unit 12, lesson 1 the industrial revolution...
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The Industrial Revolution Begins
Unit 12, Lesson 1
Keywordsmechanized
production
merchant-capitalist
Essential Questions• WhydidtheIndustrialRevolutionbegininBritain?
• Whatwerethefirstfactorieslike?
• Whatwerethekeycomponentsofprotoindustrialization?
• Whatwascottageindustry?
• HowdidtheagriculturalrevolutionmotivatetheIndustrialRevolution?
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580 Unit 12, Lesson 1
Set the StageMany dynamic and dramatic changes took hold in almost every aspect of European life during the eighteenth century. These changes occurred for all classes of people. They also set the stage for the Industrial Revolution. During the late 1700s, many unique circumstances—from geographic location to the abundance of cheap food—converged in Great Britain, thus stimulating industrial innovation. Although the Industrial Revolution began in England, the associated spirit of innovation, the desire for increased profit, and the use of new productive capacity began to spread across Europe throughout the 1830s and 1840s. While poverty certainly did not disappear, scarcity for all was no longer the norm. The Industrial Revolution raised the standard of living in Europe and put manufactured goods within the grasp of most Europeans.
Great Britain at the Close of the Eighteenth CenturyThemanychangesinthought,economy,agriculture,politics,andsocietythatoccurredduringthe1700ssetthestagefortheIndustrialRevolution,whichbeganinGreatBritainduringthelastdecadesofthecentury.WhileFrancewasinturmoilbecauseofthepoliticalupheavaloftheFrenchRevolution,Englandwasonthebrinkofaneconomicandsocialrevolutionthatwouldtransformsocialclassmembership,workpatterns,andthepoliticalstatusamongnations.ThefirstinventionsandmechanizedfactoriesoftheIndustrialRevolutionaroseoutofaneedtoincreasetheproductionofthreadintheBritishtextileindustry.Additionally,severalgeographical,political,economic,andsocialconditionsthatexistedinGreatBritainattheendoftheeigh-teenthcenturymadeEnglanduniquelysuitedforindustrialinnovationandexpansion.
Defining the Industrial RevolutionTheIndustrialRevolutionwasagradualprocessofindustrialgrowth,utilizingnewmethodsofmechanized production.ItbeganinGreatBritainduringthelatedecadesoftheeighteenthcenturyandcontinuedthroughmostofthenineteenthcentury.TheIndustrialRevolutionreplacedoldpatternsofscarcityandwantwithnewpatternsofmaterialabundanceandincreasingaccesstofoodandgoods.Also,theworkandenergyofhumansandanimalswasreplacedbytheworkandenergyprovidedbymineralresourcesandmachines.Thesenewsourcesofenergywerebelievedtobeinexhaustible,unlikehumaneffort.Overall,theIndustrialRevolutionwascharacter-izedbyarisingstandardoflivingandmoregoodsproducedatcheaperrates.
Cottage Industry and the Period of “Protoindustrialization”Theeighteenth-centurysystemofruralindustrialproductionwascalledtheputting-outsystem,domesticindustry,orcottageindustry.Thetermprotoindustrializationhasalsobeenusedbyhistorianstodistinguishthisphaseofruralindustrialworkfromworkinmechanizedfactories.
mechanized production the use of machines to produce manufactured goods, rather than relying on human work and hand tools
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Unit 12, Lesson 1 581
Thisruralworkwascharacterizedbytheuseofhandtoolsandthecreationoffinishedproductsonepieceatatime.Cottageworkerswerepaidbythepiecefortheirlabor.Theputting-outsystemwasanearlyformofcapitalism.Merchant-capitalistswithcapital,intheformofrawmaterials,wouldlendoutthatcapitaltoworkers.Workersthenturnedthosematerialsintofinishedgoodsintheirhomesorworksheds.Forexample,somemerchantsprovidedruralworkerswithrawwool.Merchantsalsooftensuppliedworkerswithspinningwheels,looms,orotherequipmentfortheprocessingofrawmaterials,butthemerchantsretainedownershipoftheequipment.Asinglefamily,ormultiplefamilies,wouldthenspinthewoolintothread,weavethethreadintocloth,anddyethecloth.Theclothmightthenbetakento“clothiers”or“drapers”toproduceafinishedprod-uctthatthemerchantcouldsellontheopenmarket.Aftersellingthefinishedproducts,merchantshadprofitstopayworkerswithandmorecapital,whichtheywouldthen“putout”again.
Cottageindustriesoperatedoutsideoftheguildsystem,whichgavemerchantsandworkersmorefreedomtodevelopnewmethodsofproductionandmakeadap-tationstofittheirneeds.Andthereweremanyadaptations.Sometimesworkersmadeproductswiththeirownrawmaterialsandsimplyemployedmerchantstoselltheirwares.Othertimes,workersfacedcomplicatedtasksthatrequiredadditionalhelporspecializedskills,andsotheyhiredsubcontractorstocompleteaproject,therebybecomingemployersthemselves.Astheeighteenthcenturyprogressed,moreandmoreworkersearnedatleastpartoftheirincomeincottageindustries,sotheimportanceofthesewagesincreased.
Cottageworkwasusuallydoneinahome,typicallybyfamilymembers.Thesettinginitselfwasmorecomfortablethanworkingatafactoryunderasupervisor.Theenterprisewasoftendirectedbythefather,whowasassistedbyhiswifeandchildren.Certainlythereweredeadlines,butworkerswerefreetodirecttheirownschedule.Theycouldworkortakebreaksattheirowndiscretion.Sincetheywerepaidforfinishedproducts,therewasincentivetofinishone’sworkasquicklyaspossible,butthepaceofworkwasultimatelyinthehandsoftheworker.Inaddition,itleftthepaceofworkinthehandsoftheworker.Workincottageindustriescouldalsobedictatedbytheseasonsoreventhetimeofday.Forinstance,itwascommonforworkersinthedairybusinesstobequitebusymilkingcowsinthemorningandintheevening,buttohavenobusinessresponsibilitiesintheafternoon.Likewise,cottageworkerswhowerebothweaversandfarmersmightbebusyinthespringplowingandsewingseedsorbusyinthefallwiththeharvest,andwouldthereforefocuslessonweavingduringthosetimes.
Itwaspossibletomanufacturemanydifferentkindsofproductsincottageindustry,andworkersproducedeverythingfromtextiles,buttons,andglovestosilverware,housewares,clocks,andmusicalinstruments.Andthemajorityofgoodsmadebyruralworkerswereofaqualitythatmadethemsufficientforeverydayuse.However,luxurygoodsforthewealthy,suchasfineporcelainandfancytap-estries,stillrequiredspecializedtrainingandaworkshoptomake,sotheywerenotgenerallyapartofanycottageindustry.
merchant-capitalist urban entrepreneur who provided raw materials and equipment to cottage workers, paid for labor by the piece, and sold the finished manufactured goods
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582 Unit 12, Lesson 1
TheEnglishwerethefirsttodevelopcottageindustriesbroadlyandsuccess-fullyinlargepartbecauseEnglandlackedinternaltariffsandhadaweakguildstructure.AlthoughtheBritishdidnotleadtheworldinmanufacturingin1750,Englanddidhavethemostrapidlyexpandingtextileindustry,andtheBritishbecameknownforthequalityoftheirspunandwovenwoolencloth.Asearlyas1500,halfofEnglishtextilesweremadeinthecountryside,andbythestartoftheeighteenthcentury,thetextileindustryreliedmoreoncottageindustrythanurbanindustrialproduction.
Agricultural Innovation Stimulates Industrial InnovationTheroleofagriculturalinnovationinbringingabouttheIndustrialRevolutioninEnglandcannotbeoverstated.In1700,agriculturalproductivityinGreatBritainwassecondonlytoHolland.Furthermore,theEnglishwereconstantlyimplement-ingnewfarmingmethodsoverthecourseoftheeighteenthcentury.Twomajorresultsofallthisinnovationwereplentifulcropsandlowprices.Ordinaryfamilies,inadditiontohavingenoughtoeat,couldnowaffordtobuymanufacturedgoods,causingdemandtoincrease.
Britishnobleswhoownedlandwereanxioustoincreasetheprofitabilityoftheirlandholdings,whichwouldalsoincreasetheircashflow.Thus,noblespracticedselectivebreeding,utilizednewagriculturaltechnology,suchasseeddrillsandfer-tilizer,andplantednewcrops,includingpotatoes,turnips,sugarbeets,andvarioushardygrains.Asaresultofthesenewfarmingmethods,GreatBritainproduced2.5timesmorefoodperacrethanFranceattheendoftheeighteenthcentury.
TheEnclosureActspassedbyParliamentalsocreatedconditionsfavorabletoindustrialinnovationinEngland.SomeenclosedlandthathadpreviouslybeenusedforfarmingwasthereafterusedtograzesheepforuseintheflourishingBritishwoolandtextileindustries.Bysellingwool,landownerscouldbringinagoodprofitwithverylittlelabor.Otherenclosedlandshadpreviouslybeensharedbypeasantvillagersforthecommunalgrazingofanimals.Peasantfarmersthuslostgrazinglandandmanycouldnolongerraiseanimals,whichforcedthemtoseekotheravenuesofearningaliving.Bythetimeenclosurewascomplete,75to90percentofEnglishpeasantshadbecomehiredagriculturallaborers.Mobilerurallaborers,alongwithcottageworkers,formedapotentialindustriallaborforceforcapitalistentrepreneurs.Furthermore,migrationtocitiesprovidedlaborforindustry.Therewereworkerstorunminesandtobuildandrunfactories,recruitsforthearmyandnavy,peopletocolonizenewlands,andmoreconsumersformanufacturedproducts.Yetifworkersweremovingtotownsandcities,thefoodsupplyhadtobeabundantenoughtofeedallthepeoplewhowerenolongerfarming.Hereagaintheincreasedcropyieldsfromtheagriculturalrevolutionwerebeneficial.
Great Britain’s Unique Capacity for Industrial InnovationManyadvantageshelpedmakeGreatBritainahubofindustrialinnovation.Oneofthoseadvantageswasgeographical.Asanisland,GreatBritainwasseparatedand
1SELf-ChECK
What was cottage
industry?
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Unit 12, Lesson 1 583
somewhatprotectedfromthemilitarythreatsthatcountriesincontinentalEuropecontinuallyfaced.ThustheBritishdidnotneedtomaintainamassivestandingarmyandcouldfocustheirenergiesontheirnavaldominanceandoverseasempire.Furthermore,nolocationinEnglandwasmorethan20milesfromwater—whetheritwascanal,river,orocean.Sincethecheapestwaytomovegoodsfromoneloca-tiontoanotherwasbywaterratherthanbyland,theprevalenceofwaterwayswasadistinctadvantage.Finally,GreatBritainalsohadanabundanceofironoreandcoal,twoincrediblyimportantandusefulnaturalresourcesthatwouldproveindis-pensibleforindustrialization.
GreatBritainalsohadseveralpoliticaladvantagesoverotherEuropeannations.InGreatBritain,thoseofroyalandaristocraticbirthwerenottheonlyoneswhohadinfluenceinthegovernment.Parliamentenactedlaws,suchastheEnclosureActs,thatpromotedcommercialagricultureandthegrowthofamarketeconomy.Manyparliamentarypoliciesprotectedprivatepropertyandpromotedlaissez-faireprinciples,whichhadtheeffectofincreasingmerchantwealth,notjustthewealthofthecrownandthestate.Furthermore,insteadofexpendingallofitswealthinwarfarewithothernations,Britaindevelopeditsnavy,whichthencouldaidinacquiringmorecolonies,whichinturnprovidedevenmorerawmaterialsandmarketsforBritishproduction.
TheBritisheconomyalsohadaleguponmanycountriesincontinentalEurope.GreatBritain’spromotionoftheagriculturalrevolutioncreatedalarge,wellfed,andmobileworkforcethatcouldworkfirstincottageindustriesandeventuallyinindustrialfactories.Furthermore,unlikeFranceandGermany,Great
A Weaver’s Workshop by Johannes Dircksz van Oudenrogge
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584 Unit 12, Lesson 1
Britainhadnotariffstohinderinternaldomestictrade.TheagriculturalrevolutionthatgraduallyspreadthroughoutBritainduringthe1700smadefoodincreasinglyplentifulandinexpensive.SinceanordinaryBritishfamilydidnothavetospendeverypennyitmadeonfood,someincomewasfreeduptobuymanufacturedgoods,aswell.Thenation’sstablegovernmentallowedfortheestablishmentofastablefinancialnetworkofbanksandcreditinstitutions.Theseinstitutionshadcapitaltolendtoentrepreneursandtoinvestingrowingindustries.Additionally,profitmadefrommercantilistglobaltradecouldbereinvestedinmanufacturingenterprisesinGreatBritain.
Finally,GreatBritainhadnumeroussocialadvantagesoverotherEuropeannations.AristocratsoftheoldstyleEuropeansocialstructurewantedtoaccu-mulatewealth,butdidnotpursueprofit,asthatwasseenasacrude,middleclasstrait.Incontrast,overallsocialattitudesinGreatBritainfavoredprofitandinnovation.BoththeBritisharistocratsandthemiddleclasssharedaninterestincommerceandprofitaccumulation.Protestantdissentersweregenerallytol-erated,aswell.However,becausetheywereexcludedfromthepaidclergy,thetraditionaluniversitysystem,andgovernmentpositions,theygenerallymadealivingthroughcommercialtradeandindustry.Theywereofteneducatedatdis-sentingacademies,whichprovidedpracticalbusinessandtechnicaltrainingtotheirstudents.Therefore,manyoftheinventorsoftheearlyIndustrialRevolutioncamefromthisgroupofProtestants.
The first factoriesCottageindustryexpandedallacrossEuropeduringthe1700s,butitwasthemostestablishedinEngland.AscontinentalandcolonialdemandincreasedforBritishtextiles,thelimi-tationsoftheputting-outsystembecameapparent.Becausethetraditionalprocessforspinningwasnotfastanddidnotproducealargeyieldofthread,therealwaysseemedtobeashortageofthreadforweaverstoweaveintocloth,especiallyafter1760.Creativeandindustriousmerchantsandworkersunderstoodthatthedevelopmentofabetter,moreefficientspinningwheelwouldbeextremelyprofitable.Inthiscircum-stance,necessitywasdefinitelythemotherofinvention.Severalsimpletechnologicalbreakthroughs,beginninginthe1730s,pavedthewayforthemechanizationofspinningunderoneroofinthefirstfactories.Theabilitytomanufacturecottonclothmorequicklyandcheaply,whichcausedrapidgrowthinthetextileindustry,wasthefirstmajorinnovationoftheIndustrialRevolutioninEngland.
In1765,JamesHargreavesinventedthecotton-spinningjenny.Earlymodelsofthismachine,whichweresimpleandinexpensive,hadseveralspindlesthatwereconnectedtoaslidingcarriagethathousedslenderthread.Theopera-tormovedthecarriagebackandforthwithonehandand
2SELf-ChECK
What made England
geographically suited for
industrial innovation?
Power looms
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Unit 12, Lesson 1 585
turned a wheel to supply powerwiththeother.Thecotton-spinningjennywassmallenoughtobeusedinahomeaspartoftheputting-outsystem.Thus,factorieswerenotimmediatelynecessary.Atroughlythesametime,RichardArkwrightinventedthewaterframe,anothermachinethatgreatlyimprovedandspedupthespinningprocess.Thisinventionhadthecapacitytospinseveralhundredspindlesatonetime.Yetitrequiredwaterpower,sohadtoberunataspecializedmillbuiltnearawatersource.Theseinventionscausedamassiveincreaseincottonyarnproductionduringthe1780s.Tentimestheamountofcottonyarnwasbeingproducedin1790ashadbeenproducedin1770.Cottontex-tileproduction,whichwasprimar-ilymechanized,madeupasmuchas22 percentofEngland’sindustrialproductionby1831.
Factoryproductiondidnotimme-diatelyputanendtotheputting-outsysteminthetextileindustry.Mechanizationandcottageindustryworkedsidebysideandcooperativelyforquitesometime.Thiswasespeciallytruebecausetheproductionoftextilesinvolvedmanystepsbeyondthespinningofthread.Inaddition,themechanizationofmanyotherindustriesdidnotevenbegintooccuruntilafter1830.
Becauseworkingconditionsweremuchbetterforcottageworkersthantheywereinearlyfactories,peoplewerereluctanttotakejobsinfactories.Furthermore,thereadyavailabilityofcottageworkleftspinnersandweaverswithachoiceofwheretheytoiled.MostEnglishfactorieswerebuiltinruralareasuntilthelate1780sbecausetheyreliedonwaterpower,whichwassuppliedbythemanyriversthatrunthroughtheEnglishcountryside.Tofilltheneedforlabor,factoryownerswould“apprentice”orphanchildrenthathadbeenabandonedbytheirparentsandbringthemtoworkintextilefactories.Thesechildrenwerelittlebetteroffthanslaves,astheygenerallyworkedforroomandboardratherthanwages.Inaddition,manywereforcedtoworkforupto14yearsbeforetheywerefreefromtheirapprenticeship.Thesechildrenworked6daysaweek,forupto14hoursaday.Somesufferedbrutalbeatingsfornotworkinghardenough.Althoughitwasnotunusualforpoorchildrenoftheeighteenthcenturytoworklonghoursoutsidetheirhomes,thelarge-scaleexploitationoforphanchildrenduringthisperiodwas
Men in London carrying coke, which was used in blast furnaces, as fuel for the first locomotives or for smelting iron
3SELf-ChECK
What prompted the
invention of the
spinning jenny? Who
invented it? What did
this invention do?
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586 Unit 12, Lesson 1
unmatched.Fortunately,thedeplorableworkingconditionsoffactorychildrendidnotcontinueuncriticized,asreformersoftheearlynineteenthcenturyworkedtoendsuchexploitationofchildren.
TheIndustrialRevolutionwasagradualprocessofindustrialgrowth,utilizingnewmethodsofmechanizedproduction.Theinventionofabetter,moreefficientspinningwheelwasjustoneexampleoftheprofit-drivenimpulsetowardinnova-tionthatwouldcharacterizethenineteenthcenturyandmoderncapitalism.AstheIndustrialRevolutionspread,moreandmoreEuropeansrecognizedthatinventingawaytoproducesomethingmorequickly,moreefficiently,andmorecheaplythananyoneelsecouldproduceitwasapathtowealthandpower.
Extensions• ReadsomeofthedebatesbyhistoriansabouttheIndustrialRevolution
inEnglandinThe Causes of the Industrial Revolution in England(R.M.Hartwell,ed.).Whosepositionsorargumentsdoyoufindtobemostinterestingandmostvalid?
SummaryTheIndustrialRevolutionwasagradualprocessofindustrialgrowth.Thisgrowthwasduetothedevelopmentandutilizationofnewmethodsofmechanizedpro-duction.Theworkandenergyofhumansandanimalswerereplacedbytheworkandenergyofmineralresourcesandmachines.Withtheuseofnewmechanizedinventions,eachworkercouldproducemoregoodsatacheapercost.Furthermore,theagriculturalrevolutioninEnglandprovidedanabundanceofinexpensivefood.Thus,evenordinarypeoplehadextramoneytobuymanufacturedgoods.Lowpricesforfoodandgoodsbroughtaboutarisingstandardofliving.Asacoun-try,GreatBritainhadmanyadvantages—geographical,political,economic,andsocial—thatmadeittheideallocationforthedevelopmentofindustrialinnova-tion.Inaddition,thedisplacementofpeasantfarmersbecauseoflandenclosurecreatedalargeandmobilegroupofruralworkersabletoworkincottageindustryandeventuallyinnewfactories.TheIndustrialRevolutionemergedfromthehighlyprofitableandgrowingcottageindustryinEngland.ThefirstinventionsandmechanizedfactoriesaroseoutofaneedtoincreasetheproductionofthreadintheBritishtextileindustry.
Looking AheadTheIndustrialRevolutionincludedtheinventionofnumerousnewmachinesanddevicesthatspeduptheproductionofmanymanufacturedgoods.Oneinventionofextremeimportancewasthesteamengine.Theinventionandperfectionofthesteamengineallowedforadependableandefficientsourceofpowerfornewindustrialmachinery.Theinterrelationshipamongthesteamengine,coalmining,andironproductionwasaprimaryfactorofgrowthduringtheearlyIndustrialRevolution.Furthermore,thesteamengineandimprovementsinthequalityofironledtotheconstructionofrailroads.TheIndustrialRevolutionbeganinEngland,butthengradu-allyspreadacrosstheEuropeancontinentthroughoutthenineteenthcentury.
4SELf-ChECK
Who worked in the first
British factories?
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Unit 12, Lesson 1 587
1. A merchant provided equipment and raw materials to cottage workers who used hand tools to produce finished products one piece at a time in their home. Then cottage workers were paid by the piece for their work.
2. First, as an island, Britain was separated and protected from continental military conflict. Second, no location in England was more than 20 miles from water, and water was the cheapest and easiest way to transport goods. Third, Great Britain had an abundant supply of iron ore and coal.
3. The spinning process was slow, and there was a continual shortage of thread that could be woven into cloth. The spinning jenny was invented by James Hargreaves. Early models of this machine, which were simple and inexpensive, had “six to twenty-four spindles . . . mounted on a sliding carriage, and each spindle spun a fine, slender thread. The operator moved the carriage back and forth with one hand and turned a wheel to supply power with the other.”
4. Orphan children
SELf-ChECK AnSwERS
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The Invention Explosion
Unit 12, Lesson 2
Keywordscustoms union
locomotive
trunk lines
Essential Questions• Whateighteenth-andnineteenth-centuryinventionsimprovedproduction?
• WhatsimilaritiesanddifferencesaretherebetweencontinentalindustrializationandBritishindustrialization?
• Whatimpactdidrailroadshaveonurbandevelopment?
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Unit 12, Lesson 2 589
Set the StageBy the late eighteenth century, Great Britain was primed for industrial expansion. The rise of capitalism, the acceptance of laissez-faire ideas, overseas expansion, and the growth of cottage industry all prepared England for industrialization. Furthermore, British advantages such as access to water for transportation and power, ample natural resources, a stable government, a stable financial system, and a profit-driven marketplace also made England well suited for industrial innovation. Most inventions were developed when investors or entrepreneurs sought to solve a problem that was holding back increased production and profit. In contrast to Great Britain, continental Europe industrialized much more slowly, making advancements when it suited individual countries’ needs.
Inventions of the Industrial RevolutionTheIndustrialRevolutionwitnessedtheinventionofnumerousnewmachinesanddevicesthatspeduptheproductionofmanymanufacturedgoods.Yetindustrialexpansionwasnotfullypossiblewithoutthedevelopmentofpowersourcesmorepowerfulandefficientthanhumanoranimaleffortandwater-power.Thebreakthroughinventionofthesteamengine,increasedproductionofcoal,andimprovementsinthequalityofironallcontributedtosolvingthisearlyenergycrisis.Additionally,theinterrelationshipsamongthesteamengine,coal,andironalsoeventuallyledtotheconstructionofrailroads,thecrowningachievementofindustrialization.TheIndustrialRevolutionbeganinEngland,butthengraduallyspreadacrosstheEuropeancontinentthroughoutthenineteenthcentury.
flying Shuttle (1733)JohnKay’s(1704–1764)flyingshuttle,inventedin1733,cuttheweavingprocesstimeinhalf.Italsoallowedasingleloomoperatortoworkwithwiderclothbecausethisnewweavingmachinehadashuttlethatcouldbeoperatedwithonehand.Thisinventioncreatedagreaterdemandforspunyarnbecausenowweavingtookmuchlesstimethanithadbefore.Unfortunately,spinningwasstillaveryslowprocess.Theflyingshuttlecanbecreditedwithstimulatingatleastaneedforthespinningjenny,ifnottheinventionitself.
Spinning Jenny (1765)In1765,JamesHargreaves(1720–1778)inventedthespinningjenny.Namedafterhiswife,thismachinewasanimprovementonthetra-ditionalspinningwheel.Earlymodelsofthismachineweresimpletooperateandinexpensivetouse.Thecotton-spinningjennywassmallenoughtobeusedinahomeandcontributedtotheputting-outsystem.
The spinning jenny and similar devices led to phenomenal growth for England’s textiles industry.
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590 Unit 12, Lesson 2
Thus,factorieswerenotimmediatelynecessaryforthismachinetobeusedinproduction.Oneproblemwiththisfirstspinningmachinewasthatitproducedfairlythinandweakthread.
water frame (1771)RichardArkwright(1731–1792)inventedthewaterframein1771,anothermachinethatgreatlyimprovedandspedupthespinningprocess.Inessence,Arkwrightintroducedwaterpowertotheprincipleofthejenny.Hisinventionhadthecapacitytospinseveralhundredspindlesatonetime.However,itrequiredwaterpower,soithadtoberuninaspecializedmillbuiltnearawatersource.Thewaterframecouldspincoarsethreadthatwouldbefurtherspunonhand-poweredcottagejennies.
Mule (1780)In1780,SamuelCrompton(1753–1827)improvedonboththespinningjennyandthewaterframebycombiningthebestfeaturesofbothmachinesintoanewmachinecalledamule.Thismachineproducedthreadthatwasbothfineandstrong.
Power Loom (1785)Thepowerloom,initiallyinventedbyEdmundCartwright(1743–1823)in1785,wasnotimmediatelycost-effective.Afterdevelopmentoverseveraldecades,however,thepowerloomwasfinallyutilizedeffec-tivelyduringthe1830s.Thisinventiondrovemanyhandloomweaversoutofbusiness.
Cotton Gin (1793)Withanincreaseintheuseoftextilemachinery,demandforrawcottonalsoincreased.Yetjustastheslowspinningprocesshadbeenaproblemthatneededsolving,theproblemofhowtoquicklyremovethemanytinyseedsrawcottonhadtobeaddressedtospeedupthetimerequiredtoprocessit.AnAmerican,EliWhitney(1765–1825)inventedthecottonginin1793.Thismachineprovidedaneffectiveprocessforremovingseedsfromcottonfiber.
Precision PartsThecottontextileindustryalsobenefittedfromthedevelopmentofprecisionpartsforvariousnewspinningandweavingmachines,whichimprovedtheoperationalefficiencyofthemachines.Basically,theseprecisionpartswerecreatedbymechani-calengineersusingtechniquestraditionallyappliedbywatchmakers.Thisimpor-tantstepthenledtothecreationofstandardized,interchangeablepartsfortextilemachinery.WorkinginanarmsfactoryinConnecticut,EliWhitneymadesomeimportantcontributionstothedevelopmentofstandardizedpartsformachinery.
Rolling Press (1780s)Duringthe1780s,arollingpressforprintingtextileswasdeveloped.Therollingpressreplacedaslowerandlessefficientprocessofprintingtextileswithhand-operatedplates.
Richard Arkwright, inventor of the water frame
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Unit 12, Lesson 2 591
french Technology Francewasalsothelocationofsomeimportantinventionsthatfurtherincreasedproductioninthecottontextileindustry.ThechemistClaude-LouisBerthollet(1748–1822)originatedtheprocessofusingchlorinetobleachcloth.Thisnewprocesscutthetimeittooktobleachclothfrommonthstohours.Furthermore,Joseph-MarieJacquard(1752–1834)inventedapowerloomthatwoveelaboratepatterns.
The Energy Problem and Inventive SolutionsThemainissueforindustrialexpansion,beyondtheabilitytoinventmachinesthatcouldvastlyincreaseproduction,wastheage-oldproblemoffindingsuf-ficientenergyorpowertorunnewmachines.Humanandanimalefforthadalwaysbeentheprimarysourcesofenergyutilizedbypeople,butthesewereinherentlylimited.ThegrowthofthecottontextileindustryinEnglandresultedfromtheuseofwaterpowerfromriversandstreams.Yetthisgrowthcouldnothavecontinuedatitsrapidpacehadfactoryownerscontinuedtorelysolelyonwaterasaprimarysourceofpower.
DuringtheMiddleAgesinBritain,coalwasfirstusedasasourceofheat.By1640,coalwasusedtoheatmosthomesinLondon,aswellastoprovideheattomakebeer,glass,soap,andotherproducts.Asthedemandforcoalincreased,coalminesweredugdeeperanddeeper.Deepminesfrequentlyfilledupwithwater.Atfirstmechanicalpumpspoweredbyhorseswalkinginacirclewerebuilttopumpthewateroutofthemines.However,theuseofmanyhorses(sometimeshundreds)wasextremelyexpensiveandrequiredmuchupkeep.Thefirstprimitivesteamengineswerebuiltinanattempttosolvethisproblem.
Thedevelopmentofthesteamenginewasanextremelyimportantstepforwardforindustrialization.Theinventionandperfectionofthesteamengineprovidedadependableandefficientsourceofpowerfornewindustrialmachin-ery.In1700,theEnglishinventorThomasSavery(1650–1715)builtapracticalsteampump.Afewyearslater,ThomasNewcomen(1663–1729)builtasteamenginethatwasfirstusedin1712topumpwaterfromacoalmine.Theprocesswastedfuel,butthisinventionwasnotdesignedtomeetthedemandsoffueleffi-ciency.By1760,about100NewcomenengineswereoperatinginGreatBritain.
In1763,JamesWatt(1736–1819),acraftsmanemployedbytheUniversityofGlasgow,wasassignedtofixaNewcomenenginethatwasbeingusedinaphysicscourse.Watt’sobservationsofthisengineledhimtodesignanevenmoreenergy-efficientsteamenginethathepatentedin1769.Then,afterpartneringwithatoy-makerwhocouldprovidebothcapitalandafactory,Watthiredskilledmechanicstoinstall,regulate,andrepairhisengines.Inaddition,Wattcontinuedtoimproveonhisenginedesign,whichbecameacommercialsuccessinBritainbythelate1780s.
Mostearlysteamengineswereusedtopumpwater.Theyburnedcoaltocreatesteam,andthesteamprovidedthepowerthatthenoperatedthepump.However,steamenginetechnologysoimprovedthroughoutthe1700sthatby1800severalhundredsteamengineswerepoweringthemachineryincottontextilemillsandotherfactories.Steamenginesalsotransformedtheironindustry.Yetthemostimportant
1SELf-ChECK
Who invented the cotton
gin, and what was it for?
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592 Unit 12, Lesson 2
andtransformativeuseofthesteamenginecameintheformofthesteam-poweredlocomotivetrain.
Theinterrelationshipbetweenthesteamengine,coalmining,andironproductionwasaprimarycatalystfortheearlyIndustrialRevolution.Incoalmining,thesteamenginewasusedtopumpwateroutoftheminesandtopowerventilatingfansthatpushedfreshairintothemines.Theventilat-inginnovationsmadeitpossibleforminerstoworkforlongerhoursunder-ground.Furthermore,newlyinventedsafetylampsallowedworkerstospotandavoiddeadlygasesinthemines.British coal production increasedgreatlyasaresultofthemanyadvance-mentsinminingtechnology.
Inadditiontoaplentifulsupplyofcoal,GreatBritainalsohadironore.Forseveraldecades,ironproduc-tioninEnglandreliedonprocessedwood or “charcoal” to make pigiron.In1740,ashortageofwoodinEnglandledtoacharcoalshortage,whichpresentedaproblemfortheBritishironindustry.Yetthankstotheincreasedproductionofcoalandtheapplicationofthesteamenginetoironproduction,theironindustrywasabletoexpandonceagain.In1709,AbrahamDarby(1678–1717)inventedthefirstblastfurnaceusingcokeasanagenttoheatironore.Thisprocessburnedcleaner,allowedfortheproductionofgreateramountsofiron,andproducedapurer,strongeriron.Thesteamenginewasanessentialpartoftheblastfurnace.Furthermore,theproductionofstrongerironallowedforthemanufacturingofevenmoreefficientsteamengines.After1770,thesteam-poweredbellowsusedinblastfurnacesallowedironmakerstoabandontheuseofcharcoalinfavorofusingcoke,whichismadefromcoal.
Ironproductionexpandedevenmoreinthe1780swhenHenryCort(1740–1800)inventedthepuddlingfurnace.Thisimprovedfurnace-refinedpigironwithcoke.Cortalsoinventedheavy-duty,steam-poweredrollingmills,whichwereabletopressfinishedironintovariousshapesandforms.Becauseofadvancesintechnology,theBritishironindustryexpandedatanacceleratedrate.Furthermore,ironservedasanaffordablebuildingblockforindustrialpro-duction.Itdidnottakelongforfactoryownerstocombineallironproductionprocessesunderoneroof.ThisproductioninnovationagaingreatlyincreasedtheBritishproductionofironintheearly1800s.
locomotive a self-propelled vehicle for pulling or pushing freight or passenger cars on railroad tracks
An early steam engine
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Unit 12, Lesson 2 593
Steelisironthathasgonethroughanintenseheatingprocess,greatlyreducingitscarboncontent.Steelisastrongerandmoreflexiblematerialthaniron,butintheearlynineteenthcenturyitwasveryexpensivetoproduce.In1856,amachinethatcouldefficientlyandeconomicallyproducesteel,theBessemerconverter,wasinventedbyaBritishinventornamedHenryBessemer(1813–1898).
TheAmericaninventorWilliamKelly(1811–1892)developedasimilarprocessduringroughlythesametimeperiod.Tenyearslater,CharlesWilliamSiemens(1823–1883)andhisbrotherErnstWernervonSiemens(1816–1892),bothGermaninventorslivinginEngland,developedtheopen-hearthprocessofsteelmaking.Thisimportantinventionallowedthesteelindustrytoexpandrapidlyfromthatpointon.
The Impact of Railroads on Urban Development Forseveralgenerations,horse-drawncarts,operatingonplankroadsorwoodenrails,hadbeenusedtomoveheavyloadssuchascoalandiron.Ironrailsandironcartwheelsreplacedwoodrailsandwheelsduringthe1700s.Thenextstepsweretodevelopasteam-poweredlocomotivetopullthecartsinplaceofhorsesandtodeveloprailsthatcouldsupportaheavylocomotive.GeorgeStephenson(1781–1848),aBritishinventor,wasthefirsttoinventaneconomicallysuccessfullocomotive.After
2SELf-ChECK
Name three men
responsible for inventing
and improving the
design of early steam
engines.
A locomotive using a steam-powered engine
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594 Unit 12, Lesson 2
10yearsofhardwork,Stephensonfinallybuiltaneffectivelocomotivein1825.Thislocomotivewasquicklyputtoworkrunningabout40milesfromthecoalfieldsofDarlington,innorthernEngland,totheportofStockton.By1830,Stephenson’sRocketcouldtravel16milesanhouronthetrackthatranfromLiverpooltoManchester.TheLiverpool-to-Manchesterrailwaylinewastheworld’sfirstnotablerailwayline,anditwasasmashingsuccessfinanciallyandtechnologically.
Overthenext20years,othermajortrunk lines werebuiltbyprivateinves-torsthroughouttherestofEngland.Thiswasonlythebeginningofagreatboominrailroadconstruction,notonlyinEngland,butacrosstheEuropeancontinentandNorthAmerica.Whereasonlyafewmilesofrailroadswereinoperationin1830,by1870Europeanrailwaymileagetotaledalmost900,000miles.
Theinventionofshippingandtravelbysteam-poweredrailwasanextremelysignificantturningpointforEuropeaneconomyandsociety.Therailroadloweredthecostandriskofoverlandfreightshipping,whilesimultaneouslyincreasingthecertaintyofsafeandtimelydelivery.Additionally,theuseofrailwayshippingchangedtheverynatureandmakeupofthemarketplace.Previously,themarketforgoodswasextremelylocalbecauseshippinghadbeenprohibitivelyexpensive.Afterthecomingoftherailroad,marketsexpandedeventoanationallevel.Marketexpansioncreatedademandforincreasedproductioninmanyindustries,whichledtotheconstructionoflargerfactoriesthatusednewtechnologyinmachinery.Thesenewfactorieswereabletoproducegoodsmorecheaplythanhadbeenpossiblebefore.Asaresult,cottageworkersandurbanartisansfacedextremecompetitivepressuretoproducebecauseofcheapergoodsfloodingthemarketplace.
Thefactoriesoftheindustrialageproducedlargequantitiesofcheapgoods.Thentherailroadprovidedcheapoverlandtransportationfortheseinexpensive
trunk lines the main route or routes on a railway
3SELf-ChECK
What was the world’s
first notable railway line?
Railroads gave people more freedom of mobility.
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Unit 12, Lesson 2 595
10yearsofhardwork,Stephensonfinallybuiltaneffectivelocomotivein1825.Thislocomotivewasquicklyputtoworkrunningabout40milesfromthecoalfieldsofDarlington,innorthernEngland,totheportofStockton.By1830,Stephenson’sRocketcouldtravel16milesanhouronthetrackthatranfromLiverpooltoManchester.TheLiverpool-to-Manchesterrailwaylinewastheworld’sfirstnotablerailwayline,anditwasasmashingsuccessfinanciallyandtechnologically.
Overthenext20years,othermajortrunk lines werebuiltbyprivateinves-torsthroughouttherestofEngland.Thiswasonlythebeginningofagreatboominrailroadconstruction,notonlyinEngland,butacrosstheEuropeancontinentandNorthAmerica.Whereasonlyafewmilesofrailroadswereinoperationin1830,by1870Europeanrailwaymileagetotaledalmost900,000miles.
Theinventionofshippingandtravelbysteam-poweredrailwasanextremelysignificantturningpointforEuropeaneconomyandsociety.Therailroadloweredthecostandriskofoverlandfreightshipping,whilesimultaneouslyincreasingthecertaintyofsafeandtimelydelivery.Additionally,theuseofrailwayshippingchangedtheverynatureandmakeupofthemarketplace.Previously,themarketforgoodswasextremelylocalbecauseshippinghadbeenprohibitivelyexpensive.Afterthecomingoftherailroad,marketsexpandedeventoanationallevel.Marketexpansioncreatedademandforincreasedproductioninmanyindustries,whichledtotheconstructionoflargerfactoriesthatusednewtechnologyinmachinery.Thesenewfactorieswereabletoproducegoodsmorecheaplythanhadbeenpossiblebefore.Asaresult,cottageworkersandurbanartisansfacedextremecompetitivepressuretoproducebecauseofcheapergoodsfloodingthemarketplace.
Thefactoriesoftheindustrialageproducedlargequantitiesofcheapgoods.Thentherailroadprovidedcheapoverlandtransportationfortheseinexpensive
trunk lines the main route or routes on a railway
3SELf-ChECK
What was the world’s
first notable railway line?
products,makingthemaccessibletoconsumersalmosteverywhere.Furthermore,becausetherailroadwasalsoareliableandspeedyformoftravelforpeople,geographicmobilityincreased,aswell.Townsandvillagesbecamelessisolatedfromtherestthecountry.
Theconstructionofrailroadscanalsobecreditedfortheappearanceofanewclassofurbanworkersthatformedduringthenineteenthcentury.Landlessfarmworkersandpoorpeasantswereaccustomedtoleavinghometotaketemporaryjobs.Theseworkerspredictablytookjobsonconstructiongangsthatbuilttherailroadlines.Whentheirjobwascompleted,manydidnotreturntotheirvillages,wherelifeoftenseemedblandandunappealing,butinsteadlookedforworkintownsandcitieswithrailroadcompanies,inconstruction,orinfactories.Whethertheythensentfortheirspousesorsweetheartstojointhemorsimplymetwomenwholivedinthetownsandcities,thesemensoonbecameurbanworkers.
Industrialization on the European ContinentContinentalEuropeannationswishedtocopyBritain’sindustrialsuccess.Somesuc-ceeded,whileotherswereunabletoovercomeinstitutionalbarriersoralackofresources.Formanynations,theBritishleadprovedbeneficial,asBritishengineers,technicians,andinventorswereoftenenticedbycontinentalpowerstosharetheirindustrialsecrets.IncontrasttotheBritishlaissez-faireapproachtoindustry,however,continentalgovernmentsfrequentlyhadtotakeamoreactiveroleinpromotingandoverseeingindustrialdevelopmentsinceindustrialventuresweresometimestooexpensiveandriskyforprivateinvestors.Also,theFrenchRevolutionandtheNapoleonicerameantthatFranceandtherestofEuropewerefurtherbehindBritainin1815thantheywerein1789.RevolutionandwarontheEuropeancontinenthadcutcommunicationsbetweenitandEngland,disruptedtrade,causedrunawayinflation,andfosteredsocialanxiety.
AlthoughGreatBritainmadeseverallawstotrytokeepBritishindustrialtechnol-ogysecret,manymechanics,inventors,andotherswithproprietaryinformationnev-erthelessleftthecountryillegallyandmademoneysharingtheirindustrialknowledgewiththerestofcontinentalEurope.WilliamCockerill(1759–1832)wasonesuchBritishcarpenterwhoprofitedbybuildingcotton-spinningmachinesinBelgiumin1799.
In1817,William’sson,JohnCockerill(1790–1840),purchasedtheoldsummerpalaceofthedeposedbishopsofLiegeinsouthernBelgium.Johnthenconvertedthepalaceintoalargeindustrialfactorywhichmademachinery,steamengines,andrailwaylocomotives.Hefoundedseveralcoalminesandironworks,aswell.Cockerill’sminesandfactoriessoonbecamehubsforindustrialtradesecrets—placeswherenewinformationwasgatheredandthensharedwiththerestofEurope.Cockerillwouldboastthat“tendaysafteranindustrialadvanceoccurredinBritain,heknewallaboutitinBelgium.”BelgiumwasacommonplaceforskilledBritishworkerstocomeillegally,asCockerillwashappytoemploythem.ManyoftheseworkersmovedontofoundtheirowncompaniesthroughoutEurope.
Franceindustrializedinsuchagradualwaythatthewordrevolutionisn’treallyappropriatetodescribeitseffortstowardindustrialization.Onereasonwasthat,becauseoftheFrenchRevolution,Francemaintaineditstraditionofsmall,family-basedfarminginsteadofadoptingthedestabilizingpoliciesofenclosureandagriculturalinnovation.
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596 Unit 12, Lesson 2
Furthermore,FrancehadalargeinternalmarketforFrenchgoods,aswellasalargeskilledlaborforcethatcouldproducehigh-endproducts,suchassilksandintricatelypatternedtextiles.High-endgoodsstillhadtobemadebyskilledcraftsmenandcouldnotbemassproducedinafactory.Astheincomeofmiddleclasspeoplegrewinterna-tionally,sodidthedemandforFrenchluxuryitems,includingsilkscarves,embroideredneedlework,perfumes,andfinewines.
UnlikeBritain,Francedidnothaveextensivereservesofcoalandironore.SoFrancedidnotdevelopheavyindustrytothesamedegreethatEnglanddid.Withfewerandsmallerindustrialcities,however,FranceavoidedmanyoftheworsteffectsofindustrializationthatplaguedEngland.After1850,Frenchfinance,railroads,andcommunicationswerefinallyabletoinfluencethemodernizationofattitudesandhabitstowardproductionandconsumption.TheCreditMobilierofParis,foundedbyIsaacandEmilePereire,whowereJewishjournalistsfromBordeaux,wasoneofthebanksthatcreativelyfinancedindustrializationinFrance.Inadditiontoanextensiveadvertisingcampaign,theCreditMobilierusedthesavingsofthousandsofsmallinves-torsandtheresourcesofbiginvestorstosupportindustrialprojectssuchasbuildingrailroadsacrossFrance.In1835,EmilePereiresaid“Itisnotenoughtooutlinegiganticprogramsonpaper.Imustwritemyideasontheearth.”Oftenmakingthemselveswealthyintheprocess,industrialbankerssuchasthefoundersoftheCreditMobilierwereabletodrawtogetherthemassiveamountsofcapitalneededforindustrialization.
Germanydidnotexistasoneunifiedcountryatthebeginningofthenineteenthcentury.InsteadGermanterritoryconsistedofseveraldozenindependentstates,eachwithitsowntariffs,taxsystems,andnationalinterests.SoeventhoughtheGermanregiondidhaveanamplesupplyofironoreandcoal,richfarmland,andasolidcrafttradition,politicaldisunityheldtheregionbackfromachievingitseconomicpotential.Duringthe1830s,thePrussianeconomistFriedrichList(1789–1846)promotedthecreationofaneconomicsystemfortheentireGermanregion.Hewantedtobeginwithacustoms unionthatwouldallowfreetradebetweenalloftheGermanstates.ThisPrussian-ledcustomsunion—Zollverein—bothencouragedeconomiccooperationandlaidthefoundationforthefuturepoliticalunificationofGermany.Furthermore,ListalsosawthatGermanindustrializationwouldnotbesuccessfulifGermanysimplyfollowedtheBritisheconomicmodel.Instead,hefeltthegovernmentshouldbuildrailroads,givefinancialaidtokeyindustries,andestablishprotectivetariffstoprotectGermanindustry.AlthoughGermanywouldnotexperienceitseconomicexpansionuntilafterbecomingpoliticallyunifiedin1871,theGermanregiondidbegintoestablishstrengthinsuchkeyindustriesasiron,coalmining,andchemicalspriortothatdate.
Bymidcentury,Belgium,northernItaly,andtheUnitedStateshadbuiltanindus-trialbasethattheycouldexpand.However,therewerealsomanyEuropeannationsthatlackedtheresourcesandtheprofit-drivenattitudeneededforindustrialization.Somepoorcountriesbuiltarailroadormodelfactorytoappearindustrialized,buttheylackedtheeconomic,legal,andeducationalinfrastructuretoactuallyindustri-alize.Othercountriesstillhadserfsthatusedmedievalagriculturalmethods.Spainfacedseveralobstacles,includingthefactthatalargebarrenplainoccupiedthecenterofthecountryandthatithadlimitednaturalandfinancialresourcesnecessaryfor
customs union an international association organized to eliminate customs restrictions on goods exchanged between member nations and to establish a uniform tariff policy toward nonmember nations
4SELf-ChECK
Even while England
was industrializing at a
furious rate, what French
products continued
to be in high demand
throughout Europe?
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Unit 12, Lesson 2 597
Furthermore,FrancehadalargeinternalmarketforFrenchgoods,aswellasalargeskilledlaborforcethatcouldproducehigh-endproducts,suchassilksandintricatelypatternedtextiles.High-endgoodsstillhadtobemadebyskilledcraftsmenandcouldnotbemassproducedinafactory.Astheincomeofmiddleclasspeoplegrewinterna-tionally,sodidthedemandforFrenchluxuryitems,includingsilkscarves,embroideredneedlework,perfumes,andfinewines.
UnlikeBritain,Francedidnothaveextensivereservesofcoalandironore.SoFrancedidnotdevelopheavyindustrytothesamedegreethatEnglanddid.Withfewerandsmallerindustrialcities,however,FranceavoidedmanyoftheworsteffectsofindustrializationthatplaguedEngland.After1850,Frenchfinance,railroads,andcommunicationswerefinallyabletoinfluencethemodernizationofattitudesandhabitstowardproductionandconsumption.TheCreditMobilierofParis,foundedbyIsaacandEmilePereire,whowereJewishjournalistsfromBordeaux,wasoneofthebanksthatcreativelyfinancedindustrializationinFrance.Inadditiontoanextensiveadvertisingcampaign,theCreditMobilierusedthesavingsofthousandsofsmallinves-torsandtheresourcesofbiginvestorstosupportindustrialprojectssuchasbuildingrailroadsacrossFrance.In1835,EmilePereiresaid“Itisnotenoughtooutlinegiganticprogramsonpaper.Imustwritemyideasontheearth.”Oftenmakingthemselveswealthyintheprocess,industrialbankerssuchasthefoundersoftheCreditMobilierwereabletodrawtogetherthemassiveamountsofcapitalneededforindustrialization.
Germanydidnotexistasoneunifiedcountryatthebeginningofthenineteenthcentury.InsteadGermanterritoryconsistedofseveraldozenindependentstates,eachwithitsowntariffs,taxsystems,andnationalinterests.SoeventhoughtheGermanregiondidhaveanamplesupplyofironoreandcoal,richfarmland,andasolidcrafttradition,politicaldisunityheldtheregionbackfromachievingitseconomicpotential.Duringthe1830s,thePrussianeconomistFriedrichList(1789–1846)promotedthecreationofaneconomicsystemfortheentireGermanregion.Hewantedtobeginwithacustoms unionthatwouldallowfreetradebetweenalloftheGermanstates.ThisPrussian-ledcustomsunion—Zollverein—bothencouragedeconomiccooperationandlaidthefoundationforthefuturepoliticalunificationofGermany.Furthermore,ListalsosawthatGermanindustrializationwouldnotbesuccessfulifGermanysimplyfollowedtheBritisheconomicmodel.Instead,hefeltthegovernmentshouldbuildrailroads,givefinancialaidtokeyindustries,andestablishprotectivetariffstoprotectGermanindustry.AlthoughGermanywouldnotexperienceitseconomicexpansionuntilafterbecomingpoliticallyunifiedin1871,theGermanregiondidbegintoestablishstrengthinsuchkeyindustriesasiron,coalmining,andchemicalspriortothatdate.
Bymidcentury,Belgium,northernItaly,andtheUnitedStateshadbuiltanindus-trialbasethattheycouldexpand.However,therewerealsomanyEuropeannationsthatlackedtheresourcesandtheprofit-drivenattitudeneededforindustrialization.Somepoorcountriesbuiltarailroadormodelfactorytoappearindustrialized,buttheylackedtheeconomic,legal,andeducationalinfrastructuretoactuallyindustri-alize.Othercountriesstillhadserfsthatusedmedievalagriculturalmethods.Spainfacedseveralobstacles,includingthefactthatalargebarrenplainoccupiedthecenterofthecountryandthatithadlimitednaturalandfinancialresourcesnecessaryfor
customs union an international association organized to eliminate customs restrictions on goods exchanged between member nations and to establish a uniform tariff policy toward nonmember nations
4SELf-ChECK
Even while England
was industrializing at a
furious rate, what French
products continued
to be in high demand
throughout Europe?
industrialization.Spainalsohadanaristocraticclassanddominantreligiousattitudesthatwereresistanttoprogressandindustrialization.Russiaisanothercountrythatdelayedindustrialization.After1848,RussiawastheonlymajorEuropeanpowerwhoseagriculturalandsocialstructurewasstillbasedonserfdom.Fromtheperspectiveofthoseintheindustrializedmarketplace,serfdomandmedievalfarmingmethodswereawasteofbothlaborandland.SodespiteRussia’sabundanceofnaturalresources,itseconomicdevelopmentlaggedbehindthatofmanyotherEuropeancountries.
Extensions• UsingtheInternet,conductadditionalresearchontheinventorsand
inventionsmentionedinthislesson.Assesstheimpactthatinventionssuchasthespinningjenny,waterframe,puddlingfurnace,andrailroadhadonEuropeansociety.
• StudythewaysinwhichthedevelopmentofthesteamengineaffectedthecultureandpoliticalstructureinEuropeduringtheIndustrialRevolution.
• Locatethefollowingindustrialcentersonamap:theRuhrValley,Liegeregion,Roubaixregion,andManchester-Sheffieldarea.Inwhatcountriesaretheseindustrialcenterslocated?Whatsimilaritiesdotheseareasshare?
SummaryTheIndustrialRevolutioninGreatBritainistermeda“revolution”becauseitwasaperiodwhenmanyaspectsoflifeandsocietychangedbothdrasticallyandrapidly.Beginningwiththetextileindustry,theinventivespiritanddriveforincreasedprofitgaverisetomechanicalinnovationandthedevelopmentofmoreefficientprocessesofproduction.SomeoftheimportantinventionsoftheIndustrialRevolutionincludedtheflyingshuttle,thecotton-spinningjenny,thewaterframe,themule,thepowerloom,thecottongin,theroll-ingpress,thesteamengine,theblastfurnace,andtherailroad.Yetindustrialexpansionwasnotfullypossiblewithoutthedevelopmentofpowersourcesthatweremoreefficient,economical,andreliablethanhumaneffort,animaleffort,orwaterpower.England’sabundanceofcoalandironore,combinedwiththebreakthroughinventionofthesteamengine,servedtosolveanenergyproblemthathadpreviouslyheldfactoryandmineownersbackfromincreasedproduction.Themostimportantandtransformativeuseofthesteamenginewasthesteam-poweredlocomotivetrain.Duringthe1800s,continentalEuropegraduallyrealizedthevalueofBritishtechnologicaladvancements.Thereafter,manycountriesbegantoindustrializeatdifferentratesandinvariousways.
Looking AheadDuringtheIndustrialRevolution,theeconomyexpanded,andmanycheapmanufacturedgoodsbecameavailabletomorepeople.TheIndustrialRevolutionalsocausedsocialchange,asthelivesofpeopleineveryeconomicclasswerechangeddramatically.Thenineteenthcenturysawaslowriseintheoverallstandardoflivingofmostpeople.Thisincreasewasalreadyapparentby1850.
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598 Unit 12, Lesson 2
Furthermore,theredevelopedanew,morerigidsexualdivisionoflabor,ashiftinmen’sandwomen’sresponsibilitiesinthefamily,achangeinattitudestowardchildlabor,morepositivefactorylegislation,andtheriseofanewlabormove-ment.Theemergenceofanewurbanworkingclasscreatednewchallenges,primarilyrelatedtolivingandworkingconditions,whichhadtobesortedoutcooperativelybyworkers,employers,andthegovernment.
1. Eli Whitney; It removed seeds from cotton fiber.
2. Thomas Savery, Thomas Newcomen, James Watt
3. The Liverpool and Manchester Railway
4. High-end luxury items such as intricately patterned textiles, silk scarves, embroidered needlework, perfumes, and fine wines
SELf-ChECK AnSwERS
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Life in the Age of Industrialization
Unit 12, Lesson 3
Keywordsuniversal male
suffrage
Essential Questions• WhatnewclassesemergedduringtheIndustrialRevolution?
• WhatwasthesexualdivisionoflaborduringtheIndustrialRevolution?
• Whatwerethekeyfeaturesofthefactorysystem?
• WhatlaborlawsandreformsresultedfromtheIndustrialRevolution?
• WhatwastheearlylabormovementlikeinBritain?
• Whatgroupsopposedindustrialization?
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600 Unit 12, Lesson 3
Set the StageThe Industrial Revolution and the rise of the new factory system of work affected more than just the European economy. It also caused social change by fostering the emergence of new social classes, the rise of urban living, the alteration of family structure, and a new sexual division of labor. The appearance of a new urban working class created new challenges, many related to living and working conditions, which workers, employers, and the government had to work together to meet. During the Industrial Revolution, people formed new attitudes toward child labor, the British Parliament passed reform legislation for factories and mines, and workers started a new labor movement. Although most Europeans’ overall standard of living rose after 1850, the problems of urban living, long work hours, unhealthy and uncomfortable working conditions, and low pay all contributed to a difficult existence for the urban working class.
factory Owners and workers During the Industrial RevolutionAtthebeginningofthenineteenthcentury,GreatBritaindominatedtheindustrialsceneinbothEuropeandtheworld.Thefirstworld’sfair,heldinLondonin1851,wasorganizedbyBritishleaderstoshowcaseBritishtechnologyandprogresswithitsstructureofironandglass,twoproductsthatwerebothcheapandabundantinEnglandthankstoindustrialadvances.TheexhibitiondemonstratedtheBritishindus-trialachievementsthatmanyotherEuropeancountriesbothenviedandemulated.
factory OwnersFactoryownersandfactoryworkersweretwonewclassesthatemergedoutofindustrializationandthenewfactorysystem.Industrialinvestors,inventors,andfactoryownerscamefrommanydifferentbackgrounds.Intheveryearlystagesofindustrialization,therewasopportunityforapersonfromanyclass(richorpoor)whohadinitiativeandhappenedtobebright,creative,andalittlelucky.Peoplewhobelongedtoethnicorreligiousminoritiesjumpedatthechancetoparticipateinnewindustries,astheyhadtraditionallybeenkeptoutofoccupationsdominatedbythelandedaristocracy.Forexample,QuakersandScotsfoundmanyjobopportunitiesinEngland,whileProtestantsandJewsdominatedbankinginCatholicFrance.Membersofmerchantfamilieshadanadvantagebecausetheyhadmoneytoinvestandcontactsinthebusinessworld.Artisansorskilledworkersalsofoundopportunities,providedtheywereverytalentedintheircraft.SuccessfulIndustrialistsoftheearlyIndustrialRevolutionhadreasonstobeproudoftheiraccomplishments,newlyacquiredwealth,andprominenceinthebusinesscommunity.
However,asindustrializationbecamemorewidespread,investorsandfac-toryownersstruggledtosucceedinanextremelycompetitiveandvolatile
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Unit 12, Lesson 3 601
lineofwork.Newbusinessventuresheldtheprospectoflargeprofits,whilesimultaneouslyfacingtheriskoffailureandtotallossofcapital.Theuseofnewlyinvented,andthusuntested,machinesoftenpresentedvariousproduc-tionproblems.Forinstance,machinesoftenbrokedown,didnotfunctionasintended,orrequiredmoreenergyandeffortthanexpected.Manufacturersconstantlyneededtocutcoststomakeaprofitandstayinbusiness.Inaddition,profitsneededtobereinvestedinthebusinesstobuyneworbetterfunctioningmachines,whichwouldinturnincreaseproductionandprofit.Asindustrializedindustriesbecameestablished,opportunitiesfornewcomersdeclined.
Withopportunitiesinestablishedindustriesdecreasing,itbecamemuchlesslikelythatapoormechaniccouldbecomearichfactoryowner.Instead,formaleducationbecameincreasinglymoreimportantifonewantedtorisetohighandwealthystatusinanindustrialfield.Yethighcostslimitedthenumberofpeoplewhopursuedanadvancededucation.Bythe1830s,manysuccessfulEnglishfactoryowners,liketheircounterpartsinGermanyandFrancebythe1860s,hadinheritedtheirbusinesses,ratherthanestablishedthemthemselves.Thesesecond-generationfactoryownerswereoftenluckyenoughtorunfinan-ciallystableandsecurebusinessessimplybecausethefirst-generationownershadalreadyovercomesomanydifficultchallenges.
factory workersBecauseindustrializationfirstoccurredinEngland,theworkersofEnglandwerethefirsttoexperiencetheharsheffectsofpoverty,hazardousworkingconditions,pollution,andurbancrowding.Between1780and1820,thepurchasingpowerofBritishandScottishunskilledworkersdidnotincrease.Livingconditionswereespeciallydesperatefrom1792to1815becauseGreatBritainwasatwarwithFrance.Duringtheseyears,thecostoffoodincreasedfasterthanwages,therebycausinglivingconditionstodeteriorate.
HistoriansgenerallyciteamarkedimprovementintheeconomicconditionofBritishworkersby1850.Bythattime,wageshadincreasedtothepointthatworkersearnedandconsumedabout50percentmorethantheyhadin1770.Yetfewhistoriansequatetheabilitytopurchasemoregoodsandincreasedwageswithgreaterhappinessamongworkersorgreaterworkersatisfactionwiththeirworkingorlivingconditions.Also,becausetheBritishgovernmentdidnottrackunemploymentstatistics,thereisnoaccuratewayofknowinghowmanyworkershadjobsorwereunemployedatanygiventimeduringthenineteenthcentury.Furthermore,itcanbearguedthatwagesincreasedsimplybecauseworkerswererequiredtoworklongerhours.
Historianscanlearnaboutworkers’standardoflivingbystudyingwhatgoodstheyboughtwiththeirwages.Exceptduringwartime,workersweregenerallyabletobuyandeatfoodthathadahighernutritionalcontentasthecenturyprogressed.Withadietthatincludedpotatoes,dairyproducts,andanarrayoffruitsandvegetables,nineteenth-centuryworkersalsoatealsoateamorevarieddietthanpeoplehadintheeighteenthcentury.Inaddition,clothingwaslessexpensive,ofahigherquality,andmorecomfortable.However,housingmostlikelyworsened
1SELf-ChECK
In the early stages
of industrialization,
what kind of person
might achieve success
as an inventor or new
factory owner?
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602 Unit 12, Lesson 3
ratherthanimproved.ThestandardoflivingforworkingclassesimprovedinamoderatewayaftertheNapoleonicWars.
The Sexual Division of Labor During the Industrial RevolutionBeforeindustrialization,familiesgenerallyworkedtogetherasaunitratherthanworkingseparatelyasindividuals.Also,workgenerallytookplaceinoraroundahome.Genderoftendictatedone’sworkassignments.Forinstance,menandboyswouldweaveandplowandwomenandgirlswouldmilkthecowsandspin.However,therewerealsomanygender-neutraltasksdonebybothmenandwomen.Thistraditionofworkasafamilyallowedmotherstocarefortheirchildrenandworkatthesametime.Childrenwhoworkedinotherhouseholdstoearnincomefortheirfamilyortosaveforadowryorfuturehouseholdlaboredwiththefamilywheretheylivedasaservantorapprentice.
Earlyfactoriesorminesdidnotimmediatelyputanendtoworkasafamilyunit.Inmanycases,thefatheragreedtowagesforeachfamilymember’slabor.Youngchildrenworkedalongsidetheirmothersdoingsimpletasksaccordingtotheirage.Someobserverssawthelaborofchildreninfactoriesandminesasexploitativeanddangerous.Theyworkedverylonghoursindangerousandunsanitaryconditions,andtheywerenotreceivinganeducation.RobertOwen(1771–1858),aScottishfactoryowner,testifiedtoaparliamentarycommitteeabouttheillsofchildlabor.Heclaimedthatchildrenwhoworked11½hoursadayinthemillswerehavingboththeirphysicalandintellectualgrowthstunted.
Workingasafamilyunitinfactoriesorminescametoanendasnewlawsrestrictedchildlabor.Anewanddifferentsexualdivisionoflaboremergedoverthecourseofthenineteenthcentury.Thenewmodelplacedthefatherastheprimarywageearnerforthefamily.Thesphereofthehomeandthechildrenbecamethedomainofwomen,andtheiropportunitiestoearnwagestocontributetothefamilyincomebecameextremelylimited.Thefactthatwomenlaboredathomewasnotnew.Buttheconceptthatcaringforhomeandchildrenshouldbeawoman’ssoleoccupation,ratherthansomethingshedidinadditiontolaboringforwages,wasnovel.Thebusinessworldcametobeseenastooharshandroughforwomen,who,itwasthought,shouldbeshelteredandprotectedinspacesthatweregenteel,dignified,andrefined.Yetwhilethisnewphiloso-phymayhaveservedtheneedsofmiddleclassandwealthyfamilies,itrobbedtheworkingclassofitsabilitytomakeendsmeetfinancially.Opportunitiesformarriedwomenwithchildrentoearnsufficientwagesdwindled.
Theideaof“separatespheres”creatednewworkpatternsforwomen.Womenwerelesslikelytoworkfulltimeforwagesafterhavingchildrenthantheyhadbeenpriortothenineteenthcentury.Marriedwomenmightinsteadearnsomewagestakinginboardersorputtingouthandicraftsfromhome.Onlyunmarriedwomenandwomenwhosehusbandswerepoorlypaid,sick,unemployed,orabsentcompletelywereexpectedtoworkforwagesoutsidethehome.However,thesewomenhadlimitedjobopportunities.Anyworktheycouldfindwouldbelowpayingandinvolveunskilledlabor,withnoopportunityforadvancement.
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Unit 12, Lesson 3 603
Notunlikeemploymentavailabletowomeninpreviouscenturies,availablejobsrarelypaidenoughforwomentosupportthemselvesindependentlyfromtheirfam-ilyorahusband.Thehistoryofwomenandthefamilypivoteddramaticallywiththedeclineoffamilylaborandtheemergenceofthenewsexualdivisionoflabor.
Newdifficultiesoffactoryworkgavewomenstrongincentivestocarefortheirchildrenathomeiftheycouldaffordit.Cottagelaborallowedparentstosettheirownworkscheduleandtodisciplinetheirchildrenastheysawfit.Awomancouldrunaspinningmachineandtakecareofachildthatwassevenoreightyearsoldandworkingbesideheratthesametime(untilthepracticebecameillegal).Factoryworkwasmuchlessflexible.Workershadtoarrive,takebreaks,havemeals,andleaveaccordingtotheclock.Caringforachildwhileworkingatafactorywasmuchmoredifficult.Womeninfactoriesstruggledtoworkduringpregnancy,andamothercouldnotnurseachildonthejob.
Furthermore,runningahouseholdinapoorurbansettingwasdifficultandtime-consumingwork.Homesdidnothaverunningwaterorelectricity,supermarketsanddepartmentstoresdidnotyetexist,andalackoftransportationmeantthatallerrandshadtobedoneonfoot.Shoppingandcookingcouldoccupyaverylargeportionofawoman’sday.Eveniftheyneededmoreincome,manywomensimplycouldnotaddlaborinafactorytoalloftheworktheyhadinthehome.
Somehistorianshaveassertedthatonepossiblereasonforseparatingjobsbygenderwastocurtailunsupervisedminglingbyteenagersandyoungmenandwomen.Itwasfeltthatthisfraternizationcontributedtotheexplodingproblemofunwedpregnancyandillegitimatebirths.Underoldpatternsofwork,boysandgirlsremainedunderthewatchfuleyesoftheirparentsorotheradults.Coedfactoryworkallowedboysandgirlstointeractwitheachotherwithoutsuchclosesupervision.Thisinteractioncouldthenleadtoliaisonsorcourtshipsoutsideofwork.Thisunsupervisedintimacyonlyfedtheillegitimacyexplosionthathadbegunduringtheeighteenthcentury.Separatingjobsbasedongendercouldbeseenasoneanswertothisgrowingproblem.
Industrializationfundamentallychangedthefamilyfromaunitthatworkedtogethertoaunitthatconsumedtogether.Thefamilyseparatedforworkandthenunitedagainformealandleisuretime.Movingworkfromhometothefactoryalsotookcontrolofscheduleandworkingconditionsoutofthework-ers’handsandgaveittofactoryowners,whothensoughtgreaterprofitsbycuttingcornersonfactorysafetyandpayingthelowestwagespossible.Thereformlawsofthe1830sand1840s,passedbytheBritishParliament,essentiallycompletedtheseparationofmalewageworkandfemaledomesticwork.Suchlawsprotectedwomenandchildrenfromexploitationinfactoriesandmines.
Women and children often performed hazardous work.
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604 Unit 12, Lesson 3
The factory SystemThefirstfactoryownerstendedtobetheinventor,investor,andfactorymanagerallrolledintoone.TheseindustrialentrepreneursgenerallygottheirbusinessesoffthegroundbyborrowingfromthevastcreditnetworkavailablefromBritishbanksandperhapspersuadingafewpartnerstoinvest.TextilespinningmillswerefirstbuiltinthenorthernBritishtownsofManchesterandLiverpool.JosiahWedgwood(1730–1795),aBritishentrepreneur,appliednewfactoryprinciplestopotteryandporcelain.Althoughhelackedformaltraininginchemistry,heusedtrialanderrortoimprovethestyleandprocessofmanufacturingpotteryandporcelain.Healsobroughtastandardizedmanufacturingprocessunderoneroof,andheunderstoodhowtoprofitablymarkethisgoodstoconsumers.
Earlyfactorieshadharshandunhealthyworkingconditions.Factoryemployeeslaboredforupto14hoursperdaywithpoorlightandventilation.Factoryown-ersenforcedstrictrulesprohibitingtardinessortalkingwithotherworkers.Sincemachinessettheworkpace,tiredworkerscouldbeinjurediftheyhappenedtogetoffpaceorgetcaughtinthemachine’smovingparts.Manyfactoryownerspreferredtohirechildrenaslaborers—becausetheyhadsmallhandsthatcouldreachinsidethemachines—orwomenbecausetheywereseenasgentleandeasiertomanage.Furthermore,ownerscouldpaywomenandchildrenmuchlessthanmen,keepingtheiroperatingcostslow.Addingtotheproblems,workersinminesandfactorieswereoftenexposedtohazardousortoxicsubstances,whichcouldcausediseases.Suchworkingconditionsmadeitnecessarytoreformlaborlaws,tooutlawchildlabor,andtoprotectworkers.Theseconditionsalsoinspiredalabormovementledbyurbanworkers.
Unfortunately,urbanlivingconditionsforunskilledfactoryorminework-erswerenotmuchbetterthantheconditionstheyencounteredatwork.Cityinfrastructurecouldnotsustainthehighvolumeofpeoplemovingin.Pollutedairandwater,insufficientsewagedisposal,andashortageofhousingwereonlysomeoftheproblemsconfrontingindustrialcities.Overcrowdingincitiesledtothespreadofdiseasessuchascholera,dysentery,andtyphoid.Becauseofdisease,poorlivingconditions,andpoorworkconditions,urbandwellerscouldexpecttolivehalfaslong,onaverage,asthoselivinginthecountry.Inadditiontotheproblemsofsanitationandenvironmentalpollution,citiesalsohadtoconfronttheissuesofcrime,prostitution,alcoholism,andfamilybreakdown.
Labor Laws and ReformsTheobviousabusesandharshworkconditionsofthenewEnglishfactorysystemcouldbeeasilyrecognizedbyanycasualobserver.Butmanypeoplefeltthatconfrontingtheproblemsassociatedwithindustrializationandlaissez-fairecapitalismamountedtotamperingwiththefreemarket.Eventually,however,theproblemsandabusesbecametoosignificantandprevalenttoignore.ReformersbelievedthatinactioncouldleadtothemoralbreakdownofsocietyorevenrevolutionliketheyhadseeninFrance.
TheBritishParliamentappointedtheSadlerCommissionin1832toinves-tigatechildlaborinfactoriesandmines.Theextensivetestimonyoffactory
2SELf-ChECK
What changed about the
family economy with the
emergence of factory
work and parliamentary
reforms in factories
and mines?
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Unit 12, Lesson 3 605
workerstothiscommissionledtothepassageoftheFactoryActof1833.TheFactoryActstipulatedthatchildrenunder9mustattendelementaryschoolspro-videdbyfactoryowners.Itfurtherstatedthatchildrenfromages9to13couldonlywork8hoursaday,whileteenscouldonlywork12hoursaday.Insomecases,thisnewlaweffectivelyendedchildlaborinfactoriesbecausemanyfactoriesneededtostandardizetheirshiftstomaintainefficiency.Thelawalsostatedthatfactoriescouldbeinspectedforcomplianceandthatworkingchildrenhadtoreceiveatleasttwohoursofeducationeveryday.
Inanefforttodrawattentiontothepoorsanitationincrowdedcities,anotherreformer,EdwinChadwick(1800–1890)wroteabookin1842entitledThe Sanitary Condition of the Laboring Population.Thispublicationarguedfortheimprovementofsewageandsanitarycon-ditionsincrowdedandpollutedurbanareas.Soonafterthisprintedexposéofworkingclasslivingconditions,ParliamentpassedthePublicHealthActof1848.Thisactestablishedpublichealthboardstoinspectlivingconditionsandalsocalledforthedevelopmentofsani-tarysystemsincities.
EnglandavoidedviolentworkerrevolutionbecauseGreatBritain’sparliamentarysystemadaptedtothechallengesofindustrialization.Parliament’spassageoftheReformActof1832gaverepresentationtothenewindustrialbourgeoisieofthenewindustrialcities.Thisactdoubledthenumberofproperty-owningmaleswhocouldvote.Parliamentalsoenactedotherreforms,includingan1833lawthatabolishedslavery.The1834PoorLawprovidedastrongdisincentivetothepoorseekinggovernmentreliefbymakinggovernmentworkhousesconsiderablymoreunpleasantthananyfac-toryjob.ParliamentalsosupportedliberalsandproponentsoffreetradebyrepealingtheprotectiveCornLawsin1846.Liberalswerenottheonlyonesthatachievedwantedchanges,however.AftertheFactoryActof1833,conservativeToriessuccessfullypassedtheMinesAct,whichbannedwomenandchildrenfromworkinginthemines.TorieswerealsoabletolimitworkhoursintextilemillswiththeTenHoursAct.
The Early Labor Movement in Great BritainThankstotheprecedentsetbycraftguilds,someofwhichdatedbacktomedi-evaltimes,Britishworkersunderstoodthatcollectiveactionwouldyieldmoreresultsthanindividualcomplaints.SoevenwithParliamentpassinglaborlawsandreforms,theworkersthemselvesrecognizedthattheyneededavoicetoensurethatreformsactuallyaddressedwhattheyconsideredtobetheirmostpressing
In this political cartoon, a wealthy industrialist is on top of the world, but only because of the hard work of a young girl.
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606 Unit 12, Lesson 3
problems.Workersultimatelysoughtmorepoliticalpowerandmorecontroloverworkplaceconditionsandpolicies.Asindustrializationincitiesbroughtabouttheemergenceofaworkingclassidentity,adesireforcollectiveactionledtotheformationoflaborunionsbytheurbanworkingclass.TheBritishgovernmentpassedtheCombinationActsintheearly1800stoattempttostoptheformationofunionsandstrikes,buttheselawswerewidelyignored.
Skilledfactoryworkersorcraftsmenorganizedthefirstlaborunions.Theseunionssoughttobargainwithfactoryownersoverwages,tolimitthenumberofpeoplewhocouldbetrainedintheirprofession,andtosecureapprenticeshipsfortheirownchildren.TheseearlyBritishunionswerenotafraidtostrike.Forexample,in1810,agroupofunionizedcottonspinnersinManchesterwentonstrike.Becausetheycouldnotcontrolthewidespreadunionactivity,ParliamentrepealedtheCombinationActsin1824.In1851,agroupofskilledengineersformedatradeunionthatwaslaternamedtheAmalgamatedSocietyofEngineers.Thisunionsoughthigherwagesandbetterworkingconditions.Becausethisuniondidnotstrike,asdidothersimilarunions,tobargainfortheirdemands,theindustrialbusinesscommunitygradu-allyacceptedthem.
RobertOwen,whobeganhiscareerastheownerofafactorythatmanufacturedcotton,laterfoundhimselfonthesideoflaborreformandunionorganization.Asafac-toryowner,hebelievedinfirmfactorydiscipline,butalsoranhisfactorieswithconcernforthehealth,safety,andhoursoftheworkersheemployed.Heeventriedcreatingcooperativeandsocialistcommunitiesforworkersinhisfactoriesafter1815.HismostradicalunionenterprisewastheestablishmentoftheGrandNationalConsolidatedTradesUnion.ThisunionattemptedtoorganizealloftheindustrialworkersthroughoutGreatBritainintoonenationalunion.Thisunionwasnotsuccessful,anditseventualcollapseledtheBritishlabormove-menttoshiftbacktowardsmallercraftunions.
Inadditiontotheorganizationoftradeunions,someurbanworkerstriedtoeffectchangethroughdirectpoliticalaction.Onesuchgroupofworkers,calledtheChartistsafterthefoundingdocumentthatlistedtheirprinciples,soughtuniversal male suffrageastheirprimarygoal.Inaddition,theyalsocalledforannualelections,secretballots,andequalelectoraldistricts.TheysupportedsalariesformembersofParliamentsothatpeoplefromvarioussocialclassescouldparticipateingovernment.Tothisendtheyusedpetitions,largemeetings,andagitation.EventhoughmanyChartistgoalswereeventuallyachieved,Chartismbecameunpopularafter1848becauseitbecameassociatedwithviolentdisturbances.
3SELf-ChECK
What reforms did
the Factory Act of
1833 enact?
universal male suffrage a system that allows all adult males to vote without regard to property, religious, or race qualifications, or limitations
A trade union poster
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Unit 12, Lesson 3 607
Opposition to Industrialization Noteveryone supportedor liked the IndustrialRevolution.SomecriticizedIndustrializationfromtheverybeginning.TheLuddites,whowerehandicraftworkers,believedthatnewmachinesandfactoriesweretakingtheirskilledworkandputtingthemoutofbusiness.Theymettoplotthedestructionofknittingandspinningmachines.In1812,theyattackedfactoriesandsmashedthetextilemachines.Theyfeltthatastrongcultureofskilledcraftsmenwasmorebeneficialthanindustrialspecializationandefficiency.TheBritishgovernmentputanendtotheirviolenceandvandalismbyexilingorexecutingfollowersofLuddism.
From1800to1850,romanticismemergedasanotherschoolofthoughtinoppositiontoindustrialization.Romanticismwasawidespreadmovementandincludedthinkers,writers,artists,andcomposers.WhattheRomanticshadincommonwasareactionagainsttheEnlightenment’sall-encompassingbeliefinhumanreasonandhumanperfectibility.Ratherthanprogressandrationalthought,Romanticspromotedpassion,intenseemotion,intuition,nationalism,spontaneity,andthegrandeurofnature.Individualfreedomwasanotherideathatpermeatedtheircreativityandgeneralbeliefs.Romanticartistsandwritersdetestedtherigidformalismofclassicismandsoughtamorecreative,free,andindividualartisticprocess.Romanticswantedtoescapeindustrialism,whichtheyfeltwasugly,oppres-sive,anddestroyedthebeautyofnature.
Extensions• Read“WomenIndustrialWorkersExplaintheirEconomicSituation”from
The Examiner,February26,1832,asquotedinIvyPinchbeck’sWomen Workers and the Industrial Revolution, 1750–1850(NewYork:AugustusM.Kelley,1969),p.199–200.Considerwhateconomicchallengestheseindustrialwomenhadtofaceandwhattheydidtomeetorovercomethosechallenges.
SummaryTheIndustrialRevolutioninitiatedmanysocialchanges.Becauseofindustrializa-tionandurbanization,twonewclassesofpeopleemerged,factoryownersandfactoryworkers.Investorsandfactoryownersstruggledtosucceedinanextremelycompetitiveandvolatilekindofworkwherenewbusinessventuresheldthepros-pectoflargeprofitsorcompletefailure.BecauseindustrializationfirstoccurredinEngland,theworkersofEnglandwerethefirsttoexperiencetheharsheffectsofpoverty,hazardousworkingconditions,pollution,andurbancrowding.Problemsthatemergedbecauseoftheshifttowardurbanlivingandfactoryworkhadtobesolvedcollectivelybyworkers,employers,criticsofindustrialization,andthegovernment.Duringindustrialization,peopleformednewattitudestowardchildlabor,theBritishParliamentpassedreformlegislationforfactoriesandmines,andworkersstartedanewlabormovement.Beforeindustrialization,familiesgenerallyworkedtogetherasaunitratherthanseparately.Anewsexualdivisionoflaboremergedoverthecourseofthenineteenthcenturyinwhichmenworkedforwages
4SELf-ChECK
Who was Robert Owen,
and what did he do?
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608 Unit 12, Lesson 3
1. Anyone (rich or poor) who had initiative and happened to be bright, creative, and a little lucky might achieve success as an inventor or factory owner.
2. The new model of “separate spheres” established the father as the primary wage provider for the family. The sphere of the home and the children became the domain of women, while opportunities to earn wages to contribute to the family income became extremely limited.
3. The Factory Act of 1833 stipulated that children under nine must attend elementary schools provided by factory owners, children from ages 9 to 13 could
only work 8 hours a day, and teens could only work 12 hours a day. The law also stated that factories could be inspected for compliance, and that working children had to receive at least 2 hours of education every day.
4. Robert Owen was a factory owner who later found himself on the side of labor reform and union organization. His most radical union enterprise was the establishment of the Grand National Consolidated Trades Union. This union attempted to organize all of the industrial workers throughout Great Britain into one national union, but it was not successful.
SELf-ChECK AnSwERS
andthesphereofthehomeandthechildrenbecamethedomainofwomen.Inaddition,amarriedwoman’sopportunitiestoearnwagestocontributetothefam-ilyincomebecameextremelylimited.
Looking AheadAlongwithchangeswroughtbymilitaryconflict,nineteenth-centuryEuropeansexperienceddrasticeconomicandsocialchanges,aswell.Inaddition,thenine-teenthcenturyexperiencedanewwarofideas.Onebattlesawthefinaldemiseofbothmedievalsystemsandideasandroyalaristocraticdominance.Anothersawtheideasofindividualfreedomandlaissez-faireeconomicsinconflictwiththeideasofsocialismandcollectiveownershipofthemeansofproduction.Manyphiloso-phers,economists,andevenradicalpoliticiansoftheeighteenthandnineteenthcenturies,suchasAdamSmith,ThomasMalthus,DavidRicardo,JeremyBentham,JohnStuartMill,RobertOwen,KarlMarx,andFriedrichEngels,proposedconceptsandtheoriesthatstillaffectpoliticsandeconomicstothisday.
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Nineteenth-Century Economic and Political Theory
Unit 12, Lesson 5
Keywordsantithesis
class consciousness
class struggle
economic determinism
labor theory of value
phalanxes
Essential Questions• Whatnineteenth-centuryeconomistsproposednewtheoriesoneconomic
systems,andwhatwerethosetheories?
• WhatideasdidMarxandtheearlyutopiansocialistshold?
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610 Unit 12, Lesson 5
Set the StageNineteenth-century Europeans experienced many economic and social changes. Many also lived through the changes brought by military conflict. In addition, they experienced a new war of ideas. Philosophies of individual freedom and laissez-faire economics conflicted with the ideas of socialism and collective ownership of property and factories. Many of the concepts and theories proposed by philosophers, economists, and radical politicians of this era still affect politics and economics today.
Eighteenth- and nineteenth-Century Economic TheoryAsindustrializationbegantoexpandtheproductionofgoodsinEngland,theoldsystemsandpoliciesofmercantilismgavewaytoanewfreemarketsystemofproductdistribution.Variouseconomictheoristsinitiallydescribedthefreemarket,aswellasargumentsforgovernmentaction.Thefollowingmenbelongtoagroupcalledclassicaleconomists.
AdamSmith(1723–1790)wasaprofessorattheUniversityofGlasgowinScotland.Smith,anEnlightenmentthinker,focusedhiseconomictheoriesonideasofindividualfreedomandfreemarketprinciples.Smithisthemostrenownedclassicaleconomist.Unlikemercantilists,whobelievedtheamountofgoldandsilverbullionthatanationpossesseddetermineditswealth,Smithbelievedthatanation’swealthcamefromtheproductionofgoodsbyitsfarm-ers,artisans,andfactoryworkers.Hecontendedthatanationcouldcreateahigherstandardoflivingbymodernizingfarminganddevelopingcommercialagriculture.Smithisoftenassociatedwiththelaissez-faireeconomictheory.Laissez-fairetranslatedintoEnglishmeans“letitbe”orto“letpeopledoastheychoose.”Smithbelievedthatindividualsshouldbeallowedtofreelypursuetheirowneconomicself-interestwithoutregulationsorsponsorshipfromthestate.
SmithofferedoriginalideasconcerningthenaturallawsofeconomicsinInquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations(1776).Heassertedthatthecombinationofastronglaborforceandanabundanceofrawmateri-als,unitedinthemanufactureofusefulproducts,wasthemostvaluableassetacountrycouldhave.Smithbelievedthatlabor,ratherthanlandorgold,con-stitutedthetruewealthofanation.Smithfeltthatanation’seconomywastoocomplextobecontrolledbygovernment.Insteadthe“invisiblehandofthemar-ketplace”orthelawsofsupplyanddemandshouldguidewhatisproduced,howmuchisproduced,andthepricesofproducts.Smithalsoarguedthatnationsshouldallowfreetradeorthefreeflowofgoodsacrossborderswithoutimpos-ingtariffs.Hefeltthattariffsonlyprotectedinefficientproducersandharmedconsumers.Instead,nationsshouldfocustheireffortsontheproductionofgoodsforwhichtheyheldacomparativeadvantage.TheBritishIsles,forinstance,would
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Unit 12, Lesson 5 611
naturallyfocustheireffortsonproducingtextiles.Inoppositiontotheexistingguildsystem,Smithreasonedthatahigherdivisionoflaborwouldproducegreaterquantitiesofgoodsatalowercost.Hecontendedthatiftheproductionprocesswasbrokendownintovarioussimplesteps,andworkersspecializedindoingasinglestepquicklyandwell,theresultwouldbeincreasedefficiency.
Smithbelievedthatindividuals,withthefreedomtoworkfortheirownself-interest,wouldbringinmorewealthandmakeanationmoreaffluentthanifanationtriedtocontroltradewiththesamegoalofnationalwealthinmind.Thispointofviewistermedeconomicliberalism.Becauseofthisbeliefineconomicliberty,SmithurgedleadersofthemercantilesystemtoendthebountiesgovernmentgavetocertainmerchantsandindustriesintheNavigationActs,mosttariffs,trademonopolies,andthedomesticregulationoflaborandmanufacture.Hearguedthatthesepoliciesandregulationsactuallykeptanation’swealthandproductionfromexpanding.Ifindividualshadthefreedomtopursuetheirowneconomicinterests,Smithargued,thewholesystemwouldexpand,andwealthwouldflowintothestate.Furthermore,customerswouldbenefitfromcompetition.
Smith’sbookalsochallengedthemercantilistassumptionthattheearthhadlimitedresources.Hefelttheresourcesoftheworldwereendlessandjustneededtobeexploitedfurther.Therewasenoughforeveryonetobenefit,andnooneneededtobepoor.Smith’sbookservesasatextbookformoderncapital-ism.Smithpromotedalimitedroleforgovernmentintheeconomy.Hefeltthegovernmentshouldfocusprimarilyonprotectingthelife,liberty,andpropertyofitscitizens.Essentially,governmentservedthreebasicfunctionsinSmith’sparadigm:protectsocietyfrominvasionwithanarmy,defendindividualsfrominjusticeandoppressionwithapoliceforce,andkeepupcertainpublicworksthatindividualscannotafford,suchasroadsandcanals.Inaddition,thegov-ernmentshouldleadthewayincommercialventuresthatweretooexpensiveordangerousforprivateinvestorstoundertake,butthatwouldalsobringalotofprofit.Smithpavedthewayfornineteenth-centuryeconomicliberalism.
ThomasMalthus(1766–1834)believedthatagriculturalproductioncouldnotkeepupwithpopulationgrowth.Becausethepopulationgrowsexponen-tially,asimpleincreaseinharvestyieldcouldnotprovideenoughfoodforthegrowingnumberofpeoplethatneededtobefed.Hedidacknowledgethatwar,famine,anddiseasewouldnaturallyslowpopulationgrowth,butMalthusalsobelievedthat“moralrestraint”—ormarryinglateandremainingchasteuntilmarriage—wouldbethebestwaystoslowtheexpansionofthepopulation.MalthuswroteEssay on Human Population(1798),whichstillstandstodayasanimportantargumentforlimitingpopulationgrowth.EventhoughMalthusarguedforchastityandlatemarriage,hewasnotoptimisticthatanyonewouldshowsuchrestraint.Healsofeltitwasnotlikelythatbirthcontrolwouldbedevelopedthatcouldslowdownpopulationgrowthorthattechnologywouldadvancesufficientlytoincreasetheproductionoffoodandgoods.
DavidRicardo(1772–1823)wasastockbrokerandeconomist.ThomasMalthusinfluencedRicardo’seconomictheory.RicardoproposedtheIronLaw
1SELf-ChECK
What is the term for
nineteenth-century
economists who believed
in individual freedom
and a free market
economy?
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612 Unit 12, Lesson 5
ofWages,ortheideathatwageswouldalwaysremainaslowaspossible.Wageswouldstayhighenoughtokeepworkersfromstarving,Ricardobelieved,butwouldneverrisetothelevelofprosperity.Ricardoalsoargued,inThe Principles of Political Economy and Taxation(1817),thatanyincreaseinwageswouldsim-plyencourageworkerstohavemorechildren.Thispopulationgrowthwouldfloodthelabormarketwithprospectiveworkers,causingwagestofallagain.Workerswouldthenhavefewerchildren,andwageswouldagainincrease.Inessence,Ricardobelievedthatlaborwasaproductwhosepricewouldriseandfallaccordingtosupplyanddemand.Basedonhisideas,Ricardoconcludedthatitwasimpossibletoimproveworkers’livesthroughincreasingwages,asdoingsowouldonlyincreasethepopulationanddrivedownwagesagain.Ricardobelievedthatthesupply-and-demandcyclemadeitimpossibletoincreasethestandardofliving.
ThepessimisticviewsofMalthusandRicardoledeconomicstobecalled“thedismalscience.”YetMalthusandRicardowerewrongabouttheabilityofagriculturalandtechnologicalinnovationtovastlyincreasetheproduc-tionoffoodandgoods.Theyalsodidnotconceiveofhowtheseadvancesinagricultureandindustrywouldlowerprices.Also,contrarytowhatMalthusandRicardopredicted,Europeansbeganhavingsmallerfamiliesduringthenineteenthcentury.
JeremyBentham(1748–1832)wasaclassicaleconomistwhobelievedinindividualfreedom.However,hefeltitwasthegovernment’sresponsibilitytointervenewhenregulationwouldresultinthegreatesthappinessforthegreatestnumberofpeople.HedevelopedthedoctrineofutilitarianisminhisPrinciples of Morals and Legislation(1789),aswellasinotherwritings.Benthamfeltthatthehappiness,whichhedefinedas“thepresenceofpleasureandtheabsenceofpain,”engenderedbyagivenactiondeterminedtheutilityofthataction.AccordingtoBentham,thegovernmentprovidedhappinesstoitspeoplebygrantingindividualfreedom.However,iftherewasaninstancewherealargenumberofpeoplefeltpainwhileonlyafewexperiencedpleasure,thenthegovernmentshouldrestorethebalanceofhappinessthroughregulationandenforcement.Benthamarguedthatensuringthe“greatestgoodforthegreat-estnumber”wastheprimarypurposeofgovernment.Benthamsupportedtheseparationofchurchandstate,women’srights,andtheendofslavery.ManyofBentham’sideassparkedthedevelopmentofthemodern-daywelfarestate,whicharoseduringthetwentiethcentury.
JohnStuartMill(1806–1873),anineteenth-centuryphilosopher,wrotePrinciples of Political Economy(1848),whichdisagreedwiththeideasofclassicaleconomists.MillwentevenfurtherthanBenthaminhiseconomicandpoliticaltheories.Hebelievedinindividualfreedom,andthusfeltthatthegovernmentshouldtakestepstoprotecttheindividualfreedomsofminoritiesandthedisadvantaged.Millbelievedthatthenewindustrialeconomycreatedmanyeconomicandsocialinjus-tices.Hearguedthattheseinjusticescouldberectifiedifthegovernmentwouldtakecontroloverthedistributionofwealth.Millassertedthatworkershaveavoiceinpromotingtheirowninterestswhentheyareallowedtoformlaborunions.He
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Unit 12, Lesson 5 613
alsosupportedthegovernmentrestrictionofchildlaborandtheprotectionoffemaleworkers.Hefurtherpromoteduniversalsuffragesothatworkerscouldhavesomesayintheactionsofgovernment.Finally,MillarguedthatParliamentshouldcreateasystemofstate-supportedelementaryeducation,aswellaspassincomeandinheritancetaxestofurtherlimittheaccumulationofwealthbythefew.Millwroteawell-knownessayOn Libertyin1859.Inhisessay,Milldefendedfreedomofexpressionandwarnedthatitisdangeroustoruleorregulatemerelybymajor-ityopinion.Workingwithhiswife,HarrietTaylor,Millfoughtforwomen’srighttovoteinGreatBritain.MillwroteThe Subjection of Women,defendingwomen’srightsin1869.
The Social Effects of IndustrializationIndustrializationdevelopedalongsidethepopulationexplosionthatbeganduringtheeighteenthcentury.ThepopulationofGreatBritainincreased200percentbetween1750and1850,whenitreached30millionpeople.InEngland,thepopulationconcentratedintheindustrialcitieslocatednorthofLondoninLancashireandtheMidlands.Between1750and1850,Manchesterbecamethesecond-largestcityinBritain,growinginpopulationtoalmostahalfamillionpeople.Thisdramaticincreaseinpopulationbroughtsomeoftheworstproblemsofindustrialization.SomemigrantstothenewindustrialcitiescametoescapethefamineinIreland.Othersmigratedtothecitysimplybecausetheydidn’townlandinthecountry,andtheywereseekingemploymentandaplacetolive.Jobswereavailableinthemanynewcottonmills.
Earlyfactorieshadharshandunhealthyworkingconditions.Factoryemploy-eesworkedlonghoursinpoorlightandventilation.Workersfacedstrictfactoryrulesandhardphysicallabor.Factorymachinerycouldbedangerous.Tiredwork-erscouldbeinjuredeasilyiftheyfailedtopaycloseattentiontothedangerousworktheyweredoing.Beforereformlawsrestrictingtheuseofchildlabor,manyfactoryownersexploitedchildren.Factoryandmineworkcouldalsoendangerworkers’health,asworkerswereoftenexposedtohazardousortoxicsubstances.Suchworkingconditionsmadeitnecessarytoreformlaborlaws,tooutlawchildlabor,andtoprotectworkers.Theseconditionsalsoledtotheinitiationofalabormovementbytheworkersthemselves.
Unfortunately,urbanlivingconditionsforunskilledfactoryormineworkerswerenotmuchbetterthantheconditionstheyencounteredatwork.Overcrowdedcitiesoftenhadpollutedair,pollutedwater,andpoorsanitation.Diseaseslikecholera,dysentery,andtyphoidspreadquicklythroughouturbanpopulations.Thelifeexpectancyofanurbanworkerwashalfaslongasafarmerinthecountry.Citiesalsolackedeffectivelawenforcementandwerepronetosocialillssuchasprostitutionandalcoholism.
Familylifeintheindustrialcitywasfundamentallydifferentfromfamilylifeinthecountry.Inthecountry,familieslaboredtogetherinfarmingandincottageindustries.Intheindustrialcity,theworkofwomenandmenbecameseparatedbylocationandgenderdesignation.Whilemenlaboredforwagesoutsidethehome,theprimaryresponsibilitiesofwomenweredomestictasks
2SELf-ChECK
Which classical
economist believed
that wealth should be
redistributed for the
benefit of society’s
disadvantaged?
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614 Unit 12, Lesson 5
thatdidnotbringinwages.Thesefami-liesnowspentlimitedleisureandmealtimestogether.Ifmarriedwomenneededtoworkforwages,theirworkoptionsbecameextremelylimited,andgener-allydidnotpayverymuch.
Thereformlawsofthe1830sand1840s,passedbytheBritishParliament,essentiallycompletedtheseparationofmalewageworkandfemaledomesticwork.Suchlawsprotectedwomenandchildrenfromexploitationinfactoriesandmines.
Two new social classes emergedoutofindustrializationandthenewfactorysystem.Theseclassesweretheindustrialmiddleclassandurbanwork-ers.Industrialinvestors,inventors,andfactoryownersandmanagersbecamewealthyandgainedsocialstatusinthecommunity. This small-but-growinggroup of industrial bourgeoisie washardworkingandfrugal.
Thenewclassofunskilledurbanworkersincreasedincitiesatasimilarratetothemiddleclass.Thesework-ersownednopropertyandhadlittlemoney. They worked for wages at adisadvantagebecauseoftheamplesup-ply of workers availablemeant thattheycouldbehiredorfiredatafactoryowner’sdiscretion.IndustrialworkersremainedasmallpercentageofthepopulationinmostofEuropeuntilafter1850.Thus,theseworkersandtheirlaborunionsdidnotwieldmuchpoliticalpoweruntilmidcentury.
Citiesquicklybecamesegregatedbyclass,income,andoccupation.Riotsandcrimepromptedtheformationofmodernpoliceforces.Citylawenforce-mentbecameaprofessionalinstitutionincitiesaround1850.Thegovernmentalsobuiltmodernprisonstoincarcerateandrehabilitatecriminals.
The Early Utopian SocialistsNineteenth-centurysocialistsareoftendescribedasutopiansocialists.Theuto-piansocialistsincludeRobertOwen,theCountHenrideSaint-Simon,CharlesFourier,LouisBlanc,andAugusteBlanqui.JohnStuartMillleanedtowardsocialisminhisbeliefs,andhedidsupporttheredistributionofwealthtoaidthedisadvantaged,buthisideasdidnotgofarenoughformanytruesocialist
3SELf-ChECK
What were working
conditions like in early
factories?
The London slums
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Unit 12, Lesson 5 615
thinkers,soheisnotusuallycategorizedasone.Nineteenth-centurysocialistsgenerallyagreedonafewbasicpoints.First,theycalledforacompletechangeinthedefinitionandnatureofpropertyownership.Inthesocialistview,propertyshouldnotbeheldbyindividuals,butinsteadshouldbeownedbycommuni-tiesorstates,fortheuseandbenefitofall.Second,socialistsespeciallydesiredsocialownershipofthemeansofproductionandthemeansofdistribution.Finally,socialistsbelievedthatpeopleshouldworkcooperativelyratherthancompetitivelytobenefiteveryone.Beyondthesegeneralpoints,socialistphi-losophersofthe1800sofferedmanydifferentwayssocietycouldbeorderedtoreachthesecommongoalsandbeliefs.
RobertOwen(1771–1858)beganhiscareerasaScottishfactoryowner.HeownedacottontextilemillinNewLanark.Owenshowedthatfactoryownersdidnotneedtoabuseandexploitfactoryworkerstomakeaprofit.Heshortenedworkhours,paidhigherwages,madehismillshealthierandsafer,andsup-pliedgoodhousingforfactoryworkers.Afterhisearlyexperienceowningandrunningasuccessfulfactory,Owenwantedtoestablishasocialistcommunity.In1826,hesoldhisshareofthefactoryandboughtsomelandinIndiana,intheUnitedStates.TherehesetupthecommunityofNewHarmony.Residentsownedandfarmedthelandasacommunity.Unfortunately,Owen’ssocialistexperimentfailedinjustafewyears,andhereturnedtoEnglandanddirectedhisattentiontounionorganizing.
CountHenrideSaint-Simon(1760–1825)wasaprominentFrenchsocialist.Hisideascanbefoundinmanywrittenworks,suchasThe New Christianity(1825).
Robert Owen’s textile mill
thatdidnotbringinwages.Thesefami-liesnowspentlimitedleisureandmealtimestogether.Ifmarriedwomenneededtoworkforwages,theirworkoptionsbecameextremelylimited,andgener-allydidnotpayverymuch.
Thereformlawsofthe1830sand1840s,passedbytheBritishParliament,essentiallycompletedtheseparationofmalewageworkandfemaledomesticwork.Suchlawsprotectedwomenandchildrenfromexploitationinfactoriesandmines.
Two new social classes emergedoutofindustrializationandthenewfactorysystem.Theseclassesweretheindustrialmiddleclassandurbanwork-ers.Industrialinvestors,inventors,andfactoryownersandmanagersbecamewealthyandgainedsocialstatusinthecommunity. This small-but-growinggroup of industrial bourgeoisie washardworkingandfrugal.
Thenewclassofunskilledurbanworkersincreasedincitiesatasimilarratetothemiddleclass.Thesework-ersownednopropertyandhadlittlemoney. They worked for wages at adisadvantagebecauseoftheamplesup-ply of workers availablemeant thattheycouldbehiredorfiredatafactoryowner’sdiscretion.IndustrialworkersremainedasmallpercentageofthepopulationinmostofEuropeuntilafter1850.Thus,theseworkersandtheirlaborunionsdidnotwieldmuchpoliticalpoweruntilmidcentury.
Citiesquicklybecamesegregatedbyclass,income,andoccupation.Riotsandcrimepromptedtheformationofmodernpoliceforces.Citylawenforce-mentbecameaprofessionalinstitutionincitiesaround1850.Thegovernmentalsobuiltmodernprisonstoincarcerateandrehabilitatecriminals.
The Early Utopian SocialistsNineteenth-centurysocialistsareoftendescribedasutopiansocialists.Theuto-piansocialistsincludeRobertOwen,theCountHenrideSaint-Simon,CharlesFourier,LouisBlanc,andAugusteBlanqui.JohnStuartMillleanedtowardsocialisminhisbeliefs,andhedidsupporttheredistributionofwealthtoaidthedisadvantaged,buthisideasdidnotgofarenoughformanytruesocialist
3SELf-ChECK
What were working
conditions like in early
factories?
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616 Unit 12, Lesson 5
Saint-Simonbelievedthatgovernmentsofmodernindustrialsocietiesshouldfocustheirattentionandeffortsoneconomicsratherthanpolitics.Healsofeltthatsci-entistsandtechnicians,whounderstoodthemodernindustrialeconomy,shouldrunthegovernment.Suchexpertscouldthenmanagetheeconomyinwaysthatwouldbenefitallcitizensandserveeveryone’sinterests.InSaintSimon’sutopiansociety,everyonewouldhavewhattheyneed.Inaddition,everyonewouldworkforthebenefitofall,andberewardedforwhattheyproduced.
CharlesFourier(1772–1837)wasanotherFrenchsocialist.Heproposedthecreationofphalanxes,whichweresocialistcommunities.Eachphalanxwouldhaveabout1,600communitymembers.Phalanxmemberswouldfarmandmanufacturegoodstogether,eachperformingajobthattheylikedtodo.Peoplewouldbeallowedtochangejobsoftentoavoidboredomordissatisfaction.Fourierexpectedinvestorsorphilanthropiststocomeforwardandfundhissocialistcommunities,butnoonedid.AfewphalanxeswereestablishedincountriesoutsideofFrance,butultimatelytheywerenotsuccessful.
LouisBlanc(1811–1882)wasaFrenchjournalistwhowroteThe Organization of Work(1840),inwhichheproposedpracticalwaysthatsocialismcouldtakeoverthegovernment.First,Blancargued,aFrenchrepublicinwhichallmalecitizenscouldvotecouldbeestablished.Anewlycreatedworkers’partywouldgrowinnumbersandpower,ultimatelytakingcontrolofthegovernment.Wheninpower,theworkerswouldnationalizetherailroads.Profitsgainedfromrunningtherailroadsandothertaxrevenuescouldthenbeusedtofoundsocialworkshopsineveryareaofindustry.Workerswouldcooperativelyrunthesocialworkshops,andalltheprofitswouldbepaidtotheseworkers.Thesestate-sponsoredworkshopswouldguaranteefullemploymentforallwork-ers.Becausetheseworkerswouldenjoytheirworksomuch,Blanctheorized,productivitywouldgreatlyincrease,whilethecostoffinishedproductswoulddrop.Competitionfromsocialworkshopswoulddriveprivatelyownedfactoriesoutofbusiness.Thenprivatefactorieswouldbetakenoverbytheworkersandbecomesocialworkshops.Afterawhile,allindustrywouldbecooperativelyownedandmanagedbyworkers.Theprimaryprincipleofthisnewsocialistutopiawouldbe“fromeachaccordingtohisabilities,toeachaccordingtohisneeds.”Blanc’sworkingclassphilosophieshelpedinspirethe1848revolutioninFrance.
AugusteBlanqui(1805–1881)wasanactivistwhoencouragedviolentrevo-lution.HecalledfortheworkingclasstoriseupandtakecontroloftheFrenchgovernment.Aftertakingcontrol,newworkerleaderswouldseizeownershipofallprivatepropertyandtakecontroloverthemeansofproductionanddis-tribution.Thenthenewgovernmentwouldreorganizetheeconomysothatallworkerswouldbenefit.Reeducationwouldhelpworkersovercomeatendencytowardselfishnessandself-interest.Afterthissocialistsystemwasimplemented,thegovernmentwouldbecomeademocratic,socialistsociety.
Karl Marx and MarxismKarlMarx(1818–1883)andFriedrichEngels(1820–1895),twoGermansocialistphilosophers,joinedforcesin1848towriteandpublishThe Communist Manifesto.
phalanxes socialist communities envisioned by Charles Fourier
4SELf-ChECK
Name the five utopian
socialists discussed in
the text.
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Unit 12, Lesson 5 617
ItisdifficulttooverstatetheimportanceandinfluenceofthispamphletonmodernEurope.TheManifestooutlinedMarxiansocialism,expoundedamethodofnationalizingproperty,arguedthatallpeopleshouldbeallowedtovote(universalsuffrage),anddescribedaprocessofredistributingproperty.
MarxreceivedhiscollegeeducationattheUniversityofBerlin,studyingphilosophy,journalism,andeconomics.HereadthewritingsoftheFrenchutopiansocialistsanddevel-opedhisownversionofsocialismbythetimehewas25.Engelswasthesonofawealthytextileowner.Herejectedhisinheritancetofightfortheinterestsofindustrialworkers.In1844,hewroteThe Condition of the Working Class in England,exposingtheinequalitieshefeltwerecreatedbycapitalism.MarxandEngelsenjoyedalifelongfriendshipandcollabora-tionintheirsocialistendeavors.
MarxandEngelscombinedGermanphilosophy,Britishindustrialism,andFrenchradicalismintotheircriticismofcapitalism.Marxiansocialismincludesfivepillars:alienationoflabor,labortheoryofvalue,dialecticalmaterialism,classstruggle,andrevolution.Inhisearlywritings,Marxdescribedwhathetermedthe“alienationoflabor.”Becauseindustrialworkerswerespecialized,onlyperformingonetaskofmanytomakeaproduct,theybecameseparatedfromthefinishedproduct.Thisdivisionoflaborinfactoriesalienatedworkersfromtheircreations,fromtheiremployers,andfromeachother.AccordingtoMarx,“alienationoflabor”wasonewaythatemployersexploitedandabusedtheirindustrialworkers.
The labor theory of valueisanideaMarxborrowedfromclassicalecono-mistsandthenrepurposedforMarxiansocialism.Marxarguedthataproduct’svalueequatedwithhowmuchlaborittakestoproducetheproduct.Becausework-ersarepaidlessthanthefactoryownerbringsinforhisproductsatmarket(profit),Marxheldthatthefactoryownerstole“surpluslabor”fromhisemployees.
DialecticalmaterialismisbasicallyMarx’stheoryofhistoricalevolution.MarxappliedideasfromtheGermanphilosopherGeorgHegel(1770–1831)toprovideanoverviewofandstructureforallofhumanhistory.Hegelsaidthat,throughouthistory,theclashofopposingforcescausedchangethatoccurredinthreesteps.Thefirststephasbeentermedthesis,whichisthestatementofanintellectualidea.Thesecondstepiscalledantithesis:adenialofnegativereactiontotheinitialproposition.Thethirdisknownassynthesis,anditisareconciliationofthethesisandantithesis.Forinstance,“Theideaofbeinghadbeendominantinitially...andithadproduceditsantithesis,theideaofnonbeing.Thisideainturnhadresultedinthesynthesisofbecoming.Thushistoryhaspatternandpurpose.”MarxusedHegel’sideaofopposingforces,buthearguedthatthemotivationforconflictbetweenclassesthroughouthistoryhadalwaysbeeneconomic.Marx’sviewofhistorycanbecalledeconomic determinism.
labor theory of value the idea that a product’s value is equated with how much labor it takes to produce the product
economic determinism the idea proposed by Marx and Engels that economic factors underlie all of society’s decisions
Karl Marx
Saint-Simonbelievedthatgovernmentsofmodernindustrialsocietiesshouldfocustheirattentionandeffortsoneconomicsratherthanpolitics.Healsofeltthatsci-entistsandtechnicians,whounderstoodthemodernindustrialeconomy,shouldrunthegovernment.Suchexpertscouldthenmanagetheeconomyinwaysthatwouldbenefitallcitizensandserveeveryone’sinterests.InSaintSimon’sutopiansociety,everyonewouldhavewhattheyneed.Inaddition,everyonewouldworkforthebenefitofall,andberewardedforwhattheyproduced.
CharlesFourier(1772–1837)wasanotherFrenchsocialist.Heproposedthecreationofphalanxes,whichweresocialistcommunities.Eachphalanxwouldhaveabout1,600communitymembers.Phalanxmemberswouldfarmandmanufacturegoodstogether,eachperformingajobthattheylikedtodo.Peoplewouldbeallowedtochangejobsoftentoavoidboredomordissatisfaction.Fourierexpectedinvestorsorphilanthropiststocomeforwardandfundhissocialistcommunities,butnoonedid.AfewphalanxeswereestablishedincountriesoutsideofFrance,butultimatelytheywerenotsuccessful.
LouisBlanc(1811–1882)wasaFrenchjournalistwhowroteThe Organization of Work(1840),inwhichheproposedpracticalwaysthatsocialismcouldtakeoverthegovernment.First,Blancargued,aFrenchrepublicinwhichallmalecitizenscouldvotecouldbeestablished.Anewlycreatedworkers’partywouldgrowinnumbersandpower,ultimatelytakingcontrolofthegovernment.Wheninpower,theworkerswouldnationalizetherailroads.Profitsgainedfromrunningtherailroadsandothertaxrevenuescouldthenbeusedtofoundsocialworkshopsineveryareaofindustry.Workerswouldcooperativelyrunthesocialworkshops,andalltheprofitswouldbepaidtotheseworkers.Thesestate-sponsoredworkshopswouldguaranteefullemploymentforallwork-ers.Becausetheseworkerswouldenjoytheirworksomuch,Blanctheorized,productivitywouldgreatlyincrease,whilethecostoffinishedproductswoulddrop.Competitionfromsocialworkshopswoulddriveprivatelyownedfactoriesoutofbusiness.Thenprivatefactorieswouldbetakenoverbytheworkersandbecomesocialworkshops.Afterawhile,allindustrywouldbecooperativelyownedandmanagedbyworkers.Theprimaryprincipleofthisnewsocialistutopiawouldbe“fromeachaccordingtohisabilities,toeachaccordingtohisneeds.”Blanc’sworkingclassphilosophieshelpedinspirethe1848revolutioninFrance.
AugusteBlanqui(1805–1881)wasanactivistwhoencouragedviolentrevo-lution.HecalledfortheworkingclasstoriseupandtakecontroloftheFrenchgovernment.Aftertakingcontrol,newworkerleaderswouldseizeownershipofallprivatepropertyandtakecontroloverthemeansofproductionanddis-tribution.Thenthenewgovernmentwouldreorganizetheeconomysothatallworkerswouldbenefit.Reeducationwouldhelpworkersovercomeatendencytowardselfishnessandself-interest.Afterthissocialistsystemwasimplemented,thegovernmentwouldbecomeademocratic,socialistsociety.
Karl Marx and MarxismKarlMarx(1818–1883)andFriedrichEngels(1820–1895),twoGermansocialistphilosophers,joinedforcesin1848towriteandpublishThe Communist Manifesto.
phalanxes socialist communities envisioned by Charles Fourier
4SELf-ChECK
Name the five utopian
socialists discussed in
the text.
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618 Unit 12, Lesson 5
AccordingtoMarx,everystageofhistoryhashadadominantclassthatownsthemeansofproduction.DuringtheMiddleAges,thearistocracyownedthelandandwieldedpowerovertheserfsbecauselandwasthemostimportanteconomicresourceofthetime.Conflictbetweenthedominantclassandtheoppressedclassesresultedinclass struggle.Duringtheindustrialage,thebourgeoisie wasthedominantclassbecauseitownedallformsofcapital,suchasfactoriesandbanks.Exploitationandoppressionoftheunskilledworkers,calledtheproletariat,wouldinevitablyresultintheemergenceofasystemopposedtocapitalism.Thussocial-ismistheantithesistocapitalism.Theproletariatwouldthendevelopaclass consciousnessandriseupagainsttheiroppressors.
WhenMarxandEngelcalledfor“theworkersoftheworld[to]unite,”theywerecallingforasocialistrevolution.MarxsawthemanydifferentschemesoftheFrenchutopiansocialistsasridiculousandunrealistic.Theoppressedproletariatoftheworldwouldnotbefreed,hebelieved,bydevelopingindi-vidualcommunes.Hebelievedthemostsuccessfulcourseofactiontobeanorganizedandplannedrevolutionimplementedbythecoordinatedviolentactionoftheworkingclassallovertheworld.AccordingtoMarx’sviewofhis-tory,sucharevolutionwastheinevitableresultofcapitalists’exploitationofworkers.Marxbelievedworkerswouldeventuallybeunabletoaffordthecostofmanufacturedproducts.Atthispoint,industrialworkerswouldjointogetherandriseupagainstthebourgeoisieandthegovernment.Aftertherevolution,theworkerswouldcreateadictatorshipoftheproletariatthatwouldwipeoutcapitalismandinstitutesocialisminitsplace.
Fromthemiddleofthenineteenthcenturythroughthepresentday,Marxistphilosophyhasinfluencedeconomicsandpoliticsatvariousperiods,invariouscountries,andtovariousdegreesallovertheworld.AlthoughKarlMarxwasanatheistwhorejectedreligion,somehistorianshavearguedthatMarxismislikeareligioninitsbeliefsystemandstructure.Tothesehistorians,Marxismhasaprophet,KarlMarx,andholybooksintheformofMarx’swritings.Theyalsoarguethattheproletariatservesasthereligion’schosenraceandthatthereligion’sexplanationfortheendoftheworldisthefinalculminationofcom-munism,wherethestatebecomesnonexistentandthepeopleworkandlivetogethercooperatively.Duringthetwentiethcentury,therehavebeenseveralcountriesthathaveruntheirgovernmentsbasedonMarxistprinciples.YettheyhaveallimplementedvariationsofMarx’splan,ratherthanadhereddirectlyandwhollytohisManifesto.
Extensions• ReadThe Communist ManifestobyKarlMarxandFriedrichEngels.Who
weretheenemiesofthebourgeoisie?Howwastheproletariatcreated?Whywilltheproletariateventuallyprevail?
SummaryAsindustrializationvastlyexpandedtheproductionofgoodsinEngland,mer-cantilismgavewaytoanewfreemarketsystemofproductdistribution.Classical
class struggle the active expression of class conflict looked at from any kind of socialist perspective
antithesis the exact opposite (for instance: socialism is the antithesis of capitalism)
class consciousness the idea that people understand their social and economic status and collectively consider themselves part of a class of people
5SELf-ChECK
What are the five pillars
of Marxian socialism?
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Unit 12, Lesson 5 619
1. Classical economists
2. John Stuart Mill
3. Long working hours, poor light and ventilation, strict rules prohibiting tardiness or talking with other workers, injuries from factory machinery, exposure
to and diseases from hazardous or toxic substances, child labor, low pay
4. Robert Owen, the Count of Saint-Simon, Charles Fourier, Louis Blanc, Auguste Blanqui
5. Alienation of labor, labor theory of value, dialectical materialism, class struggle, revolution
SELf-ChECK AnSwERS
economictheoristsdiscussedthefreemarketandprovidedargumentsforgovernmentaction.TheseclassicaleconomistsincludedAdamSmith,ThomasMalthus,DavidRicardo,JeremyBentham,andJohnStuartMill.Smithbelievedthatindividualsshouldbeallowedtofreelypursuetheirowneconomicself-interestwithoutregulationsorsponsorshipfromthestate.Smith’sbook,Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations,isbasicallyatextbookformoderncapitalism.Whilethemembersofthenewindustrialmiddleclassenjoyedtheirnewsocialandfinancialmobility,urbanworkersenduredharshandunhealthyworkingandlivingconditions.Citiesquicklybecamesegregatedbyclass,income,andoccupation.Toaddresstheplightofurbanworkers,nineteenth-centuryutopiansocialistsexpoundeduponradicalchangestosociety,suchastheeliminationofprivatepropertyownership,socialowner-shipofthemeansofproductionandthemeansofdistribution,andtheideathatpeopleshouldworkcooperativelyratherthancompetitively.In1848,KarlMarxandFriedrichEngelspublishedThe Communist Manifesto,theimportanceandinfluenceofwhichcannotbeoverstated.
Looking AheadTheIndustrialRevolutionhadmanysocialeffectsthatforeverchangedtheEuropeanlandscapeandthelivesofEuropeanpeople.Factoriesdottedthelandscape,andthegrowthofindustrialcitiescausedpollutionandnewsanita-tionissueswithwhichcitieshadtocontend.Theseparationofdomesticandmanuallaborfromfactorylaborresultedinanewsexualdivisionoflabor.Industrializationalsocausednewclassdivisionsbetweentheindustrialmiddleclassandthelaboringpoor.Restrictionsonchildlaborandlawsmandatingelementaryeducationforyoungchildrenonlyservedtoincreaseliteracyandstrengthennewconceptsofchildhoodandthemoregentletreatmentofchil-dren.Industrializationgavehopethatcreative,hard-workingpeoplecouldgreatlyimprovetheirfinancialstatus,butatthesametimeitcreatedaharsh,unsanitarylifeforthemajorityoftheurbanclass.
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