anti american ism

8/6/2019 Anti American Ism

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Anti-Americanism 1

Anti-Americanism

Anti-American mural in Tehran, Iran, 2004

The term Anti-Americanism , or Anti-American

Sentiment , refers to broad opposition or hostility to the

people, policies, culture or government of the United

States. [1] [2] [3] A broad range of attitudes and actions

critical of or opposed to the United States have been

labeled anti-Americanism, and precise meaning and

applicability of the term to specific cases is often

disputed. [4]

Political scientist Brendan O'Connor suggests that

Anti-Americanism cannot be isolated as a consistent

phenomenon and that the term originated as a rough

composite of stereotypes, prejudices and criticisms

towards Americans or the United States, evolving tomore politically and economically based criticism.

French scholar Marie-France Toinet says use of the

term "is only fully justified if it implies systematic

opposition - a sort of allergic reaction - to America as a

whole." [5]

Discussions on anti-Americanism have in most cases

lacked a precise definition of what the sentiment entails

(other than a general disfavor), which has led to the

term being used broadly and in an impressionistic

manner, resulting in the inexact impressions of the many expressions described as anti-American. [6]

EtymologyIn the first edition of Noah Webster's American Dictionary of the English Language (1828) the word 'anti-American'

was defined as "opposed to America, or to the true interests or government of the United States; opposed to the

revolution in America." [7] In France the use of the noun form 'antiamricanisme' has been catalogued from 1948, [8]

entering ordinary political language in the 1950s. [9]

InterpretationsInterpretations of anti-Americanism have often been polarized. Anti-Americanism has been described by the

conservative anti-Communist academic Paul Hollander as "a relentless critical impulse toward American social,

economic, and political institutions, traditions, and values." [4] [10]

German newspaper publisher and political scientist Josef Joffe suggests five classic aspects o f the pheno menon:

reducing Amer icans to stereo types, believing the United States to have an irremediably evil nature, ascribing to the

U.S. establishment a vast conspiratorial power aimed at utterly dominating the globe, holding the United States

responsible for all the evils in the world, and seeking to limit the influence of the United States by destroying it or by

cutting oneself and one's society off from its polluting products and practices. [11] Other advocates of the significance

of the term argue that anti-Americanism represents a coherent and dangerous ideological current, comparable to

anti-Semitism.[12]

Anti-Americanism has also been described as an attempt to frame the consequences of U.S. policychoices as evidence of a specifically American moral failure, as opposed to what may be unavoidable failures of a
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Anti-Americanism 2

complicated foreign policy that comes with superpower status. [13]

Its status as an "-ism" is a greatly contended aspect, however. Brendon O'Connor notes that studies of the topic have

been "patchy and impressionistic," and often one-sided attacks on anti-Americanism as an irrational position. [5]

American academic Noam Chomsky, a prolific critic of U.S. policy, asserts that the use of the term within the U.S.

has parallels with methods employed by totalitarian states or military dictatorships; he compares the term to

"anti-Sovietism", a label used by the Kremlin to suppress dissident or critical thought, for instance.[14]

[15]

[16]

[17]

"The concept "anti-American" is an interesting one. The counterpart is used only in totalitarian states or

military dictatorships... Thus, in the old Soviet Union, dissidents were condemned as "anti-Soviet."

That's a natural usage among people with deeply rooted totalitarian instincts, which identify state policy

with the society, the people, the culture. In contrast, people with even the slightest concept of democracy

treat such notions with ridicule and contempt. [18]

Some have attempted to recognize both positions. French academic Pierre Guerlain has argued that the term

represents two very different tendencies: "One systematic or essentialist, which is a form of prejudice targeting all

Americans. The other refers to the way criticisms of the United States are labeled "anti-American" by supporters of

U.S. policies in an ideological bid to discredit their opponents." [19] Guerlain argues that these two "ideal types" of

anti-Americanism can sometimes merge, thus making discussion of the phenomenon particularly difficult. Other

scholars have suggested that a plural of anti-Americanisms, specific to country and time period, more accurately

describe the phenomenon than any broad generalization. [20] The widely used "anti-American sentiment", meanwhile,

less explicitly implies an ideology or belief system.

Globally, increases in perceived anti-American attitudes appear to correlate with particular policies or actions, [21]

such as the Vietnam and Iraq [22] wars. For this reason, critics sometimes argue the label is a propaganda term that is

used to dismiss any censure of the United States as irrational. [23]
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Anti-Americanism 3

Eighteenth and nineteenth centuries

Degeneracy thesis

Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, a

leading French naturalist, developed the

"degeneracy thesis" in the mid-eighteenth

century. It held that the American landmasses

were inferior to Europe and in decline due to

atmospheric conditions.

In the mid- to late-eighteenth century, a theory emerged among some

European intellectuals that the New World landmasses were inherently

inferior to Europe. The so-called "degeneracy thesis" held that climaticextremes, humidity and other atmospheric conditions in America

physically weakened both men and animals. [24] :3-19 Some authors such

as James W. Ceaser and Philippe Roger, have interpreted this theory as

"a kind of prehistory of anti-Americanism." [25] [26] and have (in the

words of Philippe Roger) been a historical constant since the 18th

century, or again an endlessly repetitive semantic block . Others, like

Jean-Franois Revel, have examined what lay hidden behind this

'fashionable' ideology. [27] Purported evidence for the idea included the

smallness of American fauna, dogs that ceased to bark, and venomous

plants; [28] one theory put forth was that the New World had emergedfrom the Biblical flood later than the Old World. [29] Native Americans

were also held to be feeble, small, and without ardor. [30]

The theory originated with Comte de Buffon, a leading French

naturalist, in his Histoire Naturelle (1766). [30] The French writerVoltaire joined Buffon and others in making the argument. [28]

Dutchman Cornelius de Pauw, court philosopher to Frederick II of

Prussia became its leading proponent. [25] While Buffon focused on the

American biological environment, de Pauw attacked people native to

the continent.[29]

The theory was extended to argue that the natural environment of the United States would prevent it from ever

producing true culture. Paraphrasing de Pauw, the French Encyclopedist Abb Raynal wrote, "America has not yet

produced a good poet, an able mathematician, one man of genius in a single art or a single science." [31] The theory

was debated and rejected by early American thinkers such as Alexander Hamilton, Benjamin Franklin, and Thomas

Jefferson; Jefferson, in his Notes on the State of Virginia(1781), provided a detailed rebuttal of de Buffon. [25]

Hamilton also vigorously rebuked the idea in Federalist No. 11 (1787). [30]

One critic, citing Raynal's ideas, suggests that it was specifically extended to the English colonies that would become

the United States. [32]

Roger suggests that the idea of degeneracy posited a symbolic, as well as a scientific America, that would evolvebeyond the original thesis. He argues that Buffon's ideas formed the root of a "stratification of negative discourses"

that has recurred throughout the two countries' relationship (and has been matched by persistent anti-Gallic sentiment

in the United States). [26]
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Anti-Americanism 4

Culture

Soviet propaganda poster depicting alleged lack of freedoms in the United States (1950,

by Nikolay Dolgorukov and Boris Efimov). Freedom of the press is depicted as William

R. Hearst spreading lies; Freedom of thought is depicted as judge giving a verdict for

communist beliefs; Personal freedom is depicted as lynching blacks by the KKK;

Freedom of assembly is depicted as Riot control and Freedom of speech is depicted as the

Statue of Liberty with her mouth padlocked shut.

According to Brendan O'Connor, some

Europeans criticized Americans for

lacking "taste, grace and civility" and

having a brazen and arrogant

character. [5] British author FrancesTrollope observed in her 1832 book

Domestic Manners of the Americansthat the greatest difference between

England and the United States was

"want of refinement.", explaining that

"that polish which removes the coarser

and rougher parts of our nature is

unknown and undreamed of" in

America. [33] [34] According to one

source her account "succeeded inangering Americans more than any

book written by a foreign observer

before or since". [35] English writer

Captain Marryat's critical account in

his Diary in America, with Remarks on Its Institutions (1839) also proved controversial, especially in Detroit where an effigy of the author, along with hisbooks, was committed to the flames. [35] Other writers critical of American culture and manners included the bishop

Talleyrand in France and Charles Dickens in England. [5] Dickens' novel Martin Chuzzlewit (1844) is a ferocioussatire on American life. [24] :42

Simon Schama says: "By the end of the nineteenth century, the stereotype of the ugly American voracious,

preachy, mercenary, and bombastically chauvinist was firmly in place in Europe." [36] O'Connor suggests that such

prejudices were rooted in an idealised image of European refinement and that the notion of high European culture

pitted against American vulgarity has not disappeared. [5]

Politics and ideology

The young United States also faced criticism on political and ideological grounds. Ceaser argues that the Romantic

strain of European thought and literature, hostile to the Enlightenment view of reason and obsessed with history and

national character, disdained the rationalistic American project. The German poet Nikolaus Lenau commented:"With the expression Bodenlosigkeit (absence of ground), I think I am able to indicate the general character of allAmerican institutions; what we call Fatherland is here only a property insurance scheme." Ceaser argues in his essay

that such comments often repurposed the language of degeneracy, and the prejudice came to focus solely on the

United States and not Canada and Mexico. [25] Lenau had emigrated to the United States in 1833 and found that the

country did not live up to his ideals, leading him to return to Germany the following year. His experiences in the

USA were the subject of a novel entitled Tired of America ( Der Amerika-Mde) (1855) by fellow German FerdinandKrnberger. [37]

The nature of American democracy was also questioned. The sentiment was that the country lacked "[a] monarch,

aristocracy, strong traditions, official religion, or rigid class system," according to Rubin, and its democracy was

attacked by some Europeans in the early nineteenth century as degraded, a travesty, and a failure. [34] The French

Revolution, which was loathed by many European conservatives, also implicated the United States and the idea of
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Anti-Americanism 5

creating a constitution on abstract and universal principles. [25] That the country was intended to be a bastion of

liberty was also seen as fraudulent given that it had been established with slavery. [36] "How is it that we hear the

loudest yelps for liberty among the drivers of negroes?" asked Samuel Johnson in 1775. [38] He famously stated that,

"I am willing to love all mankind, except an American." [34]

Charles Dickens stated: "The heaviest blow ever dealt at liberty will be dealt by this country [America], in the failure

of its example to the earth."[39]

C Lawson & J Hudson have described Ceaser's account 'extreme'. [40]

20th Century

Fascist critiques

Nazi propaganda poster addressing the Dutch public in

1944 with the words: "The U.S.A. will save European

culture from destruction"

Drawing on the ideas of Arthur de Gobineau (1816 82) European

fascists decried the supposed degenerating effect of immigration

on the racial mix of the American population. The Nazi

philosopher Alfred Rosenberg argued that race mixture in the USAmade it inferior to countries like Germany which had a supposedly

pure-bred racial stock. [24] :91-2

Anti-Semitism was another factor in these critiques. The belief

that America was ruled by a Jewish conspiracy was common in

countries ruled by fascists before and during World War II. [24]

:91-7 The Jews, the assumed puppet masters behind American

plans for world domination, were also seen as using jazz in a

crafty plan to eliminate racial distinctions. [24] :91-7 However,

despite these plans, Adolf Hitler did not count America as a

credible adversary of the Third Reich because of its incoherentracial mix: "mongrel race", "half-Judaised" and

"half-Negrified". [24] :94-7

In an address to the Reichstag on December 11, 1941, Hitler

declared war on the United States and lambasted the American

President Franklin D. Roosevelt:

"He [Roosevelt] was strengthened in this [political

diversion] by the circle of Jews surrounding him, who, with Old Testament-like fanaticism, believe that the

United States can be the instrument for preparing another Purim for the European nations that are becoming

increasingly anti-Semitic. It was the Jew, in his full Satanic vileness, who rallied around this man [Roosevelt],but to whom this man also reached out". [41]
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Anti-Americanism 6

21st Century

9/11

9/11: World Trade Center twin towers on fire.

In a book called The Rise of Anti-Americanism, published in 2006,

Brendon O'Connor and Martin Griffiths saidthat the September 11, 2001 attacks were

"quintessential anti-American acts, which

satisfy all of the competing definitions of

Anti-Americanism." [42] They ask, "if 9/11

can be construed as the exemplar of

anti-Americanism at work, does it make

much sense to imply that all anti-Americans

are complicit with terrorism?" [43] Leaders in

most Middle Eastern countries, including

Afghanistan, condemned the attacks.Saddam Hussein s Iraq was a notable

exception, with an immediate official

statement that "the American cowboys are

reaping the fruit of their crimes against humanity." [44]

Contemporary regional attitudes

Results of 2010 BBC World Service poll of

views in various countries of U.S. influence [45]

Country polled Positive Negative

United States 60% 22%

Canada 44% 38%

Argentina 64% 24%

Chile 55% 26%

Brazil 53% 35%

Mexico 13% 49%

Portugal 57% 20%

Italy 56% 22%

United Kingdom 48% 35%

France 45% 39%

Spain 40% 33%

Germany 39% 47%

Russia 25% 50%

Egypt 45% 29%

Turkey 13% 70%

Kenya 85% 10%
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Anti-Americanism 7

Ghana 72% 13%

Nigeria 64% 32%

Philippines 82% 8%

South Korea 57% 38%

Thailand 49% 35%

Azerbaijan 44% 38%

India 39% 28%

Australia 37% 38%

Indonesia 36% 39%

Japan 34% 18%

China 29% 44%

Pakistan 9% 52%

A poll conducted in 2010 by the BBC World Service found positive views in most countries about the influence of the U.S. for the first time since tracking began in 2005. Nineteen countries gave US influence positive ratings, while

six leaned negative and two were divided. 46 per cent of the 27 countries polled viewed US influence positively and

34 per cent viewed it negatively.

Middle East and North Africa

After World War I admiration was expressed for American President Woodrow Wilson's promulgation of

democracy, freedom and self-determination in the Fourteen Points and, during World War II, the high ideals of the

Atlantic Charter received favorable notice. [46] Cultural anti-Americanism in the Middle East may have its origins

with Sayyid Qutb.

Qutb, the leading intellectual of the Muslim Brotherhood, studied in Greeley, Colorado, from 1948 50, and wrote a

book, The America I Have Seen (1951) based on his impressions. In it he decried everything in America fromindividual freedom and taste in music to Church socials and haircuts. [47] "They danced to the tunes of the

gramophone, and the dance floor was replete with tapping feet, enticing legs, arms wrapped around waists, lips

pressed to lips, and chest s pressed to ches ts. The atmosphere was full of desire..." [48] He offered a distorted

chronology of American history and was disturbed by its sexually liberated women: "The American girl is well

acquainted with her body's seductive capacity. She knows it lies in the face, and in expressive eyes, and thirsty lips.

She knows seductiveness lies in the round breasts, the full buttocks, and in the shapely thighs, sleek legs and she

shows all this and does not hide it." [48] He was particularly disturbed by Jazz, which he called the American's

preferred music, and it is created by Negroes to satisfy their love of noise and to whet their sexual desires ... [49]

Qutb's writings influenced generations of militants and radicals in the Middle East who viewed America as a cultural

temptress bent on overturning traditional customs and morals, especially with respect to the relations between the

sexes. As Paul Hollander has written: "The most obvious and clear link between anti-Americanism and

modernization is encountered in Islamic countries and other traditional societies where modernization clashes head

on with entrenched traditional beliefs, institutions, and patterns of behavior, and where it challenges the very

meaning of life, social relations, and religious verities. What becomes of the world when women can go to work and

show large surfaces of skin to men they are not related to? In a recent case, the indignant male members of a Kurdish

family in Sweden were 'provoked' by the transgressing female of their family who had the temerity to have a job and

a boyfriend and dress in Western ways. She was finally killed by her father." [4]

Hollander went on to explain:
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Anti-Americanism 8

"In Arab countries and among Muslim populations, anti-Americanism is not only the monopoly of

intellectuals but also a widespread disposition of the masses. In these areas, traditional religion, radical

politics, and economic backwardness combine to make anti-Americanism an exceptionally widespread,

virulent, and reflexive response to a wide range of collective and personal frustrations and grievances-and a

welcome alternative to any collective or individual self-examination or stock-taking.

More generally, it is the rise of alternatives, ushered in by modernization, that threatens traditional societiesand generates anti-American reaction. The stability of traditional society (like that of modern totalitarian

systems) rests on the lack of alternatives, on the lack of choice. Choice is deeply subversive-culturally,

politically, psychologically.

The recent outburst of murderous anti-Americanism has added a new dimension to the phenomenon, or at any

rate, throws into relief the intense hatred it may encapsulate. The violence of September 11 shows that when

anti-Americanism is nurtured by the kind of indignation and resentment that in [turn] is stimulated and

sanctioned by religious convictions, it can become spectacularly destructive." [4]

The chant, 'Death to America' has been in use in Iran since at least the Iranian revolution in 1979, [50] [51] along with

other phrases often represented as anti-American. A 1953 coup which involved the CIA was cited as a grievence. [52]

State sponsored murals characterised as anti-American dot the streets of Tehran. [53] [54] It has been suggested that

under Ayatollah Khomeini anti-Americanism was little more than a way to distinguish between domestic supporters

and detractors, and even the phrase 'Great Satan' [55] which has previously been associated with anti-Americanism

appears to now signify either the US or the UK. [56] [57]

In 2002 and in mid-2004 Zogby International polled the favorable/unfavorable ratings of the U.S. in Saudi Arabia,

Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco and the United Arab Emirates. In Zogby's 2002 survey, 76% of Egyptians had a

negative attitude toward the United States, compared with 98% in 2004. In Morocco, 61% viewed the country

unfavorably in 2002, but in two years, that number had jumped to 88 percent. In Saudi Arabia, such responses rose

from 87% in 2002 to 94% in 2004. Attitudes were virtually unchanged in Lebanon but improved slightly in the UAE,

from 87% who said in 2002 that they disliked the United States to 73% in 2004. [58] However most of these countries

mainly objected to foreign policies that they considered unfair. [58]

Qutb's ideas influenced Osama Bin Laden, an anti-American Islamic militant from Saudi Arabia, who is believed to

be the founder of the Jihadist organization Al-Qaeda. [59] [60] In conjunction with several other Islamic militant

leaders, bin Laden issued two fatawa in 1996 and then again in 1998 that Muslims should kill military personnel

from the United States until they withdraw military forces from Islamic countries and withdraw support for Israel. [61]

[62]

After the 1996 fatwa, entitled "Declaration of War against the Americans Occupying the Land of the Two Holy

Places", Osama bin Laden was put on a criminal file by the U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) under an

American Civil War statute which forbids instigating violence and attempting to overthrow the U.S. government. [63]

[64] He has also been indicted in United States federal court for his alleged involvement in the 1998 U.S. embassybombings in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania and Nairobi, Kenya, and was on the FBI's Ten Most Wanted Fugitives list.

Bin Laden, on behalf of Al-Qaeda, has allegedly claimed responsibility for the September 11, 2001 attacks on the

United States of America in videos released to the public. [65] [66] On 14 January 2009, Bin Laden vowed to continue

the fight and open up new fronts against the USA on behalf of the Islamic world. [67]

Anti-Americanism has risen in Pakistan as a result of US Drone attacks in Pakistan introduced by Bush and

continued by Obama. [68] [69] In a poll surveying opinions towards the USA, Pakistan scored as the most

anti-American nation, jointly alongside Serbia. [70]

According to Tamim Ansary, in Destiny Disrupted: A History of the World Through Islamic Eyes(2009) early views

of America in the Middle East and the Muslim World were mostly positive.[46]
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Anti-Americanism 9

Europe

In a 2003 article, Historian David Ellwood identified what he called three great roots of anti-Americanism:

Representations, images and stereotypes (from the birth of the Republic onwards)

The challenge of economic power and the American model of modernization (principally from the 1910s and '20s

on)

The organized projection of U.S. political, strategic and ideological power (from World War II on)

He went on to say that expressions of the phenomenon in the last 60 years have contained ever-changing

combinations of these elements, the configurations depending on internal crises within the groups or societies

articulating them as much as anything done by American society in all its forms. [71]

Sergio Fabbrini, in a 2004 article wrote that the perceived post 9/11 unilateralism of the 2003 invasion of Iraq fed

deep rooted anti-American feeling in Europe, bringing it to the surface. In his article, he highlighted European fears

surrounding the Americanization of the economy, culture and political process of Europe. [72]

In her contribution to the seminal book Anti-Americanisms in World Politicsedited by Peter Katzenstein and RobertKeohane in 2006, Sophie Meunier writes about French anti-Americanism that although it has a long history (older

than the US itself) and is the most easily recognizable anti-Americanism in Europe, it may not have had real policyconsequences on the United States and thus may have been less damaging than more pernicious and invisible

anti-Americanism in other countries. [73]

During the George W. Bush administration, public opinion of America declined in most European countries. A Pew

Global Attitudes Project poll shows "favorable opinions" of America between 2000 and 2006 dropping from 83% to

56% in the United Kingdom, from 62% to 39% in France, from 78% to 37% in Germany and from 50% to 23% in

Spain. [74]

In Europe in 2002, vandalism of American companies was reported in Athens, Zrich, Tbilisi, and Moscow. In

Venice an anti-globalist attacked a McDonald's restaurant owned by Italians. [75]

After WWII, when "American" and "liberation" were synonyms in French hearts, the Suez Crisis caused

unhappiness among the French right, where there was unhappiness with the lack of American support during Dien

Bien Phu; for the French left, it was the Vietnam War and 'US imperialism' that were the sources of resentment. [76]

Much later, the alleged weapons of mass destruction affair certainly dirtied the previously favorable image. In 2008,

85% of the French people considered the American government and banks to be most liable for the Financial crisis

of 2007 2010. [77]

Following the 2008 South Ossetia War, anti-Americanism was said to have grown amongst the intellectual-political

class in Russia too. In response to the conflict with Georgia, Boris Kagarlitsky said: "Ironically, one of the dominant

trends here is that we are anti-American because we want to be exactly like America. We are angry that Americans

are allowed to invade minor nations and we are not." [78]

In Turkey, Anti-American protestors held signs saying Obama, new president of the American imperialism that isthe enemy of the world s people, your hands are also bloody. Get out of our country. when Barack Obama visited

Turkey. [79] Protestors also shouted phrases such as "Yankee go home" and "Obama go home". [80] [81]

J. Ceaser has claimed that anti-Americanism in Europe has been an influence on Islamic terrorists, though his views

have been described as 'combative'. [40]
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Anti-Americanism 10

East Asia and Oceania

East Asia

China

In China, there has been a history of anti-Americanism beginning with Mao's description of the US as a "paper

tiger," occupiers of Taiwan, "the enemy of the people of the world and has increasingly isolated itself" and "monoplycapitalist groups." [82] and the Taiwanese Strait Crisis which has led China to blame the US for any issues that arise

in the bilateral relationship between China and Taiwan as they believe that US support of Taiwan is an effort to

weaken their country. [83] Recently, in 2009, Luo Ping criticized America's laissez-faire capitalism and said that he

hated America when the US Treasury would start to print money and depreciate the value of dollar thus cheapening

the value of China's purchase of US bonds. [84] Chinese hackers have also conducted extensive cyberwarfare against

American institutions and citizens [85] [86] [87] [87] targeting the U.S. and its Western allies. [88] [89] Furthermore,

China's leaders present themselves as an alternative to the meddling power of the West. [90]

Japan

In Japan, objections to the behavior and presence of American military personnel are sometimes reported asanti-Americanism, such as the 1995 Okinawan rape incident. [91] [92] The ongoing U.S. military presence in Okinawa

remains a contentious issue in Japan. [93]

While protests have arisen over specific incidents, they are often reflective of deeper historical resentments. Robert

Hathaway, director of the Wilson Center's Asia program, suggests: "the growth of anti-American sentiment in both

Japan and South Korea must be seen not simply as a response to American policies and actions, but as reflective of

deeper domestic trends and developments within these Asian countries." [94] In Japan, a variety of threads have

contributed to anti-Americanism in the post-war era, including pacifism on the left, nationalism on the right, and

opportunistic worries over American influence in Japanese economic life. [95]

South Korea

Speaking to the Wilson Center, Katherine Moon notes that while the majority of South Koreans support the

American alliance "anti-Americanism also represents the collective venting of accumulated grievances that in many

instances have lain hidden for decades." [94] In the 1990s Scholars, policy makers and the media noted that

anti-Americanism was motivated by the rejection of authoritarianism and a resurgent nationalism, this nationalist

Anti-Americanism continued into the 2000s fuelled by a number of incidents such as the IMF crisis. [96]

"Fucking USA" is an anti-American protest song written by South Korean singer and activist Yoon Min-suk.

Strongly anti-US Foreign policy and anti-Bush, the song was written in 2002 at a time when, following the Apolo

Ohno Olympic controversy and an incident in which two Korean middle school students were killed under the

wheels of a U.S. Army vehicle, anti-American sentiment in South Korea reached high levels.[97]

However, by 2009,a majority of South Koreans were reported as having a favorable view of the United States. [98]
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Anti-Americanism 11

Australia

In a poll taken by US magazine Reader's Digest with 1000 Australians, 15 per cent of Australians describedthemselves as "anti-American". Another 67 per cent held neutral views of America, and 17 per cent said they were

"pro-American". In the survey 71 per cent of Australians said they would not like to live in the US. [99]

New Zealand

Opinions of America have tumbled in New Zealand to 29 percent of Kiwis feeling positive about the US in 2004,

from 54 percent in 2001. In some ways, the trend mirrors results elsewhere. A new 15-nation poll from the Pew

Research Center found double-digit declines in countries as diverse as Russia, India, and Turkey drops that seem

tied to growing pessimism about the Iraq war.

Hostility toward Americans has gotten personal But the depths of dislike expressed in polling in New Zealand, as

well as accounts of personal hostility, is surprising from a people who have fought alongside the US in numerous

wars, including Afghanistan, and share cultural values.

His experiences are echoed by some high-profile Americans. Douglas Sparks, who came to New Zealand to oversee

the Anglican Church's Wellington Cathedral, suddenly packed his bags two years ago and vowed to never bring his

family back. Mr. Sparks said he was the target of anti-US graffiti and his children were taunted by classmates who

said they hoped US soldiers in Iraq would be killed.

And the last US ambassador to New Zealand, Charles Swindells, went out with a bang in mid-2005. In his farewell

speech, he browbeat some listeners for indulging in "empty, inaccurate criticism of US ideals or actions that offers

no constructive alternatives and gives no credit where credit is due." [100]

Latin America

"The United States hastens the delivery of arms to the puppet governments they see as being increasingly

threatened; it makes them sign pacts of dependence to legally facilitate the shipment of instruments of

repression and death and of troops to use them."

Che Guevara, April 9, 1961 [101]

In Latin America, anti-American sentiment has deep roots dating b ack to the 1830s and the 1836 Texas Revolution,

in which the province seceded from Mexico. [102] Nine years later, encouraged by the Monroe Doc trine and Manifest Destiny, the United States annexed the Republic of Texas--at its request , but against vehement opposition byMexico, which refused to recogni ze Texas' independence and began its aggressiv e expansion into W estern North

America. [103] :53-4, 57-8 Mexican anti-American sentiment was further inflamed by the resulting 1846-1848

Mexican-American War, in which Mexico lost more than half of its territory to the U.S. [103] :57-8[104] The Chilean

writer Francisco Bilbao predicted in America in Danger (1856) that the loss of Texas and northern Mexico to "thetalons of the eagle" was just a foretaste of an American bid for world domination. [24] :104 Such interventions from the

USA prompted a later ruler of Mexico, Porfirio Diaz, to lament "Poor Mexico, so far from God, and so close to theUnited States". [24] :104 Mexico's National Museum of Interventions, opened in 1981, is a testament to Mexico's sense

of grievance with the United States. [24] :121

The 1855 American intervention in Nicaragua and the Spanish-American War of 1898, which turned Cuba into a

virtual dependency of the United States, in the context of the Big Stick ideology es poused by Theodo re Roosevelt's

corollary to the Monroe Doctrine that led to numerous interventions in Central America and the Caribbean, also

prompted hatred of the US in other regions of the Americas. [105] A very influential formulatio n of Latin-American

anti-Americanism, engendered by the 1898 war, was the Uruguayan journalist Jos Enrique Rod's essay Ariel(1900) in which the spiritual values of the South American Ariel are contrasted to the brutish mass-culture of the

American Caliban. This essay had enormous influence throughout Spanish America in the 1910s and 1920s, and

prompted resistance to what was seen as American cultural imperialism. [106] Perceived racist attitudes of the white

Anglo-Saxon Protestants of the North towards the populations of Latin America also caused resentment. [107]
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Anti-Americanism 12

In the twentieth century, American support for the 1954 Guatemalan coup d'tat against the democratically-elected

President Jacobo Arbenz Guzmn fueled anti-Americanism in the region. [108] [109] [110] This CIA-sponsored coup

prompted a former president of that country, Juan Jos Arvalo to write a fable entitled The Shark and the Sardines(1961) in which a predatory shark (representing the USA) overawes the sardines of Latin America. [24] :114

Vice-President Richard Nixon's tour of South America in 1958 prompted a spectacular eruption of

anti-Americanism. The tour became the focus of violent protests which climaxed in Caracas, Venezuela whereNixon was almost killed by a raging mob as his motorcade drove from the airport to the city. [111] In response,

President Dwight D. Eisenhower assembled troops at Guantanamo Bay and a fleet of battleships in the Caribbean to

intervene to save Nixon if necessary. [112] :826-34

Fidel Castro, the revolutionary leader of Cuba, has throughout his career tried to co-ordinate long-standing Latin

American resentments against the USA through military and propagandist means. [113] [114] He was aided in this goal

by the failed Bay of Pigs Invasion of Cuba in 196 1, planned and implemented by the American government against

his regime. This disaster ruined American credibility in the Americas and gave a boost to her critics worldwide. [112]

:893-907 According to Rubin and Rubin, Castro's Second Declaration of Havana, in February 1962, "constituted a

declaration of war on the United States and the enshrinement of a new theory of anti-Americanism". [24] :115 Castro

called America "a vulture...feeding on humanity" [112] :862 The United States embargo against Cuba maintainedresentment and Castro's colleague, the famed revolutionary Che Guevara, expressed his hopes during the Vietnam

War of "creating a Second or a Third Vietnam" in the Latin American region against the designs of what he believed

to be US imperialism. [115]

The 1964 Brazilian coup d'tat, the invasion of the Dominican Republic in 1965, US involvement in Operation

Condor, the 1973 Chilean and 1976 Argentine Coup d'tats, and the Salvadoran Civil War, the support of the

Contras, the training of terrorists and war criminals in the School of the Americas and the refusal to extradite a

terrorist, U.S. support for dictators such as Augusto Pinochet, Anastasio Somoza, Alfredo Stroessner and pre-1989

Manuel Noriega have continued to influence regional attitudes in a negative way. [116] [108] [109] [110]

The perceived failures of the neo-liberal reforms of the 1980s and the 1990s intensified opposition to the Washington

consensus, [117] leading to a resurgence in suppor t for Pan-Americanism, support for popular movements in the

region, the nationalization of key industries and centralization of government. [118] America's tightening of the

economic embargo on Cuba in 1996 and 2004 also caused resentment among Latin American leaders and has

prompted them to use the Rio Group and the Madrid-based Ibero-American Summits as meeting places rather than

the American dominated OAS. [119] This trend has been reinforced through the creation of a series of regional

political bodies such as Unasur and the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States, and a strong opposition

to the materialization of the Washington-sponsored Free Trade Area of the Americas at the 2005 4th Summit of the

Americas.

One of the most vocal of these leaders has been Hugo Chvez of Venezuela, who is known for his strong opposition

towards the Am erican government, particularly the administration of George W. Bush, driving him to vilify the latterin many ways, including referring to him as "el diablo" (the devi l) before the opening of the United Nations General

Assembly in 2006. [120] He has clearly stated his intent to use Venezuela's oil resources as a card "against the

toughest country in the world, the United States." [121] In addition, Bolivian president Evo Morales has also expressed

anti-American views on many occasions. Further more, the renewal of the concession for the U.S. military base in

Manta, Ecuador was met by considerable criticism, derision, and even doubt by the supporters of such an

expansion. [122] The near-war sparked by the 2008 Andean diplomatic crisis was expressed by a high-level

Ecuadorean military officer as being carried under American auspices. The officer said "a large proportion of senior

officers," share "the conviction that the United States was an accomplice in the attack" (launched on by the

Colombian military on a FARC camp in Ecuador, near the Colombian border). [123] The Ecuadorean military

retaliated by stating the 10-year lease on the base, which expired in November 2009, would not be renewed and thatthe U.S. military presence was expected to be scaled down starting three months before the expiry. [124]
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=FARChttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=FARChttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mantahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=2008_Andean_diplomatic_crisishttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=FARChttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=FARChttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=2008_Andean_diplomatic_crisishttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mantahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Evo_Moraleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Devilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=George_W._Bushhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Venezuelahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_Hugo_Chavezhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=4th_Summit_of_the_Americashttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=4th_Summit_of_the_Americashttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Free_Trade_Area_of_the_Americashttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Community_of_Latin_American_and_Caribbean_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Unasurhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Latin_American_integrationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Latin_American_integrationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Organization_of_American_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ibero-American_Summithttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rio_Grouphttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Centralised_governmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nationalizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Popular_fronthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pan-Americanismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Washington_consensushttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Washington_consensushttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Neo-liberalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manuel_Noriegahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alfredo_Stroessnerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anastasio_Somoza_Debaylehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Augusto_Pinochethttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Luis_Posada_Carrileshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Luis_Posada_Carrileshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=School_of_the_Americashttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Contras%23U.S._military_and_financial_assistancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Salvadoran_Civil_War%23United_States_involvementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Coup_d%27%C3%A9tathttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=National_Reorganization_Processhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=1973_Chilean_coup_d%27%C3%A9tathttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Operation_Condor%23U.S._involvementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Operation_Condor%23U.S._involvementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Operation_Brother_Samhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=US_imperialismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vietnam_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vietnam_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Che_Guevarahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=United_States_embargo_against_Cubahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Americashttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bay_of_Pigs_Invasionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cubahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fidel_Castrohttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Guantanamo_Bayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dwight_D._Eisenhowerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Venezuelahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Caracashttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=South_Americahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Richard_Nixonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Shark_and_the_Sardineshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Juan_Jos%C3%A9_Ar%C3%A9valohttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jacobo_Arbenz_Guzm%C3%A1nhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=1954_Guatemalan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat


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Canada

Anti-Americanism in Canada has unique historic roots. When the Continental Congress was called in 1774, an

invitation was sent to Quebec (also called Canada) and Nova Scotia. However Canadians expres sed little interest in

joining the Congr ess, a nd the following year the American army invaded Canada, but was defeated at the Battle of

Quebec. Although the American Articles of Confederation later pre-approved Canada as a U.S. state, public opinion

had turned against them. Soon 40,000 loyalist refugees arrived from the United States, including 2,000 Black Loyalists, many of whom had fought for the Crown against the American Revolution. To them the republic they left

behind was violent and anarchic, ruled by money and mob rule. [125]

Brendon O'Connor & Martin Griffiths state in their book Anti-Americanismthat they would at fir st glance think thatCanadians seem a s likely as oth ers to embrace characteristics that are characterised as anti-American. O'Conner and

Griffiths include such actions as criticising Americans as a people, or the US as a country as being anti-A merican

often demonising, denigrating and resorting t o stereotypes. They have also written that the Anti-Ameri canism found

in Canada had unique qualities, nowhere else has it been so entrenched for so long, nor so central to the political

culture as in Canada. Canadian historian Kim Richard Nossal thinks that a low level attenuated form of

anti-Americanism permeates Canadian political culture, though "designed primarily as a mea ns to differentiate

Canadians from Amer icans." [126] Although J.L Granatstien has suggested that Anti-Americanism was dead inCanada, John Herd Thompson and Stephen J. Randall in their book Canada and the United States (2002) states thatthere is anecdotal evidence that it still flourishes, and that it continues to nourish the Canadian sense of identity. [127]

It does help Canadians differentiate themselves from Americans, but it is also directly correlated to American

anti-Canadianism.

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[2] http://dictionary. reference. com/browse/anti-American

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[4] Hollander, Paul The Politics of Envy (http://www.travelbrochuregraphics. com/extra/politics_of_envy. htm), The New Criterion,November 2002. Retrieved 29 April 2007.

[5] O'Connor, Brendan: "A Brief History of Anti-Americanism from Cultural Criticism to Terrorism" (http://www. anzasa. arts. usyd. edu. au/a.

j. a. s/Articles/1_04/OConnor. pdf), Australasian Journal of American Studies, July 2004, pp. 77-92

[6] O'Connor, Brendan, p 89.

[7] The ARTFL Project - Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary (1913+1828) (http://machaut. uchicago. edu/?resource=Webster's&

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[8] Le Petit Robert ISBN 2-85036-668-4

[9] Roger, Phillipe. The American Enemy: The History of French Anti-Americanism,introductory excerpt (http://www. press. uchicago. edu/ Misc/Chicago/723682. html), University of Chicago Press, 2005.

[10] Jay Nordlinger, Hollander s Clear Eye (http://old. nationalreview. com/nordlinger/nordlinger200407221016. asp), July 22, 2004, National

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0,25197,24463588-5013948,00. html)", The Australian Online. Retrieved on October 25, 2008;^ " The Global Presidential Poll: Australia (http://www.rd.com/your-america-inspiring-people-and-stories/

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[105] Volker Skierka (2004) Fidel Castro A Biography. Cambridge: Polity Press: 4[106] Edwin Williamson (1992) The Penguin History of Latin America: 305[107] Thomas Skidmore and Peter Smith (1997) Modern Latin America. Oxford University Press: 364-5[108] Peter Winn (2006) Americas: The Changing Face of Latin America and the Caribbean. University of California Press: 472, 478, 482[109] George Pendle (1976) A History of Latin America. London: Penguin: 180-86[110] Why the world loves to Hate America (http://www.carnegieendowment.org/publications/index. cfm?fa=view&id=872) by Moiss

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nixon-attacked-by-angry-venezuelans), history.com (http://www.history. com).[112] Manchester, William (1984). The Glory and the Dream: A Narrative History of America. New York: Bantam Books. ISBN 0553345893.[113] George Anne Geyer (1991) Guerilla Prince: The Untold Story of Fidel Castro. Little Brown and Company[114] Volker Skierka (2004) Fidel Castro A Biography. Cambridge: Polity Press[115] Edwin Williamson (1992) The Penguin History of Latin America: 325[116] ( Scholar search (http://scholar. google. co. uk/scholar?hl=en&lr=&q=intitle:CIA+acknowledges+involvement+in+Allende's+

overthrow,+Pinochet's+rise&as_publication=&as_ylo=&as_yhi=&btnG=Search)) CIA acknowledges involvement in Allende's overthrow, Pinochet's rise (http://web. archive. org/web/20071108203027/http://archives.cnn. com/2000/WORLD/americas/09/19/us. cia. chile.ap/). BBC News. September 19, 2000. Archived from the original (http://archives. cnn. com/2000/WORLD/americas/09/19/us. cia. chile.

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[120] James, Ian At U.N., Chavez Calls Bush 'The Devil' (http://www.breitbart. com/article. php?id=D8K8ME700&sh

anti american ism

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