AP PsychologyAP Psychology

WadsWads

Lets take a look at the story of the Lets take a look at the story of the separated twin brothers named Jim.separated twin brothers named Jim.

Are their similarities hereditary or luck? Are their similarities hereditary or luck?

Psychologists say that while some of the Psychologists say that while some of the Jims’ similarities are due to hereditary, Jims’ similarities are due to hereditary, many are not.many are not.

If you took two strangers together who If you took two strangers together who were born on the same day, in the same were born on the same day, in the same country and ask them to find country and ask them to find similarities, you might find a lot of similarities, you might find a lot of astounding coincidences.astounding coincidences.

Identical twins do show remarkable Identical twins do show remarkable similarities, but only in characteristics similarities, but only in characteristics you would expect: intelligence, you would expect: intelligence, temperament, gestures, posture and temperament, gestures, posture and pace of speech.pace of speech.

However, environment plays a big However, environment plays a big role too.role too.

increase in age = greater difference in increase in age = greater difference in personalitypersonality

twins often treated aliketwins often treated alike

Expectancy biases has proven Expectancy biases has proven to be a big challenge for to be a big challenge for these studies.these studies.

Investigators of identical Investigators of identical twins expect to find some twins expect to find some hereditary influences so they hereditary influences so they often pay more attention to often pay more attention to the similarities than the similarities than differences. differences.

Developmental Developmental psychology is the psychology is the psychology of growth, psychology of growth, change and consistency change and consistency though the lifespan. though the lifespan. Looks at how thinking, Looks at how thinking,

feeling, and behavior feeling, and behavior change throughout a change throughout a person’s life.person’s life.

Developmental psychology seeks Developmental psychology seeks to answer two big questions about to answer two big questions about heredity and environment:heredity and environment:

1.1. How much weight does each wield?How much weight does each wield?2.2. How do they interact?How do they interact?

Nature refers to the effects of Nature refers to the effects of heredity and nurture to the heredity and nurture to the influence of environment.influence of environment.

There are two easy ways to There are two easy ways to study nature-nurture.study nature-nurture.

Twin studies: Identical twins have Twin studies: Identical twins have the same genotype, and fraternal the same genotype, and fraternal twins have an average of 50% of twins have an average of 50% of their genes in common.their genes in common.

Adoption studies: Similarities with Adoption studies: Similarities with the biological family support the biological family support nature, while similarities with the nature, while similarities with the adoptive family support nurture.adoptive family support nurture.

Think about how children become Think about how children become adults. Is there a predictable adults. Is there a predictable pattern they follow regarding pattern they follow regarding thought and language and social thought and language and social development?development?

Do children go through gradual Do children go through gradual changes or are they abrupt changes or are they abrupt changes?changes?

The continuity view says that The continuity view says that change is gradual. change is gradual.

Children become more Children become more skillful in thinking, talking or skillful in thinking, talking or acting much the same way acting much the same way as they get taller.as they get taller.

We know that skilled We know that skilled behaviors often happen in behaviors often happen in this way as with the trial and this way as with the trial and error method of learning to error method of learning to walk or eat with a spoon. walk or eat with a spoon. (observable skills…what (observable skills…what about mental processes?)about mental processes?)

The discontinuity view sees The discontinuity view sees development as more development as more abrupt-a succession of abrupt-a succession of changes that produce changes that produce different behaviors in different behaviors in different age-specific life different age-specific life periods called stages.periods called stages.

This is evident in beginning This is evident in beginning readers who suddenly readers who suddenly discover the connection discover the connection between letters and sounds.between letters and sounds.

We often hear people taking about children We often hear people taking about children going through “stages” in life (i.e. “terrible going through “stages” in life (i.e. “terrible twos.”)twos.”)

These are called developmental stages-periods These are called developmental stages-periods of life initiated by distinct transitions in physical of life initiated by distinct transitions in physical or psychological functioning.or psychological functioning.

Psychologists of the discontinuity view believe Psychologists of the discontinuity view believe that people go through the same stages, in the that people go through the same stages, in the same order, but not necessarily at the same same order, but not necessarily at the same rate.rate.

However, if a person misses a stage, it can have However, if a person misses a stage, it can have lasting consequences.lasting consequences.

People used to think that People used to think that newborns began life as a newborns began life as a “blank slate”-an empty “blank slate”-an empty brain and no abilities.brain and no abilities.

Studies have shown that Studies have shown that newborns have innate newborns have innate abilities to find nourishment, abilities to find nourishment, interact with others and interact with others and avoid harmful situations.avoid harmful situations.

Developmental PsychologistsHow do behaviors and thoughts change

over our ENTIRE lives?Birth (when does it begin?) to deathHow?Cross-sectional research

Participants of different ages to compare variables over life span

Be aware that historical events and cultural trends can change

Longitudinal ResearchDevelopment over long period of timeA developmental researcher might study

how a group of mentally challenged children progress in their ability to learn skills. The researcher would gather the participants and test them at various intervals of their lives

Time consuming, can take years or decades for results.

Prenatal Period:Prenatal Period: The developmental period The developmental period before birth.before birth.

Neonatal Period:Neonatal Period: Birth-1 month. Birth-1 month. Infancy:Infancy: 1 month-18/24 months. 1 month-18/24 months.

Pages 367-369: Study these on your ownPages 367-369: Study these on your own

Prenatal Period:Prenatal Period: 9 month developmental 9 month developmental period before birth.period before birth. During this time, the genetic plan determines During this time, the genetic plan determines

how all of the organs that will be formed later how all of the organs that will be formed later begin to form.begin to form.

Here we get differentiation (cells forming specific Here we get differentiation (cells forming specific organs). Before we differentiation, cells are organs). Before we differentiation, cells are “stem cells” and are capable of forming into any “stem cells” and are capable of forming into any organ in the body.organ in the body.

One concern during this time are One concern during this time are teratogensteratogens, or , or substances from the environment that can substances from the environment that can damage the developing baby.damage the developing baby. Alcohol. Alcohol.

• ZygoteZygote• the fertilized eggthe fertilized egg• enters a 2 week period of rapid cell divisionenters a 2 week period of rapid cell division• develops into an embryodevelops into an embryo

• EmbryoEmbryo

• the developing human organism from 2 weeks the developing human organism from 2 weeks through 2nd monththrough 2nd month

• FetusFetus• the developing human organism from 9 the developing human organism from 9

weeks after conception to birthweeks after conception to birth

Rooting Reflex-Touch the cheek baby turns head to the side of the touch, put object in mouth

Sucking Reflex-Baby will suck on the object out in mouth

Grasping Reflex-Object put in baby’s palm or foot pad, baby will try to grasp the object with his fingers or toes.

Moro Reflex- When startled, baby will fling his or her limbs out and quickly retract them. They get as small as possible.

Babinski reflex (present or absent)- foot gets stroked, spread toes. Also called the plantar test. Big toe should go in, not up. Shows sign of

lateralization of CNS problems if up

Neonatal Period:Neonatal Period: Birth to one month Birth to one month old.old. During this stage babies are capable of During this stage babies are capable of

responding to stimulation from all of their senses. responding to stimulation from all of their senses.

Infancy Period:Infancy Period: 1 mo. to 24 mo. 1 mo. to 24 mo. This is a period of rapid development, but is still This is a period of rapid development, but is still

heavily reliant on reflexive behavior.heavily reliant on reflexive behavior. Part of the reason we remember very little between Part of the reason we remember very little between

birth and age 3 ½ is that our brain circuits are not fully birth and age 3 ½ is that our brain circuits are not fully developed developed

Secure Attachments Novel situations

Parent present-child explored Distressed when Parent left Came to parent when they returned

Avoidant Attachments Novel Situations (again)

Resist being held by the parents and explored the environment

Did not go to the parents for comfort when the parent returned after coming back

Anxious/Ambivalent AttachmentsNovel-Had ambivalent reactions to the

parents. Extreme stress when parents left but

resisted being comforted by them when they returned

During infancy, youngsters begin to During infancy, youngsters begin to exploit their abilities for learning.exploit their abilities for learning. Crying, cooing, smiling, etc.Crying, cooing, smiling, etc.

Classical conditioning in newborns.Classical conditioning in newborns. Stroking forehead and giving sweets: Stroking forehead and giving sweets:

Newborns who were stroked on the Newborns who were stroked on the forehead were classically conditioned to forehead were classically conditioned to turn their head toward the side where the turn their head toward the side where the sweetened water was provided, even if the sweetened water was provided, even if the bottle of water wasn’t present.bottle of water wasn’t present.

During infancy we also see babies engage During infancy we also see babies engage in a lot of social interaction. in a lot of social interaction.

Synchronicity: close coordination between Synchronicity: close coordination between the gazing, vocalizing, touching and smiling the gazing, vocalizing, touching and smiling of mothers and infants.of mothers and infants.

Babies are preprogrammed to their mother’s Babies are preprogrammed to their mother’s voicevoice

Babies are preprogrammed to recognize facesBabies are preprogrammed to recognize faces This is so strong that we will see infants This is so strong that we will see infants

engage in the same behavior as their engage in the same behavior as their mother.mother. Laugh when she laughs/cry when she Laugh when she laughs/cry when she

displays negative emotion.displays negative emotion.

The idea that babies will mimic is not The idea that babies will mimic is not something that is unique to human something that is unique to human babies.babies.

Makak Neonatal Imitation

During early development we During early development we also see attachment, or the also see attachment, or the enduring social-emotional enduring social-emotional relationship between a child relationship between a child and parent or caregiver.and parent or caregiver.

Attachment occurs Attachment occurs instinctively in many species. instinctively in many species. One example in birds is One example in birds is called imprinting where a called imprinting where a powerful attraction occurs powerful attraction occurs between infants and the first between infants and the first moving object or individual moving object or individual they see.they see.

Example: A baby chick Example: A baby chick is hatched by a mother is hatched by a mother duck. The chick will duck. The chick will follow the duck around follow the duck around and even try to get into and even try to get into the pond with the the pond with the mother duck and her mother duck and her ducklings.ducklings.

While human babies are not as capable While human babies are not as capable to move around at an early age, they to move around at an early age, they will develop a strong connection to will develop a strong connection to anyone who responds regularly to their anyone who responds regularly to their signals-crying, cooing, smiling...etc. signals-crying, cooing, smiling...etc.

One study found that when mothers left One study found that when mothers left the room, 2-4 mo. old babies’ skin the room, 2-4 mo. old babies’ skin temperature dropped, a sign of temperature dropped, a sign of emotional distress. In these youngsters, emotional distress. In these youngsters, skin temperature dropped even more skin temperature dropped even more when the mother was replaced by a when the mother was replaced by a stranger.stranger.

In contrast, skin temperature remained In contrast, skin temperature remained constant steady if the mother stayed in constant steady if the mother stayed in the room-even if the stranger was the room-even if the stranger was present.present.

Despite the strength of attachment and Despite the strength of attachment and imprinting, individuals who lack healthy imprinting, individuals who lack healthy attachments in infancy are not necessarily attachments in infancy are not necessarily doomed for life.doomed for life.

While attachment problems are good While attachment problems are good predictors of later problems with social predictors of later problems with social relationships, many people do succeed in relationships, many people do succeed in overcoming early attachment issues. overcoming early attachment issues.

Why do infants become Why do infants become attached to parents?attached to parents?

Evolutionary psychology Evolutionary psychology explains attachment as a way explains attachment as a way to safeguard an infants to safeguard an infants survival by providing support survival by providing support and protection. and protection.

Through natural selection, Through natural selection, individuals with genetic individuals with genetic tendencies to “attach” will tendencies to “attach” will survive, thrive and pass along survive, thrive and pass along those tendencies.those tendencies.

Freud had convinced most Freud had convinced most doctors that young infants doctors that young infants and children were so and children were so mentally underdeveloped mentally underdeveloped that the only thing of real that the only thing of real importance to infants was importance to infants was the breast or the bottle.the breast or the bottle.

Cupboard Theory:Cupboard Theory: Infants Infants become attached to those become attached to those who provide the who provide the “cupboard” containing the “cupboard” containing the food supply.food supply.

Harry and Margaret Harlow Harry and Margaret Harlow thought physical contact was thought physical contact was important to child development.important to child development.

They conducted an experiment They conducted an experiment that used infant monkeys who that used infant monkeys who had been separated from their had been separated from their mothers at birth.mothers at birth.

The monkeys had the choice The monkeys had the choice between a wire monkey that between a wire monkey that provided milk (a cupboard), and provided milk (a cupboard), and a cloth covered monkey that a cloth covered monkey that provided only stimulation from provided only stimulation from the soft cloth it was made out of.the soft cloth it was made out of.

Harry Harlow and a test subject

Infants need more than food, they need Infants need more than food, they need contact comfort too. A lack of close, loving contact comfort too. A lack of close, loving relationships in infancy even effects physical relationships in infancy even effects physical growth. growth.

A study of children in emotionally detached A study of children in emotionally detached family environments showed slower growth family environments showed slower growth and bone development. When removed from and bone development. When removed from such a situation they may grow again. If, such a situation they may grow again. If, however they are placed back in the poor however they are placed back in the poor environment, their growth is stunted once environment, their growth is stunted once again. again.

This phenomenon is known as This phenomenon is known as psychological dwarfism.psychological dwarfism.

Monkeys raised Monkeys raised by artificial by artificial mothers were mothers were terror-stricken terror-stricken when placed in when placed in strange strange situations situations without their without their surrogate surrogate mothers.mothers.

Maturation is the process by which an Maturation is the process by which an organism grows and develops over time, organism grows and develops over time, both physically and mentally.both physically and mentally.

Studies have shown that, when raised Studies have shown that, when raised under adequate environment, maturation under adequate environment, maturation follows a predictable pattern.follows a predictable pattern.

Jean Piaget developed a Jean Piaget developed a theory about cognitive theory about cognitive development. development.

Piaget’s model led to a Piaget’s model led to a discontinuous stage discontinuous stage modelmodel of development of development which said children will which said children will undergo a revolutionary undergo a revolutionary change in thought at each change in thought at each stage. stage.

Piaget’s theory was based on three key Piaget’s theory was based on three key ideas:ideas:

Schemas or schemataSchemas or schemata Assimilation and accommodationAssimilation and accommodation Stages of cognitive developmentStages of cognitive development

Schemas are mental structures that guide Schemas are mental structures that guide thinking. Cognitive rules we use to interpret thinking. Cognitive rules we use to interpret the worldthe world A dog might be any animal with fur and four A dog might be any animal with fur and four

legslegs According to Piaget, they are also the According to Piaget, they are also the

building blocks of development. Schemas building blocks of development. Schemas form and change as we develop and form and change as we develop and organize our knowledge to deal with new organize our knowledge to deal with new experiences and predict future events.experiences and predict future events.

Assimilation: Assimilation: process that modifies new process that modifies new information to fit with existing schemas or information to fit with existing schemas or with what is already known.with what is already known.

A child who sees a pony for the first time might try to A child who sees a pony for the first time might try to incorporate it into his/her schemata for a dog. incorporate it into his/her schemata for a dog.

Accommodation: Accommodation: process of restructuring or process of restructuring or modifying schemas to incorporate new modifying schemas to incorporate new information.information.

When a child learns that a butterfly is not a “bird.” or When a child learns that a butterfly is not a “bird.” or makes that pony a pony and not dog. They correct the makes that pony a pony and not dog. They correct the mistake.mistake.

Assimilation makes new information fit our Assimilation makes new information fit our existing view of the world, accommodation existing view of the world, accommodation changes our views to fit new information.changes our views to fit new information.

Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to age 2): Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to age 2): children mostly give reflexive responses children mostly give reflexive responses with very little thinking involved.with very little thinking involved.Stranger Anxiety, or fear of strangers, is Stranger Anxiety, or fear of strangers, is

very common during this periodvery common during this period

A major step in thinking happens in year A major step in thinking happens in year two, the ability to make mental images of two, the ability to make mental images of objects, called mental representation.objects, called mental representation. This is the beginning of problem solvingThis is the beginning of problem solving

Another key feature of this stage Another key feature of this stage is is object permanenceobject permanence, or the knowledge , or the knowledge that objects exist independently of one’s that objects exist independently of one’s own actions or awareness.own actions or awareness.

Preoperational Stage (2 to 6/7 yeas of age): Preoperational Stage (2 to 6/7 yeas of age): A stage marked by well-developed mental A stage marked by well-developed mental representation and the use of language.representation and the use of language. Despite these increased abilities, however, children Despite these increased abilities, however, children

still cannot solve problems requiring logical thought.still cannot solve problems requiring logical thought.

Piaget developed other key features of the Piaget developed other key features of the preoperational stage, including:preoperational stage, including: Egocentrism: Egocentrism: a self centered focus that causes children to a self centered focus that causes children to

see the world only in their own terms.see the world only in their own terms. ““Hadley, you are so funny”….”no I Haddie”! “No!, Mommy is Hadley, you are so funny”….”no I Haddie”! “No!, Mommy is

my Mommy”my Mommy”

Animistic thinking: Animistic thinking: believing inanimate objects have life believing inanimate objects have life and mental processes.and mental processes. ““Bad table”Bad table”

Centration: Centration: an inability to understand an event because an inability to understand an event because the child focuses their attention too narrowly. the child focuses their attention too narrowly. Tall glass vs. skinny glass….. Mass v. volumeTall glass vs. skinny glass….. Mass v. volume

Irreversibility: Irreversibility: an inability to think through a series of an inability to think through a series of events or steps and then reverse course.events or steps and then reverse course.

Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 years): Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 years): child develops the abilities of irreversibility, child develops the abilities of irreversibility, conservation and mental operations.conservation and mental operations. Conservation:Conservation: understanding that the understanding that the

properties of an object or substance do not properties of an object or substance do not change when appearances change, but nothing change when appearances change, but nothing is added or taken away.is added or taken away.

Mental operations: Mental operations: the ability to solve problems the ability to solve problems by manipulating images in one’s own mind.by manipulating images in one’s own mind.

In Piaget’s final stage, In Piaget’s final stage, formal operational stageformal operational stage, he , he says people begin to think about issues like being says people begin to think about issues like being more accepted by peers, and abstract issues like love, more accepted by peers, and abstract issues like love, fairness and our reason for existence. Piaget argued fairness and our reason for existence. Piaget argued we will nto all get their in all forms below. we will nto all get their in all forms below.

Metacognition-Ability to trace processes and evaluate Metacognition-Ability to trace processes and evaluate the effectiveness of how we solved the problem. We the effectiveness of how we solved the problem. We think about how we think. think about how we think.

Consists of 4 unique structural properties:Consists of 4 unique structural properties: Hypothetical reasoningHypothetical reasoning Analogical/Abstract reasoningAnalogical/Abstract reasoning Deductive reasoningDeductive reasoning Reflective abilitiesReflective abilities

Typical Age Range

Description of Stage

Developmental Phenomena

Birth to nearly 2 years SensorimotorExperiencing the world through senses and actions (looking, touching, mouthing)

•Object permanence•Stranger anxiety

About 2 to 6 years

About 7 to 11 years

About 12 through adulthood

PreoperationalRepresenting things with words and images but lacking logical reasoning

•Pretend play•Egocentrism•Language development

Concrete operationalThinking logically about concrete events; grasping concrete analogies and performing arithmetical operations

•Conservation •Mathematical transformations

Formal operationalAbstract reasoning

•Abstract logic•Potential for moral reasoning

Erik Erikson saw human Erik Erikson saw human development as a sequence of development as a sequence of psychosocial stages, defined by psychosocial stages, defined by common problems that emerge common problems that emerge throughout life.throughout life.

Erikson identified 8 stages, with Erikson identified 8 stages, with each bringing a new challenge. each bringing a new challenge. To move onto the next stage of To move onto the next stage of life, the problem of the previous life, the problem of the previous stage must successfully be stage must successfully be coped with.coped with.

Approximateage Stage Description of Task

Infancy Trust vs. mistrust If needs are dependably met, infants(1st year) develop a sense of basic trust.

Toddler Autonomy vs. shame Toddlers learn to exercise will and (2nd year) and doubt do things for themselves, or they

doubt their abilities.

Preschooler Initiative vs. guilt Preschoolers learn to initiate tasks(3-5 years) and carry out plans, or they feel

guilty about efforts to be independent.

Elementary Competence vs. Children learn the pleasure of applying(6 years- inferiority themselves to tasks, or they feel puberty) inferior.

Approximateage Stage Description of Task

Adolescence Identity vs. role Teenagers work at refining a sense of self by(teens into confusion testing roles and then integrating them to 20’s) form a single identity, or they become

confused about who they are.

Young Adult Intimacy vs. Young adults struggle to form close relation- (20’s to early isolation ships and to gain the capacity for intimate 40’s) love, or they feel socially isolated.

Middle Adult Generativity vs. The middle-aged discover a sense of contri-(40’s to 60’s) stagnation buting to the world, usually through family

and work, or they may feel a lack of purpose.

Late Adult Integrity vs. When reflecting on his or her life, the older(late 60’s and despair adult may feel a sense of satisfaction orup) failure.

Like Freud and many others, Erik Like Freud and many others, Erik Erikson maintained that personality Erikson maintained that personality develops in a predetermined order. develops in a predetermined order. Instead of focusing on sexual Instead of focusing on sexual development, however, he was development, however, he was interested in how children socialize and interested in how children socialize and how this affects their sense of self.how this affects their sense of self.

He saw personality as developing He saw personality as developing throughout the lifetime and looked at throughout the lifetime and looked at identity crises at the focal point for each identity crises at the focal point for each stage of human development.stage of human development.

His model was a lifespan model of His model was a lifespan model of development, taking in 5 stages up to the age development, taking in 5 stages up to the age of 18 years and three in adulthood.of 18 years and three in adulthood. There is still plenty of room for continued growth There is still plenty of room for continued growth

and development throughout one’s life.and development throughout one’s life. According to the theory, successful completion According to the theory, successful completion

of each stage results in a healthy personality of each stage results in a healthy personality and successful interactions with others.and successful interactions with others.

Failure to complete a stage can result in a Failure to complete a stage can result in a reduced ability to complete further stages and reduced ability to complete further stages and resulting in an unhealthy personality and sense resulting in an unhealthy personality and sense of self.of self. Stages can be resolved successfully at a later Stages can be resolved successfully at a later

time.time.

Critics of Erikson said his “research” was Critics of Erikson said his “research” was based on clinical observations and based on clinical observations and lacked rigorous scientific method.lacked rigorous scientific method.

Also, critics said it did not do enough to Also, critics said it did not do enough to adequately capture the problems faced adequately capture the problems faced by girls and women.by girls and women. Can you think of “problems” females face Can you think of “problems” females face

that do not have a place in Erikson’s that do not have a place in Erikson’s stages?stages?

The big challenge Erikson singles out for The big challenge Erikson singles out for young adults is establishing close young adults is establishing close relationships with other adults. relationships with other adults.

The individual must resolve the conflict The individual must resolve the conflict between wanting to establish closeness between wanting to establish closeness to another and fearing the vulnerability to another and fearing the vulnerability and risks such closeness can bring.and risks such closeness can bring.

Making intimate commitments requires Making intimate commitments requires compromising personal preferences, compromising personal preferences, accepting responsibilities and yielding accepting responsibilities and yielding some privacy and independence.some privacy and independence.

Anything that isolates us from sources of Anything that isolates us from sources of social support-from a reliable network of social support-from a reliable network of friends and family-puts us at risk for a host friends and family-puts us at risk for a host of physical ills, mental problems, and even of physical ills, mental problems, and even social pathologies.social pathologies.

We are social creatures and we need each We are social creatures and we need each others help to and support to be effective others help to and support to be effective and healthy.and healthy.

We are social creatures and we need We are social creatures and we need each others help to and support to be each others help to and support to be effective and healthy.effective and healthy.

Erikson said you must know who you are Erikson said you must know who you are before you can begin to love someone before you can begin to love someone else and share your life with that else and share your life with that person.person.

Part of the health and happiness of humans Part of the health and happiness of humans derives from having healthy, happy, derives from having healthy, happy, intimate relationships with people.intimate relationships with people.

To go beyond the egocentric problem of To go beyond the egocentric problem of young children, we must develop a theory young children, we must develop a theory of mindof mind Awareness that others may have beliefs, Awareness that others may have beliefs,

thoughts, desires and emotions different from thoughts, desires and emotions different from one’s own.one’s own.

Why would theory of mind be important to Why would theory of mind be important to development and socialization? development and socialization?

Broke it down in 3 stages: Pre coventional

Children focus on making decisions most likely to avoid punishment

Their moral rezoning is limited to how choice affects themselves.

Conventional StageChildren are able to move past personal

gain or loss and look at the moral choice through others’ eyes

Children in this stage make a moral choice based on how others will view them

Children learn conventional standards of what is right and wrong from their parents, peers, media, etc. They may try to follow these standards so that

other people will see them as good.

Postconventional StageA person evaluating a moral choice using

postconventional reasoning examines the rights and values involved in the choice.

They will have self defined ethical priciples Personal conviction to hold up justice They will use these principles to make decisions Weighing altruism and its merit Limit certain rights for the good of the people

Most styles of parenting fall into one of Most styles of parenting fall into one of four distinct styles that psychologists four distinct styles that psychologists have found all around the world.have found all around the world. AuthoritativeAuthoritative AuthoritarianAuthoritarian Permissive Permissive UninvolvedUninvolved

Style Emotional Involvement

Authority Autonomy

Authoritative Parent is warm, attentive and sensitive to child’s needs and interests

Parent makes reasonable demands for the child’s maturity level; explains/ enforces rules

Parent permits child to make decisions in accord with developmental readiness

Authoritarian Parent is cold and rejecting; frequently degrades the child

Parent is highly demanding; may use coercion by yelling commanding, criticizing and reliance on punishment

Parent makes most decisions for the child; rarely listens to child’s viewpoint

Permissive Parent is warm but may spoil the child

Parent makes few or no demands-often out of misplaced concern for child’s self esteem

Parent permits child to make decisions before the child is ready

Uninvolved Parent is emotionally detached, withdrawn and inattentive

Parent makes few of no demands-often lacking in interest or expectations for the child

Parent is indifferent to child’s decisions and point of view.

Does the type of parent you are matter?Does the type of parent you are matter? Research suggests that children or Research suggests that children or

parents who were authoritative tend to parents who were authoritative tend to be confident, self-reliant, enthusiastic be confident, self-reliant, enthusiastic and overall happier.and overall happier.

Children with authoritarian parents tend Children with authoritarian parents tend to be anxious and insecure while those to be anxious and insecure while those with permissive parents tend to be with permissive parents tend to be immature, impulsive, dependant and immature, impulsive, dependant and demanding.demanding.

Day cares are growing in size and Day cares are growing in size and number in our country. There has also number in our country. There has also been a growing feeling that daycares been a growing feeling that daycares might have averse effects on children.might have averse effects on children.

Research has shown that most children Research has shown that most children thrive in day care, especially socially. thrive in day care, especially socially. However, a poor-quality daycare However, a poor-quality daycare experience can influence children to be experience can influence children to be aggressive, depressed or otherwise aggressive, depressed or otherwise maladjusted. maladjusted.

U.S. children have more free time than U.S. children have more free time than children in any other country.children in any other country.

In nonindustrialized societies, children In nonindustrialized societies, children average 6 hours of a day working at some average 6 hours of a day working at some sort of chores or labor.sort of chores or labor.

The typical American child spends less than The typical American child spends less than ½ hour doing chores.½ hour doing chores.

While long hard work may teach While long hard work may teach discipline, responsibility and discipline, responsibility and appreciation, there is little evidence that appreciation, there is little evidence that it produces positive changes in cognitive it produces positive changes in cognitive development.development.

American children also spend less time American children also spend less time doing school work than children in other doing school work than children in other developed countries (though more than developed countries (though more than American children did in the past).American children did in the past).

A good portion of American children’s A good portion of American children’s time is spent watching TV, talking on time is spent watching TV, talking on the phone, surfing the internet, or the phone, surfing the internet, or “hanging out.”“hanging out.”

Many children spend the majority of Many children spend the majority of their free time in structured activities their free time in structured activities like clubs or sports teams.like clubs or sports teams.

Are our children spending their time Are our children spending their time productively?productively?

It is clear that gender differences exist in It is clear that gender differences exist in children. The sexes tend to segregate children. The sexes tend to segregate themselves, which is a pattern that holds themselves, which is a pattern that holds true across cultures.true across cultures.

Girls tend to organize themselves in small, Girls tend to organize themselves in small, cooperative groups. Boys often form larger cooperative groups. Boys often form larger groups that have a hierarchical structure.groups that have a hierarchical structure.

Evolutionary psychologists believe these Evolutionary psychologists believe these gender differences have an innate basis, gender differences have an innate basis, which may be related, in part to gender which may be related, in part to gender differences in testosterone levels.differences in testosterone levels.

Social-cognitive psychologists believe Social-cognitive psychologists believe children also learn gender roles and gender children also learn gender roles and gender related behaviors such as aggressiveness, related behaviors such as aggressiveness, competitiveness or cooperation.competitiveness or cooperation.

While most psychologists support While most psychologists support Erikson’s thoughts on adult Erikson’s thoughts on adult development, they realize that young development, they realize that young adults today face different situations adults today face different situations than they have in the past.than they have in the past.

Today, many young adults live Today, many young adults live together before they are married. together before they are married. While this may be better in the long While this may be better in the long run, individuals may struggle with run, individuals may struggle with identity issues at the same time they identity issues at the same time they are trying to deal with intimacy issues.are trying to deal with intimacy issues.

Until the last few years, there was Until the last few years, there was little psychological research done little psychological research done on young adults, and almost none on young adults, and almost none on people past their mid 20s.on people past their mid 20s.

Within the next 10 years, the Within the next 10 years, the biggest part of our population will biggest part of our population will be made up of baby boomers who be made up of baby boomers who are living longer and are living longer and encountering more issues encountering more issues physically and psychologically physically and psychologically than any group before them. than any group before them.

The transition from adolescence to young The transition from adolescence to young adulthood is marked by decisions about adulthood is marked by decisions about advanced education, career and intimate advanced education, career and intimate relationships.relationships.

Freud thought adult development is driven Freud thought adult development is driven by two basic needs: love and work. Abraham by two basic needs: love and work. Abraham Maslow described these needs as love and Maslow described these needs as love and belongingness.belongingness. Other psychologists: social acceptance, Other psychologists: social acceptance,

achievement and power as the basic needs of achievement and power as the basic needs of adult development.adult development.

Erikson singled out generitivity, as the big Erikson singled out generitivity, as the big challenge facing middle aged adults. challenge facing middle aged adults.

Generitivity is the process of making a Generitivity is the process of making a commitment beyond oneself to family, commitment beyond oneself to family, work, society or future generations.work, society or future generations.

This is a crucial challenge of adults in their This is a crucial challenge of adults in their 30s, 40s and 50s.30s, 40s and 50s.

The good news is that most people do not The good news is that most people do not actually undergo a true midlife crisis or actually undergo a true midlife crisis or upheaval. upheaval.

The last stage of Erikson’s model deals The last stage of Erikson’s model deals with elderly people. with elderly people.

The big challenge in this stage is The big challenge in this stage is ego-ego-integrity vs. despair.integrity vs. despair. Erikson describes Erikson describes this as the challenge to have a life we this as the challenge to have a life we can look back on and have no regrets can look back on and have no regrets about and to enjoy a sense of about and to enjoy a sense of wholeness.wholeness.

Death is inevitable. It is something we will all Death is inevitable. It is something we will all go through. But, do we go through it the go through. But, do we go through it the same way?same way?

According to Elisabeth Kubler-Ross, we do, in According to Elisabeth Kubler-Ross, we do, in five stages. While we each experience the five stages. While we each experience the stages differently, we will all go through the stages differently, we will all go through the following:following:

DenialDenial Anger Anger Bargaining Bargaining Depression Depression AcceptanceAcceptance

Denial- Refusing to believe the Denial- Refusing to believe the individual is sick.individual is sick.

Anger- Displays anger that individual is Anger- Displays anger that individual is sick.sick.

Bargaining- Making a deal, in return for Bargaining- Making a deal, in return for a cure, they will fulfill a promise.a cure, they will fulfill a promise.

Depression- General depression Depression- General depression affecting sleeping and eating patterns.affecting sleeping and eating patterns.

Acceptance-The realization that death is Acceptance-The realization that death is inevitable.inevitable.