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Anglistentag 1993 Eichstätt
Proceedings
edited by Günther Blaicher
and Brigitte Glaser
M A X N I E M E Y E R V E R L A G TÜBINGEN 1994
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Die Deutsche Bibl iothek - CIP-Einheitsaufnahme
Anglistentag <1993, Eichstätts Proceedings / Anglistentag 1993 Eichstätt / ed. by Günther Blaicher and Brigitte Glaser. - Tübingen : Niemeyer , 1994
(Proceedings of the conference of the German Association of Univers i ty Teachers of E n g l i s h ; V o l . 15)
N E : Blaicher, Günther [Hrsg.]; Anglistentag: Proceedings of the ...
I S B N 3-484-40128-1
© M a x Niemeyer Verlag G m b H & Co . K G , Tübingen 1994 Das Werk einschließlich aller seiner Tei le ist urheberrechtlich geschützt. Jede Verwertung außerhalb der engen Grenzen des Urheberrechtsgesetzes ist ohne Z u s t i m m u n g des Verlages unzulässig und strafbar. Das gilt insbesondere für Vervielfältigungen, Übersetzungen, M i k r o v e r f i l m u n g e n und die Einspeicherung und Verarbeitung in elektronischen Systemen. Printed i n Germany. Gedruckt auf alterungsbeständigem Papier. D r u c k und Einband: Weiher t -Druck G m b H , Darmstadt
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Proceedings of the Conference of the German Association
of University Teachers of English
Volume X V
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C O N T E N T S
S E C T I O N 1: T H E H I S T O R Y O F L I N G U I S T I C I D E A S
Werner Hüllen:
In t roduc t i on 17
R . H . R o b i n s : W i l l i a m B u l l o k a r ' s Bref Grammar for English: Text and Context (P l enary Lecture) 19
Werner Hüllen: A G r e a t C h a i n of W o r d s : T h e Onomasio logical T r a d i t i o n i n E n g l i s h Lex i cography 32
M i c h a e l C a h n :
T h e P r i n t i n g Press as an Agent in the His tory of L ingu i s t i c Ideas? 47
D a v i d C r a m : C o l l e c t i o n a n d C lass i f i ca t i on : Universa l Language Schemes and the Development of Seventeenth-Century Lexicography 59
Rüdiger Schreyer: D e a f - M u t e s , Fera l C h i l d r e n and Savages: O f Ana log i ca l Evidence in 18th -Century Theore t i ca l H i s t o ry of Language 70
Friederike K l i p p e l : Rules and Exercises : G e r m a n Textbooks for Teaching and L e a r n i n g E n g l i s h around 1800 87
J o h n Walms ley : Parameters or C o n t i n u u m : T h e History of E n g l i s h G r a m m a t i c a l T h o u g h t since Sweet 100
Hans U l r i c h Boas: Misconcept ions a n d Over interpretat ions : C h o m s k y ' s V i e w on de Saussure 116
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S E C T I O N 2: E N G L I S H L A N G U A G E A N D L I T E R A T U R E I N I N D I A
G e r h a r d S t i l z :
Introduct ion 135
Meenaksh i Mukherjee :
T h e H o m e and the W o r l d : T h e Indian Novel i n Eng l i sh in the G l o b a l C o n t e x t (P lenary Lecture) 140
K l a u s H . Börner: S a l m a n Rushdie , The Satanic Verses: Observations on C u l t u r a l H y -b r i d i t y 150
Beate Neumeier :
Passages to and f rom Ind ia : E . M . Forster and S a l m a n Rushd ie . . 163
E l i s a b e t h Bronfen: A Sense of Strangeness: T h e Gender of C u l t u r a l Identity in B h a r a t i Mukherjee 's Jasmine 176
Dieter Riemenschneider: M a r g i n a l i z i n g the Centre - C e n t r i n g the Periphery : T h e Recept ion of Ind ian L i terature in E n g l i s h 193
U w e C a r l s :
T y p e s of Lex i ca l Pecul iar i t ies in Indian Eng l i sh 205
Josef Schmied :
Syntact i c Style V a r i a t i o n in Indian Eng l i sh 217
M a n f r e d Gör lach:
T e x t T y p e s and Indian E n g l i s h 233
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S E C T I O N 3: A M E R I C A N S T U D I E S I N T H E P O S T M O D E R N E R A
G e r h a r d Hof fmann:
Introduct ion 253
C a t h y N . Dav idson : Loose Change: Issues and Controversies in Women's Studies and A m e r i c a n Studies (P lenary Lecture) 258
Günter H . Lenz: A m e r i c a n Studies as M u l t i c u l t u r a l C r i t i q u e : Postmodern C u l t u r e , Interdisc ipl inarity , and Intercul tura l Identities 269
L o t h a r Bredel la : Intercultural Understanding between R e l a t i v i s m , Ethnocentr i sm a n d Universa l i sm: P r e l i m i n a r y Considerat ions for a Theory of In tercul tural Understanding 287
A l f r e d Hornung :
" M a k e It N e w ! " : T h e Concept of Newness in A m e r i c a n Studies . . . 307
G e r h a r d Hof fmann: Postmodernism and the Pro l i f erat ion of Aesthetics : T h e Interrelat i on of C u l t u r e and Aesthetics in A m e r i c a n Studies 320
Heinz Ickstadt: T h e Status of L i terature w i t h i n the C h a n g i n g Sel f -Def init ion of A m e r i c a n Studies 340
L u d w i g Deringer: Regional ism and Universa l i ty in A m e r i c a n and C a n a d i a n L i terature : T h e Pacific Northwest as M o d e l 350
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S E C T I O N 4: L I T E R A T U R E A N D R E L I G I O N I N T H E 2 0 T H C E N T U R Y
Sabine V o l k - B i r k e :
Introduct ion 363
W i l l i Erzgräber:
T . S. E l i o t ' s Poet ic Treatment of Rel igious Themes (P lenary Lecture) 366
D a v i d Jasper : Trespassing i n the Wilderness : New Ventures in C a n o n i c a l C r i t i c i sm 381
Werner Jeanrond :
L i t e r a r y Imag inat i on , Theolog ica l T h i n k i n g , and C h r i s t i a n P r a x i s 392
Wol fgang W i c h t : Grace i n " G r a c e " : P u r d o n and Vaughan 402
E l m a r Schenkel : F r o m Powys to P o o h : Some Versions of T a o i s m in B r i t i s h and A m e r ican L i t e ra ture 419
Ian Ross: A D r u n k M a n , the T h i s t l e , and G o d : A Look at M a c D i a r m i d ' s 1926 L i t e r a r y Use of Theology 433
K l a u s Lubbers :
A Note on A n t i c l e r i c a l Imagery in M o d e r n Irish F i c t i o n 445
Jochen Ach i l l e s : Re l ig ion i n M o d e r n Ir ish D r a m a : Soc ia l C r i t i c i s m and S p i r i t u a l Re or ientat ion 459
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S E C T I O N 5: V A R I A
Jürgen K a m m :
T h e M e n t a l i t y of Heroic D r a m a 473
H e n n a n n Josef Schnackertz: Peter Ackroyd ' s F i c t i ons and The Englishness of English Litera-iure
Al fred Bammesberger :
E d i t i n g O l d E n g l i s h R u n i c Inscriptions 503
Hans Peters:
Relat ive who in E a r l y M o d e r n E n g l i s h 516
Renate Haas:
Women and the Development of E n g l i s h Studies in G e r m a n y 528
Hans-Jürgen Weckermann:
Frank Norr is : T h e M a s c u l i n e - P r i m i t i v e V i e w of Life 541
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Friederike Klippel (Dortmund/München)
RULES AND EXERCISES: G E R M A N T E X T B O O K S FOR T E A C H I N G AND LEARNING ENGLISH AROUND 1800
There is no doubt that - in internat ional terms - E n g l i s h is the most i m portant language today. Since the mid-s ixt ies E n g l i s h has been taught to a l l pupi ls at a l l types of secondary school in G e r m a n y and at some p r i m a r y schools as wel l . Everybody under 40 years of age can be expected to have at least a smatter ing of E n g l i s h . A n d even those who never learnt E n g l i s h at school are able to handle a lot of those Eng l i sh words we find a l l around us, i n the cit ies ' shopping centres, on T V and at work. Teaching E n g l i s h has become big business.
T w o hundred years ago the role of Eng l i sh in G e r m a n y was very different. Research into the history of E n g l i s h studies has thrown some l ight on the place of Eng l i sh at universities (cf. Schröder 1969) or at elementary schools (cf. Sauer 1968). T h e major i ty of h istor ical studies, however, focuses on the 19th and early 20th centuries and on the teaching of E n g l i s h at schools after it had become an established subject. Therefore there are s t i l l a great many unanswered questions about the learning and teaching of E n g l i s h around 1800, when Engl i sh was not generally taught at schools. In this paper I shal l try and answer a few of these questions. F i r s t of a l l I wou ld like to characterize the learners of E n g l i s h at that t ime and their purpose i n learning this language. In the second and t h i r d sections I shal l look at the books which were used as teaching or learning materials for E n g l i s h grammar . These textbooks can tel l us what was taught as well as how the language was presented and pract ised.
1. Learn ing Eng l i sh in the 18th century
Eng l i sh was ihe new foreign language in 18th-century Germany . A d m i t t e d l y i t d i d not then replace French as the most important l i v i n g language, as the language of the nobi l i ty and of d iplomacy, nor d id it endanger L a t i n as the language of scholarship and erud i t i on . A n d yet, as B e r n h a r d F a b i a n (1985) has argued convincingly, the 'discovery' of E n g l a n d and the E n g l i s h language shaped the intel lectual atmosphere in 18th-century G e r m a n y quite dist inct ly . For the scholar and the educated cit izen a knowledge of E n g l i s h had been of no importance at the beginning of the century; towards the end i t became indispensable (cf. F a b i a n 1985: 178).
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88 Friederike Klippel
T h e second ha l f of the 18th century saw the first stage of the steady rise of E n g l i s h towards its present-day status. A t that t ime E n g l i s h was not so much acquired as a means of direct communicat ion but as a means of access. A reading knowledge of Eng l i sh was the key to a store of in format ion in a wide range of subjects, to phi losophical and po l i t i ca l thought as wel l as to the different branches of l i terature.
A number of developments support the c l a i m that E n g l i s h became more and more i m p o r t a n t to educated Germans . T o begin w i t h , a growing n u m ber of E n g l i s h publ icat ions became available i n Germany . Engl ish- language books on a variety of subjects were offered at the annual Le ipz ig book fair (cf. F a b i a n 1982). It even seems that this supply could not satisfy the evergrowing demand (cf. Inbar 1980). One might th ink that E n g l i s h books were sought after because of the general shift in interest f rom French l i terature to E n g l i s h l i terature . However, l i terary works were not the only E n g l i s h books i n demand; they were possibly not even the most impor tant category (cf. F a b i a n 1982). M o r e and more people l iked to read E n g l i s h books either i n t rans lat ion or in the or ig ina l . T h e desire to learn about E n g l i s h society, thought , manners, and pol i t ics prompted the foundat ion of several G e r m a n journals featuring excerpts from B r i t i s h periodicals and papers.
T h e expanding E n g l i s h book market suppl ied a growing number of people able to read E n g l i s h . B u t how had these people learnt Eng l i sh? Some were self-taught, others had learnt E n g l i s h through private t u i t i o n , and a few had been taught in schools. It was possible that people started their own language-learning by a t tempt ing to read the E n g l i s h book they were interested i n w i t h the help of a d ic t ionary and a grammar book. T h e n u m ber of grammars of E n g l i s h published in G e r m a n y rose sharply i n the last two decades of the 18th century and continued to rise i n the 19th. A further ind icat ion for the growing popular i ty of learning E n g l i s h is the spreading of E n g l i s h language classes in the g r a m m a r schools, the academies for the nobi l i ty (Rit terakademien) and the universities towards the end of the 18th century (cf. K l i p p e l 1994). More and more educat ional inst i tut ions began to offer E n g l i s h classes, though these were not part of the core syl labus.
In general, the t ime around 1800 can be seen as an impor tant j u n c t i o n i n the various strands of Eng l i sh studies i n Germany . O n the one hand more educated adults were engaged in learning E n g l i s h and in c o m p i l i n g g rammars than ever before; on the other h a n d , the seeds for the future of Eng l i sh as a school subject - which needed to be considered in the l ight of pedagogy - were planted then. T h u s one can dist inguish several target groups for learning E n g l i s h : educated adults who were a i m i n g for reading competence i n E n g l i s h ; ind iv idua ls who needed some preparat ion i n oral ski l ls for a stay i n E n g l a n d ; students at universities, academies or g r a m m a r schools who received a general introduct ion to the E n g l i s h language which t y p i -
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German Textbooks for Teaching English 89
ca l ly led to their reading and trans lat ing E n g l i s h texts; and finally pupi ls at c ommerc ia l schools who were also instructed i n correspondence and related sk i l l s i n the foreign language. T h i n k i n g of these different groups of learners one m i g h t ask how their language-learning and teaching was conducted and what textbooks and teaching materials were used. Because we do not have m a n y first-hand accounts of learning and teaching s i tuat ions we have to t ry a n d reconstruct ways of learning and teaching m a i n l y f rom the textbooks o f the t ime .
B u t what can be called a textbook? T h e term textbook is used here for a l l publ icat ions intended for language study. T h i s includes so-called g r a m m a r s , collections of texts or exercises, or books conta in ing a l l three, w h i c h were either used in class, or w i t h a private tutor , or as a m a n u a l of self-i n s t r u c t i o n . W i t h the help of K o n r a d Schroder 's b ib l iography (1975), which l ists over 2000 textbooks for Eng l i sh publ ished in the German-speak ing countries between 1665 and 1900, about th i r ty textbooks publ ished between 1780 and 1820 could be obtained in G e r m a n l ibraries .
Here I would l ike to concentrate on those textbooks which were apt ly cal led Sprachlehre by the G e r m a n textbook authors of the t ime . T h e t e rm Sprachlehre refers to the educational purpose of the textbooks, and indeed, most of the authors were actively engaged in teaching E n g l i s h , either as pr ivate language teachers or at a university or school. M a n y authors just i fy the pub l i ca t i on of their book wi th their teaching requirements, saying that they had to write their own textbook, because they had not been able to find a suitable one either for their way of teaching or for their group o f learners or for their ideas about what a language textbook ought to conta in (cf. Sammer 1783: III f. and Langstedt 1796: I X among others). T h u s , the presentation and expl icat ion of E n g l i s h g r a m m a r found in those Sprachlehren were not just influenced by their authors ' l inguist ic competence b u t also by their intended use as teaching mater ia ls .
H o w may the term Sprachlehre be rendered in Eng l i sh? Frank Turner (1978) speaks of " G e r m a n Pedagogic G r a m m a r s of E n g l i s h " i n his study o f textbooks of the 17th and early 18th century. A n t h o n y Howatt uses the t e r m "pedagogical g rammar" for the grammars of Robert L o w t h and L i n d l e y M u r r a y (Howatt 1984: 122), which served as models for some of the G e r m a n English- language textbooks.
2. G e r m a n pedagogic grammars of E n g l i s h
T o d a y a g rammar is not automat ica l ly a textbook. Therefore i t is impor tant to stress once more that the Eng l i sh grammars publ ished in the late 18th a n d the first ha l f of the 19th century were pedagogic grammars . T h e first g r a m m a r s wr i t ten exclusively for l inguists and scholars and not for language
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90 Friederike Klippel
learners were E d u a r d Fiedler ' s Wissenschaftliche Grammatik der englischen Sprache (1849-1850) and E d u a r d A d o l f Maetzner ' s Englische Grammatik (1860-1865) respectively. T h i s is not to say that the earlier authors d i d not b r ing a theoretical or l inguist i c interest to bear upon their work. Some of t h e m conducted their own pa instak ing research into the E n g l i s h language; others were well aware of the wri t ings on E n g l i s h publ ished i n B r i t a i n i n the 18th century. T h e m a i n purpose of the G e r m a n grammars of the E n g l i s h language publ ished before 1850, however, remained a d idact ic one.
In my view the G e r m a n pedagogic grammars of E n g l i s h at that t ime were wr i t t en w i t h i n a framework shaped by three major influences. A s the analyses show, these influences can be ranked as follows: T h e first and most i m p o r t a n t one is the L a t i n model of g r a m m a r w i t h its established parts . T h i s is not surpr is ing , since L a t i n g r a m m a r was t rad i t i ona l l y considered to be the foundat ion of g rammar . T h e second influence, which is less wel l -known, are the s tandard E n g l i s h grammars , especially those of Robert L o w t h (1762) and L i n d l e y M u r r a y (1795) which were available i n G e r m a n y ; the t h i r d one are the successful contemporary G e r m a n grammars of E n g l i s h , some of which grew out of an i n d i v i d u a l author 's s tudy of the Eng l i sh language. I would l ike to look at each of these aspects in t u r n .
2.1 L a t i n g rammar
In his history of teaching E n g l i s h as mother tongue Ian M i c h a e l states that "the influence of L a t i n pervades every aspect of the E n g l i s h grammars" ( M i c h a e l 1987: 318). General ly , this is also true for the G e r m a n grammars of E n g l i s h . N o t a b l y the different sections, such as pronunc iat ion , morphology and syntax , the parts of speech to be discussed and the terminology were often, though not always, taken f rom L a t i n grammar . Ian M i c h a e l refers to the declension of nouns and even the article as the most g lar ing examples for an inappropr iate transfer f rom L a t i n ( ib id . ) . Not a l l E n g l i s h grammarians , however, adopted the L a t i n case system. Robert L o w t h , probably the most popular author in the late 18th century, describes E n g l i s h as having only two cases, the nominat ive and the possessive (1762: 28). A n d , in a footnote, he deplores another writer ' s use of the 'ab lat ive ' for E n g l i s h : " T h i s comes of forcing the E n g l i s h under the rules of a foreign language, w i t h which it has l i t t l e concern" (1762: 107). S imi lar thoughts are to be found i n Germany . Here K a r l P h i l i p p M o r i t z criticizes J o h a n n König, the author of the most successful E n g l i s h language textbook (1706; 12th ed. 1802) publ ished in 18th-century-Germany. In the preface to his g r a m m a r , M o r i t z concedes that König's " T h e True Eng l i sh G u i d e " was a most comprehensive textbook which nevertheless contained a lot of unnecessary and mis leading in format ion because i t was completely model led on L a t i n ( "wei l [sie] einen
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German Textbooks for Teaching English 91
völlig lateinischen Zuschni t t h a t " , M o r i t z 1801: I V ) . It is needless to say that König describes E n g l i s h nouns as hav ing five cases (König 1755: 50).
L o w t h ' s ideas on the declension of nouns were not universal ly known or accepted i n Germany . Several textbook authors retained the L a t i n declension for E n g l i s h . Some authors decided on how to present the case system according to which of the two functions of their textbook they favoured. E i t h e r they were more concerned w i t h g iv ing a correct descript ion of the E n g l i s h language or w i t h prov id ing teaching and learning aids. T h u s J o h a n n C h r i s t i a n F i c k writes:
Bei der Declination der Nennworter ist blos Folgendes zu bemerken: es werden dazu die Wörtchen of. ov, von, to: too, zu, from: from, von, by. bi, von gebraucht. Diese werden vor den Artikel gesetzt, und sowohl dieser als das Wort selbst nicht im geringsten verändert; [...] Man sieht hieraus, daß die Engländer eigentlich keine Declination haben, und daß man sie füglich ganz aus den Grammatiken weglassen könnte, wenn man nicht wegen der Verglei-chung mit andern Sprachen, durch Aufführung einer gemodelten Declination, die Erlernung der Sprache erleichtern wollte. (Fick 1835: 70f.)
One can deduce f rom this that according to F i c k there is no true declension i n E n g l i s h so that this part of g r a m m a r could well be left out , were it not useful to have a parad igm of the L a t i n declension for E n g l i s h for a comparison w i t h other languages and for rendering language learning easier.
W h e n we ask why L a t i n g rammar was used so extensively in the E n g l i sh textbooks , we must not forget this didact ic angle. Those who learned E n g l i s h around 1800 knew L a t i n and consequently L a t i n g rammar . T h u s references to L a t i n , even i f they were recognized as not quite appropriate for E n g l i s h , were introduced as a means of helping the learner. Incidenta l ly , this also appl ied to vocabulary. K a r l P h i l i p p M o r i t z , who cr i t ic ized König's textbook for its L a t i n s tructure , includes a t r i l ingua l word l ist to demonstrate the relat ion between E n g l i s h , L a t i n and G e r m a n . A n d J o h a n n Fr iedr i ch M e e r m a n n includes a table showing how E n g l i s h words are derived f r om L a t i n ones (1794: 88).
T h e basis for the role of L a t i n g rammar lay in the common belief that E n g l i s h or G e r m a n grammar were s imply different representations of g r a m mar as such. Therefore grammars had to be bu i l t on the same principles . These principles were taught through L a t i n and could then be used as points of reference for the presentation of and the instruct ion in further languages.
2.2 E n g l i s h models
It is very difficult to prove that a textbook author knew other publ icat ions . A s i t was not considered necessary to ment ion the books one had used, only
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some authors gave the names of scholars as proof for the qua l i ty of their own book on the t i t le page or i n the preface. Rober t L o w t h and L i n d -ley M u r r a y , authors of the most popular E n g l i s h grammars of the t ime, and J o h n Walker , famous for his Pronouncing Dictionary (1791), were considered authorit ies . The i r s were the names mentioned most often i n the G e r m a n pedagogic grammars around 1800. T h e works of L o w t h and M u r ray were translated and edited for the G e r m a n market as wel l as treated as author i tat ive reference grammars by G e r m a n authors. Sometimes, the fact that an author m a y have been fami l iar w i t h the work of L o w t h or M u r r a y can only be guessed at f rom the presence of certain rules or examples. A s regards the influence of L o w t h and M u r r a y and other E n g l i s h authors on the G e r m a n pedagogic grammars , a great deal s t i l l needs to be discovered by detai led compar ison , that is, by ' l inguist i c archaeology' . A quick survey of the G e r m a n textbooks reveals certain s imi lar i t ies w i t h L o w t h ' s g rammar , such as his organisat ional device of discussing the finer points or contradictory examples i n footnotes. T h i s k i n d of presentation, however, seems to be much older; in fact, i t dates back to the g r a m m a r of Por t R o y a l , where exceptions were given i n smal l pr int (cf. K e l l y 1969: 225). Di f ferentiat ing between the basic rules and the exceptions creates a two-level text . R u d o l p h Sammer adopted L o w t h ' s way of presenting his mater ia l i n his pedagogic g rammar of 1783, because - as he said - i t rendered his textbook useful for beginners and advanced learners (1783: I V ) . Qu i te a number of G e r m a n textbooks follow L o w t h in the d iv is ion into nine parts of speech and the definitions given for each type. Some of L o w t h ' s examples as well as some of his explanations have found their way into the G e r m a n textbooks. B u t it seems an impossible task to unravel the intr icate knots of borrowings and adaptat ions .
2.3 C o n t e m p o r a r y G e r m a n grammars of E n g l i s h
A t a t ime when the concept of copyright d i d not exist in its present f orm, borrowing from other authors was not regarded i n the same light as today. A n d , of course, someone w r i t i n g a g r a m m a r of E n g l i s h in Germany , when E n g l i s h books were scarce and diff icult to get, had to make use of a l l the available sources. A l t h o u g h there are a number of pedagogic g r a m mars which were successful insofar as they reached several edit ions and new pr int ings , i.e. the works of Theodor A r n o l d (1736, 16 edit ions up to 1838), J o h a n n König (1706, 12 editions up to 1802), J o h a n n C h r i s t i a n F i ck (1793, 23 edit ions up to 1852) or Johannes Ebers (1802, 4 editions up to 1812), there is jus t one G e r m a n author who was generally accepted as the greatest author i ty on E n g l i s h at the t ime: K a r l Franz C h r i s t i a n Wagner . H . M . Me l f o rd wrote about his g rammar : " D i e englische Sprachlehre des Herrn
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G e h e i m e n Hofrates Wagner ist al lgemein als die beste anerkannt. E s dürfte i n der T h a t unmöglich sein, eine bessere zu verfassen" (1841: I X ) . Wagner 's first E n g l i s h g r a m m a r was publ ished in 1802, his second one incorporat ing a vo lume of t rans lat ion exercises i n 1819. A 'school g r a m m a r ' followed i n 1843; and L u d w i g Herr ig , one of the leading E n g l i s h scholars of the 19th century, publ ished a revised version of Wagner 's grammar i n 1857, more t h a n ha l f a century later.
It was Wagner 's a i m to write a detailed and comprehensive grammar , w h i c h he intended not on ly for G e r m a n s learning E n g l i s h but for native speakers of E n g l i s h as wel l . In the preface to his g rammar of 1802 Wagner a d m i t t e d that he had used L o w t h ' s g rammar as a basis, but c la imed that he h a d tr ied to progress beyond i t by b u i l d i n g on his own research (1802: III) . T h u s Wagner 's grammar is more than twice as long as L o w t h ' s ; it contains not on ly a far greater number of rules and discussions of rules but also many more examples taken from E n g l i s h l i terature, which i l lustrate the various po ints of g r a m m a r . Further , Wagner , w r i t i n g m a i n l y for G e r m a n learners of E n g l i s h , introduced a contrastive point of view, compar ing G e r m a n and E n g l i s h g rammar wherever they differ. A s w i t h the works of L o w t h and M u r r a y , i t is difficult to assess the exact influence Wagner 's g r a m m a r might have had on his contemporaries. J u d g i n g by an occasional remark i n a preface, other textbook authors largely used Wagner 's g r a m m a r as a store to be plundered for their own purposes.
N o t many authors were as ambit ious as Wagner , though they, too, t r ied to improve on their predecessors' rendering of rules and examples. In many cases the mot ivat i on for a new element or a different structure in the pedagogic grammars d id not spr ing f rom the authors ' l inguist ic interests but rather f rom their d idact ic one. S tar t ing w i t h the differences and s imi lar ities of E n g l i s h and G e r m a n they especially pa id attent ion to those areas of g r a m m a r which they expected to be difficult for G e r m a n learners, such as the use of prepositions (cf. Haußner 1805). Others , like K a r l P h i l i p p M o r i t z (1801) and J o h a n n Jakob M e n o Valet t (1803) used the contrastive approach throughout , s tat ing for each rule how it differed from or resembled the G e r m a n equivalent. M o r i t z explained the fact that one could say 'cabbages' in E n g l i s h but not form the p lura l of ' K o h l ' i n G e r m a n w i t h a different wor ld view: "Solche kleine Verschiedenheiten s ind wegen unsrer verschiednen Vorstel lungsart der Dinge sehr natürlich" (1801: 24). Va le t t considered the whole language learning process, quite r ight ly as we know today, to be influenced by the learners' first language. He therefore organized his E n g l i s h g r a m m a r along the lines of G e r m a n syntax . He argued:
Der Deutsche Lehrling stellt sich, wie natürlich, eine fremde Sprache erst Deutsch vor; er spricht demnach erst ein Deutsches Englisch, ehe er Englisch
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sprechen lernt. Ihm hierzu nun behülflieh zu seyn, lehrt man ihn, alles, was in der Deutschen Sprache Regelist, auf Englisch auszudrucken. (1803: Preface)
3. Rules and exercises
Af ter considering who learnt E n g l i s h at the end of the 18th century and after discussing some of the forces that shaped the pedagogic grammars , i t is t ime to look a b i t more closely inside these books. W h a t d id these textbooks of E n g l i s h contain? A s far as g rammar is concerned, the answer is s imple : rules and examples and sometimes exercises. Rules were given for pronunc iat ion , for the parts of speech (morphology) and - i n most cases - for syntax . These rules were given i n G e r m a n and i l lustrated by E n g l i s h examples. Some grammar books also provided exercises for the i n d i v i d u a l g r a m m a r points .
Rules were at the heart of language study at that t ime . T h e funct ion of rules was twofold: F i r s t of a l l , they were the means of presenting the system of the foreign language and , secondly, they were the way of acquir ing that language. How d i d the grammarians of the t ime arrive at the formulat ion of par t i cu lar rules? Robert L o w t h had seen the rules of the language as fixed. He felt that fault lay w i t h the language users, who often vio lated these rules. "It is not the Language, but the practice, that is i n f a u l t " , he said (1762: V I ) . H i s a i m was to lay down rules so that people might be able to express themselves " w i t h propriety i n that Language , and to be able to judge every phrase and form of construct ion, whether i t be r ight or not" (1762: X ) .
Whereas L o w t h d id not specify the or ig in of the rules, his G e r m a n successors at the end of the century had definite ideas about the or ig in of g r a m m a r rules. T h e y clearly saw them as descriptive i n or ig in and as prescr ipt ive for the language use of the G e r m a n learner of E n g l i s h . K a r l Franz C h r i s t i a n Wagner wrote: " D i e Englische G r a m m a t i k oder Sprachlehre ist eine Anweisung , die Englische Sprache zu verstehen u n d nach bes t immten , theils auf die Phi losophie der Sprache gegründeten, theils auf dem Sprachgebrauch beruhenden Regeln r i cht ig zu sprechen u n d zu schreiben" (1827: I) . A n d He inr i ch J o a c h i m Jack stated i n an even more pronounced way: "Was dem Sprachgebrauche u n d den auf i h n gegründeten Regeln gemäß ist, heißt sprachrichtig, was sie aber verlezt [sie], sprachwidrig" (1804: 7). A n d because the rules are founded on language use, the g r a m m a r i a n needed a lot of t ime and patience to collect them when he was reading E n g l i s h authors. T h e n he had to arrange his examples systematical ly , so that the learners might find them instruct ive . In this way Fr iedr ich W i l h e l m Haußner (1805) described the laborious process of compi l ing a pedagogic g rammar .
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A number of authors justi f ied the pub l i cat ion of their textbook by s tat ing that they had improved the rules, either by p u t t i n g them more concisely or c learly or by presenting t h e m i n a new way, for example i n the form of tables (cf. M e e r m a n n 1794, also M o r i t z 1801), or by adapt ing t h e m to the needs of the learners, for instance by using G e r m a n g r a m m a t i c a l terms for women learners who were un l ike ly to be competent i n L a t i n (F ick 1793).
T h e adaptat i on of rules for teaching or learning leads us to their role i n foreign language instruct ion around 1800. It was often said that acquir ing the rules of a language was the best way of learning that language (so F i c k 1835: V among others). B u t there were also a number of dissenting voices. T h e educationists of the Enl ightenment , the Ph i lanthrop i s t s , developed a different concept of language learning based on i m i t a t i o n , games and p r a c t i cal exercises, as well as on reading, a method where grammar , i f at a l l , was taught induct ive ly . B u t the phi lanthropis t concept d i d not reach the status of ma ins t ream t h i n k i n g and remained on the fringe of the teaching of l i v ing languages. S t i l l , other authors not connected to the movement pointed out that learning the rules was not synonymous w i t h learning the language. C o n t r a r y to the common idea that learning progressed f rom one rule to the next , they advocated an extended per iod of becoming fami l iar w i t h the language i n examples and short texts, in acquir ing basic ski l ls before deal ing w i t h g r a m m a t i c a l analysis (cf. G r i m i n g 1810: X ) . T h i s idea became a widely-accepted pr inc iple i n 19th-century language teaching methodology.
E v e n the advocates of the rule method had to a d m i t that memoris ing a great number of rules was not sufficient. T h o u g h it provided the theoretical f oundat ion of language study, i t d id not lead to pract i ca l ski l ls . Because of this general discontent w i t h language study solely based on theory, that is , rules, i t is not surpr is ing t h a t J o h a n n V a l e n t i n Meid inger ' s innovat ion was adopted quick ly and wide ly in the pedagogical grammars . Meid inger , a teacher of French, had added sentences to each grammar rule , which had to be translated into the foreign language. T h e learner was thus led to apply what he had just learnt. Me id inger and many of his successors used the adjective ' p r a c t i c a l ' i n the t i t l e of their textbook to indicate the inc lusion of such exercises. F r o m a pedagogical perspective Meid inger ' s t rans lat ion exercises were a first b ig step towards teaching materials created just for this purpose, inc lud ing exercises and texts special ly wr i t ten for teaching.
G r a m m a r exercises around 1800 tended to be translat ions consisting of isolated sentences. Because these sentences were not graded so that they only contained structures and words which had been dealt w i t h i n the preceding pages, they needed copious notes to be translatable at a l l . Some authors d i d not restrict these t rans lat ion exercises to the appl i cat ion of a par t i cu lar g r a m m a r rule; they used them to b u i l d up their learners' vocabulary by creating sentences for a certain theme: " E r hat eine Englische
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Dogge, du hast einen Sp i t z , sie haben einen P u d e l , w i r haben einen Mops , [...]" (Valett 1803: 8).
Usua l l y , however, the isolated sentences for t rans lat ion were of negligible educat ional or in format iona l value. A b ig exception were K a r l Franz C h r i s t i a n Wagner 's t rans lat ion exercises. For these he chose sentences f rom works of E n g l i s h l i terature , which he translated into G e r m a n . W h e n the learners successfully re-translated these sentences into E n g l i s h , Wagner hoped they would then provide further meaningful and edi fy ing , and part i c u lar ly , authentic E n g l i s h examples for the respective g r a m m a r rules. Since this method of creating exercises needed a lot of preparat ion and a wide knowledge of E n g l i s h l i terature , i t is not surpr is ing that it was not adopted by other textbook authors. T h e i r creative impulse rather worked towards developing new types of g r a m m a r exercises. Consequently, in the course of the 19th century exercises ceased to be just translat ions . A wide variety of language learning act ivit ies began to appear in the textbooks i n the second ha l f of the 19th century.
A s I tr ied to show, around 1800 a typ i ca l pedagogic g r a m m a r of E n g l i sh contained rules and t rans lat ion exercises and suggested a deductive approach i n teaching. For this the rule was given first, its real isat ion i l lustrated by examples and its app l i cat ion practised i n an exercise. A l t h o u g h this can be called the mainstream procedure, not a l l textbook authors accepted i t wi l l ing ly . A s teachers who were usual ly p a i d by their pupi l s , they were i n terested in prov id ing effective lessons which were suited to their learners; asking people to do noth ing but memorize g r a m m a r rules was not in their interest. T h u s Fr iedr i ch Theodor Kühne, language professor at M a r b u r g university , says that he taught Eng l i sh induct ive ly w i t h examples t i l l his students urged h i m to compile an E n g l i s h g r a m m a r for their use in class (cf. Kühne 1815: III) . M a n y authors seem aware that work ing through a g rammar book was not a natura l way of learning a l i v i n g language. T h e y also realized that this method d id not take into account the different degrees of diff iculty which i n d i v i d u a l g r a m m a r rules and their accompanying exercises presented. T h e idea that teaching materials should be graded began to gain acceptance in the prefaces of the E n g l i s h pedagogic grammars towards the end of the 18th century. However, the established pattern of L a t i n g r a m m a r w i t h the fami l iar sequence of pronunc iat ion , morphology and syntax proved too stable then to be broken by the concept of gradat i o n . Texts or exercises which could be graded by length or complexi ty were easier to forge into a didact ic sequence.
In the first ha l f of the 19th century textbook authors found an alternative so lut ion to the grading of i n d i v i d u a l g r a m m a r rules by creating a two-level course. In the first and elementary part of this course the learners were given an induct ive in troduct ion to the m a i n points of E n g l i s h g r a m m a r by means
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of examples, short texts and exercises. F o r m a l grammar rules followed in the second part and their practice was supplemented by reading authentic texts.
A l l the evidence suggests that the few decades around 1800 were a very impor tant phase for the development of E n g l i s h language learning and teaching i n Germany . T h e pedagogic impetus of the textbook authors l a i d the foundations for many ideas whi ch grew into d idact ic axioms i n the 19th and the 20th century. T h e pedagogic grammars show that our concept of the pre -Reform t ime as the dark age of E n g l i s h language learning needs to be revised.
References
1. Textbooks A r n o l d , Theodor (1736), Grammatica Anglicana Concentrata, oder kurzge
faßte englische Grammatica, worinnen die zur Erlernung dieser Sprache unumgänglich notigen Grundsätze aufs deutlichste und leichteste abgehandelt sind, Le ipz ig .
Ebers , Johannes ( 3 1802) , Elementarbuch zur leichtern Erlernung der Englischen Sprache in zwei Theilen. Erster Theil: Neue praktische Grammatik der Englischen Sprache, B e r l i n .
F i c k , J o h a n n C h r i s t i a n ( 1 8 1835 ) , Theoretisch-praktische Anweisung zur leichtem Erlernung der Englischen Sprache. Erster Theil: Praktische Englische Sprachlehre fur Deutsche beiderlei Geschlechts (1793), Er langen .
Grüning, Andreas (1810), Englische Grammatik für Deutsche mit Beyspie-len, Uebungen und Proben zur Anwendung der Regeln, H a m b u r g .
Haußner, Fr iedr i ch W i l h e l m (1805), Gründliche Unterweisung in der Englischen Sprache. Oder Darstellung aller Regeln der englischen Sprache erläutert durch deutliche vom Leichten zum Schwerern aufsteigende Bey-spiele, Le ipz ig .
H e r r i g , L u d w i g , ed. (1857), Dr. Karl Franz Christian Wagner's Grammatik der Englischen Sprache, Braunschweig.
Jäck, He inr i ch J o a c h i m (1804), Theoretisch-practisches Handbuch zur leichtesten Erlernung der englischen Sprache, Er langen .
König, J o h a n n ( 6 1755) , Der getreue Englische Wegweiser, oder kurtze, doch grundliche Anleitung zur Englischen Sprache fur die Teutschen (1706), Le ipz ig .
Kühne, Fr iedr ich Theodor (1815), Kurzgefaßte englische Sprachlehre nebst einem Lesebuche in welchem zum Besten der Anfänger auf die Regeln dieser Sprachlehre durchgehends hingewiesen wird, Hannover .
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Langstedt , Fr iedr ich L u d w i g (1796), Vorkenntnisse und Uebungen zur Erleichterung des Studiums der englischen Sprache für Deutsche beiderley Geschlechts, Göttingen.
L o w t h , Robert (1762), A Short Introduction to English Grammar. With Critical Notes, L o n d o n .
M e e r m a n n , J o h a n n F . (1794), Fundamentaltabellen der englischen Sprache oder vollständige englische Sprachlehre tabellarisch entworfen, C o b u r g .
M e l f o r d , Henry M a r i a (1841), Vereinfachte Englische Sprachlehre. Erste Studien vor dem Gebrauche der Wagnerfschen Neuen Englischen Sprachlehre fur die Deutschen, Braunschweig.
M o r i t z , K a r l P h i l i p p ( 5 1801) , Englische Sprachlehre für die Deutschen. Mit drei Tabellen, die Englische Aussprache, Etymologie und Wortfügung betreffend (1784), B e r l i n .
M u r r a y , L i n d l e y ( 4 0 1826 ) , English Grammar Adapted to the Different Classes of Learners. With an appendix containing rules, and observations for assisting the more advanced students to write with perspicuity and accuracy (1795), Y o r k .
Sammer , R u d o l p h (1783), Kurzgefaßte Englische Sprachlehre den Deutschen zur erleichterten und gründlichen Erlernung dieser Sprache herausgegeben und mit kritischen Anmerkungen erläutert, W i e n .
V a l e t t , J o h a n n Jakob M e n o (1803), Ausübende Englische Sprachlehre. Die Redetheile, H a m b u r g .
Wagner , K a r l Franz C h r i s t i a n (1802), Vollständige und auf die möglichste Erleichterung des Unterrichts abzweckende Englische Sprachlehre für die Deutschen, Braunschweig .
- ( 2 1827) , Neue vollständige und auf die möglichste Erleichterung des Unterrichts abzweckende Englische Sprachlehre für die Deutschen. Erster oder Theoretischer Theil (1819), Braunschweig .
- ( 2 1828) , Neue vollständige und auf die möglichste Erleichterung des Unterrichts abzweckende Englische Sprachlehre für die Deutschen. Zweiter oder Praktischer Theil, welcher Uebungen über die einzelnen Regeln enthält (1822), Braunschweig .
- (1843), Theoretisch-praktische Schulgrammatik der Englischen Sprache für jüngere Anfänger, Braunschweig .
2. L i terature F a b i a n , B e r n h a r d (1982), " D i e Meßkataloge und der Import englischer Bü
cher nach Deutschland i m achtzehnten J a h r h u n d e r t " , i n R e i n h a r d W i t t m a n n and B e r t o l d Hack , eds., Buchhandel und Literatur, Wiesbaden, 154-168.
- (1985), "Eng l i s ch als neue Fremdsprache des 18. J a h r h u n d e r t s " , i n Dieter K i m p e l , ed. , Mehrsprachigkeit in der deutschen Außlärung, H a m b u r g , 178-196.
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H o w a t t , A . P . R . (1984), A History of English Language Teaching, O x f o r d . Inbar, E v a M a r i a (1980), " Z u m E n g l i s c h s t u d i u m i m Deutschland des X V I I I .
J a h r h u n d e r t s " , Arcadia, 14-28. K e l l y , Lou is G . (1969), 25 Centuries of Language Teaching. An inquiry
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