animal behaviour and welfare_ basic principles - a knol by clive dalton

8/3/2019 Animal Behaviour and Welfare_ Basic Principles - A Knol by Clive Dalton

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Chapter 1 of a series on Animal Behaviour and Welfare, covering species from dogs, to

sheep, cattle, donkeys and cats. This introduces the basic principles that are referred to

in the other chapters now online in Clive Dalton's blogsphere. It is essential reading to

understand basic frameworks and concepts.

Contents

Introduction

What is animal behaviour?

Why is animal behaviour important?

What is animal welfare?

The four "Is" of animal suffering

Who is concerned with animal behaviour and welfare?

What issues concern the public or society in New Zealand?

What issues concern the public?

Current public interest issues

What European consumers believe and want (December 2005)

more

Before studying the detailed behaviour of each farm animal species, its important to understand some basic

principles. Start by studying what animal behaviour is, why its important in the 21st century, and who cares.

Many groups claim a stake in this, and its interesting that the animals concerns inevitably come last.

Animals in New Zealand have legal rights under the Animal Welfare Act 1999 so this must be understood,

along with how to deal with anthropomorphism and questions about the rights of animals. Appreciating the

impact of domestication on our modern stock is important, to understand the practical and financial

implications of the stress and distress we impact on them. It is the controls on animal's social behaviour which

humans regularly under-value in pursuit of profit.

The science behind learning and teaching in animals is important, especially if you have to reprogramme any

to solve problems created by humans. Issues differ at each stage of an animals life, so knowing how to

analyse and solve animal behaviour problems is the basis of a successful domestic contract between man

and animal so it has a win-win outcome.

Because of wildlife programmes on TV, everybody knows about animal behaviour and it has great general

interest. Animal behaviour studies what animals do, but also the how, why, where and when they do it. The

"why" is probably the most important question as this is the information you need to solve problems. The

fancy name for animal behaviour is animal ethology.

al Behaviour and Welfare: basic principles - a knol by Clive Dalton file:///I:/harsha keerthirathne/animal science & fisheries/Animal B

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Animal behaviour is very much bound up with "animal welfare" and we study behaviour problems to improve

welfare. The behaviour of animals in practice is seen by humans as either:

Appropriate or inappropriate

Acceptable or unacceptable

Normal or abnormal

But this depends on the circumstances so always look at the context - the big picture.

Every animal production problem has a very large animal behaviour component, and behaviour problems have

a large impact on animal production and hence profit. Animal behaviour has big implications for our export

trading and animal welfare issues can be used as indirect tariffs against New Zealand. And always be aware

of the effect humans and their behaviour has on animal behaviour and vice versa.

Animal welfare is concerned with suffering and satisfaction during the animal's life. There are three reasons

for concern about animal welfare:

1 Respect for animals and sense of fair play.

2 Poor welfare leading to poor product quality.

3 Risk to markets where poor products leave a poor product image.

There are four situations where humans are directly responsible for animal suffering -called the four "Is":

1 Ignorance - not knowing what to do or claiming this in defence.

2 Inexperience - knowing what to do, but not knowing how to do it.

3 Incompetence - inability to do it.

4 Inconsideration - not caring.

(From Gregory, N (1988). Animal Welfare and Meat Science, CAB 1998).

This is an important question, as most people would reply to it by suggesting only farmers and veterinarians

who make their livings from farm livestock are concerned. But there are many more as shown in the list

below - which is open for your further additions:

o Veterinarians - they make their living from animals and their ethical code is to care for them under the law.

o Farmers - they make their living from them too, again under the law.

o Scientists - the study of ethology for academic and practical reasons.

o RSPCA - Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals.


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o Government ministries - Agriculture, Environment and Forestry

o ACVM - Agricultural Compounds & Veterinary Medicines Board

o ILHP - International League for the Horse Protection.

o SAFE - Save Animals from Exploitation.

o ALF - Animal Liberation Front

o Environmental Risk Management Agencies

o DOC - Departments of Conservation

o WSPA -World Society for Protection of Animals

o Cat Protection Leagueo Humane Society

o PETA - People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals

o The Cow Protection League

o Greenpeace.

o Politicians - responding to constituents and developing and modifying the law.

o District and Regional Councils - mainly pest control

o Antivivisectionists

o Vegetarians and Vegans

o Various religions

o The general public - "Society"!

o The media - animal stories make good copy.o THE ANIMAL itself! Note that it's usually the last to be remembered and needs to be the first entry on

the list.

The "public" or "society" are very difficult describe, especially to farmers who get annoyed about too much

interference in their business. But vague or not, the public and society have enormous power through their

organisations and by simply refusing to buy animal products.

The issues of concern vary depending a lot on what has just been aired in the media. Here are some that occur

regularly:

o Direct cruelty and any flouting the law.

o Intensive or factory farming - especially of pigs, battery hens and broiler chickens.

o Extensive farming issues where lambs die in late snow storms.

o Hormones, growth stimulants and antibiotics fed to animals.

o Transport of animals, especially live exports of sheep.

o Rodeo and circus animals used in entertainment.

o Slaughter of livestock

o Zooso Animals used in research and teaching.

It's interesting and important to be aware of these as UK is a major market for our animal products and any

rules they set for themselves can easily be made mandatory for countries exporting to them. These issues

inevitably play a major role in setting the standards of farm animal welfare:


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The history of animals used in research and teaching is littered with horror stories and images from the past,

and this has led to a drive to reduce animal use - by what is called the three Rs. They are Replacement,

Reduction and Refinement. Research is now charged with a range of things to meet these three Rs- for

example:

Using demonstrations instead of hands-on work with animals.

Using models instead of real animal tissues.

Using computer simulation.

Using tissue culture.

Using closed circuit television to show a procedure to more students.

The updating of the Animal Welfare Act in 1999 gave a wider definition of "the animal" which now covers allvertebrates i.e. fish and the invertebrate crayfish. There was a big change in emphasis from "prosecution" to

"education" and the word "cruelty" was removed and "distress' given emphasis.

Codes of Recommendation and Minimum Standards" were produced to give the details relevant for each

species of animal (e.g. cattle, sheep, bobby calves) and for manipulations (e.g. removing antler velvet from

stags).

A key factor in the Act was the emphasis given to the "five freedoms" which are now recognised

internationally as the foundation of all animal welfare thinking. And the other big emphasis was to base the

animal's needs on what was "good practice and scientific knowledge".

Professor Brambell in UK in 1967 developed the five freedoms and you'll find them written in various orders

in different publications. The order below is written to make them easier to remember by learning the code

letters.

The five freedoms:

1. Freedom from hunger and thirst HT

2. Freedom from discomfort D

3. Freedom from pain, injury and disease PID

4. Freedom from fear and distress FD

5. Freedom to express "normal" behaviour NB

This can be a very contentious issue and it's often easier to define what "abnormal" behaviour is. There's

room for a lot of personal opinion both informed and not informed, and a great deal of anthropomorphism (see


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later). But there is no doubt that normal behaviour has got to be the baseline for decision making. Here are

some general needs that should be considered when thinking about what is normal behaviour:

o Social contact

o Food and water

o Warmth

o Ventilation

o Space

o Opportunities to playo Opportunity for courtship and mating

This is a term coined by UK Animal Rights campaigner Richard Ryder and is a concept developed by

Professor Peter Singer from Monash University in Victoria in his book "Animal Liberation".

It is defined as "A prejudice or attitude of bias toward the interests of members of one's ownspecies and against those members of other species".

In practice it means you have to treat all animals using the same standards. The best example are animals

classed as "vermin" as they must be given the same humane treatment (e.g. when exterminating them) as farm

animals and pets.

When investigating an animal behaviour problem, you will regularly be faced with the question - is the

problem caused by the animal's genetic makeup, the environment in which it was reared and managed, or a bitof both? Usually it's the latter - a bit of both.

We know the effect of the environment (e.g. early socialisation, feeding etc) is massive on the final outcome,

but recent work from twin studied shows just how strong genetics are. A good example is dog breeds selected

for aggression - but are very friendly to their owners who swear they would never attack anyone! Their killer

genes come out when their owners are not present and these dogs think that they or their territory are being

threatened.

Professor Gluckman in Auckland is leading a team studying EPIGENETICS where they have found that the

many genes controlling a trait in humans like early growth and development, do not so much as determine

what is expressed, as allow for a range of possibilities determined by the environment experienced.

Because the environment is always changing, the hallmark of biological systems is their ability to cope with

these changes.

They do this by switches which can turn the genes finally expressed either ON or OFF depending on

environmental factors with most influence during embryonic, foetal and early infant life by environmental

factors such as maternal health, nutrition and stress. Epigenetics is studying how these switches work.


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This is where you use human emotions and feelings to describe the behaviour of animals. Is it not a good thing

if it ends up providing animals with what you think they would like if you were in their place? But it can be

dangerous from a professional viewpoint and there is the risk of coming to a wrong conclusion over issues

when being anthropomorphic and forgetting that animals are animals. Problems experienced by dog owners

who forget that their dogs are dogs are a prime example. Both they and their dogs are confused!

You may have to take a stand on this if questioned. The moral position argues that animals have certain rights

the same way humans have rights, and these must not be broken. The end result of this is that animals should

never be exploited for human gain.

Another view is that animals cannot claim the same rights as humans, but they have the right to be treated well

by those who tend them. In practical terms they have the right to the Five Freedoms. You can see the dangers

of getting anthropomorphic over this question.

You may also have to face the question of "do animals have souls"? Your response will depend greatly on your

religious views or lack of them. If you believe animals do have souls, you could then argue that they do have

rights similar to humans. The great apes have recently had an enormous improved change in human attitudes

to their rights, with DNA studies confirming their similarity to humans. So if they are that near to humans, do

they have souls too?

The animal cremation services get a lot of business from people who believe their pets have souls and deserve

the same dignity that humans have a right to.

Some "stress" is valuable for good performance and survival, but too much turns into "distress" which has a

bad effect on the animal. Behaviourists don't like the word stress and prefer distress. This is probably a bit

academic but it's due to concern over definitions. From a practical point of view what stress does is to

increase the "arousal" of the animal. Again some stress is good (e.g. to move stock) and some is bad (e.g.

when they panic and bolt).

Here are some examples of things that increase and decrease arousal:

Arousal - things that increase it

Isolation from mates or members of same species.

Separation from owner.

Decrease personal space.

Lack of food and water.

No shade or shelter.

Novelty - something strange in the environment.


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Threats - something seen as a threat (eg human and animal)

Aversive things - eg electric shocks.

Noise - high pitched.

High light intensity - especially poultry.

Increased cold - especially pigs.

Arousal - things that decrease it

Provide company.

Increase personal space.

Provide plenty of food and water.

A warm well-ventilated environment.

Provide shade and shelter.

Low frequently sound.

Talk to the animals - in low tones.

Low light levels.

Change colour of light.

Remove aversions and perceived threats.

Here are some general signs of fear in animals:

Vigorous tail flicking

Spasmodic body shiveringHead shaking

Eyelid flickering

Salivating

Head retraction

Diarrhoea/urinating

Eye closure

Nostril flaring

White's of eyes showing

This is what can result from unduly stressing animals:

Poor stock performance.

Increased ACC levies.

Greater disease incidence.

Deaths and family trauma.


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Accidents to staff - major and minor.

Damage to property.

Staff time off work and cost of replacement.

Risk of fines from OSH

There were about 3000 species of animal available for domestication by early humans but only 16 were

domesticated. Is it worth going ahead with more species or have we got enough? Perhaps all the easy

species have been domesticated and the remaining species are too difficult.

There is often confusion over the terms. Here are some examples:

Totally wild - had no exposure to human contact.

Part wild - had some exposure and generally fearful.

Feral - have been domesticated and gone wild.

Tame - not domesticated but have got a reduced flight/fight distance.

Very tame - have no fear of humans and indeed may be bonded to humans

Practical points and implications

If animals are too wild:

Wasted time mustering as things can easily get out of control.

People can get injured which is a cost to the business.

Stock get injured leading to costs of veterinary treatment or euthanasia.

Damage to property - broken fences and yards.

Meat quality affected by lowering muscle pHLowered production is inevitable - e.g milk and meat.

If animals are too tame:

Time is wasted handling stock and getting them to move.

It can lead to risks - e.g. with bulls and stags.

One tame "pet" animal in a mob that is not afraid of dogs or people may lead the whole mob and cause

problems.

So you have to decide where the happy medium is between being too wild and too tame that will suit your

farming system. It certainly takes more time and patience to change the behaviour of stock from being wild to

being tame than vice versa.

New Zealand animal behaviour scientist, the late Dr Ron Kilgour developed the concept of an "unwritten


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contract" between man and the animals kept as companions or on farms where the outcome has to be a

"win-win" for each party. He called it the 'domestic contract" where each side has to give up something to

benefit from other things provided. The concept helps to appreciate "human-animal relationships" which are at

the very core of animal behaviour and welfare.

There are two key points to remember. The first is that the animal cannot negotiate its side of the deal, so man

has to be its advocate as well as his own, and come to the best deal for each. And secondly, the contract must

be updated and renegotiated regularly as circumstances and attitudes change.

What happens when you domesticate an animal?

A whole range of things happen. Think about them in relation to Kilgour's domestic contract.

Their movements are restricted - they are fenced in or caged.

Their breeding is controlled - some are selected as parents and surplus males are castrated.

Survival patterns are changed and the weak are protected. There's no more "survival of the fittest".

Traits are selected that suit man and his husbandry systems.

Animals are selected for "neoteny" (behaviour shown by young) rather than aggression of adults.

Feeding levels are altered and controlled - both in quality and quantity.Parasites are usually increased so have to be controlled.

Health problem may increase so have to be controlled.

Stress is increased and may or may not be controlled.

Problems caused by domestication

Many so-called "problems" seen by humans are caused by the human environment provided. Here are some

general examples:

Malsocialisation - animals remain antisocial.

House soiling- they defaecate in their owners territory.

Excessive vocalisation

Aggression

Phobias

Destruction of objects in the owner's or their own environment

Disobedience

Pica - ingesting non-food items

Coprophagia - eating own faeces

Anorexia - not eating to the point of starvation

Self mutilation

More about aggression and domestication

When domestic animals show their wild behaviour, then aggression is the main problem you have to deal

with. Behaviourists call this "agonistic behaviour" and it can develop among normally friendly animals when

you least expect it, so it's important to be able to recognise the different types. But be careful not to be

anthropomorphic if you are looking for answers to problems. Use the following as a check list:


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Fear - the animal is fearful or in terror.

Maternal - a mother protecting her young.

Learned - from some other animal.

Redirected - caused by one thing but triggered by another.

Pain - the animal is suffering.

Punishment - the animal is responding is self defence.

Dominance- the animal is wanting to show its higher status.Protective - it is protecting something, its territory, offspring or mates.

Predatory - the animal is out to seek a prey.Inter male-female - usually in relation to reproduction.

Idiopathic (Unexplained) - if all else fails call it this!

This is the core of success in animal production and has enormous implications in the costs of running an

operation. The benefits are directly measurable in profits. The shortage of farm labour is triggering a whole

range of new problems and change, and this has triggered the need to get animals to do more for themselves.

There is also the move to train animals to help humans more e.g. the therapeutic value of animals to the aged

and infirm. But be aware that overdeveloped bonds can lead to behavioural problems -confused animals and

confused people.

Understanding the social behaviour of animals is vital in problem solving. Here are some general principles -

too often taken for granted. Animals are social - they enjoy and may crave for the company of their own kind.

Group living has big advantages for the animal:

It allows protection against predators - allows group defence

Provides cooperation in food gathering

Mates are easier to find.

Allows synchrony of mating, birth and rearing of offspring

Solitary living has advantages when food is very scarce.

Animals have rules - they help survival and peace in the group.

Humans need to remember this! They cause the problem by confusing the rules.

Animals need space - their own private space.

They need mental stimulation - and the group provides thisThey like predictability - but sometimes they thrive on unpredictability (eg the chance of a fight for the

top position).

At certain times of the year males are solitary.

When males are reared or farmed in groups they can be homosexual and may need to learn to live and

mate with females.

Animals organise their social behaviour into hierarchies.

We talk about the "peck order" in birds, the "bunt order" in cattle, because this is the way they sort

themselves out.

These hierarchies can be stable or they can be fluid - depending on a whole lot of things:


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Food supply - if plenty of food, there's no need to fight

Size - a good big 'un will always beat a good little 'un.

Sexual prowess - testosterone is a guaranteed winner.

Cunning - the young males who fools the old male.

Ego - my harem's bigger than yours.

Top of the hierarchy is an alpha male who at least thinks he's the boss.

In many cases an alpha female below him is the real boss - but she lets him act as if he was the leader.

The alpha female has enormous power (especially over the young males) and will fight hard to keep her

status.It's in the interest of the alpha male to make sure she keeps her job, so he will keep his too.

His worry is when she takes a dislike to him and sees a better prospect.

There is a constant state of young males looking for the inside chance to be alpha male.

Fights that cause injury or death are against the survival of the group and are generally avoided. But

when the issue is really important with genetic and survival implications - fights to the death if

necessary will take place.

This is a question behaviourists dislike as answering it risks anthropomorphism. "Can animals learn" is a lot

safer question and the answer is clearly YES. So this leads on to the question of "does an ability to learn

prove intelligence"?

Animals certainly remember and we get into a lot of trouble by forgetting this fact. They remember their first

experience very well so it's a good idea to ensure this is not a big negative one. Remembering is a survival

trait for example where animals eat poison once and remember being ill. They are never keen to repeat the

event and become "bait shy".

Professor Brambell argued that "play" is a good guide to the general intelligence level of a species.

Animals cannot think in abstract terms - they cannot ponder the past or make plans for the future. If you see

them appearing to think, it's more likely to be an "innate" behaviour than the result of logical decision making.

Animals have no notion or morality or right or wrong. They cannot understand the notion of a "rule". They

can be taught rules by the techniques below.

Learning and teaching

There's plenty of evidence that animals can learn from simple to complex routines and it's clearly easier for

them to learn things related to the innate behaviour of their species. When we want to teach animals routines

or change their behaviour, then a number of standard methods can be used:

Classical conditioning by repeat presentation of a "conditioned stimulus" with an "unconditioned

stimulus" - see below.

Operant or instrumental conditioning by offering constant reinforcing stimuli with a reward - see below.


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Habituation by learning not to respond to repeated stimuli. There is lack of reinforcement following the

response, e.g. so the animal will eventually ignore the stimulus.

Latent learning by using curiosity and exploration. It's learning without a clear reward. The learned

behaviour is not expressed but lies latent.

Insight learning by the animal seeing a solution immediately. For example the chimp that got the

bananas by using a short stick to reach long stick to reach the banana.

Imprinting. The classical work here is Lorenz and his geese. Birds follow the first thing they see after

hatching and it was Lorenz on whom they were imprinted for the rest of their lives

This is one of the main ways we teach animals, and it's the basis of a lot of animal retraining or correction. It

was made famous by Pavlov and his dog experiments.

o Dogs salivate when they see food and it's an easy visual response which is an innate behaviour of dogs.

o Pavlov rang a bell when the dog was fed.

o Eventually the dog would salivate for the bell anticipating the arrival of food.o When not fed, the dog eventually stopped salivating for the bell.

o This is called "extinction" of a learned response.

o Fed again with the bell and the stimulus was reversed back to the food.

A period of "association" is built between the two stimuli (old and new) for long enough so the new one

becomes learned and appears to be instinctive.

Before the animal shows an extinction behaviour, it may increase it's response to test if it will be

rewarded before giving up. This is called an "extinction burst" and can be serious, e.g. cat pushing

ornaments off to get attention.

Many classical conditioning responses are complex and hence difficult to solve. This is where there ismore than one stimulus involved - some of which you may not be aware of.

In academic terms CC uses the relationship between a "response" and a "conditioned stimulus" (CS).

The response works because it is caused by an "unconditioned stimulus" (UCS) - such as something that

is innate.

You then use the CS to trigger the UCS.

A very important point is that you do NOT use "rewards" given by the handler to get a response.

This was made famous by a researcher called Skinner who used the "Skinner box" where rats were trained by

a mild electric shock. When they failed to respond they got a shock and when successful they got a feed.

Electric shocks were not essential which he demonstrated in other experiments with pigeons. When faced

with two choices they got grain for a positive response and no grain for a negative one.

Many other experiments have been carried out with poultry to select different kinds of cage environments and

with large farm animals where they have been trained to press nose pads to make choices between feeds.


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Note that Operant Conditioning works using rewards. These can range from food, fussing, patting, play,

voice tone, access to favourite areas, being allowed to explore or mix with mates, and many more.

Rewards must be given at the same time as the response to be learned or within seconds afterwards.

Similarly reprimands must be instant, and preferably not associated by the animal to the owner.

Only when the response is well learned can the frequency of rewards be gradually reduced. You need to

keep an occasional reward going to maintain anticipation and interest.

A good example of this is the use of a "clicker" for training animals. The animal is trained with foodrewards along with a click, and then the click on it's own will get the response. The association between

food and click can be reinforced at required intervals if the response drops off. Clicker training is used

for dogs and horses.

This is a very important area of animal behaviour and welfare and has huge legal implications when

prosecutions have to be made under the law. For further information see the Code of Welfare No. 17. Care

and use of animals for scientific purposes - p. 38.

Some fears are essential for survival but when extreme become phobias. When threatened mammals have four

major defence responses:

Flight - withdraw from the threat

Immobility - crouch and lies still to avoid detection

Deflection/appeasement - actively submit to the attackerFight - defensive aggression to attacker Some phobias seem to be partly caused by innate sensitivity e.g.

animals with snakes. But many phobias contain a learned component. It can be a "conditioned

reaction" to a fearful experience.

Phobias cannot be cured by repeated exposure to the full stimulus. They can however be "unlearned"

by "systematic desensitisation using very mild exposures to the cause so as not to create anxiety. This is

gradually increased until the full stimulus can be accepted.

Growth, development and age have an important effect on animal behaviour and welfare so it's important to

realise how animals grow. Growth takes the form of an S-shaped curve starting at conception, moving slowly

to birth and then rapidly up through puberty to slow down at maturity.

After conception the brain and central nervous system (CNS) have first call on nutrients provided by the

mother. In the last weeks of pregnancy the foetus increases in weight.

From birth through puberty to maturity tissues grow in order of bone, muscle then finally fat. But this can

vary with feed supply as fat can be laid down in young animals if fed on a very high plane of nutrition. During


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this growth body proportions change.

Birth

This is a critical phase and can be traumatic for both dam and offspring.

Dam problems:

Paralysis

Retained foetal membranes (RFM)

Delayed return to normal breeding - anoestrus

Bonding

Uterine infections

Teat and udder problems

Offspring problems:

Hypothermia (37C drop to zero)Exposure/Starvation

Dystocia

Teat seeking problems

Bonding

Mismothering and neglect

Puberty

This is the age of sexual maturity and when sexual behaviour starts.

The animal has innate mating instincts but it still has to learn and practice to be effective.

Puberty is dictated more by live weight than age.

Genetics are involved as animals have been selected by farmers for early or late sexual maturity.

Territorial issues start to be seen.

Hierarchy issues start to apply.

Maturity

Here animals reach mature weight expressing their genetic potential.

If of large size and weight, this may pose mating problems.

There are many diseases of old age:

Arthritis

Cancer

Kidney failure

Feet


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What is the general attitude to animals on the farm?

What is the state of the property e.g. general tidiness?

What is the current feed status and are there any feed reserves?

Are there plans for an emergency e.g. Floods or snow storms?

What is the economic status of the business?

Whats the owners attitude to regulations and authorities?

Whats their attitude to their veterinarian?

How stressed does the owner(s) appear?

How well cared for are the family pets?

The animal

What species - keeping in mind species-specific behaviour and innate ability.

Breed - its importance in size, tractability and living space needed.

Age - young an active or geriatric and sedentary

Sex- entire or desexed and at what age was it done?

Hierarchy - where does the animal appear to fit in the family, flock or herd?

Diet- what is the diet or feed supply and have there been changes?Are there sources of feed for emergencies?

Exercise - how much exercise is allowed?Territory- what is the size of the "home range"?

What information do you need to collect to solve the problem? (An ethogram).

Temple Grandin (1998)

Genetics and behaviour of domestic animalsAcademic press. ISBN 0-12-295130-1

Katherine A. Houpt (1991)

Domestic animal behaviour for veterinarians and animal scientists

Iowa State University Press. ISBN 0-8138-1062-0

Wood-Gush, D., G., M. (1983).

Elements of Ethology

Chapman and Hall. ISBN 0-412-23170-0.

This material is provided in good faith for information purposes only, and the author does not accept any

liability to any person for actions taken as a result of the information or advice (or the use of such information

or advice) provided in these pages.


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Dont hesitate to contact me if you have any comments or suggestions on this material. Contact me on

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