virtual product development for power plant inspections · 2011. 2. 24. · ultrasonic methods...
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Roland Moser
Virtual Product Development for Power Plant Inspections
Rapperswil, 22.04.2010
© ALSTOM 2010. All rights reserved. Information contained in this document is provided without liability for information purposes only and is subject to change without notice. No representation or warranty is given or to be implied as to the completeness of information or fitness for any particular purpose. Reproduction, use or disclosure to third parties, without express written authority, is strictly prohibited.
P 2
Agenda
1. Introduction
2. Fundamentals of Non Destructive Testing
3. Application of NDT in Inspection Technologies
4. Need for virtual design
5. The CIVA software and its recent developments
6. Conclusion
© ALSTOM 2010. All rights reserved. Information contained in this document is provided without liability for information purposes only and is subject to change without notice. No representation or warranty is given or to be implied as to the completeness of information or fitness for any particular purpose. Reproduction, use or disclosure to third parties, without express written authority, is strictly prohibited.
P 3
Agenda
1. Introduction
2. Fundamentals of Non Destructive Testing
3. Application of NDT in Inspection Technologies
4. Need for virtual design
5. The CIVA software and its recent developments
6. Conclusion
© ALSTOM 2010. All rights reserved. Information contained in this document is provided without liability for information purposes only and is subject to change without notice. No representation or warranty is given or to be implied as to the completeness of information or fitness for any particular purpose. Reproduction, use or disclosure to third parties, without express written authority, is strictly prohibited.
P 4
Present in 70 countries
Sales : €14.2 billion
Around 95’000 employees
Power
N° 1... in turnkey power plants
N° 1... in hydro turbines and generators
N° 1... in service for utility power generation
N° 1... in air quality control systems
Transport
N° 1... in very high-speed trains, high speed trains and tilting trains
N° 2... in urban light rail and tram systems, commuter and regional trains,
services, signalling and systems
One in four of the world’s light bulbs is powered by Alstom technologies
1.Introduction
ALSTOM
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P 51.Introduction
A typical Gas – Combined Cycle Plant
Gas Pipeline
Grid
Boiler
Stack
Air intake
Gas Turbine
Steam TurbineGenerator
© ALSTOM 2010. All rights reserved. Information contained in this document is provided without liability for information purposes only and is subject to change without notice. No representation or warranty is given or to be implied as to the completeness of information or fitness for any particular purpose. Reproduction, use or disclosure to third parties, without express written authority, is strictly prohibited.
P 61.Introduction
Power Plant Components
Gas Turbine Rotor Generator Stator
Steam Turbine RotorBoiler
© ALSTOM 2010. All rights reserved. Information contained in this document is provided without liability for information purposes only and is subject to change without notice. No representation or warranty is given or to be implied as to the completeness of information or fitness for any particular purpose. Reproduction, use or disclosure to third parties, without express written authority, is strictly prohibited.
P 7
Agenda
1. Introduction
2. Fundamentals of Non Destructive Testing
3. Application of NDT in Inspection Technologies
4. Need for virtual design
5. The CIVA software and its recent developments
6. Conclusion
© ALSTOM 2010. All rights reserved. Information contained in this document is provided without liability for information purposes only and is subject to change without notice. No representation or warranty is given or to be implied as to the completeness of information or fitness for any particular purpose. Reproduction, use or disclosure to third parties, without express written authority, is strictly prohibited.
P 8
2. Fundamentals of NDT
Classification
NDT Methods
Dye
- Dye Penetrant
- Magnetic Particles
Ultrasonic
- Pulse-Echo
- Time of Flight
- Phased Array
- EMAT
- Acoustic emmision
- Laser ultrasonics
- Surface waves
- Guided waves
Electromagnetic
- Eddy Current
- ACFM
- ACPD
- Barkhausen testing
- DCPD
- Flux Leakage
- Remote Field Testing
- Holographic Inferometry
- Shearography
Radiographic
- X-Ray
- Isotopes
- Neutron radiography
- X-Ray fluorescence
Used within Alstom Power
A big variety of physical processes can be used for NDT
Thermal
- Flash thermograpy
- Thermosonics
- Eddy Current ind.
- Laser induced
© ALSTOM 2010. All rights reserved. Information contained in this document is provided without liability for information purposes only and is subject to change without notice. No representation or warranty is given or to be implied as to the completeness of information or fitness for any particular purpose. Reproduction, use or disclosure to third parties, without express written authority, is strictly prohibited.
P 9
2. Fundamentals of NDT
Classification
Many solutions to a particular NDT problem
Detect Surface Flaws Detect Volume Flaws
NDT Methods
Dye
- Dye Penetrant
- Magnetic Particles
Ultrasonic
- Pulse-Echo *
- Time of Flight *
- Phased Array *
Electromagnetic
- Eddy Current *
- ACFM *
- ACPD *
Radiographic
- X-Ray
- Isotopes
Thermal
- Flash thermography
- Thermosonics
Surface Flaws
Volume Flaws
* Can be automized
Probe
© ALSTOM 2010. All rights reserved. Information contained in this document is provided without liability for information purposes only and is subject to change without notice. No representation or warranty is given or to be implied as to the completeness of information or fitness for any particular purpose. Reproduction, use or disclosure to third parties, without express written authority, is strictly prohibited.
P 10
2. Fundamentals of NDT
Dye Methods
Dye Penetrant Testing
1.) Pre-Cleaning
2.) Application of Penetrant Dye
3.) Excess Penetrant Removal
4.) Application of Developer
5.) Inspection, photographic recording
6.) Post Cleaning
Flurescent
Ambient light
Detects surface cracks:
© ALSTOM 2010. All rights reserved. Information contained in this document is provided without liability for information purposes only and is subject to change without notice. No representation or warranty is given or to be implied as to the completeness of information or fitness for any particular purpose. Reproduction, use or disclosure to third parties, without express written authority, is strictly prohibited.
P 11
2. Fundamentals of NDT
Dye Methods
Magnetic Particle Testing
1.) Pre-Cleaning
2.) Application of Magnetic Dye
3.) Apply Magnetic Yoke
4.) Inspection, photographic recording
5.) Post Cleaning
i @ 50Hz
Flux lines „leave“ the test piece, concentrate the magnetic particles
Detects surface cracks:
Flurescent
© ALSTOM 2010. All rights reserved. Information contained in this document is provided without liability for information purposes only and is subject to change without notice. No representation or warranty is given or to be implied as to the completeness of information or fitness for any particular purpose. Reproduction, use or disclosure to third parties, without express written authority, is strictly prohibited.
P 12
2. Fundamentals of NDT
Electromagnetic Methods
Eddy Current Testing
1.) Pre-Cleaning
2.) Screening using Coil Sensor, detecting flaws
3.) Sizing flaws
High ability to detect flaws down to a size of 50µµµµm, but limited sizing
capabilities.
Eddy Current testing is a volumetric method:
A deep narrow crack can have the same signal response like a shallow wide crack.
Detects surface cracks:
Flexible Coil Array
i @ 200kHz
V0 Vcrack
V0 < Vcrack
© ALSTOM 2010. All rights reserved. Information contained in this document is provided without liability for information purposes only and is subject to change without notice. No representation or warranty is given or to be implied as to the completeness of information or fitness for any particular purpose. Reproduction, use or disclosure to third parties, without express written authority, is strictly prohibited.
P 13
2. Fundamentals of NDT
Thermal Methods
Flash Thermography
1.) Pre-Cleaning
2.) Optional: Apply black paint
3.) Inject heat using a flash lamp
4.) Observe the cool-down of the object
5.) Optional: Clean-off the black paint
Detects surface and near surface flaws and delaminations:
Flaws influence the cool-down rate
IR Camera
6000 Watt for 10 ms
© ALSTOM 2010. All rights reserved. Information contained in this document is provided without liability for information purposes only and is subject to change without notice. No representation or warranty is given or to be implied as to the completeness of information or fitness for any particular purpose. Reproduction, use or disclosure to third parties, without express written authority, is strictly prohibited.
P 14
2. Fundamentals of NDT
Radiographic Methods
Digital X-Ray
1.) No pre-cleaning
2.) Place X-ray source and detector
3.) Detect flaws based on transmission differences
Detect and size all flaws
X-rayCut
Digital X-ray with 50 µµµµm resolution
5mm
Vacuum tubeAnode (W, Mo or Cu)
Cathode
Digital receptor pixels
Electrons
+-
X-rays
Flaw “shadow”
© ALSTOM 2010. All rights reserved. Information contained in this document is provided without liability for information purposes only and is subject to change without notice. No representation or warranty is given or to be implied as to the completeness of information or fitness for any particular purpose. Reproduction, use or disclosure to third parties, without express written authority, is strictly prohibited.
P 15
2. Fundamentals of NDT
Ultrasonic Methods
Pulse Echo
1.) Pre-Cleaning
2.) Apply acoustic couplant
3.) Place ultrasonic sensor, send one burst of sound
4.) Detect echoes from sound bursts
Oil, water or gel
Backing material
Crystal
Detects volumetric flaws:
t
S
t
S
∆∆∆∆t
Backwall Echo
Crack echo
Crack depth = ∆∆∆∆t · v
v = velocity of sound
Electrodes
© ALSTOM 2010. All rights reserved. Information contained in this document is provided without liability for information purposes only and is subject to change without notice. No representation or warranty is given or to be implied as to the completeness of information or fitness for any particular purpose. Reproduction, use or disclosure to third parties, without express written authority, is strictly prohibited.
P 16
2.Fundamentals of NDT
Ultrasonic Methods
TOFD (Time Of Flight Diffraction)
1.) Pre-Cleaning
2.) Apply acoustic couplant
3.) Place two ultrasonic sensors, Emitter and Receiver
4.) Detect echoes from crack corners
Oil, water or gel
Size volumetric flaws:
Crystal
E R
Housing and wedge
h
d
Crack of height
h at depth d
Surface wave: t1
“Upper corner” wave: t2
“Lower corner” wave: t3Backwall echo: t4
Compare t1, t2, t3 and t4 to find
depth d and height h
Typical Screen output
Fixed distance
Fixed distance
Modern TOFD equipment
© ALSTOM 2010. All rights reserved. Information contained in this document is provided without liability for information purposes only and is subject to change without notice. No representation or warranty is given or to be implied as to the completeness of information or fitness for any particular purpose. Reproduction, use or disclosure to third parties, without express written authority, is strictly prohibited.
P 17
2. Fundamentals of NDT
Ultrasonic Methods
Phased Array
Concept: Why move the sensor when you can move the ultrasonic beam?
Solution: Superposition of small waves (Christian Huygens, 1678)
Use of many small crystals instead on one big one.
Excite the small crystals at different times:
The crated “macro-wave” is a programmable combination of the “micro-waves”
Disc 2Weld
Disc 1
10 small
crystal stripes
Wedge
Beam steering
Distance to flaw
Flaws
Finite element simulation
Wedge10 small crystal stripes
Excitation Voltage
Sound beam
© ALSTOM 2010. All rights reserved. Information contained in this document is provided without liability for information purposes only and is subject to change without notice. No representation or warranty is given or to be implied as to the completeness of information or fitness for any particular purpose. Reproduction, use or disclosure to third parties, without express written authority, is strictly prohibited.
P 18
2.Fundamentals of NDT
Ultrasonic Methods
Phased Array
Another illustrations of its capabilities:
Beam focusing
15 small crystal stripes
Excitation
Voltage
Finite element simulation
Sound beam
Metal
© ALSTOM 2010. All rights reserved. Information contained in this document is provided without liability for information purposes only and is subject to change without notice. No representation or warranty is given or to be implied as to the completeness of information or fitness for any particular purpose. Reproduction, use or disclosure to third parties, without express written authority, is strictly prohibited.
P 19
Agenda
1. Introduction
2. Fundamentals of Non Destructive Testing
3. Application of NDT in Inspection Technologies
4. Need for virtual design
5. The CIVA software and its recent developments
6. Conclusion
© ALSTOM 2010. All rights reserved. Information contained in this document is provided without liability for information purposes only and is subject to change without notice. No representation or warranty is given or to be implied as to the completeness of information or fitness for any particular purpose. Reproduction, use or disclosure to third parties, without express written authority, is strictly prohibited.
P 20
3. Application of NDT in Inspection Technologies
Generator Inspection
© ALSTOM 2010. All rights reserved. Information contained in this document is provided without liability for information purposes only and is subject to change without notice. No representation or warranty is given or to be implied as to the completeness of information or fitness for any particular purpose. Reproduction, use or disclosure to third parties, without express written authority, is strictly prohibited.
P 21
3. Application of NDT in Inspection Technologies
Generator Inspection
© ALSTOM 2010. All rights reserved. Information contained in this document is provided without liability for information purposes only and is subject to change without notice. No representation or warranty is given or to be implied as to the completeness of information or fitness for any particular purpose. Reproduction, use or disclosure to third parties, without express written authority, is strictly prohibited.
P 22
3. Application of NDT in Inspection Technologies
Generator Inspection
© ALSTOM 2010. All rights reserved. Information contained in this document is provided without liability for information purposes only and is subject to change without notice. No representation or warranty is given or to be implied as to the completeness of information or fitness for any particular purpose. Reproduction, use or disclosure to third parties, without express written authority, is strictly prohibited.
P 23
3. Application of NDT in Inspection Technologies
Steam Turbine Inspection
Manual Method
Automated Method
4h / Disc
30min / Disc
© ALSTOM 2010. All rights reserved. Information contained in this document is provided without liability for information purposes only and is subject to change without notice. No representation or warranty is given or to be implied as to the completeness of information or fitness for any particular purpose. Reproduction, use or disclosure to third parties, without express written authority, is strictly prohibited.
P 24
3. Application of NDT in Inspection Technologies
Steam Turbine Inspection
© ALSTOM 2010. All rights reserved. Information contained in this document is provided without liability for information purposes only and is subject to change without notice. No representation or warranty is given or to be implied as to the completeness of information or fitness for any particular purpose. Reproduction, use or disclosure to third parties, without express written authority, is strictly prohibited.
P 25
Agenda
1. Introduction
2. Fundamentals of Non Destructive Testing
3. Application of NDT in Inspection Technologies
4. Need for virtual design
5. The CIVA software and its recent developments
6. Conclusion
© ALSTOM 2010. All rights reserved. Information contained in this document is provided without liability for information purposes only and is subject to change without notice. No representation or warranty is given or to be implied as to the completeness of information or fitness for any particular purpose. Reproduction, use or disclosure to third parties, without express written authority, is strictly prohibited.
P 26
A diversified fleet requires various customized NDT solutions
Steam Turbines
ABB, ALSTOM, Asea, BBC, AEG, AEI, AKZ, AP, ATM, ATP, BTH, CEM, DGI, Escher Wyss, GEC, GT, IT, Jugoturbina, KT, Lang, LMZ, MAN, MFO, MV, Rateau, SEW, Towax, Zamech
Generators
ALSTOM, ABB, Asea, BBC, ACEC, AEI, BTH, Cenemesa, CEA, Dolmel, EE, Electrosila, Ganz, GEC, Marelli, MV, Rateau
Boilers Gas Turbines
ABL, CE, CEC, EVT, ICAL, Mague, NEI-ICL, PBS, Stein, Sulzer
BBC, ABB, ALSTOM
4. Need for virtual design
Inspection Demand
© ALSTOM 2010. All rights reserved. Information contained in this document is provided without liability for information purposes only and is subject to change without notice. No representation or warranty is given or to be implied as to the completeness of information or fitness for any particular purpose. Reproduction, use or disclosure to third parties, without express written authority, is strictly prohibited.
P 27
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31 34 37 40 43 46 49
An aging installed base requires NDT to increase lifetime
Average age: 24 years
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31 34 37 40 43 46 49
Steam turbines Generators
Average age: 22 years
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
1 5 9 13 17 21 25 29 33 37 41 45 49 53 57 61
Boilers
Average age: 36 years
Un
its
Un
its
Un
its
Age [years]
Age [years]
Un
its
Age [years]
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31 34 37 40 43 46 49 52
Gas turbines
Average age: 28 years
4. Need for virtual design
Inspection Demand
© ALSTOM 2010. All rights reserved. Information contained in this document is provided without liability for information purposes only and is subject to change without notice. No representation or warranty is given or to be implied as to the completeness of information or fitness for any particular purpose. Reproduction, use or disclosure to third parties, without express written authority, is strictly prohibited.
P 28
NDT is a key technology for aging installed base
4. Need for virtual design
Missions for NDT
Example: Steam Turbines
Four missions:
• Prevent damages
• Predict remaining lifetime
• Check the quality of repairs
• Ensure quality of reconditioning
Central Bore
Pin Roots
Girth Welds
© ALSTOM 2010. All rights reserved. Information contained in this document is provided without liability for information purposes only and is subject to change without notice. No representation or warranty is given or to be implied as to the completeness of information or fitness for any particular purpose. Reproduction, use or disclosure to third parties, without express written authority, is strictly prohibited.
P 29
4. Need for virtual design
Calibration
Real Cracks:
1.) Casting defects, inclusions, porosities
2.) Fatigue Crack (HCF, LCF)
3.) Stress Corrosion Crack
It is difficult to produce “as real” artificial cracks
Half circle shaped crack front
Crack “age” lines
Sudden fracture
Slow crack propagation
Small crack at the surface
Many branches
Crack initiation from inclusion
© ALSTOM 2010. All rights reserved. Information contained in this document is provided without liability for information purposes only and is subject to change without notice. No representation or warranty is given or to be implied as to the completeness of information or fitness for any particular purpose. Reproduction, use or disclosure to third parties, without express written authority, is strictly prohibited.
P 30
4. Need for virtual design
Missed Defects and False Calls
The two main errors in NDT
Missed defects: The inspector does not see a real crack because its signal is buried in the instrument’s noise (in the “Grass”)
False calls: The inspector sees a signal that he interprets as being a crack and initiates an action (e.g. scrap or repair of the part)
Example: Choosing the right instrument amplification.
A proper calibration and experience is key for NDT
NDT instrument amplification [dB]min
100%Gain Knob
max
Missed Defects
False Calls
© ALSTOM 2010. All rights reserved. Information contained in this document is provided without liability for information purposes only and is subject to change without notice. No representation or warranty is given or to be implied as to the completeness of information or fitness for any particular purpose. Reproduction, use or disclosure to third parties, without express written authority, is strictly prohibited.
P 31
4. Need for virtual design
Sizing
Flaw sizing capabilities:
Method selection and proper simulation is critical
Actual flaw depth d [mm]
d
Measured
depth [mm]
1 2
1
2
Ideal S
ensor
Eddy Current
ACFM / ACPD
Ultrasonic Time-of-Flight (TOFD)
Surface breaking crack:
© ALSTOM 2010. All rights reserved. Information contained in this document is provided without liability for information purposes only and is subject to change without notice. No representation or warranty is given or to be implied as to the completeness of information or fitness for any particular purpose. Reproduction, use or disclosure to third parties, without express written authority, is strictly prohibited.
P 32
Agenda
1. Introduction
2. Fundamentals of Non Destructive Testing
3. Application of NDT in Inspection Technologies
4. Need for virtual design
5. The CIVA software and its recent developments
6. Conclusion
© ALSTOM 2010. All rights reserved. Information contained in this document is provided without liability for information purposes only and is subject to change without notice. No representation or warranty is given or to be implied as to the completeness of information or fitness for any particular purpose. Reproduction, use or disclosure to third parties, without express written authority, is strictly prohibited.
P 33
5. CIVA Software and case study
Principle
CIVA is an analytical simulation software for NDT probe or systemdevelopment.
CIVA was initially developed for the nuclear industry, but is now the industry standard software for power plant and aerospace NDT, as well.
CIVA has 3 physics solutions available with ultrasonic testing [UT],eddy current testing [ET] or radiographic testing [RT].
Special feature: Semi-analytical methods rather than fully numerical methods (finite elements, finite differences, etc.), and the development of models integrated into software modules usable byoperators who are not simulation specialists.
© ALSTOM 2010. All rights reserved. Information contained in this document is provided without liability for information purposes only and is subject to change without notice. No representation or warranty is given or to be implied as to the completeness of information or fitness for any particular purpose. Reproduction, use or disclosure to third parties, without express written authority, is strictly prohibited.
P 34
5. CIVA Software and case study
Development Project
1 Post-Doc senior software developer, 2 years
Post-Doc works at French Nuclear Energy Agency (CEA) near Paris
Experimental verification by Alstom Field Inspectors
Results to be implemented in future versions of CIVA
Simulation of various Phased Array sensors Simulation of various defects
© ALSTOM 2010. All rights reserved. Information contained in this document is provided without liability for information purposes only and is subject to change without notice. No representation or warranty is given or to be implied as to the completeness of information or fitness for any particular purpose. Reproduction, use or disclosure to third parties, without express written authority, is strictly prohibited.
P 35
5. CIVA Software and case study
Problem
In-situ ultrasonic inspection of curvilinear fir-tree blade roots
Standard blade configuration of large nuclear steam turbines
Note the curved blade root and the shape of the blades
Real blade Test Mock-Up
© ALSTOM 2010. All rights reserved. Information contained in this document is provided without liability for information purposes only and is subject to change without notice. No representation or warranty is given or to be implied as to the completeness of information or fitness for any particular purpose. Reproduction, use or disclosure to third parties, without express written authority, is strictly prohibited.
P 36
5. CIVA Software and case study
Limitations of CIVA
Approximation : pièce CAO «Approximation : pièce CAO «Approximation : pièce CAO «Approximation : pièce CAO « 2.5D2.5D2.5D2.5D »»»»CIVA could not calculate « real » 3D
Rotation Extrusion
3D Represen
CIVA CIVA CIVA CIVA was initially designed was initially designed was initially designed was initially designed to to to to simulate weld simulate weld simulate weld simulate weld inspectionsinspectionsinspectionsinspections
© ALSTOM 2010. All rights reserved. Information contained in this document is provided without liability for information purposes only and is subject to change without notice. No representation or warranty is given or to be implied as to the completeness of information or fitness for any particular purpose. Reproduction, use or disclosure to third parties, without express written authority, is strictly prohibited.
P 37
5. CIVA Software and case study
Limitations of CIVA
CIVA could not calculate rebounds from flancs to defects, even in 2D(Indirect echoes)
1. 2.
3.
Ultrasonic sensor
Defect
CIVA CIVA CIVA CIVA was initially designed was initially designed was initially designed was initially designed to to to to simulate weld simulate weld simulate weld simulate weld inspectionsinspectionsinspectionsinspections
© ALSTOM 2010. All rights reserved. Information contained in this document is provided without liability for information purposes only and is subject to change without notice. No representation or warranty is given or to be implied as to the completeness of information or fitness for any particular purpose. Reproduction, use or disclosure to third parties, without express written authority, is strictly prohibited.
P 38
Without multiple rebounds
Échos supplémentaires Échos supplémentaires Échos supplémentaires Échos supplémentaires dus au défautdus au défautdus au défautdus au défaut
5. CIVA Software and case study
Limitations of CIVA
CIVA could not calculate multiple rebounds
New development: with multiple rebounds
Rebounds
© ALSTOM 2010. All rights reserved. Information contained in this document is provided without liability for information purposes only and is subject to change without notice. No representation or warranty is given or to be implied as to the completeness of information or fitness for any particular purpose. Reproduction, use or disclosure to third parties, without express written authority, is strictly prohibited.
P 39
5. CIVA Software and case study
Development work
Implementation of indirect echoes
DiffractionDiffractionDiffractionDiffractionCornerCornerCornerCorner
„Crack“Multiple rebounds
© ALSTOM 2010. All rights reserved. Information contained in this document is provided without liability for information purposes only and is subject to change without notice. No representation or warranty is given or to be implied as to the completeness of information or fitness for any particular purpose. Reproduction, use or disclosure to third parties, without express written authority, is strictly prohibited.
P 40
5. CIVA Software and case study
Development work
Implementation of indirect echoes
Typical output Model calibration and verification
using automated NDT
Ultrasonic sensor
© ALSTOM 2010. All rights reserved. Information contained in this document is provided without liability for information purposes only and is subject to change without notice. No representation or warranty is given or to be implied as to the completeness of information or fitness for any particular purpose. Reproduction, use or disclosure to third parties, without express written authority, is strictly prohibited.
P 41
5. CIVA Software and case study
Development work
Implementation of real 3D
© ALSTOM 2010. All rights reserved. Information contained in this document is provided without liability for information purposes only and is subject to change without notice. No representation or warranty is given or to be implied as to the completeness of information or fitness for any particular purpose. Reproduction, use or disclosure to third parties, without express written authority, is strictly prohibited.
P 42
Conclusion
Virtual development saves time and money:
1. No need for dedicated testblocks in real steel
2. Quick adaptation to new geometries
3. Fast feasibility check
4. Design aid to develop new sensors
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P 43
Questions
www.power.alstom.com
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