfirst100daysinoffice,RooseveltpushedthroughCongresshissignature“NewDeal”legislationcreating42newagenciesdesignedtoproducejobs,regulatebanks,andprovideunemploymentinsurance.RooseveltalsoledthenationthroughWorldWarII,managingthewareffortasanactivecommanderinchief.Hebecameknownforworkingcloselywithhismilitaryadviserstodevelopwartimestrategiesandforchoosingfieldcommanders.WhenFDRpassedawayinApril1945,victoryinEuropehadnotbeenachieved,andtheUnitedStatesstillfacedmonthsoffightinginthePacific.Rooseveltwasoneofthemostbeloved,andalsooneofthemosthated,presidentsinAmericanhistory.SomecalledhimasaviorofthenationforhiseffortsduringtheDepressionandWorldWarII;otherscriticizedhisexpansionofthefederalgovernmentandlimitationsonfree-marketcapitalism.Hislegacyasoneofthenation’sgreatpresidentsendures.
“Wecangainnolastingpeaceifweapproachitwithsuspicionandmistrustorwithfear.Wecangainitonlyifwe
proceedwiththeunderstanding,theconfidence,andthecouragewhichflowfromconviction.”
JOSEPHSTALINHemarshaledhiscitizenstodefeattheNazisandhelpedmodernizeRussia.Healsoconductedareignofterroragainsthisownpeople.
JosephStalin,bornIosifDzhugashvili,ruledtheSovietUnionfor25yearsandledthecountryinitstransformationintoamajorworldpower.Whileinhis30s,hetookthenameStalin,meaning“manofsteel,”fromtheRussianwordstal,andduringhisyearsasgeneralsecretary,heearnedareputationasoneofthemostruthlessandbrutaldictatorsinhistory.HisregimewouldberememberedforthearrestsofmillionsofSovietcitizens,manyofwhomdiedincustody.Thesonofacobbler,StalinstudiedatatheologicalseminarybeforereadingtheworksofrevolutionarySocialistKarlMarx.Inspiredbythosewritings,Stalinbecameoneofthekeyplayersduringthe1917BolshevikRevolutionandquicklyrosethroughtheranksoftheCommunistParty,buildingsupportthatwouldbeusefulafterthedeathofSovietleaderVladimirLenin.Stalinwas,atleastinitially,Lenin’sprotégéandoutmaneuveredhisrivalsuponLenin’sdeath.Bythelate1920s,hehadconsolidatedhispowerandbecomethecountry’svirtualdictator.WhenGermanyinvadedRussiainJune1941,theRussianswereinitiallyoverwhelmed.UnderStalin’sleadership,theSovietsregroupedandlaunchedmajorcounterattacks.Afterthewar,Stalinretainedaniron-fistedgriponthecountry,overseeingthereconstructionoftheSovietUnionandthebuildupofitsmilitaryforcesandarmaments.Hediedin1953.
“Ideasarefarmorepowerfulthanguns.Wedon’tletour
peoplehaveguns.Whyshouldweletthemhaveideas?”
ADOLFHITLERAcharismaticleader,Hitlereasilybuiltafollowingofloyalcitizensandsoldiers.HefoundedGermany’sNaziParty,ledthecountryintoWorldWarII,andcausedthedeathsofmillionsofinnocentcivilians.
AdolfHitlerservedintheBavarianarmyduringWorldWarIcarryingmessagesbetweenGermanunitsandwasawardedtheIronCrossforhisbraveryinaction.Followingthewar,HitlerreturnedtoMunichandbecameinvolvedinnationalistandSocialistpolitics.In1923,hetookpartinanattempttooverthrowthegovernment,the“BeerHallPutsch,”andwasjailed.HewrotehisplanfortransformingGermany,MeinKampf,whileservinghissentence.HitlerreturnedtopoliticsafterhisreleaseandfoundsuccessinGermany’s1930election,whentheNaziPartywon107seats.Twoyearslater,theNazissecured230seatsandbecamethelargestpartyintheReichstag.HitlerwasthennamedchancellorofGermanyinJanuary1933.Thenextmonth,whenafireseverelydamagedtheGermanparliamentbuilding,theNazisclaimedaCommunistrevolutionwasunderwayandpassedtheEnablingAct,effectivelymakingGermanyadictatorshipandHitleritssoleleader.HeassumedthetitleFührer,meaning“Leader,”inAugust1934.Overthenextfewyears,HitlerorderedthebuildupofGermany’smilitarypower.HebegantoannexneighboringterritoryinordertofulfillhisdreamsofAryanlebensraum(“livingspace”)andanexpandedGermanempire,thussettinginmotiontheSecondWorldWar.
“Itisnottruththatmatters,butvictory.”
BENITOMUSSOLINITheFascistdictator’sreachforpowerandempireendedinfailureanddisgrace.
Knownasamanwhopossessedremarkableoratoricalskills,BenitoMussolinioftenreferredtohimselfasa“manofthepeople.”MussoliniservedinWorldWarI,andwhenhereturnedhome,hebeganpushingtheideathatitwouldtakeadictatortoleadItalyoutofitseconomicandpoliticalproblems.Ashisideasgainedpopularity,Mussolinigainedsupport,andfascismwasborn.Intheearly1920s,FascistgroupsinspiredandsupportedbyMussolinibegantogaincontrolofthecountry.ThesegroupsknownasBlackShirtsusedtacticsthatincludedterrorizinglocalpopulationsandattackinggovernmentinstitutions.In1922,Mussoliniwasnamedprimeminister,theyoungestprimeministerinthenation’shistory.In1925hebecameItaly’sdictatorandtookthetitle“IlDuce,”theleader.MussolinimayhaveunderstoodthatpeacewasinItaly’sbestinterestsandthatthecountrycouldnotcarryoutalongwar,buthealliedhimselfwithHitlerandsignedthePactofSteelin1939,thuscreatingtheRome-BerlinAxis.WhileGermanyandItalywerelinkedmilitarilyandpolitically,Italywasdefinitelythejuniorpartner.AsthewarwentbadlyforItaly,Italiansbecamemoreandmoredisenchantedwiththeirleader.And,whenMussoliniwasforcedtoretreatandestablishanewFascistgovernmentinnorthernItaly,eventheIlDucehimselfknewitwasonlyapuppetgovernmentandthattheendwasathand.DuringanattempttoreachSwitzerland,Mussoliniwascapturedbyresistancefighters,andonApril28,1945,hewaskilled.
“Letushaveadaggerbetweenourteeth,abombinourhand,andaninfinitescorninourhearts.”
2THEEASTERNFRONTTHESOVIETSHADMILLIONSOFTROOPSTODEPLOYAGAINSTTHEGERMANS,ANDTHEYWEREDETERMINEDNOTJUSTTOWIN,BUTTORETALIATE
Poland:AKeyStateontheEasternFrontTHOUSANDSOFPOLESJOINEDINTHECAMPAIGNTOLIBERATEWARSAW,BUTTHEADVANCINGREDARMYLEFTTHEMONTHEIROWN.
FollowingthedefeatofthePolishHomeArmyin1944,Germansoldiersroundedupmembersoftheresistancemovement.Memberswereguaranteedprisoner-of-warstatusinacapitulationagreement.
AsAugust1944approached,SoviettroopsleadingthedriveintoNazi-occupiedPolandclosedinontheVistulaRiver,justeastofWarsaw.EncouragedbytheadvancingRedArmy,residentsinthecapitalrevoltedagainsttheNazis.Anundergroundresistancegroupofsome40,000ill-trainedandpoorlysuppliedPolishsoldiersformedtheirownarmyandplannedtotakecontrolofWarsawbeforetheSovietsarrived.TheHomeArmy,asitwascalled,wasstronglyanti-Communistandhadclosetiesto
thePolishgovernment-in-exileinGreatBritain.ForSovietpremierJosephStalin,membersoftheHomeArmywerenotheroesbuttraitors,andtheirrevoltconstitutedacriminalact.InsteadoforderingRussiangeneralKonstantinRokossovskyandhisswiftlyapproachingtroopstoaidtheresistancefighters,Stalinissuedacommandforbiddingit.HealsorejectedcallsbytheBritishtoair-dropsuppliestotheHomeArmyandtothecity’sstarvingresidents.EliteNaziunitsbegancrushingtheuprising,battlingferociouslyfromstreettostreet,andtheyshowednomercytoanywho
opposedthem.Anestimated150,000Polishpartisanswerekilled.OnOctober2,1944,ashatteredPolishHomeArmysurrenderedtotheGermans.
Overthenextseveralmonths,theNazisexercisedcompletecontroloverWarsaw,decimatingthecity’sremainingpopulationanddeportingthousandsofcivilianstoconcentrationcamps.Duringthesemonths,theGermansalsodestroyedwhatlittleremainedoftheoncevibrantandbeautifulcapital,includingresidences,publicbuildings,schools,andscientificinstitutions,aswellasfarmland,mines,electricalpowerplants,andothercrucialindustrialfacilities.
PolishcivilianscarriedwhatbelongingstheycouldwhenGermansdeportedthemtoeitherforcedlaborcampsorexterminationcamps.
EventsontheEasternFrontTheSovietUnionbattledGermanforcesinarelentlessdrivethroughPrussia,Poland,andHungarytocaptureBerlin.
1945JANUARY
JANUARY17SovietscapturedWarsaw,Poland’scapital.
FEBRUARYFEBRUARY13SovietgroundforcescapturedBudapest,Hungary,aNazistronghold.
MARCH
MARCH6TheGermanslaunchedtheirlastmajoroffensivetoholdtheoilfieldsinHungary,butweredefeatedwithinamonthbytheUSSR.MARCH12AnAlliedairraidonViennadecimatedthecity.ByearlyApril,itwasinAlliedhands.
APRILAPRIL16SovietforcescrossedintoGermanyandbeganabombardmentofBerlin.APRIL30AdolfHitlercommittedsuicidetoavoidcapture.
MAY
MAY2SovietshoistedtheirflagovertheReichstaginBerlin.
TheSovietsPushfromtheSouthandtheEastTHEUSSRPLANNEDAPINCERMOVETOSURROUNDGERMANFORCES.
TheRedArmydisplayeditsmilitarymightasitadvancedthroughthecitiesofeasternEurope.
Byearly1945,theAlliesweresqueezingAdolfHitler’sReich,poisedtoenterGermanyfromnearlyeverydirection.TheRedArmywasbeginningitsmovewestthroughPolandandPrussia,southfromtheBalticstates,andnorthfromHungary.TheWesternAllieswerepushingeastfromFrance’sNormandycoastandnorththroughItaly.AstheAlliedvicetightened,theNaziswereforcedtofightonseveralfrontsatonce,
andtheydidsoinspiteofcriticalshortages.Germany’smanufacturingfacilitieshadbeendevastated,andthecountrycouldnotreplaceplanesforitsdepletedLuftwaffe.CrudeoilandfuelforitsremainingPanzerdivisionswereinshortsupply.Troopswererunningoutofammunition.Somanysoldiershadbeenlostthatthemilitaryhadtouseyoungboysandoldmentofillthegap.Intheeast,wheretheNazishadbeenengagedinadefensivestrugglefortwoyears,it
hadbecomeincreasinglydifficulttokeeptheSovietforcesatbay.RedArmytroops,withtheireyeonBerlin,seemedtobeeverywhere,advancinginoneplace,andatthesametime,deployingthousandsoffighterstobattleinotherlocations.MuchofthefightingconvergedinPolandandarounditsborders.
AStrangeKindofLiberationTheNewYearopenedwiththeSoviets,ledbyRussiangeneralGeorgyZhukov,inastrongpositiontocaptureWarsaw,thePolishcapital.Zhukov’stroopscrossedtheVistulaRiverandconvergedonthecityfromthenorthandthesouth.Then,onJanuary17,theRedArmyfinallyovercametheremainingresistancefromtheGermantroopsandmarchedintothecapitaltoofficiallyliberateit.Ontheirarrival,theSovietsdiscoveredthattherewaslittlelefttosetfree—muchof
thecityhadbeenreducedtorubble.Stilltheymovedquickly,roundingupsurvivingresistancefighterstopreventthemfromrisingupagainsttheirnewoccupiers.TheSovietsdesignateddissenters“enemyagents”andtreatedthemaccordingly—deporting,imprisoning,orexecutingthem.OnceentrenchedinWarsaw,theRussianswouldnotleavethecityfor45years.ThefightinginPolandtookaheavytoll:Bywar’send,thecountrywouldlose30
percentofthebuildings;60percentofitsschools,scientificinstitutions,andpublicadministrationfacilities;about35percentofitsagriculturalregions;andone-thirdofitsmines,electricalpowerplants,andmajorindustries.
TheEasternandWesternFronts1945
TheSovietspressedGermanyfromtheeastintheirdrivetowardBerlinastheWesternAlliespushedfromthewest.
FACESofWARGEORGYZHUKOV
“Itisafact...thatlarge-scalebattlesandwholewarsarewonbytroopswhichhaveastrongwill,cleargoals,highmoralstandards,anddevotiontothebannerunderwhichtheygointobattle.”
GeorgyZhukovhadareputationforbeingbothoutspokenandstern,andhewasoftenatoddswithStalin.Evenso,hebecamethemostsuccessfulRussiangeneralofWorldWarIIandachievedrecognitionas“themanwhodidnotloseabattle.”Inthesummerof1943,ZhukovledtheRedArmyintheBattleofKursk,some300milessouthofMoscow.ThereheroutedHitler’sarmiesinoneofthegreatesttankclashesofthewar.In1945,hewouldtriumphonceagainattheBattleofBerlin,whenafterahard-wonsiege,joyousSoviettroopsraisedtheSovietflagovertheGermancapital.
TheKönigsbergOffensiveASRUSSIACONTINUEDITSMOVEEASTWARD,THENAZISWEREINCAPABLEOFSTOPPINGTHEONSLAUGHT.
FightinginthecityofKönigsbergwasfierce,withsnipersinnearlyeverybuilding.
EvenastheSovietsliberatedWarsaw,muchoftherestofPolandwasstillunderGermancontrol.Bymid-January,EastPrussia,aGermanprovince,wasbrimmingwiththousandsoftroopsthattheNazishadbroughttothefrontlines,hopingtoslowtheRussianadvance.TheywereintentondefendingtheEastPrussianportcityofKönigsberg,ontheBalticSea.ThepopulationaroundKönigsberg,whichwaspredominantlyethnicGermanwith
asmallminorityofPoles,hadbeendecimatedbythewar.By1945,mostofthosewhowereleftwerewomen,children,andelderlymen.TheyhadreceivednowarningandweresurprisedbytheapproachofSoviettroops.OnJanuary21,inanattempttofleetheadvancingRussians,thepeopleofKönigsbergbeganamassevacuation.TheireffortswerecutshortbytheRedArmy,whichblockedallroutesoutofthe
city,includingtheroadtoPillau,aportthathadbecomethemainevacuationsiteforthosehopingtoescape.About200,000civiliansremainedtrappedinKönigsbergduringwhatturnedouttobeoneofthecoldestwintersinhistory.TheNaziswhohadarrivedtodefendthearea,includingtheThirdPanzerArmy,alsofoundthemselvespennedinbySovietforces.
TheBattlefortheCityKönigsberghadstrongdefenses.Threeringsoffortifiedbarrierswithtowers,fortresses,andmoatssurroundedthecity.Realizingthatitwouldbedifficulttoseizethecity,theRedArmystationedtroopstoencircleit,whileotherswereorderedtocontinuetheirmarchtowardGermany.ThistacticbenefitedtheGermanswhowereabletoreopenasafepassagefromKönigsbergtoPillau,whereanumberofshipswere
waitingtohelpevacuatetheremainingpopulation.ByMarch,theSovietshadmadecapturingKönigsbergapriority,andinearlyApril,
theRussianslaunchedanairoffensivetotakethecity.Theybombedthetownforfourdays,strafingitdayandnight.OnApril6,theSovietsfollowedupwithagroundassault.Withinjustafewdays,theRussianshadcrushedGermanresistance.Thousandswhohadbeenunabletoevacuatediedduringthebattle.ThefateofKönigsberg’sdefendersbecameclear.GeneralOttoLaschradioedHitler
askingforpermissiontosurrender.TheFührerrefusedtherequestandorderedLaschtofighttothelastman.AlargegroupofcivilianstriedtoescapetoPillau,butRussiantroopsmowedthemdownastheyran.Twodayslater,withover80percentofthecityinruinsandnohopeofreinforcements,LaschdisobeyedHitlerandsurrenderedhistroops.RussiansoldiersthensweptintoKönigsberg.
PolishForcesHelpedtheAlliesWin
PolishpilotsflewwithBritain’sRoyalAirForce.
SoonafterGermanyinvadedandoccupiedPoland,Polishleaderswhohadescapedformedagovernmentinexile,firstbasedinFranceandlaterinLondon.ThisgroupprovideddirectiontothePolishHomeArmyandotherunitsofthePolishresistance.Polishescapeesalsoincludedthousandsofsoldiers,sailors,andairmen.Thesemen
joinedtheAlliedforcesinthecampaignsinNorthAfrica,Italy,andFrance,andparticipatedintheNormandyinvasion.PolishpilotsservedinspecialBritishairforcesquadronsandfoughttheGermanLuftwaffetohelpdefendBritain.Duringthistime,Polishintelligencecryptographersdiscoveredhowtounscramble
militarymessagescreatedbytheGermancodingmachine,Enigma,andsharedtheinformationwiththeBritish.ThePoles’workledtotheAlliesdevelopingadecoding
device.By1945,theAllieshadinterceptedthousandsofGermancommunications,oneofthekeystowinningthewar.
AWateryGrave:TorpedoesSinktheGermanEvacuationShip
AdolfHitlerattendedthe1937launchoftheWilhelmGustloff,acruiseshipthatwaslaterconvertedintoahospital.
OperationHannibal,theevacuationofGermansfromEastPrussia,successfullymovedmorethantwomilliontroopsandciviliansfromtheareabytheendofJanuary1945.Withthousandsofciviliansstillontherun,GermanadmiralKarlDönitzorderedathousandshipsintooperation,manyofthemcivilian,tohelprelocatethethrongofrefugeescrowdingintonearbyportcities.OneofthelargestvesselscalledintoservicewastheWilhelmGustloff,acruiseshipthathadbeenconvertedintoahospitalatthestartofthewar.ThecrafthadalsoservedasafloatingbarracksfornavalpersonnelstationedinGdynia,Poland.TheWilhelmGustloffsetsailfromGdyniaonJanuary30,overloadedwithsome10,000people—morethanfourtimesitscapacity.ItsdestinationwasKiel,anorthernGermanportabout60milesnorthofHamburg.Shortlyafterleavingthedock,theshipwashitbythreetorpedoesfiredbyaRussiansubmarine.Just40minuteslater,thevesselsank,takingwithitanestimated9,000passengers,includingmorethan4,000children.Itwasthelargestlossoflifeinhistoryfromthesinkingofasingleship.
TheGermansLoseTheirGriponPolandTHENAZISTRIEDTOHOLDASTRONGFRONTLINE,BUTTHEYWERENOMATCHFORTHESOVIETS.
BridgesacrosstheVistulaRiverferriedbothmenandequipmentintoPoland.
WhiletheRedArmywasbatteringtheNazisalongthenorthernfrontsofPoland,theGermanarmystillheldavise-likegriponmostofthecountry.Hitler’smilitaryknew,however,thattheRussianswereapproachingfromthesouthandfromtheeast,andthattheSovietshadmillionsofmentopourintotheoffense.Germanintelligencereportedanimmenseenemybuildupalongtheeasternfront:225Sovietinfantrydivisionsand22armoredcorps,allassembledandreadytoattack.Topreparefortheconfrontation,theGermansestablisheddefensivelinesineastern
PolandthatstretchedfromtheNarewandVistulaRiversinthenorthtotheCarpathianMountainsinthesouth.GermansoldiershadstrictorderstoholdthelineandgivenogroundtotheRussians.AlosswouldgivetheRedArmyaclearpathtotheGermanhomeland.OnJanuary9,HeinzGuderian,chiefoftheGermangeneralstaff,madehisthirdtrip
inthreeweekstoseeHitler.Hediscussedtheseverityofthethreat,reviewedthepossibleconsequencesoflosingthebattle,andrequestedthatGermanysendinreinforcementstocountertheSovietassault.Thegeneral’seffortswereunsuccessful.Hitlerhadalreadyorderedthatsometanks
leavetheVistularegionandmovetoHungary,inhopesofretakingthatcountry’svaluableoilfields.HedismissedGuderian’sconcernsaboutthemassiveRussianbuildupandinsistedthattheSoviettroopsandtankswereadeceptivesnaredesignedtodividetheGermanforces.Leftwithonly12armoredand50infantrydivisionsstretchedover700miles,GuderianknewhistroopswerenomatchfortheRussians.
PolishpeoplewelcomedSovietforcesthathadcrushedGermandefensesinJanuary1945.
EarlyonthemorningofJanuary12,theRedArmy,underthedirectionofRokossovsky,theSovietgeneralwhohadledtheassaultonWarsaw,launchedanattackalongtheVistulaRiverinsouthernPoland.IgnoringGuderian’srecommendationtoallowtheFourthPanzerArmytoretreattomoredefensiblepositions,Hitlerinstructedthatthetanksadvanceintobattle,puttingthemwithinrangeoftheRussianartillery.Inonlyafewhours,theSovietsdestroyedmostofthedivisionandcontinuedtheirdeadlybarragenorthofWarsaw.Thewell-armedRussianforceseasilybrokethroughtheGermanlines,creatingahugebreachnearly200mileswide.
“TheEasternFrontislikeahouseofcards.Ifthefrontisbrokenthroughatonepointalltherestwillcollapse.”
—HeinzGuderiantoHitler,January9,1945
TheEasternFront,1945
SovietforcesbattledacrosstheVistulaRiverandforcedaGermanretreat.ThisoffensivepushedtheEasternFrontclosertoBerlin.
FightingintheBalticsHITLERIGNOREDAWARNINGABOUTTHEDANGEROUSSOVIETMOVEINTHENORTH.
ArmedGermanferryboatsontheBalticSeatransportedtroopsandequipment.
TheSovietsembarkedontheirBalticoffensivetoretakethestrategicallyimportantstatesofLithuania,Latvia,andEstoniainSeptember1944.Theirgoalwastoconquertheregion,boundedonthewestandnorthbytheBalticSea,onthesouthwestbyPoland,andonthesoutheastbyRussia,inordertoopenanothercorridorsouthintoPolandandtodenytheNazisanimportantroutetoportcities.TheassaultshouldnothavebeenasurprisetotheGermanoccupiers.Hitler’s
generalshadrepeatedlywarnedthattheSovietswouldstrikeintheeast.WhattheyhadnotplannedonwasthevengeancethattheRussiantroopswouldwreakonthecivilianpopulation.RussiahadsufferedhorriblyfromGermanaggression—some20millionSoviets
wouldlaydeadbytheendofthewar—andinthewaningdaysoftheconflict,RedArmysoldiersbehavedasifthetimehadcomeforretribution.AstheymovedthroughtheBaltics,Soviettroopsrapedandmurderedwomenandgirlsandlootedshopsandhomes.TheyoftentargetednoncombatantsofGermanethnicityandthosewhoseallegiancehadchanged,usuallybyforce,tosupporttheirGermanoccupiers.RussiansoldiersdraggedNaziofficialsintothestreetsandexecutedthem.Sovietairplanesgunneddownrefugeeswhoweretryingtoescape.Panic-strickenciviliansandNazisoldiersalikerushedtotheBalticportsinanefforttofleetherampagingforcesoftheRedArmy.TheSovietssufferedtheirownlosses:Some60,000menwerekilled.
TheBalticOffensive
AvictoryintheBalticregionofferedtheSovietsanavenueintoPolandandameanstoblockGermanaccesstoports.
TheSiegeofDanzigTHERUSSIANSPUSHEDALONGA165-MILEFRONT,CAPTURINGTHEPORTCITYWHERETHEFIRSTSHOTSOFTHEWARHADBEENFIRED.
CiviliansinDanzighurriedtoleavethecityasthebattleloomed.
Danzig,nowknownasGda´nsk,isoneoftheoldestcitiesinPoland,anditholdsanimportantlocationdirectlyontheBalticcoast.UnderGermanoccupation,DanzigsufferedthesamedisastrousfateasWarsaw.Civilianswhodidnotconformtotheso-calledpurityoftheAryanracewereshippedtoexterminationcamps.AstheRedArmyapproachedinJanuary,Danzig’sGermanoccupiersbegan
evacuatingtheirpeople,justastheyhadfromKönigsberg.TheyweredeterminednottogiveupthiskeyportwithoutafightandsetouttoinflictasmuchdamageontheadvancingSovietsastheycould.TheNazisscuttledshipsintheharborandblewupbuildingsandequipment.MembersoftheSS,theeliteGermanmilitarycorps,roamedthestreets,killingthosewhomtheybelievedhadfailedintheirdutytoprotectthecity.Theyhungthecorpsesfromtrees,oftenwithasigndanglingaroundtheneck:“Iwastoocowardlytofight.”ByMarch13,RedArmysoldierswerestationedontheoutskirtsofDanzig,readyfor
battle.ThreeSovietarmoredcolumns,followedbymotorizedinfantry,convergedonthecityfromthewest,east,andsouth.Twodayslater,onMarch15,thesiegebegan.Ferociousbattlesragedinallareasofthecityastheremainingresidentstriedtoescapetosafety.TheGermansheldoutfortwoweeks,buttheycouldnolongerfendoffthewell-
armedSoviettroops.OnthenightofMarch27,Germansoldiersreceivedorderstocompleteanevacuation.WhentheremnantsoftheNaziforceswithdrewonMarch28,thecityfell.Losseswerehigh:TheSovietshadkilledsome39,000Germansduringthebattleandcapturedroughly10,000more.
RedArmytroopsenteredDanzigafterdefeatingGermanforces.
ThebattleleftmuchofDanziginruins.
Poland’sChangingBorders
Bythefallof1939,PolandwasoccupiedonthewestbyGermanyandontheeastbytheSovietUnion,andthecountry’sbordersshifted.PolandwouldnotregainitslostterritoryuntilMay1945.
ContinuousBombardmentEVENHISTORICCITIESLIKEVIENNAWEREVULNERABLETOALLIEDASSAULTS.
AustrianchildrenexploredtheruinsthatwereleftinViennaaftertheAlliedassaults.
Knownforitsrichhistoryandculture,Vienna,Austria,wasavitalcogintheNaziwarmachine.ThecityhadbeenoccupiedbytheGermanssinceMarch1938andwashometotheFloridsdorfoilrefinery,whichwasessentialtotheNazis.Moreover,theDanubeRiver,justeastofthecitycenter,servedasamajortransportationarteryusedbyGermanshipstomovesuppliesandessentialequipment.DuetoitspositionincentraleasternEurope,justoutsidetherangeofAmerican
bombersthatstruckmanyNazitargets,Viennainitiallyescapeddestruction.Butinlate1944,theAlliesestablishedanairbaseatFoggiainsouthernItaly,andViennabecameaprimetarget.InFebruaryandMarch1945,AmericanandBritishaircraftexecutedanintensiveaerialcampaigntobringtheGerman-occupiedcitytoitsknees,andworkingtogether,theysoonsetViennaablaze.TheBritishpreferredtoflyatnightunderthecoverofdarkness.Thiswassaferfor
themen,butnightflightsmadeforlessaccuratetargeting.Americancrews,whowereescortedbyfighterplanes,chosetoattackduringdaylighthours.Thismadeformoreprecisetargeting,butcostahigherpercentageofAmericanaircraftandairmen.Asaresultofthetwo-prongedassault,Viennaenduredthethreatofraidsaroundtheclock.Theonlydefenselefttothecitywasitsantiaircraftguns.ThemostextensiveairraidonViennawasconductedonMarch12,when747
bombers,escortedby229fighterplanes,blastedthecityfornearly90minutes.While
themaintarget,theFloridsdorfoilrefinery,survived,theairraidseverelydamagedordestroyedsuchrenownedsitesastheAlbertinaMuseum,theMesselpalastFairPalace,andtheViennaStateOpera.Whenthetwo-monthcampaignwasover,theAllieshaddropped80,000tonsof
bombsandnearly30,000peoplehadbeenkilled.MuchofVienna’sinfrastructureandmanyofitshomeshadbeendemolished.Bridgeswereunusable,andtheshellingleftmorethan3,000cratersintheoncebeautifulcity.
Afterthebombingraidsended,residentsofViennatriedtoreturntotheirnormal,dailyactivities.
AlliedAccesstoVienna
TheAlliedvictoriesinItalyenabledthemtoestablishanairbaseinFoggia.From
there,AlliedbomberswereinrangeofViennaanditsoilrefinerythatsuppliedGermanforces.
ViennaFallstotheRussiansSOFTENEDBYANAERIALBOMBARDMENT,THEAUSTRIANCITYWASUNABLETOFIGHTOFFAGROUNDATTACK.
RedArmysoldiersoverpoweredtheweakGermandefensesinVienna.
Vienna,nowweakenedbytheAllies’springbombingcampaign,washighonStalin’slistofEuropeantargetstoseizeor“liberate”aspartofhisplantomaximizehispostwarinfluence.OnApril2,hedispatchedRedArmygroundtroopstosurroundthecrippledcity,whichwasdefendedbyseverelydepletedNazisforces.Scramblingtomakeduewiththemanpoweravailable,theGermanforcesfocusedtheirresistanceonthemoststrategiclocations,leavingothersectionsundefended.Buttheeffortfailed.Withinaweek,theNazishadsurrenderedthewesternsectionofVienna—animportantgoalbecausethatpartofthecityhousedthemainrailwaystation.Then,onApril13,1945,theyhandedViennaovertotheRedArmy.JustasatKönigsbergandDanzig,Sovietforcesexplodedinawaveofviolenceandlooting.
TheSiegeofBudapestTHEBATTLEFORTHEHUNGARIANCAPITALTURNEDINTOAFEROCIOUS,BLOODYCAMPAIGN.
SoviettroopsfoughtforcontrolofBudapest.
HungarywasGermany’slastallyinEurope,aswellasagatewaytosouthernBavariaandthelocationoftheNazis’lastremainingcrudeoilplant.HitlerdidnotwanttoseeBudapest,thecityknownasthe“PearloftheDanube,”fall,especiallytotheRussians.HehopedthatamusculardefenseofPoland,punctuatedbystrongcounteroffensivesinHungary,wouldkeeptheSovietsatbay.Itwasnottobe.InOctober1944,RussianandRomanianforceslaunchedamajor
offensiveagainstBudapest,hopingtocapturetheHungariancapital,isolateandeliminateGermantroopsinsouthernEurope,andcarveacorridornorthtoGermany.BylateDecember,theRussianscontrolledlargeareasofsouthwestHungaryandhadcutthelastlinkbetweenBudapestandAustria.Theoffensiveleftsome67,000Axissoldiersand800,000civilianssurrounded.Still,theGermanswerenotwillingtogodownwithoutafight.OnDecember29,
NaziforcesfiredontwogroupsofRussiandiplomatswhohadbeennegotiatingthesurrenderofBudapest.Althoughtheemissarieswerealltravelingunderwhiteflags,someofthemwerekilled.TheSoviets’responsewasrapid,ferocious,andrelentless,andtheyredoubledtheireffortstotakethecity.GermansfoughttenaciouslyandreinforcementspouredintoBudapest,helpingthe
troopsalreadytherelaunchaseriesofcounteroffensives.Thesoldiersattemptedseveraltimestofighttheirwayoutofthecitybutfailed,andnearly190,000GermanandHungariantroopsweretrapped.Afterfourmonthsofbrutalcombat,BudapestfinallysurrenderedonFebruary13.Inanowwell-establishedpattern,Soviettroopsbeganaperiodoflooting,massrape,andrandomexecutions.
AnAmericansoldierinBudapestphotographedthefamousBudapestsuspensionbridge,whichwasdestroyedduringthefightingforthecity.Theroyalpalaceinthebackgroundwaspracticallygutted.
HungarianNazisshotJewsbesidetheDanubesotheirbodiesfellintotheriver.Thismemorialincludes60pairsofcast-ironshoesmadeina1940sstyle.
TheSiegeofBudapest
ThecostoftheSovietcaptureofBudapestwasextremeonbothsides:80,000Soviettroops,38,000GermanandHungariansoldiers,and38,000Hungarianciviliansdied.
OneFinalPushRUNNINGSHORTONFUEL,GERMANYATTEMPTEDTORECAPTUREHUNGARY’SOILFIELDS.
GermansoldiersfiredantiaircraftgunsonSoviettroopsduringtheHungarianoffensive.
Germanybythispointwasrunningshortoffueltopoweritstanks,trucks,andairplanes.Inordertocontinuefighting,thecountryneededtocapturedependablefieldsthatheldthisvaluableassetandestablishsecuresupplylines.Themostlogicaltargetsweretheoil-producingfieldsinHungary’sLakeBalatonregion,about50milessouthwestofBudapest.InMarch,GermanforceslaunchedOperationSpringAwakeningtoseizethearea.
Theyalsohadabackupplan:Iftheinitiativefailed,theywoulddestroythefieldstokeepthemoutofSoviethands.TheoffensiveturnedouttobeGermany’slastmajorinitiativeofthewar.NeithersideinOperationSpringAwakeninghadahugenumericaladvantage.
Strategyandtacticswouldruletheday.TheGermansandHungarianssent465,000menintobattleagainsttheSoviets’431,000.HitleralsoorderedtheSixthPanzerArmytothearea.TheGermanbattleplancalledforasurgearoundthenorthendofLakeBalatonthroughtotheDanubeRiver.TheNazisplannedasecondthrustaroundthesouthernendofthelake,hopingtoencircleandtraptheRussiandefenders.AnticipatingNazimoves,theSovietscreatedaseriesoftrapsandantitankambushpoints.
ForcingtheNazisintoRetreatAstheGermanPanzersbegantheirstrikeonMarch6,theymadeverylittleprogressandsustainedseriouslosses.Tendayslater,theRussiansstruckback,forcingtheNazistoretreat.Injust24hours,theGermansgaveuptendaysofgains.TheNazisfailedtocapturetheprizedoilfields,andbytheendofthemonth,Russianforceshadchased
theremainsoftheSixthPanzerArmybackintoAustria.GermanyandHungaryhadlostover12,000menandmorethan30oftheirprizedtanks.TheRussianssufferedlossesaswell:nearly8,500killedandanother24,000wounded.
LakeBalaton
OneoftheresortsnearLakeBalaton
HungarianscallLakeBalatonthe“HungarianSea,”possiblybecauseitisthelargestlakeincentralEurope.Itmeasures48mileslongand9milesacrossatitswidestpointandreachesamaximumdepthof37feet.LakeBalatonwasformedwhenerosioncrumbledtheridgesthatdividedaclusteroffivesmallerlakes.Agricultureplaysanimportantpartintheareaaroundthelake,especiallyvineyards
onthenorthshorethatwerefirstestablishedbytheRomans.NearbyspasfeaturemedicalbathsthatattractthousandsofHungarianandforeigntouristseachyear.
Germany’sEasternandWesternFronts
TheAlliessqueezedGermanyfromtheeastandthewest.SovietforcesmadequickworkofdrivingGermantroopsfurtherwest.
OntoBerlinSTALINHADONEGOAL—TOREACHTHEGERMANCAPITALBEFOREHISWESTERNALLIES.
Until1933,theGermanReichstagwasthehomeofthenation’sparliament.Alliedbombings,streetfighting,andtheBattleofBerlinleftthebuildinginruins.
AmericanandBritishforceswerepressingtowardBerlinfromthewestandthesouth,butStalin’sarmieswereclosesttotheGermancapital,andtheyweremovinginfromthesoutheast,theeast,andthenorth.FortheSovietleader,thiswasaraceagainsthisallies,andhewasdeterminedtowin.HeorderedgeneralsZhukovandIvanKonevtoreachthecitybyApril22,aheadoftheWesternAlliedtroops.
APolishmotherwhohadsoughtrefugeinBerlinfoundthecityundersiegeandinruins.
TheRussianscommittedoverwhelmingtroopsandfirepowertotheeffort,theirfirstforayintoGermany.Theysentin1.5millionsoldiers,about3,300tanks,and28,000artillery,dwarfingNaziforces.Konev’smenwerethefirsttoarrive,crossingtheOder
RiverintoGermanyonApril16.Zhukovwasnotfarbehind,andthetwoarmiesunleashedaterrifyingartilleryblitzagainsttheNazifortifications.AstheSoviettroopsadvanced,theywerepushedbytheirgenerals,whowantedthegloryofcapturingtheGermancapital.TheRussiansfoundtheGermansinfullretreat,evenastheytriedtorepelwaveafterwaveofRussianattacks.Still,forZhukov,thepaceoftheRussianadvancewastooslow.OnApril22,theday
theSovietsweresupposedtoenterBerlin,hecomplainedthattheRedArmyhadonlyreachedtheoutskirtsofthecity.ThesoldierspickeduptheirpaceandwithinthreedaysbrokethroughtheGermandefensivelinesprotectingthecapital.TheSovietsmovedinwithtanksandblanketedBerlinwithrocketfire,pavingthewayformorethan500,000RussiantroopstobeginattackingthecenterofthecityonApril26.Duringthenextthreeweeks,theSovietsmovedthroughthecity’srubble-strewn
neighborhoods.Fightingwasfierceandprogressedstreetbystreet.WhenaGermansniperinsideabuildingaimedataSovietsoldier,theRussianssimplydestroyedtheentirebuilding.Thestrategyprovedsuccessful,butasthebattledraggedon,Russiancasualtiesmountedquickly:80,000menwerekilledand275,000wereinjuredordeclaredmissing.OntheGermanside,150,000menlosttheirlivesandthousandsmoreweretakenprisoner.ThefightingcametoanendonMay2whenRedArmyinfantrysoldierstriumphantlyraisedtheSovietflagontopoftheReichstag.
OnMay2,SovietsoldierstriumphantlyraisedtheirflagontotheReichstaginBerlin,signalingthatthecitywasintheirhands.
EndGameThebattleforBerlinforcedciviliansoutoftheirhomes,andduringthefinalclashesforthenation’scapital,somesoughtshelterintheAnhalterBahnhof,Berlin’smostimportanttrainstation.Withitsundergroundbunkerandwallsthatwerenearlyfiveyardsthick,thestation
seemedtoprovidetheidealrefuge.Itwasstockedwithcannedfoodandalsohad
emergencysupplies,buttheconditionsinsidewereappalling.Upto12,000peoplecrammedthemselvesinto11,811squarefeet.Onewomanspentsixdaysstandingonthesamestep.Berlinersknewitwassuicidetoleavethebunker,butmanydid,hopingtofindfreshwaterorfood.Thosetryingtoescapethecityfarednobetter.Nazisoldierssetupantitankbarricadesalongmajorintersectionsandsummarilyexecuteddeserters,noquestionsasked.StalinandhisRedArmyhadwontheracetoBerlin,buthisWesternAllieswerenot
faraway.WiththecapitalinthehandsoftheAllies,thewarwouldsoonbeover.
GermanciviliansinBerlintriedtofleetheSovietonslaught,buttherewasnoplacetofindsafety.
AGermansoldiersatamongtheruinsoftheReichstaginBerlinaftertheRussianarmyenteredthecityin1945.
MeetingattheElbeSOVIETSANDALLIESCONVERGEDINGERMANY,SPLITTINGTHEGERMANARMY.
AmericanandSoviettroopsmetonadamagedrailroadbridgeatTorgau,Germany,onApril27andexchangedcongratulatoryhandshakes.
“Wemeetintrueandvictoriouscomradeshipandwithinflexibleresolvetofulfilourpurposeandourduty.Letallmarchforwarduponthefoe.”
–WinstonChurchill,April27,1945
OnApril25,theGermanssufferedanotherterribledefeatwhenSovietandAmericansoldiersconvergedattheElbeRivernearTorgau,some70milessouthofBerlin,effectivelysplittingtheGermanarmy.FortheGermans,itwasanotherdeathknell.FortheAlliedtroops,itwasanoccasionforexuberance.Forthefirsttime,Western
andEasternAlliedsoldierswereabletojoinhands.Theyexchangedvodkaandchocolateandposedforphotographerswhorecordedtheformalhandshakes.Inaddition,statementswereissuedsimultaneouslyinWashington,London,andMoscow.Eachoftheannouncementsproclaimedthesamegoal:TheAlliesweredeterminedtodestroytheThirdReich.AmericangeneralOmarBradleycommentedontheoccasion,praisingSoviettroops
fortheirdeterminedeffortsonGermansoil,andlaudinghisAmericanforces,saying,“Intenmonthsyouhaveadvanced1,120kilometers(696miles)fromtheinvasionbeaches.Allthishasbeenattainedthankstoyourcourage,yourspiritandinitiativeandthankstoyourcomradeswhodiedinordertoachievethis.”
AmericangeneralEmilReinhardtshookhandswithhisRussiancounterpart,GeneralVladimirRusakov,astheycelebratedthemeetingoftheirtroops.
“ThisisnotthehouroffinalvictoryinEurope,butthehourdrawsnear,thehourforwhich...peoplehavetoiledandprayedsolong.”
—HarryTruman,April27,1945
OnApril25,asmilingAmericanLieutenantWilliamRobertsonexchangedgreetingswithRussianLieutenantAlexanderSylvashko.
“Ourtaskandourdutyaretocompletethedestructionoftheenemy....TheRedArmywillfulfilltotheendthistaskandthisdutytoourpeopleandtoallfreedom-lovingpeoples.”
—JosephStalin,April27,1945
RussianandAmericanmilitarycommandersmetatTorgauonApril26,1945,onedayafterthehistoricmeetingofthetroops.
3LIBERATINGTHECAMPSTHEALLIESDISCOVEREDTHEINCONCEIVABLEATROCITIESANDMASSMURDERSPAWNEDBYNAZIRACIALIDEOLOGY.
The“FinalSolution”PUTTINGHISANTI-SEMITICIDEASINTOACTION,HITLERLAIDPLANSTOERADICATEEUROPE’SJEWISHPOPULATION.
Starving,sick,andemaciated,survivorsoftheconcentrationcampatBuchenwald,Germany,struggledtotheinfirmaryfollowingthecamp’sliberationinApril1945.GeneralLouisAudibert,amemberoftheFrench
Resistance,isatthefront.HiswifediedatRavensbrück,awomen’scampinnorthernGermany.
AdolfHitler,whohadbegunexpressingultra-nationalisticandanti-Semiticideasasearlyas1919,believedstronglyinthesuperiorityoftheGerman,or“Aryan,”race.ElectedchancellorofGermanyin1933,hebeganthegovernment-sponsoredpersecutionofJews.Hewarnedlike-mindedpeopleofthesupposeddangerthatJewishpeoplewouldtakeovertheworld.Initially,officialracismwaslimitedtothepassageofanti-Jewishlawsandeconomic
boycottsofJewishbusinesses.GermanshopsandrestaurantspostedsignsbarringJewsfromentering.Thegovernmentalsospreaditsanti-Semiticideologyinnewspapers,speeches,posters,andinschools.TheninNovember1938,theNaziPartyinstigatedtwodaysofviolentattacksagainstJewishhomes,businesses,andsynagoguesthroughoutGermanyandAustria.Eventually,thoseattackswouldescalateintomassmurder.
TheConcentrationCampSystemAlmostassoonastheNazisseizedpowerin1933,theybeganbuildingcampsofvaryingsizesandpurposestoholdtheirenemiesprisoner.Therewere23mainfacilities,eachofwhichcouldhavedozensofsatellites,foratotalofnearly20,000campsbytheendofthewar.Somelocationswereprimarilyusedformassexecutions,whileothersservedasforced-laborcentersortemporarystopsonthewaytothedeathcamps.Onlyasmallpercentageofthemillionsofprisonerssenttothecampssurvivedtheordeal.AfterGermanyinvadedPolandinSeptember1939,theNazisbeganforcingJewsto
liveinghettos,separatedfromothercivilians.Theseareaswereofteninthepoorest,run-downneighborhoods,andmanymorepeoplewerecrowdedintothemthantherewasroomfor.ThefirstghettowasestablishedinPoland,inPiotrkÓwTrybunalski,followedbymanyothersintownsacrossthecountry.Soon,theGermansbuiltwallsorbarbed-wirefencesaroundtheghettostoensurethatJewswereisolated.Inmanycases,Jewsandother“undesirables”suchasRoma(Gypsies),Jehovah’s
Witnesses,dissentingpriestsandpastors,thedisabled,andhomosexualsweretransferredtothesystemofconcentrationcampsestablishedaroundGermanyandintheoccupiedterritories.There,prisonerswereeitherforcedintorelentlesslabororexterminated,usuallybypoisongas.Bodieswereburnedinlargecrematoriums.ThissystemwasthecenterpieceoftheThirdReich’s“FinalSolution,”whichresultedinthedeathsof11millionpeople.
SoldiersfromtheSixthArmoredDivisionspokewithsomeofthesurvivorsabouttheconditionsinthecamps.Buchenwald,shownhere,wasoneofthelargest.
PrisonersatDachau,likethisHungariansurgeon,wereliberatedonApril29,1945.AtthetimetheAlliesenteredthecamp,atyphusepidemicwasraging;anestimated2,500formerprisonersdiedfromthediseaseintheweeks
betweenMay29andJune16.
NaziConcentrationCamps
DuringWorldWarII,thetermconcentrationcampreferredtoacompoundwhereethnicminorities,politicalopponents,andothernoncombatantswereconfinedunderharshconditions.
TheDeathMarchesMORETHAN250,000PRISONERSPERISHEDINFORCEDEVACUATIONSOFCONCENTRATIONCAMPS.
Thisstatuecommemoratesthe7,000prisonerswhowereforcedtowalk70milesfromDachautoTegernsee,bothinGermany.Thosewhocouldnotkeepuponthesix-daymarch,whichbeganonApril26,1945,wereshot.Manydiedofhunger,illness,orexhaustion.AfterthefirstmonumentwaserectedatDachau,22identicalstatueswere
placedalongtheroutethatstretchedsouthtoTegernsee.
InJuly1944,SovietforcesarrivedattheMajdanekcampineasternPolandandliberateditssurvivors.Thestoriesoftheprisoners’sufferingandNaziatrocitiesquicklyspread,andatothercamps,SSofficersbegantodestroyevidenceofNazibarbarity.Inlate1944andearly1945,astheAlliessqueezedGermanyfromtheeastandwest,theNazisbegantorelocateprisonersfromconcentrationcampslocatednearthefront,forcingthemtotravelonfoottocampsfartherinsideGermany.Theseone-waytripsbecameknownasdeathmarches.Theevacuationmarcheswerebrutal.Prisoners,cladinnothingmorethanragsor
threadbareblankets,wereoftenrousedwithlittlenoticeandforcedtomoveataferociouspacetokeepaheadoftheapproachingAlliedforces.Theymarchedinbitterlycoldweather.Withverylittlefoodandfewplacestotakeshelter,manycaptivesdiedfromstarvation,exposure,orexhaustion.Thosetooillorfrailtokeepupwereshotbyguards.
ThesemensurvivedadeathmarchandwerefreedfromthecampatNeuengamme,Germany.
Onebyone,thecampsatAuschwitzinPoland,Buchenwald,Dachau,andothersinGermanywereemptiedofmanyoftheprisonersastheAlliesdrewcloser.Thedeathmarches,duringwhichanestimated250,000prisonersdied,lasteduntilGermany’ssurrenderinMay.InJanuary1945,withtheSovietsclosinginonAuschwitz,almost60,000prisoners
wereforcedtowalk35mileswesttoraillines.Nearlyallperishedalongtheway.Thoseprisonerswhodidsurvivewereputintoboxcarsandtransportedtootherconcentrationcamps.InanotherdeathmarchthatoccurredinlateJanuary,7,000prisonerswereforcedto
walkfromtheEastPrussiancityofKönigsbergtoPalmnicken,some31milesaway.Nearlyhalfoftheprisonersdiedduringthejourney.MostofthesurvivorswereslaughteredbyNaziofficersonafrozenBalticSeabeach.Tothisday,nooneissurewhogavetheordertoevacuatethecamps.Noevidence
existsthatHitlerorHeinrichHimmler,theleaderoftheSS,wantedthecampsliquidatedorevengavetheordertodoso.Mosthistorianssuspectthatastheendofthewarapproached,therewasagradualadministrativebreakdown,whichledtothemassiveslaughter.
TheNazisconfiscatedallprisoners’belongings,especiallythosethatmighthavesomevalue.AlliedtroopsliberatingBuchenwaldconcentrationcampinGermanyfoundtheseweddingringsalongwithwatches,precious
stones,andgoldfillings.
FACESofWARADOLFEICHMANN
“IwillleaplaughingintomygravebecausethefeelingthatIhavefivemillionpeopleonmyconscienceisformeasourceofextraordinarysatisfaction.”
AdolfEichmann,oneofthemajororganizersoftheHolocaust,wasborninGermanyin1906.HejoinedtheNaziPartyin1932,becameamemberofHeinrichHimmler’sSS,andin1938wasputinchargeofremovingJewsfromVienna.
AschiefoftheJewishofficeoftheGestapo,theNazisecretpolice,EichmannimplementedHitler’s“FinalSolution”toexterminateEurope’sJews.HenotonlyorganizedtheconvoysthatbroughtJewstothedeathcamps,healsodesignedthecampsthemselvesanddevelopedmanyoftheexecutiontechniquestheNazisused.TheAmericanscapturedandimprisonedEichmannin1945.Ayearlater,heescapedandin1958fledtoArgentina.OnMay11,1960,IsraeliagentsabductedEichmannnearBuenosAiresandbroughthimtoIsraeltostandtrial.Duringhiscourthearing,Eichmannwasdefiant,claiminghewasjustfollowingtheordersofhissuperiors.HewasfoundguiltyofcrimesagainsthumanityandhangedinIsraelonMay31,1962.
TheHolocaustIsRevealedINTHEWANINGDAYSOFTHEWAR,THEWORLDBEGANTOUNDERSTANDTHEREALMEANINGOFTHECATASTROPHE.
OnApril12,1945,GeneralGeorgePatton,GeneralOmarBradley,andMajorGeneralTroyMiddletonvisitedaconcentrationcampatOhrdruf,Germany,andwitnessedtheevidenceofNaziatrocities.
HolocaustisawordderivedfromGreek,meaning“sacrificebyfire.”TheHolocaustisalsocalledShoah,aHebrewwordmeaning“thecatastrophe.”Soldiersliberatingthecampsdiscoveredunimaginableatrocities:gaschambersformassexecutionsandhumanswhohadbeentortured,starvedtodeath,andusedassubjectsin“medical”experiments.Soviettroops,whowerepushingwestwardtowardBerlinthroughPoland,werethe
firsttouncoverthehorrorswhentheyenteredtheMajdanekcampinLublin,Poland,onJuly23,1944.TheGermanshadalreadyevacuatedmostoftheprisonerstoothercampsfartherwest,sofewerthan500weakandemaciatedinmatesremained.Intheirhaste,theNazisonlydestroyedpartofthecamp,leavingnearlyintactthehorrifyingevidence.TheRussiansdiscoveredthegaschambers,crematoriumovens,andhumanskeletons.Corpses,burnedremains,andboneswerefoundburiedinpitsatvariouslocationsinthecampandnearbywoods.TheSoviettroopsuncoveredstacksofpassportsandadeathregisterlistingthosewhohadbeenkilled—morethan100,000total.Recordsshowedthatprisoners’moneyandothervaluableshadbeenconfiscatedandsenttoBerlin.InApril1945,asAmericantroopsbeganliberatingBuchenwaldandDachau,they
encounteredscenesasdisturbingasthosetheSovietshadfound.BillBarrett,ajournalistwiththeU.S.Army,describedthehideousconditionsthathewitnessed:“Therewereaboutadozenbodiesinthedirtyboxcar,menandwomenalike.Theyhadgonewithoutfoodsolongthattheirdeadwristswerebroomstickstippedwith
claws.Thesewerethevictimsofadeliberatestarvationdiet....”Alliedtroopstriedtoprovidecomforttothesurvivors.Soliersgavetheirrationsto
thestarving,onlytofindthatmanywerebarelyalive,livingskeletonstooweaktoeatordigestthefood.Doctorsandreliefworkerstried,mostlyinvain,tosavetheincarcerated.HalfofallprisonerstheAlliesdiscoveredinAuschwitzinJanuary1945diedwithinafewdaysafterliberation.
RedArmytroopsfoundskeletalhumanremainsoutsidethecrematoriumovensattheMajdanekcampwhereNazisburneddeadprisoners’bodies.
Theseshoeswereallthatremainedofthemen,women,andchildrenannihilatedinPolandattheMajdanekconcentrationcamp.Nazisstoredtheshoesforsortingandsalvage,butthereweresomanythattheyspilledoutof
thewindowsanddoorsofthebuilding.
FACESofWARELIEWIESEL
“Theremaybetimeswhenwearepowerlesstopreventinjustice,buttheremustneverbeatimewhenwefailtoprotest.”
Eliezer“Elie”Wiesel,whowouldachieveglobalrenownforhismemoirNight,aboutsurvivingtheHolocaust,wasbornin1928inSighet,Transylvania(present-dayRomania).InJune1944,whenWieselwas15,hisfamilywasdeportedtotheAuschwitzconcentrationcamp.Wiesel’smotherandyoungersisterweresenttothegaschamber,andElieandhisfather,Shlomo,wereassignedtoworkasslavelaborers.InJanuary1945,thetwomenwereforcedonaten-daydeathmarchtomeetatrainforBuchenwald.EliesurvivedtheordealandwasliberatedalongwithotherprisonersonApril11,1945.AmongthemanyawardsandhonorsWieselhasreceivedaretheNobelPeacePrize,thePresidentialMedalofFreedom,andtheU.S.CongressionalGoldMedal.
FACESofWARRAOULWALLENBERG
“Theroadwasstraight,whenJewsweredeportedtodeath.Theroadwas...fullofobstacles,whenJewsweretryingtoescape...”
In1944,Hungary’sleadersdecidedtoseekaseparatearmisticewiththeAllies,butHitlermovedquicklytopreventitbyputtingSSofficerAdolfEichmanninchargeofroundingupHungary’sJewsandotherso-calledsubversives.AlarmedJewishcitizensinBudapestreachedouttotheembassiesofneutralcountriesforhelp.Swedenresponded,issuingpassesthatidentifiedJewsasSwedes.RaoulWallenberg,awealthySwedishbusinessman,volunteeredtohelp.HewasappointedtotheSwedishdiplomaticstaffandsenttoBudapest.WallenbergnegotiatedapprovalfromtheHungariangovernmenttoissue4,500SwedishpassestotheJews,thenproceededtograntmorethan15,000oftheseidentitycards.Healsorentedbuildingsthatservedashidingplaces.Wallenberg’sassignmentbecamemorecomplicatedinOctober1944,whenGermanyacceleratedthedeportationofJews.Wallenbergcontinuedhiswork,tryingtohelpthoseondeathmarchesandtheremainingresidentsoftheBudapestghetto.
ChronologyofLiberationALLIEDSOLDIERSFOUNDTHESAMEHORRIDCONDITONSATEACHCAMP.
FivedaysaftertheliberationofBuchenwald,Germany,Jewishsurvivorsstillsleptintheirbarracks.Americantroopsdidtheirbesttoprovidefoodandmedicalcarefortheformerinmates.
LiberatedAuschwitzinmatestoldSovietsoldierswhattheyhadexperiencedatthehandsoftheNazis.
BeginninginJanuary1945,astheAlliesadvancedintoGermanyfromtheeastandthewest,American,British,andSoviettroopswereabletofreethousandsofprisonersheldinNaziconcentrationcamps.
January27:Auschwitz
SeveraltrainsarrivedatAuschwitzeveryday,eachcarryingmorethan1,000prisoners.
ThelargestcampcomplexintheNazisystem,Auschwitz,hadthreemainlocationsnearthetownofOswieciminGermanyandmorethan40subcamps.Auschwitzhadheldupto150,000prisonersandoperatedasaprison,extermination,andlaborcamp.ThelocationcalledAuschwitzIhousedprisonersandforcedlaborers,provided
facilitiesforthecamp’schiefdoctor,JosefMengele,toconduct“medical”experiments,andhadagaschamberandacrematoriumforkillingsmallgroups.Thesecondmainlocation,Auschwitz-Birkenau,wasprimarilyanexterminationcenter,witheightgaschambers,46ovens,andfourcrematoria.Auschwitz-Monowitzservedashousingforforcedlaborerswhoworkedatanearbyfactory.BythetimetheSoviettroopsarrivedattheAuschwitzcomplex,theNazishad
alreadyevacuatedmorethan60,000prisoners.Seventhousandothersconsideredtoosickoralreadyclosetodeathwereleftbehind.Russiansoldiersfoundprisonerswhowerestillalivebetweenthebodiesofprisonerswhohadalreadydied.Thestenchtheyencounteredfromthedecaywashorrendous.ItisunknownexactlyhowmanypeoplediedintheAuschwitzcampsystem,butconservativeestimatesrangefrom1.1millionto1.3million.
April11:BuchenwaldBuchenwaldopeneditsdoorsin1937andwasusedprimarilytohousepoliticalprisoners.Withintheyear,theSSbegansendingJewstothesite,andbytheendofthewar,BuchenwaldwasoneofthelargestdeathcampsintheReich.Itcontainedmorethan80subcampsandwasdesignedtoaccommodateupto11,200prisoners;manywereusedasslavelabor.InApril1945,theGermansevacuatedsome28,000prisonersfromBuchenwald;
thosewhoremainedseizedcontrolofthecampandwaitedforhelptocome.TheywouldgaintheirfreedomonApril11whentheU.S.Armyarrived.TheAmericanswereshockedatwhattheyfound.Thecampreekedofexcrementandofburninghumanfleshandhair.“Morethan3,200naked,emaciatedbodieshadbeenflungintoshallowgraves,”
rememberedGeneralOmarBradley.Starvingprisoners,Bradleysaid,“hadtornouttheentrailsofthedeadforfood.”Itisbelievedsome250,000EuropeanswereimprisonedatBuchenwaldduringthewar.Bradley’stroopsfoundmorethan21,000survivors.
April15:Bergen-BelsenBuiltin1940innorthernGermany,Bergen-Belsenwasdesignedasaprisoner-of-warcampthatcouldholdupto10,000people,butthreeyearslatertheSSconvertedpartofthefacilityintoaholdingcamp.Overthecourseofitsoperation,Bergen-BelsenhousedJews,politicalprisoners,Roma,homosexuals,andothers.
Typhus,adiseasespreadbyinsects,wasanever-presenthazardinthecamps.OnecommonprecautionafterliberationwastosprayprisonerswiththeinsecticideDDT,asBritishsoldiersdidatBergen-Belsen.
Aswithallsuchcamps,conditionsweredeplorable.Therewerefewlatrines,agrosslyinadequatefreshwatersupply,andovercrowdedbarracks.Prisonerscouldgoseveraldaysatatimewithoutfoodandwereravagedbydysentery,typhus,tuberculosis,andotherdiseases.ByApril1945,Bergen-Belsenwasteemingwith60,000inmates.OnApril15,
Britishforcesliberatedthecamp.Mostoftheinmateswereveryill.Thesoldierswereshockedtoencounterprisonerswhowerestillalivebutsoemaciatedthattheylookedlikelivingskeletons.Theyalsodiscoveredthousandsofcorpsesscatteredaroundthe
camp.ThestenchatBergen-Belsenfromdisease,excrement,anddeathwasoverwhelming.Havingsurvivedthehorribleconditions,morethan10,000ofthosewhohadbeenliberateddiedbecauseoftheirillnesses.WhentheBritishleft,theyburnedBergen-Belseninordertostopthespreadof
disease.ThelastbuildingwasceremoniallydestroyedonMay21,1945.
BritishsoldiersmadeGermanciviliansfromthenearbytownsofBergenandBelsencarrythebodiesofconcentrationcampvictimstomunicipalcemeteriesforburial.TheBritishalsoforcedthecivilianstotourthecamp,whereaBritishofficertoldthem,“WhatyouseehereissuchadisgracetotheGermanpeoplethattheir
namesmustbeerasedfromthelistofcivilizednations...”
AmericantroopspassedcandyandcigarettesthroughthefencetoprisonerswhenDachauwasfirstliberated.
TwoDachauprisonerssecretlywrote“DachauSong”aboutthemotto“ArbeitMachtFrei”(“workmakesyoufree”).Itbeganwiththesewords:“Barbedwire,loadedwithdeath,isdrawnaroundourworld....Butwehave
learnedthemottoofDachauanditmadeusashardassteel:Beaman...forwork,workmakesyoufree!”
April29:DachauDachauwasthefirstcampthattheNazisopened,inMarch1933,justfiveweeksafterHitlerwaselectedchancellorofGermany,anditbecamethemodelfortheothersthatfollowed.LocatednearMunich,Dachauhadamaincampwith32barracks;oneofthemwas
oftenusedforgruesomemedicalexperiments.Inaddition,therewereapproximately30subcampswhereprisonerswereforcedtoworkonarmaments.WhentheAmericansenteredDachauonApril29,theyfound30railroadcars
crammedwithcorpsesthathadarrivedfromotherdeathcampsandthousandsmoredeadinsidethefacility.Therewere30,000survivors,mostofwhomweremalnourishedandriddledwithdisease.SomeGIsweresoaghastthattheymachine-gunned30SSguardswhohadbeencaptured.ItisunknownexactlyhowmanypeoplewereinternedintheDachausystem,butitis
estimatedthatbetween160,000and190,000peoplewereimprisonedinthemaincamp.Anadditional90,000prisonerspassedthroughthesubcamps,manythroughaseriesofrelocationsfromcamptocamp.TheestimatednumberofdeathsassociatedwithDachauis32,000.
SurvivorsofasubcampofNeuengammehelpedoneanotherintoatransporttruckafterthecampwasliberated.
May4:NeuengammeTheNeuengammecamp,locatedatanabandonedbrickworksfactoryoutsideHamburg,Germany,wasknownforworkingprisonerstodeath.Amongotherjobs,inmatesproducedbricks,minedclay,madearmaments,andremovedrubblefromcitiesbombedbytheAllies.Theywerestarved,beaten,keptinfilthyconditions,andmadetoworkregardlessofweather.NazimedicalresearchersusedtheinmatesatNeuengamme,includingchildren,to
testdrugsintendedtocombatavarietyofdiseasesincludingmalaria,typhus,andtuberculosis.AstheBritishapproachedinearlyMay1945,theNazisevacuatednearly10,000prisonersandplacedthemonthreeshipsintheBalticSea.TheBritisharrivedonMay4,buttragedyfollowedtheliberation.PursingtheNazis,theBritishaccidentallyattackedtwooftheshipsholdingthe
prisonersduringanairraid,killingsome7,000peopleaboard.Onlyabout500wererescued.
WhilethesignovertheentrancetoTheresienstadtdeclared“WorkMakesYouFree,”Nazipropagandadescribedthecampasa“spa”whereelderlyGermanJewscould“retire.”
Imprisonedartistsstolepaperandotheritemstorecordtheirexperiences,andtheysharedthepaperwithchildreninthecamp.Liberatingforcesdiscoveredhiddenartworkandpoemsbythousandsofchildren,mostofwhomdid
notsurvive.
May8:TheresienstadtTheresienstadtwasawalledghettolocatedinwhatistodaytheCzechRepublic.TheNazisplannedtousetheghettotohouseEuropeanJewswhowereprivilegedandfamous,butitendedupservingmanypurposes.CzechJewsintransittoforced-laborcampsinPoland,Belorussia,andtheBalticcountrieswereinternedinTheresienstadt;theghettoalsobecamealaborcampandaholdingareaforthousandsinpoorhealth.Inthelastweeksofthewar,theNazisforcedbetween13,500and15,000additional
prisonersfromothercampsintoTheresienstadt.Most,althoughnotall,wereJewish,andHimmlerandSecurityPoliceChiefErnstKaltenbrunnerplannedtousetheinmatesasawayofopeningpeacenegotiationswiththeWesternAllies.OnFebruary5,theyreleased1,210prisonersfromTheresienstadtasatokenofgoodfaith.AllreachedSwitzerlandsafely,andtheSwedishRedCrosswassoonabletotruckanother423outofthecamp.OnMay3,asthecommandantandSSguardsfled,theInternationalRedCrosstook
overTheresienstadt.OnMay8,Soviettroopsenteredthecampandliberatedthe19,000prisonerswhohadbeenleftbehind.
JosefMengele:MedicalHorrors
JosefMengeleinhisSSuniform
JosefMengele(1911–1979)becameknownasthe“AngelofDeath”forthenotoriousexperimentsheperformedonprisonersatAuschwitz.Aftercompletingdoctoratesinmedicineandanthropology,Mengelebeganworkingforascientistknownforhisresearchontwins,ajobthatledtoMengele’sowninterestinthesubject.In1943,hewasnamedchiefdoctoratAuschwitz,andalongwiththeothermedicalstaff,hemetincomingprisonerstoselecttestsubjects,whilesendingotherstotheirdeathsinthegaschambers.Mengeleperformedthousandsofunimaginableexperimentsoninmates.Hewasparticularlyfascinatedwithtwins;mostwerechildrenandmanyofthemdiedduringtheexperiments.OftenthesurvivingtwinwasslaughteredinorderforMengeletocomparetheconditionofthebodiespostmortem.AsAlliesapproachedAuschwitz,Mengelefledandwentintohiding,eventuallymakinghiswaytoSouthAmerica.HediedbydrowningonFebruary7,1979,inBrazil,aftersufferingastrokewhileswimming.Hewasburiedunderthepseudonym“WolfgangGerhard.”Hisdeathwasconfirmedin1985byBrazilianforensicscientists,andin1992DNAevidenceprovedconclusivelythatitwasMengele.
DachauTransformedTHESITEOFINFAMOUSNAZIATROCITIESHASBECOMEASOMBERMEMORIAL.
ThetextonthememorialwallatDachaureads,“Maytheexampleofthosewhowereexterminatedherebetween1933–1945becausetheyresistedNazismhelptounitethelivingforthedefenseofpeaceandfreedomandin
respectfortheirfellowmen.”
WhenAmericanGIsliberatedDachauonApril29,1945,theyfound,inthewordsofColonelWilliamQuinn,“...sights,sounds,andstencheshorriblebeyondbelief,crueltiessoenormousastobeincomprehensibletothenormalmind.”Theywereshockedbythethousandsofdecomposingcorpsesandthepale,skeletalsurvivorsstaringattheliberatorsindisbelief.Somehardenedbattleveteranscriedatwhattheysaw;othersragedasthemagnitudeofthedeath,deprivation,andsufferingbegantosinkin.TocommemoratethosewhowereimprisonedordiedatDachau,agroupof
survivorsbeganplanningamemorialin1955.TheyreceivedfinancingfromGermany’sBavarianstategovernmentandbeganconstructionin1962,openingthesitethreeyearslater.Today,visitorstothememorialcaninspectsomeoftheoriginalstructures,including
guardtowers,inmatebarracks,thecampprison,andthecrematorium.Thereisalsoamuseumwithexhibitsthatfocusontheprisoners’biographies,theireyewitnessaccounts,andthecamp’shistory.Atwo-mile“PathofRemembrance,”theroadthatcaptiveshadtowalkfromtherailroadstationtothecamp,featuresinformationdisplayssetupatvariouspointsalongtheroute.
PayingTribute
AngelaMerkelandHolocaustsurvivorMaxMannheimeratDachau,August2013
InAugust2013,AngelaMerkelbecamethefirstGermanchancellortotourDachau,theformerconcentrationcamp.Shelaidawreathatthesiteandsaidshewantedhervisittobe“abridgefromhistorytothepresentandintothefuture.”MaxMannheimer,a93-year-oldsurvivorofthecamp,accompaniedthechancellorandcommented,“Itisagreathonorandanhistoriceventforussurvivors.”
4MOVINGTOWARDPEACEWITHTHEALLIESINFIRMCONTROLOFEUROPE,NAZILEADERSBEGANSEARCHINGFORWAYSTOENDTHEWAR.
PeaceOverturesWITHTHEALLIESBATTERINGGERMANYONTWOFRONTS,NAZIGENERALHEINZGUDERIANHOPEDAFAVORABLEACCORDCOULDBEACHIEVED.
NazileaderHeinrichHimmlerinspectedaprisoner-of-warcampthatheldcapturedRussiansoldiers.UnderHimmler’spolicies,themenwerekeptindeplorableconditionsandunderstrictguard,sotherewaslittlechanceof
escapeorofrepatriation.
GeneralHeinzGuderian,afrequentcriticofAdolfHitler’smilitaryplans,wasdismissedforurgingapeace
settlementwiththeAllies.
Inthesummerof1944,NazimilitarycommanderHeinrichHimmlerattemptedtoinitiatepeacetalkswiththeUnitedStates,butPresidentFranklinRoosevelt,whowantedtoendthewarunconditionally,refusedtheoffer.Justsixmonthslater,astheAlliesbegantheiradvancetowardBerlin,theGermansonceagainraisedtheprospectofestablishingpeacetalkswithboththeAmericansandtheBritish.ItstartedonJanuary25,whenGeneralHeinzGuderian,theGermanarmy’schiefof
staff,askedhiscountry’sforeignminister,JoachimvonRibbentrop,toapproachtheWesternAlliesandaskforanegotiatedsettlement.Instead,vonRibbentropreportedtheconversationtoAdolfHitler,whothenaccusedGuderianoftreason.TheThirdReichleaderdidnotdisciplineGuderian,butwarnedthatanyonesayingthewarwaslostwouldbepunishedasatraitor.Thegeneraldidnotgiveup.HopingthatapeacesettlementwouldsavetheGerman
armyfrombeingcompletelydestroyed,GuderianspoketoHimmleronMarch21,tellinghimthatthewarwasalreadylostandthattheyshould“putanendtothesenselessslaughter.”Overthenextweek,GuderiancontinuedtoarguewithHimmlerandHitlerovermilitarystrategy.OnMarch28,HitlerdismissedGuderianfromoffice.
Germanysuffereddevastatinglossesthroughout1945,whichwouldalsoaffectitspostwardevelopment.
FromRibbentroptovonRibbentropInGerman,thewordvonmeans“of”or“from,”andwhenitispartofafamilynameitusuallydenotesnobility.In1925,32-year-oldJoachimRibbentropwasadoptedbyadistantrelative,GertrudvonRibbentrop.Atthattime,theyoungmanwasabletoaddthearistocratictitlevontohisname.
JoachimvonRibbentrop:AmbitionandZeal
JoachimvonRibbentrop
JoachimvonRibbentrop(1893–1946)wasHitler’sministerofforeignaffairsfrom1938untiltheendofthewarin1945.Thesonofanarmyofficer,vonRibbentropattendedschoolsinGermany,Switzerland,France,andEngland,andthenservedwiththeGermanarmyduringWorldWarI.Hemarriedthedaughterofawealthychampagnemaker,amatchthatmadehimfinanciallyindependent.HemetHitlerin1932andbecameoneofthefirstmembersoftheNaziParty.Ambitiousandzealous,vonRibbentropquicklyrosethroughtheranksoftheNazihierarchy.Asministerofforeignaffairs,henegotiatedGermany’snonaggressionpactwiththeSoviets,whichallowedforthedivisionofPoland.VonRibbentropwascapturedbytheAlliesinJune1945,triedatNuremberg,andsentencedtodeath.VonRibbentropwasexecutedonOctober16,1946.
TheYaltaConferenceTHEBIGTHREEMETATTHECRIMEANRESORTTODISCUSSTHEUNCONDITIONALSURRENDEROFGERMANY.
AtYalta,PresidentFranklinRooseveltandPrimeMinisterWinstonChurchilltalkedprivatelyaboutthefutureofEuropeandalsoabouthowtobringtheSovietUnionintothewarwithJapan.
WiththewarinEuropewindingdown,thetimehadcomeforRoosevelt,BritishprimeministerWinstonChurchill,andSovietpremierJosephStalintodecidethecontinent’spostwarfate,andtheyagreedtomeetattheBlackSeaportofYaltatodiscusstheplan.EachmanarrivedonFebruary4,alongwithanentourageofdiplomats,military
officers,soldiers,andaides.AmongthoseattendingforGreatBritainwereAlexanderCadogan,under-secretaryforforeignaffairs,andAnthonyEden,Britain’sforeignsecretary.Stalinwasaccompaniedbyhisministerofforeignaffairs,VyacheslavMolotov,andtheSovietambassadortotheUnitedStates,AndreiGromyko.Rooseveltbroughthissecretaryofstate,EdwardStettinius,andAverillHarriman,U.S.ambassadortotheSovietUnion.Thepresident,whohadbeenrecentlyelectedtoafourthterm,alsobroughtalonghisdaughterAnnawhoservedashispersonalassistant,insteadofhiswifeEleanor.
RooseveltwasinfailinghealthandbroughthisdaughterAnnatohelpcareforhimduringtheconference.
Yalta,aresortcityonthenortherncoastoftheBlackSea,wasaholidaydestinationforRussiansandgainedworldwidefamewhenitwasselectedasthesitefora“BigThree”meeting.
ThreeDifferentAgendasAsidefromagreeingtodemandtheunconditionalsurrenderofGermany,theagendasofthethreemencouldnothavebeenmoredifferent.WhileStalinwantedtoexpandtheUSSR,RooseveltandChurchillwerefocusedonthewarinthePacific.TheyhopedtogetStalintodeclarewaronJapanonceGermanysurrendered.UnbeknownsttoChurchill,RooseveltsecretlysecuredtheSovietdictator’scooperationbyagreeingtogranttheSovietsasphereofinfluenceinManchuriaonceJapanhadcapitulated.TheAlliedleadersalsodiscusseddividingGermanyintozonesofoccupation.Each
ofthethreenations,aswellasFrance,wouldcontrolonezone.ChurchillandRooseveltalsoagreedthatallfuturegovernmentsineasternEuropeshouldbe“friendly”totheSovietUnion.Inexchange,StalinagreedtoallowfreeelectionsineachoftheliberatedeasternEuropeancountries.
TheFutureofPolandThestatusofPolandhadbeenacontentiousissueamongtheAlliesthroughoutthewar.Churchill,astalwartanti-Communist,metwithStalininOctober1944todiscusstheRussians’treatmentofthePolishHomeArmyduringtheWarsawUprising.Byearly1945,theSovietswerewellpositionedwithinPoland’sborders,andChurchillfearedthatwithinjustafewmonths,Communistforceswouldoccupyallof
easternEurope.Now,atYalta,ChurchillwasdeterminedtotrytokeeptheSovietsoutofPoland’s
internalaffairs.Stalindisagreed:“FortheRussianpeople,thequestionofPolandisnotonlyaquestionofhonorbutalsoaquestionofsecurity.[It]isaquestionoflifeanddeath....”Despitetheirdifferentviewpoints,theAlliedleadersagreedthattheSovietscould
keepeasternPolandandmakeitpartoftheUSSR.TheAllieswouldcompensatePolandwithGermanterritoryinthewest.ThethreeleadersalsoagreedthattheCommunistswouldhavearoleinPoland’sfuturenationalgovernment;thatfreeelectionsshouldbeheldasquicklyaspossible;andthatanti-CommunistPoleslivinginexileinGreatBritainshouldhaveaplaceinanewPolishgovernment.WiththePolandquestionsettled,Stalinthenconsentedtohelpwiththe
establishmentoftheUnitedNations,whichRooseveltdesperatelywantedtocreate.Thepresidentbelievedthisneworganizationwouldbeabletostepinwhenconflictsaroseandhelpcountriessettletheirdisputespeacefully.
TheBigThree—Churchill,Roosevelt,andStalin—tooktimetoposeforofficialphotographs.
TheImpactofYaltaTheinitialreactiontotheYaltaagreementswasoneofcelebration,especiallyintheUnitedStates.ItseemedasthoughtheWesternAlliesandtheSovietswouldcontinuetheirwartimecooperationintothepostwarperiod.Historianscontinuetodebatetheimpactoftheconference,butonethingremains
clear:Bythespringof1945,anyhopeofcontinuedAmericanandSovietcooperationhadbeendashed.AfterYalta,StalinrenegedonhispromisesconcerningeasternEurope,especiallytheagreementtoallowfreeelectionsinallterritoriesthatwereliberatedfromNazicontrol.AstheUSSRcreatedan“ironcurtain”andinstalledgovernmentsdominatedbytheSovietUnionineachofthesecountries,theonetimealliesfoundthemselvesonthepathtoanother,moreideologicallydrivenconflict—
theColdWar.
SovietpremierJosephStalin(right)consultedwithhisministerofforeignaffairs,VyacheslavMolotov.
TheDeathofFDRTHEPASSINGOFTHEAMERICANPRESIDENTSHOCKEDTHEWORLD.
Churchillandhiswife,Clementine(farleft),traveledtoRoosevelt’shomeinHydePark,NewYork,topaytributetotheirfriendandwartimecolleague.Followingherdeathin1962,EleanorRoosevelt(leftofChurchill)wasalso
buriedatthefamilyestate.
At1:00pmonApril12,RooseveltwassittinginachairathiscottageinWarmSprings,Georgia,signingdocumentsatthesametimeanartiststoodinfrontofaneaselcompletingthepresident’sportrait.Rooseveltturnedtothepaintertoremindherthattherewereonly15minutesleftinthesession;hethengrabbedhisheadandcomplainedofasharppain.Withinminuteshediedfromacerebralhemorrhage.Thenation’swarpresidentwas63yearsold.Radiobroadcastsandnewspapersacrossthecountryquicklyconveyedthenews.
“PresidentRooseveltisDead,TrumantoContinuePolicies,”readtheheadlineoftheNewYorkTimes.Thedeathwasanunexpectedandoverwhelmingdevelopment.Formanypeople,
Rooseveltwastheonlypresidenttheyhadeverknown.EvenVicePresidentHarryTruman,whoreceivedwordwhilevisitingSamRayburn,theSpeakeroftheHouse,foranend-of-daylibation,wassurprised.TrumanstillhadadrinkinhishandwhenanaideaskedhimtocalltheWhiteHouse.
NewspapersaroundtheworldannouncedthatRoosevelthaddied.Theseyoungsailorsreadthedetails.
Grief-strickenandstunned,AmericanscrowdedalongstreetsinWashington,D.C.,watchingthefuneral
procession.
“HolyGeneralJackson!”Trumansaidasheputdownthephone.Herushedtothepresident’sprivatequartersandmetFirstLadyEleanorRooseveltinthehall.PlacingherhandonTruman’sshoulder,Mrs.Rooseveltbrokethenewsagain,goingontosaytheoft-quotedwords:“Isthereanythingwecandoforyou?Foryouaretheoneintroublenow.”Around7:00pmthatevening,Truman,whohadservedjust82daysasvicepresident,wassworninasthenation’s33rdpresident.
FormerFirstLadyMrs.RooseveltandPresidentHarryTrumansharedaprivatemomentastheypaidtheirrespectstotheformerpresident.
“Ifeltlikethemoon,thestars,andalltheplanetshadfallenonme.”
—HarryTruman,April13,1945
FACESofWARHARRYTRUMAN
“Americawasnotbuiltonfear.Americawasbuiltoncourage
...andanunbeatabledeterminationtodothejobathand.”HarryTrumanwasborninMissouriin1884andasayoungmanhelpedhisfatherrunthefamilyfarm.HecommandedaregimentduringWorldWarI,servedasajudge,andin1934,waselectedtotheU.S.Senate.Asajudgeandassenator,Trumangainedprominenceforhishonestyandefficiency.InJuly1944,hewasnominatedtorunasvicepresidentontheDemocraticticketwithRoosevelt,andwhenFDRwonhisfourthterm,Trumanassumedhisnewpost.Just82dayslater,onApril12,1945,hewassworninaspresident.Duringthenextfewmonths,thispresidentwouldseevictoryinEuropeandapprovedroppingtwoatomicbombsonJapan,bringingthewartoanend.
Himmler’sProposalTHEPOWERFULGENERALWANTEDTOSURRENDERANDDIVIDETHEALLIES.
GermansoldiersweresurroundedbyAmericantroopsandforcedtosurrender.
“IadmitthatGermanyisdefeated.”—HeinrichHimmler,April23,1945
AtaroundmiddayonApril24,TrumanwenttothePentagonforaprivatetransatlanticphonecalltoLondontospeakwithChurchill.Theprimeministerhadimportantnews:TheGermanswerefinallywillingtosurrender.AccordingtoChurchill,HimmlerhadspokenwiththeheadoftheSwedishRed
CrossandaskedhimtoarrangeanimmediatemeetingwithAmericangeneralDwightEisenhower.Germanywaspreparedtosurrenderallitstroopsinthewest.TheGermanmilitaryleaderacknowledgedtotheRedCrossleader,CountFolkeBernadotte,thattheNazishadlost.NowHimmlerwantedtotrytodriveawedgebetweentheWesternAlliesandtheSoviets.“Ihavealwaysbeen,andIshallalwaysremain,aswornenemyofBoshevism,”hetoldBernadotte.
FacingFactsBernadotte,whohadheldmanyconversationswithEisenhower,suspectedthegeneralwouldbalkattheidea,becauseEisenhowerhadmadeitclearhewouldacceptnothinglessthantheunconditionalsurrenderofGermanytoalloftheAllies.Still,BernadotteagreedtoforwardHimmler’sproposaltotheSwedishgovernmentontheconditionthatthesurrenderofNazitroopsinDenmarkandNorwaywaspartofthepackage.Himmleragreedtothedeal.
Himmler(left)andAdolfHitlerworkedtogethertoestablishmostoftheThirdReichpolicies.Here,theymettoobserveparadingNazistorm-troopers.
Trumanrejectedthesuggestionoutofhand,andtheBritishreplytotheSwedishgovernmentwasequallyblunt:Surrenderwouldhavetooccuronallfronts.Moreover,ifanyNaziresistancepersistedafterafinalagreementhadbeenreached,theAllieswouldcontinuefightinguntiltheyhadwonatotal,decisivevictory.BernadotterelayedtheinformationtooneofHimmler’saidesonApril27,andthe
nextday,reportsaboutHimmler’seffortsappearedinthepress.Uponhearingthenews,Hitler,sheltereddeepinsidehisBerlinbunker,accusedhisgoodfriendandloyalsoldierofbetrayal,strippedhimofallhistitles,andorderedhisarrest.
FACESofWARHEINRICHHIMMLER
“OneprinciplemustbeabsolutefortheSSman:wemustbehonest,decent,loyalandfriendlytomembersofourbloodandtonooneelse.”
Bornin1900toamiddle-classfamily,HeinrichHimmlergrewupaferventGermanpatriot.LikemanyGermanyouthoftheera,Himmlerjoinedoneoftheright-wingsoldierorganizationsthatformedafterWorldWarI.Hetookpartinthefailed1923BeerHallPutsch,whenHitlertriedtoseizepower.In1925,HimmlerjoinedtheNaziPartyandearnedareputationforstrongnationalismandanti-Semiticviews.In1929,HitlerappointedhimasReichsführerSS,responsibleforallinternalsecuritywithintheThirdReich.Unopposed,HimmlerbecamethechiefarchitectoftheHolocaustanddevelopedtheNaziconcentrationcampsystem,whichresultedintheruthlessmassacreofmillionsofpeople.FollowingGermany’ssurrendertotheAllies,Himmlertriedtoescape,butwascapturedbytheBritish.OnMay23,1945,hebitdownonacyanidepillhiddeninoneofhisteethanddied.
ThePotsdamConferenceTHEBIGTHREEMETAGAINTODECIDETHEFATEOFTHEPOSTWARWORLD.
AtPotsdam,Stalin(left),Truman(center),andChurchill(right)frequentlyfoundthemselvesatodds,expressingdifferencesthatwouldleadtodissensionafterthewar.
ThedayaftertheUnitedStatessuccessfullytestedthefirstatomicbombatAlamogordointhedesertofNewMexico,theleadersoftheBigThreenationsgatheredatPotsdam,atownjustoutsideBerlin,tocontinuetheplanningbegunatYaltaforapostwarEurope.ThegoalsoforganizingtheadministrationofadefeatedGermany,settingpostwarbordersinEurope,anddeterminingwarreparationstookcenterstage.Truman,Stalin,andChurchillwerejoinedbyClementAttlee,Britain’sdeputy
primeministerandaLabourPartymemberofChurchill’sConservativeParty’scoalitiongovernment.HeandChurchillwerewaitingforresultsoftherecentBritishelection,anunexpecteddevelopmentgivenChurchill’swartimepopularity.WhentheresultswereannouncedonJuly26,Attleebecameprimeminister,andChurchilllefttheconference.Attlee,Truman,andStalineachhaddifferentgoalsregardingreparations.Stalinwas
focusedonthemoniespromisedtotheUSSRatYalta,whichwashalfofthetotalamountavailable.TrumanandU.S.secretaryofstateJamesByrnessoughttoavoidareplayoftheendofWorldWarIwhentheTreatyofVersaillesrequiredextremelyhighpayments,orreparations,fromGermany,ultimatelysowingtheseedsofWorldWarII.AttleeagreedwiththeAmericanposition.ThoughtheUSSRalreadycontrolledalmosthalfofGermanyandallofPoland,the
Balticstates,Hungary,Bulgaria,andRomania,StalinusedtheconferencetopushforanexpandedsphereofinfluenceineasternEuropetoserveasadefensivebufferalongtheUSSR’swesternborder.Incontrast,BritainandtheUnitedStatessoughtto
encouragenewdemocraticgovernments.AttleeandTruman,representingWesterndemocracies,feltagrowingdistrustofStalin’sintentionsineasternEurope,andbothfearedfurtherSovietexpansion.
AtsomeofthePotsdammeetings,StalinworehisfullmilitaryuniformasmarshaloftheSovietUnion.DuringPotsdam,anewmilitaryrankwascreatedjustfortheRussianleader,generalissimusoftheSovietUnion.Stalin
refusedtosignthedecreecreatingit,laterstatingthattheSovietarmyhadonlymarshalasitshighestrank.
HowtoHandlePolandOneofthemostcontentiousquestionsfacingtheBigThreewasthefutureofPoland.HowtoresolveissuesinvolvingthatcountryremainedamajorsourceofdisagreementfortheUSSR,Britain,andtheUnitedStates.InexchangeforterritorythatPolandhadlosttotheSovietsduringthewar,PolandwastoreceiveterritoryinthewesternportionofthecountrythathadbeenseizedandoccupiedbytheNazis.DuringtheirmeetingatPotsdam,thethreeleadersestablishedPoland’sprovisionalwesternborder;thefinaldemarcationwastobeestablishedatalatertime.
ThePotsdamConferencewasheldattheCecillenhofPalace,originallybuiltforroyalty.Thebuildingsarenowopentovisitors.
TheRefugeeCrisisAnotherofthemajordifficultiestoberesolvedwastherefugeeissue:ThePoleshadalreadybegundeportingseveralmillionGermansfromthewesternterritory,andothereasternEuropeancountrieswererepatriatingGermancitizensaswell.The
BritishandtheAmericansfearedtherefugeeswouldoverrun—andpotentiallydestabilize—theWesternoccupationzones.Bythetimetheconferenceended,theAllieshadnottakenanyactionontherefugee
crisis,sayingonly“anytransfersthattakeplaceshouldbeeffectedinanorderlyandhumanemanner.”TheyalsorequestedthatPoland,Czechoslovakia,andHungarytemporarilyhaltanyadditionaldeportations.
PostwarGermanyDespitetheirdifferences,oneofthekeyaccordsreachedbytheAllieswasthatallaspectsofGermansocietyweretoberestructured.Thecountry’smilitaryandparamilitaryforcesweretobedisbanded,warcriminalstried,andallNazi-eralawsrepealedandreplacedwithnew,moredemocraticmeasures.Inaddition,allauthoritarianinfluenceswouldberemovedfromthejudicialandeducationalsystems,andtheinvolvementofpoliticalpartiesinlocalandstategovernmentswouldbeencouraged.TheBigThreeagreedthatGermanyanditscapital,Berlin,wouldbedividedinto
fourzonestobegovernedbytheoccupationarmiesoftheUnitedStates,Britain,theUSSR,andFrance.Eachofthefournationswouldreceivewarreparationsfromitsoccupationzone.
5V-EDAYAFTERSIXYEARSOFWARANDINCALCULABLESUFFERING,THEALLIESDEFEATEDHITLER’SFORCESANDRESTOREdEUROPE’SFREEDOM.
SurrendertotheBigThreeGENERALDWIGHTEISENHOWERFORCEDGERMANYTOCAPITULATETOBOTHTHEWESTERNALLIESANDRUSSIA.
NumerousGermansoldierscapturednearthewar’sendwerekeptinruralcampsinAllied-occupiedGermany.
“WiththissignaturetheGermanpeopleandtheGermanarmedforcesareforbetterorworsedeliveredintothevictor’shands....InthishourIcanonlyexpressthehopethatthevictorwilltreatthemwithgenerosity.”
—GermangeneralAlfredJodl,May7,1945
ByApril,bothGermanciviliansandthecountry’smilitaryknewthattheywouldbeforcedtoadmitdefeat.TheSovietshadcapturedBerlin,andNazisoldiersstillstationedalongtheEasternandWesternFrontsweresurrenderingdaily.AxisforcesinItalyandsouthernAustriacapitulatedonMay2,andjusttwodayslaterGermantroopsinDenmarkandtheNetherlandsgaveupthefight.Thefollowingday,theremainingGermanarmiesinAustriafollowedsuit.Forallthesemen,thefightingwas
finallyover.
AnAmericansoldierguardedGermanprisonersduringtheAlliedadvanceintoGermany.
OnMay2,BritishfieldmarshalBernardMontgomeryexplainedpartialsurrendertermsforGermanforcesintheNetherlands,Denmark,andnorthwestGermany.Thenextday,NaziofficersreturnedtoMontgomery’sfield
headquartersnearHamburgandagreedtothesurrenderterms.
GermanyAdmitsDefeatBeforeAdolfHitlercommittedsuicideonApril30,1945,henamedGermannavalcommanderKarlDönitztosucceedhimasbothpresidentandcommanderofthesupremearmedforces.Dönitz,inhisnewroleaspresident,immediatelybeganactingonhisbeliefthatthe
AmericansandBritishwouldtreatGermantroopsbetterthanSovietpremierJosephStalin.OnMay7,hedispatchedJodl,atrustedcommanderwhoheldaleadpositionintheGermanArmedForcesHighCommand,tomeetwithGeneralDwightEisenhowerinReims,France.Negotiationsweredifficult.EisenhowerrejectedJodl’sofferthatGermanywould
surrenderonlytotheWesternAlliesandinsistedthattheGermansconcedetobothRussiansandtheWesternAllies.TheNaziswereoutofoptions.JodlradioedDönitz,requestingpermissiontosignsurrenderdocuments.Fourdifferentversionswereneeded:English,French,German,andRussian.GovernmentofficialsinLondon,
Paris,andMoscowquicklyapprovedthetranscripts.Bytheendoftheday,DönitzhadmadeGermany’sdefeatofficial.ShortlybeforemidnightonMay8,asecond,slightlydifferentdeclarationwas
executedwithRussianofficials,atStalin’sinsistence.MeetinginKarlshort,justoutsideBerlin,GermanfieldmarshalWilhelmKeitelformallyconcededhiscountrytoSovietgeneralGeorgyZhukov.ThesefinaldocumentsweresignedonwhatwasactuallyMay9inMoscow,andthisbecametheofficialsurrenderdatefortheRussians.ThewarthatbeganinSeptember1939hadcometoanendinEurope.American
forcesreceivedamessagefromEisenhowerafterthesurrender,inwhichhesaid,“Therouteyouhavetraveled...ismarkedbythegravesofformercomrades....Ourcommonproblemsoftheimmediateanddistantfuturecanbebestsolvedinthesameconceptionsofco-operationanddevotiontothecauseofhumanfreedomashavemadethisExpeditionaryForcesuchamightyengineofrighteousdestruction.”
“BycommandofAdmiralDönitztheArmedForceshavegivenupthehopelessstruggle.Aheroicfightthathaslastedfornearlysixyearsthuscomestoanend...theGermanArmedForceshavesuccumbedtooverwhelmingsuperiorstrength....Toshowobedience,disciplineandabsoluteloyaltytoourFatherland,bleedingfrominnumerablewounds,isthesacreddutyourdeadimposeuponusall.”
—FinalorderoftheGermanArmedForces,issuedonMay9,1945
GeneralAlfredJodl:ViolatingRulesofWar
GeneralAlfredJodl,ChiefoftheOperationsStaffoftheGermanHighCommandAlfredJodl(1890–1946)wasaGermanartilleryofficerduringWorldWarIandremainedinthemilitaryserviceafterthearmistice.AttheoutbreakofWorldWarII,JodljoinedtheGermanarmycommandstaff,whichwasresponsibleforthe
overallactionsofthearmy.
Asamemberofthegeneralstaff,JodlsignedoffontwoofAdolfHitler’sordersthatwereclearviolationsoftherulesofwar.The“CommandoOrder”directedGermanforcestoimmediatelykillallcapturedAllieswithouttrial.The“CommissarOrder”directedthatGermantroopsimmediatelyexecute,againwithoutanykindoftrial,anySovietpoliticalofficertheycaptured.Atthewar’sconclusion,JodlwasauthorizedbyChancellorKarlDönitztosignthesurrenderdocumentswiththeAlliesandtoagreetotheunconditionalsurrenderofGermanforces.JodlwasconvictedofwarcrimesattheNurembergTrialsandthenhangedin1946.
KarlDönitz:Germany’snewleader
KarlDönitz,shownhere,waswearingtheIronCross,whichwasawardedforexceptionalbraveryandleadershiponthebattlefield.
FollowingHitler’sdeathonApril30,andinaccordancewiththeFührer’swill,GrandAdmiralKarlDönitz(1891–1980)becameGermany’snewheadofstate,presidentoftheReich.Aloyal,obedient,andzealousNazi,Dönitzwasknownforhisruthlesscunningandlackofrespectforhumanlifeonthebattlefield.Inhismemoirs,Dönitzrecounted:...Ididnotforamomentdoubtthatitwasmydutytoacceptthetask...ithadbeenmyconstantfearthattheabsenceofanycentralauthoritywouldleadtochaosandthesenselessandpurposelesssacrificeofhundredsofthousandsoflives...Irealized...thatthedarkestmomentinanyfightingman’slife,themomentwhenhemustsurrenderunconditionally,wasathand.Irealized,too,thatmynamewouldremainforeverassociatedwiththeactandthathatredanddistortionoffactswouldcontinuetotryandbesmirchmyhonor.ButdutydemandedthatIpaynoattentiontoanysuchconsiderations.Mypolicywassimple—totryandsaveasmanylivesasIcould.Athis1946warcriminaltrialatNuremberg,Dönitzwassentencedtotenyearsinprisonandwasreleasedin1956.
TheWarinEuropeEndsAxisforcesinEuropefinallysurrendered.Asthenewsspread,joyfulcelebrationseruptedaroundtheworld.Soon,Americantroopsbegantheirlong-awaitedtriphometoreunitewithlovedones.
MAY2TheremainingAxisforcesinItalyandsouthernAustriasurrendered.
MAY4NaziforcesinDenmarkandtheNetherlandscededtotheAllies.
MAY5AllNaziforcesstillfightinginAustriasurrendered.
MAY7AlfredJodltraveledtoReims,France,andactingonbehalfoftheGermangovernment,signedanunconditionalsurrenderwiththeWesternAllies.
MAY8V-EDaywasannounced,andcelebrationsbeganaroundtheworld.May8GermanofficialsmetwithSovietmilitaryleadersandsignedsimilarsurrenderpapers.
MAY9Russiansjoinedthecelebrationsmarkingtheendofthewar.
JUNESoldiersstationedinEuropebegancominghometotheUnitedStates.
V-EDayintheBritishCommonwealthTHEEMPIRESAVOREDASWEETMOMENTOFTRIUMPH.
Thousandsofciviliansandmilitary,includingthesemembersoftheWomen’sRoyalArmyCorps,filledLondon’sTrafalgarSquaretocelebrateV-EDay.
TheannouncementthatGermanyhadofficiallyandunconditionallysurrenderedwasbroadcastinBritainlateatnightonMay7,andonthefollowingday,asenseofeuphoriareignedthroughoutthecountry.Peopleflockedtocitystreetstosing,dance,andcelebrate.Othersspentthedayquietlyathomeandinchurch,reflectingontheeventstheyhadendured.Forthosewhohadfought,acommonlyheardphrasewassimply“Isurvived.”InLondon,bandsplayed,flagsflew,andcrowdsgatheredoutsideBuckinghamPalace
tocheerforKingGeorge,whocameoutonthebalconyeighttimes.PrincessElizabethandhersister,PrincessMargaret,joinedthethousandsofcitizensinthestreets.PrimeMinisterWinstonChurchill,whospokefromthebalconyoftheMinistryofHealth,drewtheloudestcheerofallwhenheremindedtheelatedthrongsassembledbelow,“Thisisyourvictory.”
WinstonChurchillspoketothecheeringmasses,whichburstintoaroundof“Forhe’sajollygoodfellow.”
InTorontoandthroughoutCanada,peoplegatheredinthestreetstocelebrate,andinmanycities,May7wascommemoratedwiththanksgivingservices.TheGlobeandMail,Toronto’snewspaper,calledthefestivitiesa“carnivalofjoy,”markedwithlaughterandtears,blaringcarhorns,andopenchurcheswherepeoplegatheredtoprayandgivethanks.Itwasadayfilledwithexhilaration,flags,andofficialspeeches,aswellaswithhymnsandcallstorememberthosewhohadlosttheirlivesduringthewar.Incomparison,thecelebrationinNewZealandwassubdued.WhenV-EDaywas
announced,thecountry’sprimeministerPeterFraserinsistedthatnocelebrationsbehelduntilMay9,whenChurchillofficiallyannouncedthatpeacehadcome.ForNewZealanders,thedaybeganwithbellsandsirensandthengavewaytospeechesbygovernmentofficials,parades,andthanksgivingservices.Citizenswoncomplimentsfromthegovernmentfortheir“commendablerestraint.”Thedeclarationofvictory,however,wasnotsharedthroughouttheBritish
Commonwealth.InAustralia,theSydneyMorningHeraldledwiththequestion,“Sincewhenhasitbeencustomarytocelebratevictoryhalfwaythroughacontest?”Forasservicemenandwomenrecalledcomradeslostandhardshipsendured,theymayhavealsobeenwonderingiftheywouldbesenttofighttheJapanese.LiketheirNewZealandneighbors,theAustraliansknewthatthewarwasstilltobewon.
VictoryDayinFranceTHEBELLSRANGOUTANNOUNCINGTHEGOODNEWS.
SoldiersandciviliansfilledthestreetsofParistocelebrateV-EDayandrememberthe217,000soldiersand567,000civilianswhohadmadevictorypossiblebutnotlivedtocelebrateit.
OnMay8,CharlesdeGaulle,leaderoftheFreeFrenchForces,announcedGermany’ssurrenderinaradiobroadcasttohisfellowcitizens.Churchbellspealedinthevillages,towns,andcitiesthroughoutFrance,signalingtheendofNazioppressionandannouncingthatitwastimetocelebrate.AnAmericanairmanstationedinFranceatthetimewrote:“Thepeoplewentmad.Madwithlaughterandmadwithhappiness,madwithanythingandeverything.AllupanddownthestreetsthecheeringpopulaceletitbeknownthatHitlerwasKAPUT....”
AFrenchvictoryleafletfeaturedCharlesdeGaulle’swartimepromise,“Francewilllive,andinthenameoftheFrenchpeople,Isweartoyouthatshewilllivevictorious.”
DeGaulle’saddresstotheFrenchpeoplebegansimply:“Thewarhasbeenwon.”Hecontinued,“...[T]hecountryturnsitsthoughtsandaffectionfirstofalltowardthose
whodiedforherandthentowardthosewhoinherservicestruggledandsufferedsomuch.Notonesingleactofcourageorself-sacrificeofhersonsanddaughters,notonesinglehardshipofhercaptivemenandwomen,notonesinglebereavementandsacrifice,notonesingletearwillhavebeenwastedinvain....Honor,eternalhonor,toourarmiesandtheirleaders.Honortoournation,whichneverfaltered,evenunderterribletrials,norgaveintothem.”
JubilantParisiansparadedthroughtheArcdeTriompheandalongtheChamps-ElyséestocelebrateGermany’sdefeat.
InParis,paradingcrowdstooktothestreetsandfilledthecity’scenter,kissingoneanotherandsingingthenationalanthem.Onejournalistreportedthattherewas“...hardlyanyplacetobreatheandnoplaceatalltomove.”Thesoundsofbellsandcarhornsjoinedthedeafeningblastofair-raidsirens.Itwasadayofglory,knowingthatmanyofthosewhohadcollaboratedwiththeVichygovernmentandtheNaziswouldbebroughttotrialfortreasonandotherwarcrimes.
V-EDayintheUnitedStates“OURVICTORYISONLYHALFOVER.”—PRESIDENTHARRYTRUMAN
OverjoyedV-EDaycrowdsjammedTimesSquareinNewYorkCitysotightlythatneitherstreetsnorsidewalkswerevisible.
IntheUnitedStates,victorycelebrationsmarkingtheendofthewarinEuropewerejoyousand,aselsewherearoundtheworld,filledwithatremendoussenseofrelief.ThenightskyoftheEastCoast,particularlyinandaroundNewYorkCity,radiatedwithlightaseveningblackoutconditionswerenolongerrequired.JubilantcrowdsfilledTimesSquare,flagsflewhigh,churchbellsrang,carhornsblared,andpeopledancedinthestreets.Butthefestivitieslackedasenseoffinality.TheUnitedStateswasstillatwarinthe
Pacific,andeveryoneknewthenationfacedadeadlyenemy.InaradiobroadcasttothenationonMay8,PresidentHarryTrumanaddeda
somberremindertothecelebratoryatmosphere:“Forthisvictory,wejoininofferingourthankstotheProvidencewhichhasguidedandsustainedusthroughthedarkdaysofadversity.OurrejoicingissoberedandsubduedbyasupremeconsciousnessoftheterriblepricewehavepaidtoridtheworldofHitlerandhisevilband.Letusnotforget,myfellowAmericans,thesorrowandtheheartachewhichtodayabideinthehomesofsomanyofourneighbors—neighborswhosemostpricelesspossessionhasbeenrenderedasasacrificetoredeemourliberty.”
AmericansfillingTimesSquareandsurroundingstreetsweresoelatedthatthecelebrationextendedfarintothenight,withcitylightsatfullbrilliance.Duringthewar,businessesinNewYorkhaddimmedtheirlightsto
conserveelectricityandcoal.
Hecontinued,“WecanrepaythedebtwhichweowetoourGod,toourdead,andtoourchildren,onlybywork,byceaselessdevotiontotheresponsibilitieswhichlieaheadofus.IfIcouldgiveyouasinglewatchwordforthecomingmonths,thatwordiswork,work,andmorework.Wemustworktofinishthewar.Ourvictoryisonlyhalfover.”
VictoryDayinMoscowSTALINANDTHEUSSRCELEBRATEDWITHGUNFIREANDGUSTO.
HappycrowdsinMoscowpackedRedSquareedgetoedgeduringcelebrationsofVictoryDay,May9.Forabriefperiod,thewarwasoverfortheUSSR,asithadnotyetdeclaredwaronJapan.
“Eternalglorytotheheroeswhofellinthestruggleagainsttheenemyandgavetheirlivesforthefreedomandhappinessofourpeople!”
—JosephStalin,May9,1945
TheofficialnoticethatGermanyhadsurrenderedtoRussiawasmadeintheearlymorninghoursofMay9.ThechiefannouncerofRadioMoscowbrokethenewstotheRussianpeople:“Attention,thisisMoscow.Germanyhascapitulated.Thisday,inhonorofthevictoriousGreatPatrioticWar,istobeanationalholiday,afestivalofvictory.”Eventhoughitwasthemiddleofthenight,celebrationseruptedthroughoutthecity.
Peoplerushedoutsidetodance,pray,cry,andlaugh,andimpromptufestivitieslastedthroughouttheday.ThenewspaperPravdaledwiththeheadline“TriumphintheCapital”andfollowedwithaglowingtributetoStalin.Thatnight,fireworkslituptheskynearRedSquare,andthousandscametosharetheirjoy.TheobservancesinRussiaandtherestoftheSovietUnionwerenotconfinedtojust
oneday.AmajorparadetomarkthevictorywasheldinMoscow’sRedSquareonJune24,adatechosenbecausemanywarveteranshadreturnedhomeandcouldparticipateinthemilitaryhonors.SurvivingRussiansoldiershadreasontobe
thankful,formillionsofRussianshadbeenkilledduringthefighting,andseveralmillionmorehadbeenmurderedbytheNazisafterbeingcapturedduringbattle,amountingtoatotallossofsomewherebetween9millionand13millionmen.
TheSovietsputonamassivefireworksdisplayinMoscowtomarkthevictory.
RussianvictoryceremoniesincludedRedArmysoldiersloweringcapturedNazibannerstowardtheground,signifyingGermany’sdefeatandsurrender.
OperationMagicCarpetBeginsSHIPSBEGANFERRYINGTROOPSHOMEFROMEUROPE.
EcstaticcrowdsonthedocksofNewYorkCitywelcomedreturningAmericantroopsontheBritishshipQueenMary.
AmericansoldiersinEuropehadfinishedtheirjob,andtheU.S.militarycouldnowfocusonanotherHerculeantask:bringingtheirmenandwomenhome.Thejobwasnotaneasyone.Manyofthenavy’sshipswerestilldeployedinthePacificandunavailabletobringsomethreemillionmenandwomenhome.Also,therewasthequestionofwhoshouldgettocomehomefirst.Thegovernmentaddressedthefirstissuebyconverting300cargoshipsintotroop
transports.Forthesecond,thearmydevelopedacomplexsystemofpointsbasedonseniorityandtimeoverseastodeterminetheorderofreturn.StartinginlateJune,thefirsttransportsbegantheirjourney,andoverthenext14
months,morethan400,000GIsamonthtraveledtheAtlanticinanoperationdubbedMagicCarpet.Thefleetalsoincludedhospitalships,whichbroughtbackmorethanhalfamillion
woundedsoldiers.OnreturntripstoEurope,theshipscarried500,000GermanandItalianPOWstotheirhomes.
Familiesfeltbothreliefandelationastheyembracedlovedoneswhoreturned.
AftertheendofthewarinEurope,U.S.soldiersboardedtransportshipsforthetriphome.
6THEPOSTWARWORLDHAVINGSECUREDVICTORIESINEUROPEANDJAPAN,THEALLIEDPOWERSTURNEDTHEIRFOCUSTOREBUILDINGSHATTEREDECONOMIESANDTOBRINGINGWARCRIMINALSTOTRIAL.
ThePartitionofGermanyTHEALLIESRESTRUCTUREDTHECOUNTRY’SGOVERNMENTANDTRIEDNAZISFORWARCRIMES.
SignsmarkedtheboundariesofthefoursectorsofBerlin.Militarypolicepatrolledtheperimetersandguardedcrossingpointsbetweenthesectors.
FollowingGermany’ssurrender,civilauthoritythroughoutthecountrybrokedownandtheeconomyfaltered,resultinginalackofpublicservices,widespreadhunger,andhomelessness.Torestoreorder,theAlliesestablishednewadministrativeandeconomicsystems.TheyalsotookstepstoremoveallelementsofNazismfrompoliticalandsociallife,andprosecutedthoseresponsibleforthehorrorsoftheThirdReich.
TheBerlinDeclarationOnJune5,American,British,French,andSovietmilitarycommanderssignedtheBerlinDeclarationof1945thatsplitGermanyintofouroccupationzones.EachoftheAllieswasassignedresponsibilityforadministeringonezone.AnAlliedControlCouncil,madeupofmilitaryrepresentatives,wasformedandauthorizedtoexercisejointgoverningpoweroverthecountry.Thecouncil’sdecisionsweresupposedtobe
unanimous,butincasesofdisagreement,eachzone’smilitarygovernorcouldtakeseparateaction.Thecapitalcity,Berlin,wasalsodividedintoquartersbecauseofthewaythezoneswereapportioned.
Membersofdenazificationcommissionsinterviewedwitnessestodecidewhowaspunishableandwhowaseligibleforclemency.
ConflictAmongthe“BigFour”ThejointadministrationofGermanysoondeterioratedintoirreconcilabledifferences.TheUSSRwassupposedtosupplyfoodtotherestofthecountryinexchangeforreparationsfromtheotherthreezones.WhentheSovietsfailedtomeettheirobligations,theUnitedStatesandBritainbegansendingreliefsuppliestoGermanyattheirownexpense.Theaidfacilitatedthecountry’sreturntoself-sufficiency.TheriftbetweentheUSSRandtheWesternpowerscontinuedtowiden.Western
occupationgovernmentswantedtoencouragedemocracyandallowedpoliticalpartiestoforminpreparationforfutureGermanelections.By1947,theWesternpowerscombinedtheadministrationsintheirthreeregionstofurtherencourageeconomicgrowth.RussianpremierJosephStalin,incontrast,wantedtosafeguardhisregimebycontrollingneighboringcountries,includingtheSovietzoneinGermany.HeandtheSovietoccupierspressuredGermany’smoderateSocialDemocratstomergewiththeCommuniststoensureaCommunistvictoryinelectionsheldintheSovietzone.Overtime,thesedevelopmentsledtotheevolutionoftwoGermannations.
DenazificationofGermanyInSeptember1945,theAlliedControlCouncilofficiallyabolishedtheNaziParty.Soonafter,thegroupissuedseveraldirectivesdesignedtoremoveNazisfrompositionsofauthorityandtoeliminateNaziorganizationsandtheirideas.TheAlliesalsotookcontrolofthepress,radio,andmovies.TheAmericansclosedGermanschools,destroyedtextbooks,removedandretrainedteachers,andcreatednewcurricula.ThenextstepintheprocesswastoprosecuteNaziswhowereclassifiedasthewar’s“major
offenders.”
PostwarRecoveryTheAlliescarriedouttheirplansforthepostwarworld.TheypartitionedGermany,occupiedJapan,andplannedwartrialswhileworkingtoestablishdemocraticgovernments.Warwearybutoptimistic,50nationsgatheredtocreatetheUnitedNations.
APRIL
APRIL12PresidentRooseveltdiedofacerebralhemorrhage,andTrumanwassworninaspresidentthaesameday.
MAY
MAY7GermanysurrenderedtotheAllies,endingthewarinEurope.
JUNE
JUNE5GermanyandBerlinweredividedintofourzonescontrolledbyU.S.,British,French,andSovietmilitary.
OCTOBER
OCTOBER24TheUnitedNationswasestablished.
NOVEMBER
NOVEMBER20TheNurembergTrialsbegan.
TheBerlinAirlift:OperationVittles
WestBerlinchildreneagerlyawaitedtheplanesbringingfoodandcandy.
WhenBerlinwaspartitioned,theSovietstookcontroloftheeasternhalfofthecityandtheotherAlliesoccupiedthewesternsectors.Bylate1947,theBritish,Americans,andFrenchhadmergedtheirzones.ThisnewWesterncoalition,andespeciallytheprospectofaunifiedWestBerlin,worriedtheSoviets.StartingJune24,1948,theSovietsbegansealingoffallrailway,highway,andbargeaccesstoWestBerlin,creatingablockade.TheAlliesbegantoshipsuppliestoBerlinbyairplane.IntheinitialphaseoftheBerlinAirlift,Alliedplanesdeliveredabout5,000tonsoffoodandothergoodsdaily.Thatamountsoonincreasedto8,000tonsaday.BythetimetheSovietsendedtheblockadeinMay1949,atotalof2.3milliontonsofsupplieshadbeenairliftedintoBerlin.TheAlliescontinuedtosendfoodandothersuppliestothecityviaplaneuntilSeptember,hopingtocreateasurplusincasetheSoviets
decidedtoreinstatetheblockade.
TheNurembergWarTrialsJUSTICEWOULDBESERVED,BUTITWOULDNEVERMAKEUPFORETHOSEWHOLOSTTHEIRLIVES.
NazileadersweretriedinRoom600ofthePalaceofJustice.Courtroomproceedingswererecorded,andsomewerebroadcastinradioreports.ItwasthefirsttimemostpeoplelearnedoftheNaziatrocities,theconcentration
camps,andthegaschambers.
“Thewrongswhichweseektocondemnandpunishhavebeensocalculated,somalignant,andsodevastating,thatcivilizationcannottoleratetheirbeingignored,becauseitcannotsurvivetheirbeingrepeated.”
—JusticeRobertJackson,November21,1945
EvenbeforeGermanysurrendered,theAllieshadplannedtoestablishcourtstotryNazimilitaryandpoliticalleadersfortheiractionsduringthewar.OnMay2,1945,PresidentHarryTrumanselectedAssociateSupremeCourtJusticeRobertJacksontoorganizetheproceedingsandtorepresenttheUnitedStatesinthem.JacksonstartedbydevelopingtheLondonCharter,whichestablishedthe
InternationalMilitaryTribunalandtheproceduresforthetrials.TheAlliedsignatoriesagreedtoholdthetrialsinNuremberg,wheretheNazishadstagedtheirannualrallies,asthecourtofrecord.Muchofthecitywasseverelydamaged,butthehugePalaceofJusticeandaprisonremainedintact.OnNovember20,theNurembergWarTrialsbegan.Inthefirsttrial,22Nazisfaced
oneormorechargesofwarcrimes,crimesagainstpeace,orcrimesagainsthumanity.
ThedefendantsincludedLuftwaffecommanderHermannGöring,AdolfHitler’sdeputyRudolfHess,andtheFührer’ssuccessorAdmiralKarlDönitz.Eachmorning,guardsmarchedthemenfromtheprisontothecourtroom.Overthenexttenmonths,prosecutorsofferedevidencethatincludedGermanpropagandamovies,filmsofconcentrationcampliberations,andphysicalevidencefromthecamps,aswellaseyewitnesstestimony.The250journalistsattendingthetrialswereoftenheardweepinginthecourtroom.OnOctober1,1946,thecourthandeddowntheverdicts.Twelvehigh-rankingmen,includingGöring,weresentencedtodeathbyhanging.Threereceivedlifesentences,fourgotprisontermsoftento20years,andthreelesserpoliticalfigureswereacquitted.Between1945and1949,morethan100otherdefendantsweretriedatNuremberg.
HermannGöringconferredwithhisGermanlawyer.
TopNazileaderswerethefirsttobetriedinthetrialofthemajorwarcriminals.Defendantsseatedinthedockwere,frontrow(lefttoright):HermannGöring(takingnotes),RudolfHess,JoachimvonRibbentrop,GeneralWilhelmKeitel;backrow(lefttoright):AdmiralKarlDönitz,AdmiralErichRaeder,BaldurvonSchirach,and
FritzSauckel.
ThesecaseswerenotablebecausetheyattemptedtoadministerjusticefortheNazi
atrocitiesandbecausetheyestablisheduniversalstandardsofhumanrightsandconductduringwar.In1945,theUnitedNationsestablishedtheInternationalCourtofJusticetodecidelegaldisputesbetweennationsonavoluntarybasis.IntheyearsfollowingWorldWarII,theinternationalcommunitywouldalsosignagreementsonhumanrights,genocide,andlawsofwar.
RobertJackson:WorkofaLifetimeInOctober1941,SupremeCourtJusticeRobertJacksonposedforaformalphotographinhisnewjudicial
role.
AssociateSupremeCourtJusticeRobertJackson(1892–1954)wasaneminentattorneyandjuristwholeftasignificantlegacyasthearchitectofthetrialsatNuremberg.HewasborninSpringCreek,Pennsylvania,andsoonmovedwithhisfamilytoFrewsburg,NewYork.Afterapprenticingtoanattorneyandattendingoneyearoflawschool,JacksonpassedtheNewYorkStateBarexam.Hethenpursuedasuccessfullegalcareerandbecameactiveinlocalpolitics.PresidentFranklinRooseveltnamedJacksonU.S.solicitorgeneralin1938,andthreeyearslater,U.S.attorneygeneral.In1941,JacksonwasappointedtotheU.S.SupremeCourt,whereheserveduntilhisdeathin1954.JacksonlatersaidthatdevelopingtheInternationalMilitaryTribunalanditslegalprecedentswasthemostimportantworkofhislife.
HopesforaPeacefulWorldTHEUNITEDNATIONSPROVIDEDAFORUMFORRESOLVINGINTERNATIONALDISPUTES.
GardenersatSanFrancisco’sGoldenGateParkcreatedaspecialdisplayofflowerstowelcomethedelegatestotheconference.
Afteryearsofconflict,devastation,andprivation,therewasashareddeterminationtoavoidanotherworldwar.Gradually,thisdeterminationevolvedintoaction.TheseedsoftheeffortdatedtoAugust1941,whenRooseveltandPrimeMinisterWinstonChurchillissuedtheAtlanticCharter,astatementthatlistedtheirpostwargoalsforinternationalsecurity.ThesegoalsappearedagaininJanuary1942,when26AlliednationssignedtheUnitedNationsDeclaration,whichboundthemtoacommonpurposeofvictoryovertheAxispowers.Italsoresolvedtoprotectlibertyandhumanrightsandtorespecttheself-determinationofallpeoples.InApril1945,withtheendofthewarinsight,representativesof50nationsmetattheSanFranciscoConferencetowriteacharterfortheneworganization.
ThetitlepageoftheCharteroftheUnitedNationsfeaturedtheorganization’semblem.ItisamapoftheworldwiththeNorthPoleatitscenter,surroundedbyawreathofolivebranches,asymbolofpeace.
“...tosavesucceedinggenerationsfromthescourgeofwar...toreaffirmfaithinfundamentalhumanrights...”
—fromtheUNCharter
EdwardStettinius,chairoftheU.S.delegationtotheUnitedNationsconferenceinSanFrancisco,signedtheUNCharterfortheUnitedStateswhilePresidentHarryTruman(secondfromleft)andotherslookedon.
ThecharterestablishedthestructureoftheUnitedNationsandoutlineditsguidingprinciples:topreventwar,toaffirmfundamentalhumanrights,tofacilitateinternationalpeaceandsecurity,topromoteimprovedlivingstandards,andtosupportsocialprogressandeconomicadvancements.TheUnitedStates,Britain,andtheUSSRweretheprimarydesignersofthedecision-makingstructure.TheGeneral
Assemblyconsistedofrepresentativesofallmembercountries.TheSecurityCouncil,whichwasresponsibleforinternationalpeaceandsecurity,originallyhad11members,sixofwhichwereelectedtotwo-yearterms.Five—theUnitedStates,theUnitedKingdom,theSovietUnion,France,andtheRepublicofChina—werepermanentmembers,andeachhadvetopoweronSecurityCouncilresolutions.
SecretaryofStateJamesByrnes(right)watchedasTrumansignedthedocumentbywhichheratifiedtheCharteroftheUnitedNations.
DisagreementsbasedonnationalinterestsplaguedthediscussionsattheAprilconference,buttheydidnotpreventtheformationoftheUnitedNations.TheUSSRinsistedonindividualmembershipsforeachofthecountriesalongtheSovietborderineasternEurope.Britaingotassurancesthatduetotheprincipleofself-determination,noneofitscolonieswouldbeputunderUNcontrol.TherealsowasconsiderabledebateaboutthevotingprocessandvetopowerintheSecurityCouncil.FinallyonJune25,thedelegatesunanimouslyadoptedthecharter,andthenextdaytheyallsignedthedocument.AfterthepermanentmembersoftheSecurityCouncilandmostoftheothermembersratifiedthecharter,theUnitedNationswasofficiallyestablishedonOctober24,1945.Theworldhadenteredanewperiodofinternationalcollaboration.
HonoringThoseWhoServedTHEWORLDWARIIMEMORIALINWASHINGTON,D.C.ISATRIBUTETOALLTHEMENANDWOMENOFTHE“GREATESTGENERATION”WHOSACRIFIEDTOBRINGVICTORYTOOURNATION.
TheRainbowPoolinthecenterofthemonument’splazaopenstovistasofboththeLincolnMemorialandtheWashingtonMonument.
“Whenitmatteredmost,anentiregenerationofAmericansshowedthefinestqualitiesofournationandofhumanity.Onthisday,intheirhonor,wewillraisetheAmericanflagoveramonumentthatwillstandaslongasAmericaitself.”
—GeorgeW.Bush,May29,200
SixteenmillionAmericansservedduringWorldWarII,andonMay29,2004,amemorialhonoringtheircommitmentandsacrificeswasdedicatedinthenation’scapital.Theeventfeaturedafour-daycelebration,withspecialmuseumexhibitsandservicesintheNationalCathedral.Almosteveryfeatureanddetailoftheseven-acrememorial,situatedintheNational
Mall,issymbolic.Aceremonialentranceisflankedby24bronzebas-reliefsculpturesthatprovideglimpsesintotheAmericanexperienceathomeandonthebattlefield.Inside,thememorialisanchoredbytwopavilions—oneproclaimingvictoryintheAtlanticTheatre,theothersuccessinthePacific.Fifty-sixgranitepillarsrepresentthestates,federalterritories,andtheDistrictofColumbia.Thecolumnsarelinkedwithbronzeropestoreflectthenation’sunityduringthewarandadornedwithtwobronzewreaths,oneofwheat,representingtheUnitedStates’agriculturalstrength,andoneinoak,signifyingthemightofanationthatsupplieditsowntroopsandthoseofitsallies.ThesitealsofeaturestheFreedomWalldecoratedwith4,048goldstars,honoring
themilitarypersonnelwholosttheirlivesduringthewarorwhoremainmissingin
action.Carvedatthebottomarethewords:“Herewemarkthepriceoffreedom.”
Fourmillionvisitorscometothememorialeachyeartopaytributetofallencomradesandtohonorallthosewhosacrificedduringthewar.Manyleaveflagsandflowerstocommemoratetheevent.
Visitorscanfindhiddentreasuresinthesite,includingthefamous“Kilroywashere”graffitithatisfamiliartoeveryWorldWarIIveteran.AlsocarvedintothememorialarethesewordsfromPresidentTruman:“Ourdebttotheheroicmenandvaliantwomenintheserviceofourcountrycanneverberepaid.Theyhaveearnedourundyinggratitude.Americawillneverforgettheirsacrifices.”
FoureaglessitinsidetheAtlanticpavilion.Eachbirdhasawingspanof11feetandisperchedonitsown18-foot-tallbronzecolumn.Thefourjointogethertoholdalaurelvictorywreath.Carvingsatthebaseofthepavilionslist
manyofthemajorWorldWarIIbattlefields.
WarDeathsbyCountryCountry:FranceMilitaryDeaths:218,000TotalCivilianandMilitaryDeaths:568,000
Country:GermanyMilitaryDeaths:5.5millionTotalCivilianandMilitaryDeaths:6.6million–8.8millionCountry:ItalyMilitaryDeaths:300,000TotalCivilianandMilitaryDeaths:457,000
Country:SovietUnionMilitaryDeaths:8.8million–10.7millionTotalCivilianandMilitaryDeaths:24millionCountry:UnitedKingdomMilitaryDeaths:
384,000TotalCivilianandMilitaryDeaths:451,000
Country:UnitedStatesMilitaryDeaths:417,000TotalCivilianandMilitaryDeaths:419,000
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93.Bottom:©Hulton-DeutschCollection/CORBIS94.Top:©JonHicks/Corbis94.Bottom:©JonHicks/Corbis95.©RichardGreen/Commercial/AlamyStockPhotoThenumbersinthissectionreferencethepagenumbersoftheprintversionofthistext.
NumerousGermansoldierscapturednearthewar’sendwerekeptinruralcampsinAllied-occupiedGermany.
“IadmitthatGermanyisdefeated.”—HeinrichHimmler,April23,1945
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