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1Amity Journal of Agribusiness

Volume 1 Issue 2 2016 AJAB

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Amity Journal of Agribusiness1(2), (1-13)

©2016 ADMAA

Analysis of Consumer Attitudes toward Pearl Millet Flour Using Fishbein’s Multi-Attribute Attitude Model

S W Denk

University of Namibia,Windhoek, Namibia

(Received: 02/12/2016; Accepted: 13/07/2017)

IntroductionMillet includes many species of various genera, with the prominent ones being pearl millet

(Pennisetum glaucam (L.) R. BR.), finger millet (Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn), foxtail millet (Setaria italica (L.) Beauv) and proso millet (Panicum miliaceum L.) (Jukanti, Laximipathi, Gowda, Rai, Manga & Bhatt., 2016) The focus of this research is on pearl millet flour. In Namibia, pearl millet is referred to as mahangu.

Two types of pearl millet flour formed part of the study. Meme Mahangu is commercial pearl millet variety found in retail outlets across Namibia. It is milled using industrial milling

AbstractThe main objective of this study was to determine the attitude towards two types of pearl

millet flour (fermented and unfermented pearl millet flour). Fermented and unfermented pearl millet flour differs in colour and taste among other attributes associated with pearl millet flour. Unfermented pearl millet flour is not fermented, produces porridge with a dark colour and plain taste (Barrion, 2008). Fermented pearl millet flour produces porridge that is light in colour and sour in taste (Barrion., 2008). Fishbein’s (1963) multi-attribute attitude model was applied to determine the attitude scores toward fermented and unfermented pearl millet flour. Paired sample t-test was used to analyse the attitude scores of fermented and unfermented pearl millet flour. Sufficient statistical evidence was found to reject the null hypothesis at the 0.05 level of significance. As such, inference can be made that the attitude towards unfermented pearl millet flour is negative and that the attitude towards fermented pearl millet flour is positive. The results of this study highlight the importance of understanding and incorporating indigenous knowledge into new product development.

Keywords: Fishbein multi-attribute attitude model, Attitudes, Lactic Acid Fermentation, Indigenous Food Processing

JEL classification: Q13, M31, O33, P36

Paper Classification: Research Paper

2 Amity Journal of AgribusinessADMAA

Volume 1 Issue 2 2016AJAB

equipment and not fermented. The other pearl millet flour is produced at home incorporating indigenous processing techniques including lactic acid fermentation process producing fermented pearl millet grains (Barrion, 2008).

The lactic acid fermentation stage is omitted during the production of the commercial variety, Meme Mahangu. The fermentation of the pearl millet grains bring about technological and nutritional effects that are preferred by pearl millet consumers (Poutanen, Flander, & Katina., 2009, cited in Singh, Tagbir, Amarjeet, & Gagan., 2013).

The researcher applied Fishbein’s multi-attribute attitude model to calculate the attitude scores toward fermented and unfermented pearl millet flour in order to establish if any differences in attitude towards fermented and unfermented pearl millet flour exist.

Literature Review

Processing of Pearl MilletTraditional food processing technologies incorporating lactic acid fermentation techniques,

amongst others, improve the nutritive value, palatability (taste) and sensory appeal (colour) of traditional staple foods (Tchikoua, Tatsadjiru, & Mbofung., 2015; Chinsembu et al., 2015; Fischer, Egli, Aeberli, Hurrel, & Meile., 2014; Oguntoyinbo & Narbad, 2011; Osman., 2010; Nout., 2009; Barrion., 2008; Walingo, 2008; Mafuru, Norman & Fox., 2007). The differences between the traditional Namibian milling process and the industrial dry milling process are shown in figure 1 below.

Figure 1. Flow diagram of the traditional Namibian milling process and industrial dry milling process.

Source: Barrion (2008, p. 36)



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The traditional Namibian milling process shows striking similarities with traditional milling processes recorded across Africa, particularly referring to the steeping of the pearl millet grains (Onyango, Ochanda, Mwasaru, Ochieng, & Mathooko, 2012; Kalui, Mathara, & Kutima, 2010; Tou, Mouquet-River, Rochette, Counil, Traore, & Treche, 2006; Natanga, 2006; Lei, & Jakobsen, 2004). The flour produced by the two milling processes differs in nutritional composition and functional properties which is mainly attributed to the absence or presence of the lactic acid fermentation process (Barrion, 2008). The decorticated grain is steeped in tap water in plastic containers at a temperature of 28 using a 1:2 (w/w) ratio for 24hrs (Barrion 2008).

During soaking process the pH of water changes. The acidification profiles measured are done so at regular intervals, i.e. 0-6 hours and 5-8 hours, with the average pH in the former dropping from 6.6 to 5.3 and the latter from 5.3 to 4.4 (Tchikoua et al., 2015; Barrion, 2008; Tou et al., 2006; Lei, & Jakobsen, 2004). The changes in pH enhance certain enzymes which cause technological and nutritional effects of fermented cereal foods (Poutanen, Flander, & Katina., 2009, cited in Singh, Tagbir, Amarjeet, & Gagan., 2013). Reichert (1979) cited in Barrion (2008) reported that the systematic decrease in the pH during fermentation alters the colour of the porridge and Onyango et al. (2012); Kalui et al. (2010); Barrion (2008); Mafuru et al. (2007); Tou et al. (2006); and Lei, & Jakobsen, (2004), reported that lowering of the pH contributes to the development of the sour taste preferred by pearl millet flour consuming households as well as the texture and the nutritional value of pearl millet.

The flour produced by Namib Mills is darker and does not have the distinct sour taste, mahangu consumers prefer. This is because the mahangu grains used to produce Meme Mahangu were not exposed to` lactic acid fermentation process (Barrion, 2008).

The water, after steeping, was analysed and Pediococuss pentosaceus, Lactobascillus fermentum, and Weisella Confusa lactic acid bacteria strains were recorded, showing that steeping of the grains can indeed be referred to as lactic acid fermentation of the grains (Lei, & Jakobsen., 2004, Nout, 2009). Lactobascillus fermentum has been shown to improve nutritional value of pearl millet based products (Tchikoua et al., 2015). Taste, colour, texture and aroma are attributes of pearl millet that are consistently associated with pearl millet based products (Onyango et al., 2012; Kalui et al., 2010; Barrion, 2008; Mafuru et al., 2007 Tou et al., 2006, Lei, & Jakobsen, 2004).

Measuring attitudesAttributes: Fermentation, taste and colour therefore form the key attributes associated with

pearl millet flour for this study. These attributes will be used to measure attitudes applying Fishbein’s multi-attribute model.

According to Hawkins & Mothersbaugh (2013) and Schiffman & Kanuk (2010) an attitude is an acquired tendency to behave in a consistently favourable or unfavourable way toward an attitude object (pearl millet flour). As per tri-component attitude model, attitudes consist of three major components.

Cognitive component: Consumer beliefs/cognitions i.e. the knowledge and perceptions acquired by a combination of direct experience with pearl millet flour and related information from family members, friends, advertisements and other sources (Schiffman & Kanuk., 2010)

Affective component: Feelings or emotional reactions to an attitude object i.e. evaluations such as “I like traditionally processed pearl millet flour” may result from several evaluations of the product’s performance on each of several attributes such as colour and taste (Schiffman & Kanuk., 2010)



Conative Component: The likelihood or tendency that an individual will undertake a specific action (Schiffman & Kanuk., 2010)

The famous paper on the investigation of the relationship between beliefs about an object and the attitude toward the object was based on his doctoral dissertation (Fishbein, 1981). Fishbein’s theory claims that attitude towards an object is a function of salient beliefs about the object and the evaluative aspects of those beliefs (Fishbein, 1963). Fishbein’s multi-attribute model presents a model of attitude measurement wherein an individual’s beliefs about a particular attitude object (pearl millet flour) are weighed and summed up to yield an index of overall effect or attitude (Peter & Olson., 2010).

The current study will focus on using the basic multi-attribute attitude measurement model and can be represented by Fishbein’s (1963) equation

n

Ao = ∑ bi ei i=1

where,

Ao = individual’s attitude (i.e. affect for or against) toward the object j (e.g. pearl millet flour)

bi = strength of the individual^’ s belief that object j has attribute i (dark or light colour)

ei = evaluation of attribute i (i.e.taste of fermented pearl millet flour judged food or bad)

n = number of salient beliefs about the object

Descriptive beliefs about the attributes is an important determinant of attitude and quantitative measure of belief strength is obtained when the subjective probability associated with a given object-attribute link is assessed (Hennessy, Bleakley & Fishbein, 2012, Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980, Bettman, 1974, Fishbein 1963, 1967).

Research GapPrevious studies on preference for pearl millet focused on food panel experiments and sensory

evaluations with a focus on identifying the quality attributes consumers consider important in their decision making. A definitive gap exists for application of multi-attribute attitude model and multi-attribute decision theory models, random utility theory models and theory of planned behavior models to the field of indigenous foods in order to better understand indigenous consumers.

Contribution of the studyMeasuring attitude towards fermented and unfermented pearl millet is a step in the right

direction of creating profiles of indigenous consumers based on their preferences (revealed or stated). The application of Fsihbein’s multi-attribute model can provide a basis for other researchers to conduct research on the behavior of the indigenous consumers. Theories can be tested in different contexts contributing significantly to knowledge in the field of consumer behavior.



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Objective of the studyThe main objective of this study is to determine the attitude towards two types of pearl millet

flour. The commercial variety (Meme Mahangu) is not fermented and is associated with porridge with a dark colour and plain taste. The traditionally processed pearl millet grains are fermented and the flour is associated with a porridge that is light in colour and sour in taste. Fishbein’s multi-attribute attitude model was used to calculate the attitude scores for Meme Mahangu (commercial variety) and traditionally processed pearl millet flour respectively. The purpose of calculating the attitude scores for the two dependent groups formed the basis for the statistical analysis to show that consumers have a negative attitude toward unfermented pearl millet flour and positive attitude towards fermented pearl millet flour.

Research Methodology

Type of studyA deductive approach was used as data collection was done on the presumptions of Fishbein’s

(1963) multi-attribute theory. Hypotheses were deduced and tested based on the empirical findings and related to Fishbein’s theory. A descriptive single cross sectional research design was used and since the purpose of the research was to describe consumer attitude towards pearl millet flour, the strategy was based on surveys.

SampleThe sample was selected from the population of pearl millet consumers in Namibia. The

sample was selected from the Namibia University of Science and Technology and the University of Namibia in the capital city Windhoek because these institutions host a good mix of pearl millet consumers from pearl millet producing and consuming regions in Namibia. A total number of 118 respondents viewed the questionnaire, 73 started the questionnaire and 53 completed the questionnaire, and only 47 completed the section on attitudes. Data set was cleaned with incomplete responses removed. Forty-one (41) responses were used for the calculation of the attitude score. Two loop questions either terminated the survey or directed the consumer to another section of the questionnaire. This explains the differences in those who started the questionnaire compared to those who completed the questionnaire.

Method of data collectionData was collected using a questionnaire on a sample of the population administered using an

electronic tablet.

Variables used in the studyBased on Fishbein’s multi-attribute attitude model, the quantitative response/dependent

variable is the individual attitude score (Ao) that is calculated by measuring the independent variables belief (Bi) and desirability (ei) based on applying the linear model of multi-attribute attitude model (Fishbein 1967).

For the paired sample T-test, we consider only two variables which is the quantitative response/dependent variable (attitude score) and a binary independent variable (fermented flour



or unfermented flour). The attributes associated with fermented and unfermented flour are shown in table 1 below.

Table 1 Attributes of fermented and unfermented flour

Attributes of the two type of pearl millet flours used for the study

Attributes of unfermented pearl millet flour Attributes of fermented pearl millet flour

Pearl millet grains are not fermented Pearl millet grains are fermented

Produces a porridge with a dark colour Produces a porridge with a light colour

Produces a porridge with a plain taste Produces a porridge with a sharp taste

The measurement scaleThis study used a 10-point Likert type scale to measure belief strength of the subjective

probability associated with pearl millet flour attributes. The attributes are therefore assumed to be linearly related to attitude. A five-point scale was used for evaluation of the attribute. The discussion on whether the data collected using a Likert scale should be treated as ordinal or interval data has prompted the researcher to use a combination of parametric and non-parametric tests.

Research/Study ModelThe model of this study is based on the components of the Fishbein model.

Figure 2. Research/Study Model



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HypothesesH1. Pearl millet consumers have a negative attitude towards unfermented pearl millet flour

H2. Pearl millet consumers have a positive attitude towards fermented pearl millet flour

Statistical AnalysisDescriptive statistics: The study used descriptive statistics to illustrate weighted scores of each

attribute with mean and confidence intervals calculated.

Paired Sample T-Test: We use the sample data from repeated measurements obtained from the same sample to calculate the attitude scores for fermented and unfermented flours respectively. We then conducted a paired sample t-test for the hypothesis testing.

Results and Discussion

Cronbach’s AlphaAfter the empirical data had been collected, a reliability test was conducted on the 4 Likert

scale type questions each with 3 items in the attitude section. The reliability test’s alpha for the 4 questions or 12 items on the attitude towards fermented and unfermented pearl millet flour is 0.9095

SampleA brief overview of the region, the respondents were from and their consumption pattern are

indicated below.

Region: Respondents were drawn from the major pearl millet producing and consuming regions.

Figure 3. Region



Consumption pattern: Sixty four percent of the respondents consumed pearl millet every day.

Figure 4. Consumption Pattern

Attitude towards pearl millet flourRespondents were asked to indicate the degree to which they believed the following statements

of Meme Mahangu (unfermented pearl millet flour) to be true on a 10-point scale.

Question 1. Measuring Belief Strength (unfermented mahangu flour)S1. Mahangu grain (pearl millet grains) used to produce Meme Mahangu (unfermented pearl

millet flour) was not fermented

Mean : Confidence Interval @ 95% : Standard Error : Margin of error:

7.06 [6.00 – 8.122] 0.540 1.059

S2. Meme Mahangu (unfermented pearl millet flour) produces porridge with a plain taste


4.21 [3.00 – 5.42] 0.614 1.204

S3 Meme Mahangu (unfermented pearl millet flour) produces a porridge with a dark colour


6.44 [6.00 – 8.122] 0.940 1.843

Question 2. Evaluation of the attributes associated with unfermented pearl millet flour

Desirability was measured using a 5-point scale

S1. Mahangu (pearl millet) grains used to produce Meme Mahangu (unfermented pearl millet flour) was not put in the water to


(0.22) [-0.56 – 0.11] 0.171 0.335



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S2. Meme Mahangu flour produces porridge with a plain taste

Mean : Confidence Interval @ 95% : Margin of error: Standard Error :

(0.67) [-0.930 – (-0.40)] 0.134 0.264

S3. Meme Mahangu flour produces a darker porridge


(0.38) [-0.678 – (-0.008)] 0.153 0.301

Question 3 Measuring Belief Strength (fermented mahangu flour)Respondents were asked to indicate the degree to which they believed the following statements

on traditional mahangu (fermented pearl millet flour) to be true using a ten-point scale.

S1. Mahangu grain (pearl millet grains) used to produce traditional pearl millet flour was fermented


9.44 [8.88– 10.00] 0.285 0.56

S2. Traditional Mahangu (fermented pearl millet flour) produces porridge with a sour taste


5.53 [3.88 – 7.19] 0.844 1.65

S3. Traditional Mahangu (fermented pearl millet flour) produces a porridge with a light colour


7.70 [5.40 – 10.00] 1.17 2.30

Question 4. Evaluation of the attributes associated with fermented pearl millet flour

Desirability was measured using a 5-point scale

S1. Mahangu (pearl millet) grains used to produce traditional mahangu (fermented pearl millet flour) was put in the water to ferment.

Mean : 1Confidence Interval @ 95% : Standard Error : Margin of error:

[0.71 – 1.29] 0.149 0.29

S2. Traditional Mahangu flour produces a porridge with a sour taste


0.14 [-0.52 – 0.24] 0.194 0.38

S3. Traditional mahangu flour produces porridge that is light in colour


1.09 [0.81 – 1.37] 0.141 0.0.28



Paired Sample T-TestThe study used the paired sample t-test because we have a quantitative response variable

(attitude scores) and a binary independent variable (unfermented and fermented pearl millet flour). Different scores of the paired observation are used in the paired t-test. The scores are assumed to be distributed normally. Repeated measurements obtained from the same sample were used to calculate attitude scores for fermented and unfermented pearl millet flour respectively. If there is no difference in the population we expect μ_d to equal zero.

Research hypotheses 1: Pearl millet consumers have a negative attitude towards unfermented pearl millet flour.

We develop a hypothesis test for which the decision to reject the H0 will lead to the conclusion that pearl millet consumers have a negative attitude towards unfermented pearl millet flour.

The statistical hypothesis is given below. Please note that the hypothesized value for the difference in the population mean is zero (μd=0)

H0: μd=0

H0: μd<0

T Test: Two Paired Samples

SUMMARY Alpha 0.05 Hyp Mean Diff

0

Groups Count Mean Std Dev Std Err t Df Cohen d

not fermented 41 -6.80488 19.23697 4.674125 -5.81301 40 0.90784

Fermented 41 20.36585 18.60881

Difference 41 -27.1707 29.929

T TEST p-value t-crit Lower Upper sig

One Tail 4.33E-07 1.683851 -36.6175 -17.724 yes

Two Tail 8.66E-07 2.021075 yes

For the one-tail test we can assume that the distribution is normal. The sample is large enough to ensure a robust one sided test.

The p-value for the lower tail test provides sufficient statistical evidence to reject the null hypothesis at a .05 level of significance.

The paired sample t-test results lead to the conclusion that we can reject the null hypothesis and make the inference that pearl millet consumers have a negative attitude toward unfermented pearl millet flour.

Research hypotheses 2: Consumers have a positive attitude towards fermented pearl millet flour.

The statistical hypothesis is given below. Please note that the hypothesized value for the difference in the population mean is zero (μd=0)

H0: μd=0



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H0: μd<0

We develop a hypothesis test for which the decision to reject the

H0 will lead to the conclusion that pearl millet consumers have a positive attitude towards fermented pearl millet flour.

T Test: Two Paired Samples

SUMMARY Alpha 0.05 Hyp Mean Diff

Groups Count Mean Std Dev Std Err t df Cohen d

Fermented 41 20.365854 18.60881 4.674125 5.81301 40 0.90784

not fermented 41 -6.804878 19.23697

Difference 41 27.170732 29.929

T TEST p-value t-crit Lower Upper sig

One Tail 4.3E-07 1.683851 17.72397 36.61749 yes

Two Tail 8.7E-07 2.0210754 yes

For the one-tail test we can assume that the distribution is normal. The sample is large enough to ensure a robust one sided test.

The p-value for the upper tail test provides sufficient statistical evidence to reject the null hypothesis at a 0.05 level of significance.

The paired sample t-test results lead to the conclusion that we can reject the null hypothesis and make the inference that pearl millet consumers have a positive attitude towards fermented pearl millet flour.

ConclusionsThis study shows that pearl millet consumers have a negative attitude towards unfermented

pearl millet flour and a positive attitude towards fermented pearl millet flour. Based on Fishbein’s multi-attribute theory, attributes are determinants of attitude (Fishbein, 1963, 1967). The attributes emanating from lactic acid fermentation process are therefore determinants of the positive attitude towards pearl millet flour that was measured in this study.

Scope for future researchCalculating the part-worth utility of each attribute associated with fermented pearl millet flour

using discrete choice experiments pans the immediate scope for future research. The theory of planned behavior can be applied to food consumption decisions related to indigenous food products.

Limitations of the studyDue to financial and time constraints, a relatively small sample was selected from the overall

pearl millet producing and consuming population.



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Author’s Profile

Steven Denk studied Marketing and did his Postgraduate Studies in International Business, specializing in Sustainable Economic Development, with a penchant for indigenous knowledge, particularly local indigenous foods. He is currently employed as a Lecturer at UNAM Southern Campus in the Management Sciences Department, University of Namibia, Windhoek, Namibia. He also taught in the Marketing department at Namibia University of Science and Technology. His research focus is on shedding light on the adoption of organic indigenous food products.

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