virginia in the jim crow era jim crow—a term referring to laws establishing segregated facilities...
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Virginia in the Jim Crow Era
Jim Crow—A term referring to laws establishing segregated facilities and restricting blacks’ activities in the South following Reconstruction. Jim Crow was a character in the 19th-century minstrel shows, dating back to 1828.
Reconstruction in Virginia Federal military government
Radical republicans favored civil (voting) rights for blacks
Radicals controlled constitutional convention
Constitution of 1867 “Underwood Constitution” Gave blacks right to vote Former Confederates could not vote Secret ballot System of public education Opponents formed Conservative Party
Conservative leader Alexander H.H. Stuart
Pre-war Whig Denounced Black voting rights (“Negro
supremacy”) as “abhorrent to the civilization of mankind.”
Black status and rights became central issue of Virginia politics
Role of J.M. SchofieldConservatives were aided in their efforts to “redeem” state by Federal military governor, General J.M. Schofield. Schofield was troubled by Confederate disqualification, fearing that there would not be enough qualified people to run things.
Permitted a separate vote on disqualifying clauses
Role of William Mahone Railroad executive and former Confederate
general (“hero of the Crater”) Wished to consolidate RR lines from
Hampton Roads westward into Tennessee Opposed by RR south from Alexandria
through Lynchburg Mahone engineered nomination of Gilbert
Walker, a conservative republican, for governor.
Election of 1869 105,000 black voters 120,000 white voters 27 of 180 new legislators were black Gilbert Walker won governorship Conservatives used fear of “Negro control” to
attract votes Underwood Constitution passed BUT: Confederate disqualification clauses
were defeated
Virginia returned to Union in 1870 State “redeemed” by conservatives Opposed federal/military control of state Opposed former slaves’ access to rights and
responsibilities of governing Lists of voters separated by race Poll tax and whipping post (1876) Preservation of white control
Who were the Conservatives? Mainly former Democrats
State’s elite socially and economically
Continuation of ante-bellum pattern
EXCEPT: slave holding no longer a measure of wealth and status
Conservative fiscal policy Emphasized fiscal responsibility
Regressive tax policy, low level of state services
Education, medical, roads, etc., received little funding
Maintenance of elite’s own economic leadership
Issues RR consolidation (and state investment in
pre-war RRs.)
Public education (mandated by constitution)
debt
RR Consolidation Fight between Mahone’s southside plan and
Barbour’s Valley plan
Norfolk vs. Baltimore as rival terminals
Mahone plan won
Sale of state interests in RRs War had damaged RRs
Prices greatly deflated
State needed funds
Private investors got a great deal (incl. out of state groups)
Debt By 1870 state debt was more than
$45,000,000 Full funding became a question of state’s
“honor.” Funding Act passed March 1871 Put state in hole by about $1,000,000
annually Act challenged but upheld in state Supreme
Court
Judge Walter R. Staples From SWVA Dissent from majority decision Funding Act diverted funds from state
education system State legislature cannot bind future
legislatures BUT Funding Act applauded by business
interests (seen as Conservative program)
Gilbert Walker (1869-1873) Supporters claimed he had saved state from
“negro domination” Opponents claimed he sold out to railroad
executives Originally from NY, thus also seen as a
“carpetbagger.”
1873 election Conservative nominee— James Lawson Kemper Native Virginian Confederate hero Wounded in Pickett’s charge Carried cane and had a visible limp
Kemper Supporter of “lost cause” But advocated acceptance of victory of Union Decried “despicable adventurers from North,
who left their country’s good . . .to fill the mind of the superstitious and semibarbarous negro with purposes and plans of vengeance against the white race.”
Kemper Believed blacks were human beings, but Blacks did not qualify for “social equality
with the white man, entitling him to the same seats and privileges in hotels, churches, theatres and making him eligible to all offices state and federal and legalizing amalgamation.”
“two parties in this Commonwealth, the white man’s party and the negro party. There is no middle ground.”
Kemper Promised black Virginians “liberal facilities
for education, but Also said he would close the schools rather
than permit integration Vetoed a bill designed to abolish election of
blacks to city council of Petersburg Whites burned him in effigy
State Debt Kemper wished debt reduced, but not without
agreement of creditors School funding suffered from poor revenues
and debt service Kemper resented charges that he neglected
schools
1877 election William Mahone became a major force Advocated adjusting the debt Conservatives nominated instead F.W.M.
Holliday of Winchester Holliday evaded issue In House, many candidates who favored
modification of the Funding Act were elected
Barbour Bill Debt placed last among priorities after
government operation and schools
Holliday vetoed the bill
Beginning of “Readjuster” movement
Readjusters Sought to reduce or “readjust” state debt
Mahone was leader
Won control of legislature in 1879
Mahone elected to Senate (by legislature)
Conservatives opposed Readjusters Charged state’s “honor” depended on funding
debt Charged Mahone with political opportunism
and corruption Played “race” card—victory of Readjusters
meant victory of “Negro” rule
1881 election William E. Cameron, readjuster candidate,
won governorship
Riddleberger Debt Act, 1882
Assessed one-third of debt to West Virginia; reduced remainder by another one-third; lowered interest
Readjuster social legislation More money for schools Poll tax repealed; whipping post abolished;
assessments on corporations increased Became responsibility of Board of Public
Works; previously corporations had assessed themselves
Anti-Mahone Weakness of Readjusters was character of
Mahone Built “machine” to maintain power Fused with Republican Party Became target of Conservatives Conservatives accepted Riddleberger Act Targeted Valley and SWVA Became “Democratic” Party
Campaign of 1883 Democrats charged Readjusters with favoring
mixed schools, mixed marriages and social equality
Danville race riot right before election Blacks present in local government During scuffle, shots were fired, riot broke
out
Race Issue--1884 Jubal Early, Confederate general, led meeting
in Lynchburg “Negroes must know that they are to behave
themselves and keep in their proper places.” More people in Va. voted in this election Democrats won about 2/3 of legislative seats But Mahone’s Gov. Cameron still in office
1884 legislative session Passed Anderson-McCormick election law “to perpetuate the rule of the white man in
Virginia” Gave Democrats control of local elections:
registrars, election judges, and clerks Cameron’s veto overridden
1885 gubernatorial election Democrats nominated Fitzhugh Lee, nephew
of RE Lee Former Readjuster JE Massey for Lt.
Governor Rufus Ayers of Big Stone Gap for Attorney
General Republican/Readjusters, controlled by
Mahone, nominated John Wise, son of Henry Wise
1885 election Mahone charged Dems as “Bourbons,”
Funders, anti-education “An assassin-like blow at the Public Schools,
by Bourbon managers.” Dems responded by “mounted processions”
throughout SWVA Claimed that Fitz Lee was riding on RE Lee’s
saddle
1885 election Democrats won governor and majorities in
both state houses End of effective Republican/Readjuster
challenge Henceforth, political fights would be between
Democrats In 1887 Democrats had further gains in House
1889 election Mahone himself ran for governor Race issue “a scarecrow to excite prejudice
and fear” Defeated by Philip McKinney article in Roanoke paper, Nov. 7, 1889 “We Are Saved, White Men Will Continue to
Rule Virginia” Ended Mahone’s domination
John Mercer Langston Black Congressman from 4th district Split with Mahone But in 1882 had said: “The success of the
Mahone movement in Virginia means education, liberty, a free ballot, and a fair count for the colored man and the abolition of the whipping post. . .”
Democratic Ascendancy Confederate heroes such as Fitzhugh Lee and
John W. Daniel “Lame Lion of Lynchburg” “I am a Democrat because I am a white man
and a Virginian” “I have always believed that the next thing to
being a good Christian was being a good Democrat.”
Anderson-McCormick Election Law 1884 General Assembly chose local election boards
on recommendation of county Democratic party chairman
Election boards chose election judges and clerks, also as recommended by county party chair
One of three judges was supposed to be a Republican, but was usually compliant
Walton Act 1894 Ballots did not list party affiliation Voters marked ¾ way through names they did
NOT want, leaving only preferred candidate unmarked
Only specially appointed constable could assist voters
Election judges could be all same party
Issues of the 1890s Depression Rise of Populism Outgrowth of Farmers’ Alliances Tight money Free silver became issue Railroad charges Farmers wanted independent commission to
set rates
Tom Martin Railroad lawyer and lobbyist Distributed RR money to members of
legislature Became US Senator in 1893, surprising Fitz
Lee (senators still elected by legislature) Quiet, unassuming, possessed the money and
the secrets (“still hunt”)
Charles T. O’Ferrall Elected governor in 1893 (ran against
Populist candidate E.R. Cocke—see article in Roanoke Times)
Vague on money issue: “I am a Democrat”
Anti-lynching
Roanoke Lynching, Sept. 2, 1893
Thomas Smith Jailed for “fiendish attack” on elderly white
woman Militia fired on angry mob, killing 12 Smith was lynched and his body set on fire
Murder of Lucy Jane Pollard June 1895
Lunenburg County
Charles O’Ferrall governor
Danger of lynching
Election of 1896 Democrats adopted free silver platform Nominated William Jennings Bryan “Cross of Gold” speech Dems split: Regular Dems favored Bryan,
National Dems favored Palmer-Buckner Bryan carried Va. but McKinley (Republican)
won
1896 campaign in Va. Silver Democrats played race card Some national Democrats supported Republicans Widespread fraud in voting, esp. among Bryan
supporters Tom Martin had reluctantly come out for Bryan, but
only because he thought he would win: “Statesmanship becomes reduced to shifty politics, expediency takes the place of courage.” (describes Martin)
Post 1896 Following the 1896 election, there was a
move toward reform of the political process, chiefly led by Martin opponents within the Democratic Party
Reformers wished popular election of Senator Resented Martin’s upset victory over Fitz Lee
in 1893 (using RR money) A.J. Montague elected governor in 1897
Constitution of 1902 Culmination of calls for reform Limited voting rights for blacks and poor
whites Poll tax (paid 6 mos. Before election) Understanding clause Descendants of Confederate or Union
veterans were exempt from above After 1904 new registrants had to sign up on
blank piece of paper without any instruction
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